The Acheulean of the Yiron Plateau, Israel 9780860543930, 9781407345765

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The Acheulean of the Yiron Plateau, Israel

Milla Y. Ohel

BAR International Series 307

1986

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR-SJ07,1986 :'The Acheulean of the Yiron Plateau,Israel'. @

Milla Y 'Ohel,1986.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543930 paperback ISBN 9781407345765 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543930 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

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T o t he m emory o f m y f riend a nd f ield a ssistant, G ershon B ruder

2

C ONTENTS

1 .

L ist o f T ables

4

L ist o f F igures

5

L ist o f P lates

6

A cknowledgements

7

I ntroduction

8

2 . R esearch D esign: O bjectives, O perations, M ethods

1

3 . T he E nvironment: G eomorphic H istory a nd B iogeographic C onditions

2 5

4 . T he H abitation a nd M obility M odel

3 8

5 . S ites a nd A ssemblages: S yntheses o f A nalytic R esults, I nterpretations, C omparisons

4 9

6 . M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25): T he A ggregation L ocale

14

7 . F lint A mounts, W eights, S ources a nd E conomy

1 64

8 . E pilogue: A F ew P ostcriptus C omments

1 88

R eferences

1 90

T ABLES 5 .1. 5 .2. 5 .3. 5 .4. 5 .5. 5 .6. 5 .7. 5 .8. 6 .1. 6 .2. 6 .3 .

S ites, a reas, s ample s izes, a nd d ensities P ercentages o f a rtifacts b y p rimary c ategories P ercentages o f a rtifacts b y s econdary c ategories P ercentages o f s mall s haped t ools b y f orms P ercentages o f r egular c ores b y f orms P ercentages o f r egular c ores b y d egree o f g eometric p erfection Q ualitative v ariables a cross c ategories Q uantitative v ariables a cross c ategories D ensities o f a rtifacts w ithin a nd b etween s tone f ormations S ummary o f m easurements o f s tones S ummary o f p osition o f s tones

4

F IGURES F rontispiece 1 .1 2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 :A 2 .3 :B 2 .3 :C 3 .1 3 .2 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4 5 .5 5 .6 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9 5 .10 5 .11 5 .12 5 .13 5 .14 5 .15 6 .1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .4 6 .5

6 .6

6 .7

6 .8 6 .9 6 .10 6 .11 6 .12 6 .13 6 .14 6 .15 6 :16 6 .17 6 .18 6 .19 6 .20 6 .21 • 6 .22 6 .23 6 .24 7 .1

M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25): a rtist's v iew R egion m ap a nd s tudy a rea S urvey s ections T est c ross S imple r andom s ampling M odified r adial r andom s ampling " Stratified" r andom s ampling L ithostratigraphy a nd s tructure G eomorphology a nd p hysiographic u nits D istribution o f s ites a nd f lint S haped t ools f rom A 43 a nd A 63 C ores f rom A 43 a nd A 63 L arge c utting a nd h eavy d uty t ools f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28 S mall s haped t ools f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28 C ores f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28 R elative f requencies o f q ualitative a ttribute s tates a cross c ategories M eans o f q uantitative a ttribute s tates a cross c ategories H andaxes, c leaver a nd c hoppers f rom Y 51/53 L arge t ools f rom Y 51/53 S mall t ools f rom Y 51/53 C ores f rom Y 51/53 S haped t ools f rom Y 13 a nd Y 18 C ores f rom Y 13 C ores f rom Y 18 M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25): s ampling a nd s tone f ormations T opographical s etting o f Y 25 C ross-sections o f p its 5 3-55 C ross-section o f p it 1 8 C ross-section o f p it 8 9 D ensity z ones a t Y 25 S tone f ormation A S tone f ormation B S tone f ormation C S tone f ormation D S tone f or mation E S tone f ormation F S tone f ormation G S tone f ormation H S tone f ormation J H andaxes f rom Y 25 L arge-cutting a nd h eavy-duty t ools f rom Y 25 S mall s haped t ools f rom Y 25 S mall s haped t ools f rom Y 25 T echnomorphologically s imilar t ools f rom Y 25 L arge c ores f rom Y 25 R egular, c ommon-size c ores f rom Y 25 E xhausted c ores f rom Y 25 S ettlement a nd m obility m odel Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons: f lint s amples a nd s urveys

5

PLATES 2. 1 2.2 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7. 1 7.2 7 .3 7.4 7.5

General view of study area The Big X sampling The Aviv Caves Team working at test pits Large knives from the Avivim sites Mitzpeh Yiron (Y25) Cluster of stones at stone formation C "Wall" at stone formation D "Wall corner" test pit at stone formation D H andaxe and flakes at stone formation E Cluster of stones at stone formation F Stone formation G Cluster of stones at stone formation H A flock of storks over Y25 Flint pebbles and nodules from tracts A, B, and D Flint pebbles in the bed of Nahal Yiron Flint cemented into limestone matrix on the slope above Nahal Yiron Flint seams above Nahal Dishon's bed Flint pebbles, cobbles, and boulders in limestone piles in the bed of Nahal Aviv at its outlet to Nahal Dishon

Closing page Handaxes from the Yiron Plateau

6

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

F irst a nd f oremost I a m g rateful t o K ibbutz B aram f or i ts h ospitality a nd h elp. T here, i n t he h ome o f t he l ate G . B ruder a nd h is w ife S andra , Iw as a lways m ade w elcome u ntil j oining t he k ibbutz m yself i n m id-1981. I . M aestro a nd A . W eiss w ere o f g reat a ssistance i n c arrying o ut t he f lint s urvey . K ibbutz Y iron w as a lso h elpful, p articularly M . M eirav, T . C ohen, S . H arrari, a nd M . F reedman, a nd t he F ield S chool o f H ar M iron, a nd i ts d irector, U . D ror, g enerously a ccommodated t he f ield t eams d uring t he s ummers o f 1 979 a nd 1 980. T he p roject w as s upported g enerously b y t he N ational G eographic S ociety , t he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch, a nd t he H echt F und. I a m o bliged t o A . B rosh ( biogeographer) a nd A . R osen ( geoarchaeologist) f or t heir p arts i n t he r esearch, a nd t o A . R onen , M . I nbar, M . K lein , M . E vron-Weinstein, M . L amdan , D . K aufman, O . B ar-Yosef , N . G oren, a nd m any o thers, f rom w hose c onsultations I g reatly b enefited. I w as c ertainly e ncouraged w hen P LASTOFIL o f K ibbutz H azorea r esponded t o m y f irst a pproach a nd d onated a g reat q uantity o f l arge a nd s mall p lastic b ags f or t he p roject. D . B ukai, S ecretary o f t he R esearch A uthority o f t he U niversity o f H aifa, h as a lways s hown i nterest a nd b een h elpful, e specially w ith r egard t o t yping, p hotocopying a nd o ther f acilities. T he p hotographic l aboratory K EREN O R o f H aifa h as a lways p rovided f ar m ore t han b usiness r elations p resuppose. Iw as d eeply t ouched b y t he e xtraordinary a ttitude o f t hree f ormer s tudents o f m ine a t t he U niversity o f C incinnati i n 1 977/78 : S haron W arner, B radley F eatherstone, a nd K evin P ape. T hey t ravelled f rom t he U .S . a t t heir o wn e xpense e specially t o w ork w ith m e i n t he f irst s eason, a nd m ade a n i mmense c ontribution. F or t he s econd s eason I w as j oined b y aw onderful, e nthusiastic, n ine-member E ARTHWATCH t eam. F ach d id a g reat j ob a nd, I h ope, e njoyed i t. • F inally , f or h er g reat p atience a nd h elp i n s orting t he f lint s amples, I w ould l ike t o t hank m y w ife T amar, a nd D r. A .R . H ands, G eneral E ditor o f B .A.R ., w ho a ccepted t he m anuscript a nd c leared t he w ay f or i ts p ublication. M .Y .O .

7

1 I NTRODUCTION

T he f ascinating h istory o f t he G alilee h as b een r ecorded b y m any f rom J osephus F lavius i n t he i st c entury ( 1957 e dition, t ranslated b y W illiam W histon) t o t he r ecent c ompilation b y S hemueli, S offer a nd K liott ( 1983). H istorical a rchaeology i n t he r egion, p articularly d uring t he m iddle o f t he p resent c entury , e xcelled i n u ncovering a s eries o f i mportant s ites, w hich e nabled d etailed r econstructions o f c ulture h istory a nd c hange i n t he B ronze A ge, t he I ron A ge, a nd l ater ( e.g., T el H azor). W ork b y p rehistoric a rchaeologists a t v arious s ites i n t he G alilee r esulted i n c onsiderable k nowledge b eing o btained a bout t he L ower, M iddle, U pper , a nd E pipalaeolithic c ultures; a s w ell a s t hose o f t he N atufian, N eolothic a nd C halcolithic ( for g eneral s urveys, s ee e .g., B ar-Yosef 1 980, 1 983 ; N ir a nd B ar-Yosef 1 976; L amdan a nd R onen 1 983). T he G alilee H ights ( Merom H agalil i n H ebrew ), i .e., t he m ountainous w estern p art o f t he e astern U pper G alilee, w ithin w hich o ur s tudy a rea i s l ocated ( Fig. 1 .1) c ontain s everal i nteresting h istorical m onuments, s uch a s t he s ynagogues o f M iron, B aram a nd M eirot, f rom t he e arly c enturies A .D . Y et, t his r egion i s p robably t he l east s tudied, a nd p rehistorically , n o s erious, s ystematic r esearch w as c arried o ut h ere p rior t o t he l aunching o f o ur p roject i n t he s ummer o f 1 979. S poradic i nformation a bout p rehistoric f lint a rtifacts i n t he G alilee H ights b egan a ccumulating i n t he 1 920s ( e.g ., T urville P etre 1 927; S halem 1 951), b ut t he e mergence o f k een i nterest i n i ts r emote p ast h ad t o w ait u ntil t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s, f ollowing t he e stablishment t here o f t hree k ibbutzim : S asa , B aram a nd Y iron ( see F ig. 1 .1). E ach h ad s everal m embers w ho b ecame d evoted c ollectors o f h andaxes, a dzes, s ickle b lades, c eramic h andles, e tc., b ut t hey l acked t he e xpertise r equired t o s eparate t hem p roperly i nto a ppropriate t emporal s equences. D espite t he d amage c aused b y t hese i nnocent a mateurs t o l ater c ontextual a rchaeological s tudies, t hey c ertainly h elped t o a ttract p rofessional a ttention t o t he r egion. O ne o f t hese d edicated p eople, G ershom B ruder o f K ibbutz B aram, c ame i n t he e arly 1 970s t o s tudy a rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f T el A viv , w here h is e nthusiasm f or h is o wn n eighborhood s pread a mong h is t eachers a nd f ellow-students. H eaded b y t he l ate D r. D avid G ilead a nd D r. A vraham R onen, b rief , o ccasional e xpeditions w ere o rganized, e specially t o t he B aram P lateau , r esulting i n t wo p artial w orks ( Ronen e t a l 1 974; O hel 1 979b). O n r eturning h ome l ate i n 1 978 f rom d octoral s tudies a t t he U niversity o f C hicago, a nd j oining t he f aculty o f t he U niversity o f H aifa, I w as h appy t o r eceive a l ocal g rant t o s tart r esearch i n t he u pper D ishon B asin o f t he G alilee H ights. C ontact w as s traightaway r enewed w ith G . B ruder, b y t hen b ack o n h is k ibbutz, w ho a ccepted m y o ffer t o s erve a s F ield A ssistant. D uring t he a cademic y ear o f 1 97 8 /79 a ll p lanning, d esigning, a nd p reparations w ere a ccomplished f or t he f irst f ield s eason, s ummer 1 979. I n t he m eantime a pplications f or r esearch a id w ere g enerously m et b y t he N ational G eographic S ociety ( Grant N o. 2 120-79), t he W enner-Gren

8

F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch ( Grant N o. 4 027), t he H echt F und, H aifa, a nd, l ater , ( for t he s econd f ield s eason , s ummer 1 980) b y E arthwatch. O ur s tudy a rea, b eing a lmost t erra i ncognita p rehistorically , I d ecided t o " use t he o pportunity" a nd d esign a l ong-term r esearch p lan f or t he b asaltic p lateaus o f t he u pper a nd m iddle D ishon B asin , b ased o n t he f ollowing p rinciples: 1 . I w ould s teadily a nd u nyieldingly f ocus u pon e ach p roject u ntil i t w as c ompleted. 2 . M y f undamental m ethodology w ould b e t o c oncentrate o n o ne p art o f t he g eneral p lan a t at ime. T his w ould m ean t hat e ach p lateau a nd i ts e nvirons, a s c hosen f or s tudy , w ould b e e xplored a nd i nvestigated f rom b eginning t o e nd i n t he f ield a nd l aboratory , t he d ata c ollected a nalyzed, s ynthesized, a nd p repared f or p ublication b efore t he n ext p art o f t he p lan w as u ndertaken.

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2 69

Fig. 1 .1 The c entral and w estern p arts o f t he Eastern Upper Galilee with s tudy area s haded. R=Ramat=Plateau o f; H=Har=Mount; N =Nahal=Stream; E=Ein=Spring.

3 . I n d ue c ourse I w ould b e a ble t o c ompare p arts o f t he s ame g eneral r egion i n o rder t o a rrive a t a n o verall u nderstanding o f t he r egional s etting a nd t he i nteractions w ithin i t: t he m ajor o bjective o f t he r esearch p lan. T he p rinciples o utlined h ere i ndicate m y a pproach t o a rchaeological w ork , s tudy a nd p resentation. W hile t his i s n ot t he p lace t o c riticize t he p ractice a dopted i n m any , i f n ot a ll, I sraeli a rchäeological p rojects, t his b ook r epresents t he c ulmination o f a n u nbroken , u ninterrupted s even-year e ffort. I b elieve t he a bove p lan t o h ave b een t he b est w ay t o h ave a rrived a t t his e nd. T he p resent w ork f ocuses o n t he A cheulean o ccupancy o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons. T o a void t he d evelopment o f t oo t hick a v olume I c onfined m yself t o w hat I b elieved t he m ost i mportant i ssues. T he i nterested r eader c an r efer t o as eries o f a rticles p ublished d uring t he r ecent y ears f or t he e xpansion o f o ther s ubjects.

1 0

2 R ESEARCH D ESIGN : O BJECTIVES ) O PERATIONS , M ETHODS

T he Y iron P lateau ( Ramat Y iron i n H ebrew) ( Fig . 1 .1) w as c hosen t o b e t he f irst s pecific s tudy a rea . T his c hoice w as m ade m ainly f or t echnical r easons s uch a s r elative c loseness o f b oard a nd l odging, i ndoor w ork f acilities, e tc., b ut a lso b ecause w e h ad a v ague i dea o f w hat t he a rea m ight c ontain. A s i s s o o ften t he c ase, w e w ere s truck b y s urprise f rom t he v ery o utset. P rior t o o ur s earch, i t w as t hought t hat n o p rehistoric s ites w ere • to b e f ound o n t he s outhern s lope o f M ount A vivim j ust o pposite t he Y iron P lateau . B efore t he f irst w eek o f o ur s urvey w as o ver w e h ad e stablished t he l ocations o f a nd d rawn s amples f rom t wo o bvious A cheulean s ites ( A43 a nd A 63: s ee F ig. 5 .1). T his a bsolutely u nexpected d iscovery w as l ater t o• p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he f ormulation o f o ur s ettlement a nd s easonal m obility m odel. T he a bove " accident" s erves a s a n i llustration o f t he f act, n ot a lways a dmitted o r d escribed, t hat t he f ield c an a nd m ore o ften t han n ot d oes c hange, e ven t he m ost c arefully w orked o ut r esearch d esign ( Ohel 1 982a, 1 98 "b). A s w e c ome n ow t o o utline o ur d esign, t his f act s hould b e k ept i n m ind. S tudy A rea

A s ar esult o f o ur s election o f t he Y iron P lateau f or t he i nitial s tage o f t he p roject, i nvestigation o f t he m ore s outhern a djacent B aram P lateau w as p ostponed t o al ater s tage. H owever , t he m ore n orthern M ount A vivim c ould n ot b e s o t reated. M ost o f i ts s outhern s lope, f rom t he A vivim s ettlement d own ( see F ig. 2 .1), h as b een, a nd s till i s, p lanted w ith f ruit o r p ine t ress, r endering a ny s patial d istribution o f a rtifacts h ighly u nreliable. O nly l ower g radients, d escending t o t he c liff w all o f N ahal A viv , c ould b e p roperly s canned. I t b ecame i mmediately c lear t hat f or p ractical r easons t his t ract o f l and s hould b e i ncluded i n t he f irst s tage. O f c ourse, a t t he t ime I d id n ot k now t hat w ithout t he i nclusion o f t he l ower p art o f t he s outhern A vivim s lope, I m ight h ave p revented a p riori t he s oundest i nterpretation f easible f or t he r egional s ettlement p attern. M oreover, a s pecial, l ater r econnaissance o f n atural f lint c learly s howed t hat t he u pper p arts o f t he s lope d id n ot c ontain a ny f lint w hatsoever, e ither n atural o r a rtifactual. O nce i t w as d ecided t hat t he l ower p art o f M ount A vivim h ad i ncluded, N ahal A viv b etween i t a nd t he Y iron P lateau o bviously n ot b e e xcluded. T hus, o ur f irst s tudy a rea c onsisted o f s ections: t he A vivim s outhern s lope a s d elineated ( A), t he P lateau ( Y), a nd N ahal g riv i n b etween ( NA) ( Fig. 2 .1; P l. 2 .1).

t o b e c ould t hree Y iron

O bjectives

L acking a ny r eliable r epresentative d ata, i t w as d ecided t o s urvey t he s tudy a rea i ntensively b y f oot, a iming a t t he f ollowing b asic o bjectives ( Ohel a nd B ruder 1 980):

1

2 77

2 76

2 75

P 1 KM

F ig . 2 .1 ( Yiron),

T he t hree s ections s urveyed: a nd N A ( Nahal A viv).

1 2

A ( Avivim),

Y

1 . T o l ocate a nd d elineate p rehistoric s ites. 2 . T o a scertain a s t heir c ultural s tages.

f ar

a s p ossible t he n ature o f s uch s ites a nd

3 . W ithin t he s cope o f t he i ndividual s ite, t o a ttempt a n u nderstanding o f t he g eoarchaeological c ontext, e cological r elationships, c ultural p roperties, a nd t he i nhabitants' b ehavioral p atterns. 4 . W ithin t he s cope o f t he s tudy a rea a s aw hole, t o o utline, a s f ar a s c an b e d ecuded f rom t he d ata c ollected a nd a nalyzed, t he s ettlement s ystem a nd t he i ntersite i nteraction. 5 . O n t he b asis o f t he s urvey r esults a nd t heir e valuation, t o p inpoint a reas f or a nd m ethods o f e xcavation, i f t hese b e d eemed n ecessary o r d esirable. I n a ny e vent, a nd i n t he f ramework o f t he s urvey , t est p its s hould b e d ug w herever t hey e xpected t o p rovide a dditional, e ssential i nformation. O perational P rocedure

A fter c onsulting t he l iterature ( e.g., B ar-Yosef a nd G oren 1 980; B ar-Yosef a nd P hillips 1 977; F lannery 1 976; H ester, H eizer a nd G raham 1 975; M ueller 1 97 ) 4; R edman 1 974; R edman a nd W atson 1 970; T homas 1 979; f or m any m ore, s ee O hel 1 982a, 1 983a) a s urvey p rocedure c onsidered s uitable f or o ur p urposes w as c onstructed a long w ith d etailed g uidelines f or i ts o peration i n t he f ield. R ather t han r eiterate a ll t hese h ere, a s t hey c an b e f ound i n p rint ( Ohel 1 982a, 1 983a) ., I w ill p oint o ut o nly t he e ssentials. R ecordings w ere e ntered o n a n e nlarged m ap o f e ach s ection a nd i nto as urvey n otebook u nder s eventeen h eadings a s f ollows: 1 ) B oundary m arking o f c lusters ( or s ites); 2 ) A ssigning l etter-codes t o s ections, a nd s erial n umbers w ithin s ections; " ) R epeating t he d esignations i n t he n otebook; 4 ) G rid c oordinates; 5 ) A ltitude a .s.1., d egree a nd d irection o f g radient w hen n ecessary; 6 ) A rea i n s q. m .; 7 ) C lassification b y c luster ( site), s catter o r f ind s pot; 8 ) S uggested c ultural s tage; 9 ) N ame o f t eam l eader; 1 0) D ate; 1) S eparate d rawing o f s ite w ith c ontour l ines a nd s pecifications o f l ength a nd w idth; 1 2) T ype, c olor , c ontents, e tc. o f s oil i n s ite a nd e nvirons; 1 3) D escription o f r elief a nd l andscape o f s ite a nd e nvirons; 1 4) D escription o f v egetation i n s ite a nd e nvirons; 1 5) W hen a ncient f eatures e ncountered i n s ite, s eparate d rawing o f s ite w ith f eatures p roperly p laced i n c orrect s cale; 1 6) D ensity c alculation f or s ites b y a rtifact c ounts i n 1 m x l m s quares; 1 7) A rtifact s ampling f rom s ites b y t wo m odes: ( a) j udgment s ampling o f a bout 2 5% o f t he a rea d rawn f rom t he d ensent s quares f or s ecuring a s ufficient r epresentation f or t ypo-technological p urposes, a nd ( b) r andom s ampling o f w hole s ites b y s ampling s trategy s uitable f or l ocal c onditions. G enerally t his p rocedure w as c arried t hrough q uite s moothly e xcept f or a f ew a lterations m ade i mmediately a fter i mplementation i n t he f ield. O nly t hree a re w orthy o f b rief m ention h ere ( for f ull d etails, s ee O hel 1 982a, 1 983a).

1 3

P l. 2 .1 G eneral v iew o f t he t hree s ections s urveyed: M ount A vivim 's s outhern s lope i n t he f oreground ( while s ampling A 63 i n 1 979; f rom l eft t o r ight: D r. M . O hel, B . F eatherstone, S . W arner, a nd K . P ape), t he w estern p art o f t he Y iron P lateau w ith K ibbutz Y iron i n t he u pper r ight c orner, a nd N ahal A viv i n b etween .

P l. 2 .2 T he B ig X s ampling o f Y 13 ( Dr. M . O hel i n t he l ower l eft c orner, a nd B . F eatherstone a long t he t ransect).

1 5

Firstly, entering a point in the map for every find-spot straightaway proved impractical. Instead, the section was divided into units while surveying. A serial number was allocated to each unit, and areas of scatter or find spots marked in the section map and verbally described in the note book (see 0hel and Bruder 1980, especially Figs. 3-4). Secondly, for discerning between a real and apparent cluster, for establishing site boundaries, and for obtaining a quick preliminary idea about the density of any artifact concentration, the technique proposed by our original guidelines was much too time-consuming. Instead, a simple, convenient, fast, and fairly reliable technique used by me in a previous study (0hel 1977b) was applied here also. The test-cross technique, as we called it (Fig. 2.2), worked efficiently throughout the survey (see 0hel 1982a). Thirdly, again, to save time, judgment sampling was eliminated, and random sampling solely implemented. Sites were sampled by either of two techniques (see Redman 1974), depending on their size. For smaller sites the simple random technique was employed (Fig. 2.3:A), whereas for larger sites a modified radial transect technique (dubbed by us "the big X") was practiced (Fig. 2.3:B; Pl. 2.2). In one case, owing to a peculiarity in the distribution of artifacts, a form of a "stratified" sample, i.e., six simple random 1m x 1m squares in each 5m x 5m square of a transect, was enacted (Fig. 2.3:C). Analytical Method Adequate comparison between lithic assemblages depends on all the different assemblages adhering to the same methodological criteria and being practically measured on the same scale. At the same time, if an analytical method is to work efficiently, it must answer the specific "needs" of the assemblages under discussion. Because no site assemblage from our study area has ever been analyzed before, I thought it useful to design a greatly detailed analytical scheme with as many variables as appeared. necessary. This scheme served as a pilot analysis for the first couple of assemblages, and was consequently modified in oaccordance with the preliminary experience. Following a thorough scrutiny of lithic analytical methods as described by various researchers (e.g., Bordes 1947, 1950, 1961; Cahen and Van Noten 1971; Chapman 1977; Collins 1975; Goren 1979; Gunn and Mahula 1977; Isaac 1977; Johnson 1975, 1977a,b; Katz 1976; Kleindienst 1961, 1g62; 0hel 1977a, 1979a; Stiles 1979a,b,c; Wilmsen 1968, 1970), I forged a method which I thought combined the most expedient and product�ve elements of all the previous s�udies. This method is �a�ed _on the two major aspects of an artifact assemblage: composition analysis of form (typology), and attribute analysis of production (technology). The assemblages from the two Avivim sites, A43 and A63 (see Fig. 5.1) were chosen for the pilot study. As the comprehensive report_(0hel, 1981a) of this work has not appeared in print, a brief research conclusion (0hel 1981b) being the only published record, I will present the main components of the- method here. Unfortunately, the definitions, descriptions, justifications, illustrations and operational procedures that are included in the 16

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T he c ompositional a nalysis b egins w ith t he d ivision o f a ll a rtifacts o f a n a ssemblage i nto p rimary c ategories: A . B . C . D . E .

S haped t ools M iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts U tilized p ieces C ores D ebitage

N ext c omes t he c lassification b y s econdary c ategories: A . S haped t ools 1 . L arge-cutting t ools 2 . H eavy-duty t ools 3 . S mall s haped t ools

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F lakes B lades E xhausted c ores S hatter p ieces A ngular p ieces C hips O ther B roken

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T he a ttribute a nalysis c omprises t wo s ets o f v ariables: Q ualitative a nd q uantitative. T heir n umbers d epend o n t he c ategory i nvolved, a s f ollows. Q ualitative v ariables f or s haped t ools 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

B lank: f lake o r b lade R olled: h eavily; s lightly ; n onrolled W eathered: h eavily; s lightly; n onweathered C ortex: 3 /4 ; 1 /2; 1 /4 ; n one R ings ( ripples): v isible o r i nvisible. F issures: v isible o r i nvisible 7 . B ulbar s car: p resent o r a bsent 8 . C one: p rotruding; i ntermediate; d iffuse; a bsent. 9 . P rimary f orm : s ide s tuck f lake; e nd-struck f lake; L evallois f lakes s pecified 1 0. V entral c urvature: c onvex; c oncave; s traight; i rregular 1. P reparation p attern: n o s cars; s ame p latform ; o pposed p latform; s ame a nd o pposed; o ne p latform , n either t he s ame n or o pposed; t wo o r m ore p latforms. E ach o f t he a bove b ut t he f irst i s a ccompanied b y a n i ndication o f s car p attern, e .g.: s ame/irregular; s ame/parallel; s ame/convergent; s ame/radial; s ame/subradial 1 2. P latform r emnant c ontour: i rregular; b iconvex; b iconcave; b istraight; d orsal c onvex/ventral c oncave; d orsal c oncave/ventral c onvex; d orsal s traight/ventral c onvex; d orsal s traight/ventral c oncave; d orsal c onvex/ventral s traight; d orsal c oncave/ventral s traight; r emoved; a bsent 1 3. P latform r emnant f acets: c ortex; p lain; t wo f acets; t hree; m ore t han t hree; p oint-form ( punctiform); r emoved; a bsent 1 4 . W orking-edge s hape: s traight; c onvex; c oncave; i rregular; d omed; b road-nosed; n arrow-nosed; o give; n otched-out p oint; n otched; a ngulated p oint; b urin 1 5. R etouched e dges: l ateral; t erminal; o blique; i rregular 1 6. R etouch l oöation: d orasal; v entral; m ixed; a lternate; b ifacial; o n " cross s ection" 1 7. R etouch i ntensity : i ntensive; s ubintensive; c asual 1 8. D enticulation: p resent o r a bsent 1 9. K nife b ack: c ortical, f acetted; r etouched 2 0 . D rills: s ingle; d ouble; m ultiple

2 1

Q ualitative v ariables f or m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts: 1 -13 a s f or s haped t ools; t he r emaining s even c annot s erve i n t his c ategory b ecause i t b y d efinition c onsists o f a rtifacts t hat a re i ndeterminable a s s haped t ools. Q ualitative v ariables f or c ores: 1 . R olled: a s a bove 2 . W eathered: a s a bove 3 . N umber o f s triking p latforms: 1 ; 2 ; 3 3 ; > 4 . N umber o f f laking e dges: 1 ; 2 ; > 2 5 . S tate: w hole o r b roken 6 . T ermination: e xhausted; c onsiderably u sed; m inimally u sed 7 . U ncore a reas ( = u nexploited p lanes): n o u ncore a reas ( = e ntire c ore i s w orked); c ortex: n one, 1 /4, 1 /2, 3 /4 ; n umber o f u ncore a reas: 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; > 2 Q ualitative v ariables f or c ore s cars: 1 . B lank : a s a bove 2 . P rimary f orm : a s a bove 3 . C ontour: r adial; s ubradial; p arallel; s ubparallel; c onvergent; d ivergent; t riangular a nd s ubtriangular; m edial e xpanded; i rregular . T o e ach o f t hese b ut t he l ast a n otification o f " smooth" o r " sinuous" i s a dded. 4 . C urvature: a s o pposed t o v entral c urvature a bove 5 . B ulb i mprint: d eep; s hallow ; f lat; n one 6 . P latform c ontours: a s i n p latform r emnant c ontours a bove, b ut h ere " absent" a nd " removed" a re o mmitted, a nd " ridge" ( = s triking p latform i s ar idge) i s a dded 7 . P latform s tate: a s p latform r emnant f acets a bove b ut t he f ollowing a re a dded: o ne f acet ( = o ne p reparation s car); f ormer ( = p latform i s f ormer s car); u nknown ( = b roken, c rushed, e tc.). " Absent" a nd " removed" a re d eleted h ere. 8 . R ings: a s a bove 9 . F issures: a s a bove 1 0 . B ulbar s car: a s a bove 1. T erminal r elease: n ormal; h inge; s tep c oncave; s tep v ertical; p lunging; i ndeterminable Q ualitative v ariables f or d ebitage f lakes: v ariables 1 -13 a s i n s haped f ools; 1 4. C ontour: a s i n c ore s cars ( but o pposite); 1 5. T erminal r elease: a s i n c ore s cars ( but o pposite). Q uantitative v ariables f or s haped t ools: 1 . L ength 2 . B readth 3 . T hickness 4 . B utt t hickness 5 . P latform r emnant t hickness 6 . P latform r emnant w idth 7 . B ulb l ength 8 . B ulb t hickness 9 . M edial a xis a ngle

2 2

1 0 . P latform i nclination a ngle 1. F laking a ngle ( complementary t o 1 0) 1 2. E dge r etouch b y d egree r anges: d orsal; c ross-section 1 3. W eight 1 4. N umber o f r etouched e dges 1 5. N umber o f s cars o f f ormerly r emoved f lakes

v entral;

T he d ata s heets i nclude p rovision f or r ecording f our s tates f or t he w orking e dge a ngle i n a ccordance w ith f orm o f t ool. T hese d ata w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he p resent a nalyses f or r easons o f e conomy . A s i n o ther c ases i nvolving r ecords o f i ndividual f orms ( both f or q ualitative a nd q uantitative a ttributes), t he d ata e xist a nd a wait t he h ighly i nteresting a nalyses b y f orms w hen o pportunities f or m ore d etailed d emonstration a re h opefully r eopened. Q uantitative v ariables o f m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts: a ll a s i n s haped t ools e xcept n os. 1 2 a nd 1 4 w hich a re d eleted. Q uantitative v ariables o f c ores: 1 . L ength 2 . B readth 3 . T hickness 4 . W eight 5 . N umber o f s cars Q uantitative v ariables o f c ore s cars: 1 . L ength 2 . B readth 3 . B ulb l ength 4 . M edial a xis a ngle 5 . P latform i nclination a ngle 6 . F laking a ngle Q uantitative v ariables o f d ebitage f lakes: a ll s haped t ools e xcept n os. 1 2 a nd 1 4, w hich a re o mitted.

v arialbes a s i n

T he s cheme p roved o n t he w hole q uite a daptable t o t he A vivim a ssemblages, a nd t he l ists g iven a bove a re i n f act a lready s omewhat m odified, h aving b een p repared a fter t he a nalysis o f t hose a ssemblages. T his w as l ater t o b e t he a nalytical m ethod p racticed f or a ll A cheulean a ssemblages o f t he Y iron P lateau . B asic S tatistics a nd T esting

I f irmly b elieve, d espite n ot b eing a m aster s tatistician, t hat t he u sefulness o f t he c omputation o f b asic s tatistics m akes i t n ot o nly i nevitable, b ut d esirable a lso. W hen u sed w ithin t heir p rescribed l imitations ( such a s p robability) s tatistics c an, a nd d o, p revent m isleading o bservations a nd i nterpretative p itfalls o n t he o ne h and ( e.g. a ttaching i mportance t o a d istribution c aused b y r andom s election), a nd, o n t he o ther, t o r eveal p reviously u ndetected p atterns ( e.g. a s ignificant d ifference i n d imensions o f c ertain a ttributes b etween a ssemblages). C onsequently , b asic s tatistics; i .e., r elative f requency , m ean, s tandard d eviation, a nd c oefficient o f v ariation; w ere

2 3

s teadily a nd o rthodoxly c omputed a s a n i ntegral p art o f t he a nalysis. T esting , u tilizing b oth p arametric ( mostly s tudent's t -test) a nd n onparametric ( 2 x 2 c ontingency t ables, R x C t ables, K olmogorov-Smirnov t ests, M ann-Whitney U t ests a nd o thers) s tatistics w as a lso c arried o ut a s a b asic f unction o f t he i nvestigation ( see O hel 1 981a). I n t he d ebate o ver t he u sefulness o f m ultivariate t echniques f or v arious p urposes, I f avored t he o pinion o f T homas ( 1978, 1 980:97, V ierra a nd C arlson 1 981:273, M atson 1 980) a nd t o ag reat e xtent m ade u se o f h is s tatistical b ook ( Thomas 1 976), a longside t hat o f S iegel ( 1956) a nd o thers. I n a ddition, I c onsidered t hat w ithin a s tudy a rea l ike o urs, w here t he t echnological c omplex i s f undamentally u niform , t he m ain g oal s hould b e t o p inpoint v ariability a mong t he s ite a ssemblages. I n c onsequence, m y i nclination h as b een t o t est v ariables o ne b y o ne d espite t he t ime-consuming e fforts i nvolved. M ultivariate t echniques, s o It hought, h ave p otential t o m ask d ifferences t hat m ight p rove r ather i mportant. I m aintain t hat t he r esults a nd t heir c onceivably s ound i nterpretation h ave j ustified m y a pproach . I t i s i mpossible t o p resent h ere , i n e ssence a s ummary a nd c onclusion e ssay , t he t ables , f igures, e tc. t hat e manated f rom t he s tatistical p rocedures p erformed. I n m y m ethodological p ilot s tudy ( Ohel 1 981a) t he w hole p rocess i s d escribed a nd s hown s tep b y s tep i n g reat d etail, w hile i n s ome l ater p apers ( e.g., O hel 1 981c, 1 985) t he c omputation s tages a nd t esting c an f airly e asily b e u nderstood f rom t heir o utcome, a s p rovided.

2 1 4

3 T HE E NVIRONMENT: G EOMORPHOLOGIC H ISTORY A ND B IOGEOGRAPHICAL C ONDITIONS I n t his c hapter a n a ttempt i s m ade t o r econstruct t he p hysical e nvironment a nd e nvironmental c onditions d uring t he A cheulean p eriod o f o ccupany o f t he Y iron P lateau ; f rom a n o utline o f t he m ajor f eatures o f t he s tudy a rea t oday , p roceeding t o a r eview o f t he m ain p rocesses t hat c hanged -t o t he e xtent t hey h ave i ndeed c hanged - t hese f eatures, a nd f inally t o t he d rawing o f a g eneral p icture o f t he l ocal e nvironment w ithin w hich t he A cheuleans l ived. T he S tudy A rea T oday O ur s tudy a rea - t he Y iron P lateau , t he s outhern s lope o f M t. A vivim a nd N ahal A viv ( Figs. 1 .1 a nd 2 .1) - i s p art o f t he m iddle D ishon B asin, w hich i n t urn f orms t he w estern f lank o f E astern U pper G alilee ( see K liott 1 98 : F igs. 2 -3) a nd i s c haracterized b y h igh , r ugged m ountains a nd r elatively f lat p lateaux o f a n a verage a ltitude o f 6 50-700 m a .s.l. s urrounded b y y et h igher p eaks r eaching o ver 1 ,000 m ., w hich f orm a k ind o f e nclosure. T he b asin i s i ntersected b y m any d eep a nd m eandering s tream b eds; s uch a s t he D ishon, A viv , a nd Y iron; o ften f orming c anyons s everal h undred m eters d eep w ith s teep, a t t imes e ven p erpendicular c liff w alls. T his p art o f E astern G alilee, w ith i ts v ariety o f p owerfully c ontrasting l andscapes, p rovides f ascinating s cenery t o a ll v iewers, p rofessional g eologists i ncluded. T hus, a s eries o f c omprehensive g eological r esearches d edicated t o t his r egion w as a ccomplished i n t he e arly 6 0's ( e.g., G rader 1 958; N ir a nd Y air 1 960; Y air 1 961; S chlein 1 961; G lickson 1 964). T he r egion h as a lso b een i ncorporated i n r eviews e ncompassing t he G alilee o r I srael a s aw hole ( e.g., N ir 1 970 w ith r eferences; N ir a nd B ar-Yosef 1 976 w ith r eferences; H orowitz 1 979 w ith r eferences; S hemueli, S offer a nd K liott 1 983 w ith r eferences). T here i s n o r oom h ere t o d eal w ith t he r egion b eyond t he b rief g eneral c haracterization g iven a bove. T he a bove m entioned s tudies c ontain n umerous r eferences o n ag reat d iversity o f r elated i ssues. L ithostratigraphic a nd g eomorphic f eatures as y ielded a d irect C ooperation w ith a c olleague b iogeographer h nspections a nd r elevant f ocus o n o ur s tudy a rea , a nd, v ia f ield i t h as b een o utlined l iterature, a c oncise, y et a dequate p icture o f i 3 .2, d rawn f rom t hat ( Brosh a nd O hel 1 981). F igures 3 .1 a nd nd i ts m ajor l andform e nterprise, m ore c losely d epict t he s tudy a rea a c omponents. T he Y iron P lateau i s t he b eveled c rest o f a s hort, b road, s teep-sided s pur o f l imestone c apped w ith b asalt, m easuring n early ' 000m i n l ength a nd a lternating f rom 2 00 m t o 8 00 m i n w idth. A s c an b e c learly s een i n F igure 3 .1 ( top), t he a xis o f a s ynclinal s tructure t raverses t he p lateau . T he c entral p art o f t he s tructure i s f ormed o f L ower a nd M iddle E ocene l imestone c apped b y a f ew p atches o f b asalt, o f w hich t he Y iron's i s t he l argest. T he s tratigraphy i s s hown i n F igure 3 .1 ( bottom).

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o Con tact s p r ings i nc ha lk o utc rops • Con tact s p r ings b e low b asa l t I .

C 2 1 /2), a nd m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts. Y et, t he p ortion o f b oth r egular a nd e xhausted c öres w ith a 1 /4 a nd 1 /2 c ortex c overage i s r ather l arge. A lso, a h igh p roportion o f 1 , 2a nd > 2 u ncore a reas ( untouched n oncortical p lanes) i s s een i n e xhausted c ores. ( 2) C ontour o utline i s d ominated t hroughout d ebitage f lakes, r egular a nd e xhausted c ore s cars b y t he i rregular s tate. T he n ext f our s tates a re a lways ( albeit n ot n ecessarily i n t he s ame o rder i n t he t wo s amples) t he m edial-expanded, s ubparallel, d ivergent, a nd c onvergent o utlines. I n t hese a nd a ll o ther c ontour s tates, s inuous e dges o utnumber t heir s mooth c ounterparts. T he i rregular p latform c ontour r ules t hroughout. ( 3) T he z ero s tate ( = n o s cars) o f p reparation p attern r eaches e xtremely h igh p roportions. A t t he s ame t ime, n ot a f ew f lakes a nd s cars t erminate i n o ther t han n ormal p atterns. A s w ell, c ortical a nd p lain s triking p latforms o vershadow f acetted o nes, w hile > 2 -facet p latforms a re r are .

5

6

8

9

1 1 0

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5

1 3 1 4

F ig. 5 .2 S haped t ools f rom A 43 a nd A 63: 1 -2, l arge k nives; 3 -4, s mall k nives; 5 -7, p oints; 8 -9, d rills; 1 011, s ide s crapers; 1 214, c omposites. ( Drawings b y M . L amdan .)

5 6

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9

F ig. 5 .3 C ores f rom A 43 and A 63: 1 , c onical; 2 , p yramidal; 3 , f lat; 4 , L evallois; 5 , p olyfacetted b idirectional; 6 , n odular; 7-9 , c asuals. ( Drawings b y M . L amdan.)

I ncoherence I diosyncracies w here A 43 > A 63 ( 1) C omposite f orms d ominate a mong s haped t ools. ( 2) I ntensive r etouch o f s haped t ools. ( 3) C oncave ( = n ormal) c urvature a nd s hallow b ulb s cars.

i mprint

o f

( 4) D ebitage f lakes w ith h alf o f t heir a rea a dhering c ortex. d evoid o f a ny c ortex.

c ore

A lso,

( 5) P lain p latforms o f e xhausted c ores. I diosyncracies w here A 63 > A 43 ( 1) S haped t ools i n r elation t o o ther p rimary c ategories. ( 2) K nives l ead a mong s haped t ools. ( 3) D egree o f v ariation i n c ross-sectional r etouch o f s haped t ools.

( 4 ) S ubintensive a nd c asual r etouch. ( 5) D egree o f v ariation i n m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts.

b ulb

t hickness

a nd

w eight

o f

( 6 ) G eometric a nd s emigeometric f orms o f r egular c ores. ( 7) D egree o f v ariation i n l ength, b readth ( but n ot i n n umber o f s cars) o f c ores.

t hickness, a nd w eight

( 8) V entral ( "abnormal") a nd s traight c urvatures o f c ore s cars. ( 9) D ebitage f lakes a dhering c ortex t o a bout a 1 /4 o f t heir a rea. ( 10) D egree o f v ariation i n w eight o f d ebitage f lakes. ( 11) S cars o f f ormerly r emoved f lakes s erving a s s triking i n e xhausted c ore s cars.

p latforms

I nterpretation R elative p rimary c onditions T hese a re s uggested n ot m erely b y t he h igh p roportion o f s harp a nd m int a rtifacts v ersus t he n egligibility o f h eavily r olled o nes, b ut a lso b y n ot l ess t han f ive f lake a ttributes ( especially d ebitage f lakes) b eing i n n ature, p roportion, o r d imension a nalogous t o t heir c ore s car c ounterparts. I n a ddition, a r emarkable c omplement i s a pparent i n m ost, i f n ot a ll, a ttributes o f c ores a nd t heir s cars. G iven t ime, m eans, a nd m uch p atience c onjoins c ould f easibly b e d etected, b ut t his h as t hus f ar n ot b een a ttempted.

5 8

D egree o f h omogeneity T he h igh d egree o f c ongruence b etween t he t wo a ssemblages i s q uite c lear f rom t he a bove. B oth a lmost c ertainly b elonged t o t he s ame " parent p opulation." I n t echnological t erms, b oth a ssemblages t o a g reat e xtent s hared b asic a ttitudes t oward r aw m aterial a nd i ts u sage, c oncept a nd p ractice o f t he r eduction p rocess, a nd t he m anner o f t ool s haping. T he p roduction o f s haped t ools w as m ainly f ocused a t b oth s ites o n s mall t ools. K nives, p oints, a nd c omposites ( many o f w hich c ombine k nives) a re t he l eading t hree s mall s haped t ools. C learly , t he i ndustry w as o riented o n f lake, n ot b lade m anufacture, t he l arger f lakes b eing s electively u tilized f or e nd-products. F rom t he i nterassemblage a ngle, t he g eneral r ange o f v ariation a lso p oints t o t he s ame h igh l evel o f c onformity . A ll o ther c ohering f actors c learly i ndicate f urther t he o utstanding t echnological c ongruity b etween A 43 a nd A 63. D egree o f v ariation A kin t o t he w ide e xtent o f g eneral i nterassemblage h omogeneity , i s t he g reat a greement i n t he r emarkably h igh d egree o f i nternal v ariation i n m ost a ttributes w ithin e ach o f t he s amples. L ower d egree o f i ntra-attribute v ariation a pparently r eflects m ore c onsistency , t herefore h igher s tandardization a nd i n t urn h igher e fficiency o f p roduction. H igher s uch d egree r epresents t he o pposite ( Ohel 1 979c). T hus t he h igh i ntra-attribute v ariation i n n early a ll s tates o f A 43 a nd A 63 l eads t o t he c onclusion t hat w e f ace h ere a t echnology o f c omparatively u nsteady c onsistency , i n t urn o f n ot t oo s ophisticated a s tandardization a nd e fficiency ( especially e mphasized b y h igh v ariation i n d ebitage f lakes, i n l inear d imensions o f o ther a rtifacts, a nd i n p articular o f t he m edial a xis a ngle). I ntensity o f e xploitation R ather s trong h ints f rom s everal d irections i ndicate t hat t he A vivim t echnology w as o riented t oward a h igh r ate o f r aw m aterial u tilization. E xhaustive t ermination o f c ores i s d emonstrated i n r egular c ores a nd b y t he m any e xhausted c ores ( see a bove). T he c ommon h abit o f u sing s cars o f f ormerly r emoved f lakes a s s triking p latforms f or e nsuing f lake r emovals i s c learly i ndicated i n t he c ore s car c ategory. A lso, m inimum c ortex i s p reserved o n m aximum f lakes, n ot j ust o n s haped t ools ( where i t i s e xpected) b ut o n d ebitage f lakes a s w ell. Aq uite c ommon e xplanation i n b oth p rehistoric a nd e thnologic s tudies i ndicates t hat t he s carcity o f s uitable r aw m aterial b rings f orth e xtended u tilization ( e.g., S olecki 1 972: ) 4 7; I saac 1 977: 9 5; H ayden 1 980:5; W ilmsen 1 970 : 8 0 ; C rabtree 1 975: 1 09; G ould 1 980: 1 22-126). Y et n atural f lint, a lthough w anting h igher o n t he A vivim s lope, i s a bundant o n t he l ower p art o f t he Y iron P lateau j ust o pposite a nd n earby t he t wo s ites ( see F ig. 5 .1). A lso i n c ontrast t o t he o ther p arts o f t he A vivim s lope, " the b elly" i s a nything b ut p oor i n i ntroduced f lint p ieces. C onsequently , t he h igh i ntensity o f c ore u tilization w as u nlikely t o h ave b een c aused b y al ack o f f lint.

5 9

S tatus o f s tändardization H ow c an t his a pparent c ontradiction b e r esolved? I n g eneral t erms, t echnological c asualness i s h ere u nderstood a s a p redominance o f i rregularity i n e xecution. A nd t he d ata f rom t he A vivim s ites s how a c onsiderable d eparture f rom r egularity , h igh p recision i n p roduction , a nd p ractical s ophistication i n s tandardization . C onsider t he h igh d egree o f v ariation i n a lmost a ll a ttributes a cross a ll c ategories a nd t he c learcut p reponderance o f m orphologically c asual f orms i n b oth r egular a nd e xhausted c ores. B ifaces ( handaxes) a re a ltogether a bsent a nd L evallois c ores a re n egligible. F orms l ike b iconical, c onical, p yramydal, b iconvex d iscoidal, p olyhedric, o r p olyfacetted b idirectional c ores b elong t o t he g roup o f m ore s ystematic a nd m ore-perfect g eometric c ores f rom w hich f lake r emoval i s d istinctly t ypified b y a c onsistently s ystematic r eduction p rocess. A ll t hese f orms t ogether m ake u p o nly a m inimal p roportion i n t he A vivim a ssemblages. N evertheless, t he A vivim p eople w ere n ot e ntirely u nfamiliar w ith s ystematic s tandardization. A lbeit f ew , s uch c ore f orms a s m entioned a bove d o o ccur. B y t he s ame t oken, n ot a ll o ther a rtifacts e xhibit c omplete i rregularity . W hat i s c laimed, h owever, i s t hat a n o verwhelming t endency t oward c onsiderable c asualness i s a pparent ( take, f or i nstance, t he e xtremely w ide r ange o f t he m edial a xis a ngle o n f lakes a nd s cars). A s w e w ill s ee l ater , f rom t he v ery s ame v arieties o f f lint s ignificantly m ore n ear-perfect g eometric a nd s ymmetric a rtifacts w ere p roduced a t t he Y iron P lateau 's s ites, a nd f ar m ore c onsistently a nd u niformly t han a t t he A vivim s ites. E conomy A ND c asualness? • H aving s aid a ll t his, w e a re a t o nce f aced w ith a p roblem . O n o ne h and w e h ave a rgued f or i ntensity o f e xploitation , w hich d efinitely d epicts a n u nwasteful a ttitude t oward r aw m aterial u tilization. O n t he o ther h and, c onsiderable c asualness h as b een a ttached t o A vivim s ites' k nappers, " accusing" t hem o f r elative i nefficiency i n p roduction, i .e., w astefulness. F or e xample: H ow o therwise a re w e t o d escribe t he h igh r ate o f e xhausted c ores, t hemselves h aving a h igh r ate o f c ortical a nd u ncore a reas? G ranted, t hat e xhausted c ores, b y d efinition , c annot b e f laked a ny f urther. H owever, t his s tate n eed n ot b e a n o bjective, a p riori s tate. H ow w ere s o m any c ores b rought t o s uch a f inal; " impossible" s ituation , w ith s o m any u ncore a reas r emaining, o ther t han t hrough a c asual, n ot v ery s ophisticated m anner o f p rocessing? H ow e lse c an t he c ontradiction b e c omprehended? I nterassemblage v ariability F rom t he f orm v ariety o f t ools ( eight a t A 63 a nd f ive a t A 43) i t i s t empting t o r egard t he A vivim s ites m ore a s h ome b ases ( e.g., I saac 1 972, 1 976) o r b ase c amps ( maintenance t asks) t han w ork c amps ( extractive t asks) ( e.g., B inford a nd B inford 1 966, B inford 1 978). B ut, w as t his i ndeed t he c ase? S mall s haped t ools w ere a pparently m ore u seful t han l arge-cutting , a nd h eavy-duty t ools, j udging f rom t he l atter's l ow p roportions. Y et, c aution i s r ecommended h ere, f or t he p ossibility o f c uration ( e.g.,

6 0

B inford 1 973; H ayden 1 976; O hel 1 977b), i .e., l arge/heavy t ools h aving b een c arried a way , c annot b e r uled o ut. I t i s t rue t hat n ot o ne l arge k nife w as f ound i n A 43 ts s ample, b ut s maller k nives w ere m ore o r l ess a s c ommon t here a s a t A 63. H owever, p oints a re f ar m ore f requent i n t he A 63 s ample t han i n t hat o f A 43 ( 23% v s 8 % o f s mall s haped t ools r espectively ). D rills, b urins, a nd n otches a re a ltogether a bsent f rom A 43 , b ut r each 1 3%, 8 % a nd 1 % r espectively a t A 63. A nd s ide-scrapers h old 1 5% a t A 63 v ersus 8 % a t A 43. O n t he o ther h and, c omposite t ools a re e ncountered f ar m ore i n t he A 43 s ample t han i n A 63's ( 46% v s 1 5%, r espectively). L acking f aunal a nd f loral d ata , i t i s d ifficult t o g o b eyond a v ery g eneral e xplanation o f t hese c ompositional d iversities. I t i s o f c ourse p ossible t o p ut t he b lame o n t he c ollecting s trategy , b ut, a s o ver a t hird o f A LP w as s ampled, i t a ppears s omewhat u nreasonable t o b elieve t hat t he s ample d rawn i s n ot a f air r epresentation o f t he a ssemblage. A pparently s everal t ool f orms w ere s imply n ot n eeded a nd t hus n ot i ntroduced a t A 43. O ne l ikelihood i s t hat t he s maller A 43 w as s ome s ort o f o ffshot o f A 63, a s mall t ask-specific s tation o utside t he l arger b ase c amp. I n t he f ace o f t he a ssertive e lements o f i nterassemblage h omogeneity n oted a bove, i t w ould a ppear u ntenable t o a ssociate t he p resence/absence d ichotomy i n t ools t o o ther t han a f unctional s ource. A f ew t ool f orms, s uch a s d rills, n otches a nd b urins, p layed n o r ole w hatever a t A 43. I f t hese f orms w ere u sed m ainly f or w ood w orking, t hen i t e merges t hat t his t ask w as p erformed e xclusively a t A 63. T he d ifferences b etween t he t wo s ites i n t echnological a ttribute s tates c an b e a pproached f rom a t l east t hree a ngles. F irstly , s ome v ariables a re a ssociated w ith t he i diosyncracies i n t he t ool c ompisition p er s e ( e.g., m ore i ntensive r etough a t A LP b ecause o f m ore c omposites t here; m ore v aried c ross-sectional r etouch a t A 63 b ecause o f m ore b acked k nives t here). S econdly , o thers m ay b e t he r esults o f i ndividual s tyles a nd p references ( e.g., m ore p lain p latforms i n e xhausted c ores a t A 43; m ore s cars o f f ormerly r emoved f lakes s erving a s s triking p latforms i n e xhausted c ores a t A 63). T hirdly , a f urther p ortion m ay s tem f rom t he s omewhat d ifferent n ature ( or s tructure) o f t he s ites ( e.g., a t A 63 M ore g eometric a nd s emigeometric r egular c ores, a nd w ider r ange o f v ariation i n l inear d imensions o f c ores a nd i n w eight o f d ebitage f lakes). A 63 i s a f ar l arger s ite, a nd w as a pparently i nhabited b y m ore p eople ( especially w hen t he s mall " task f orce" s taying a t A 43 w as b ack h ome?) f or a l onger a nd m ore s table d uration. T he e xtra t ime m ight h ave e nabled b etter a ttention t o s ystematization i n c ore r eduction , a nd t he l arger p opulation c ertainly i nvited _ w ider r anges o f v ariation i n t he p rocess o f m anufacture. I ndustrial c omplex N either t ypologically n or t echnologically c an t he A vivim a ssemblages b e a ssigned t o ap re- o r p ost-Acheulean c omplex ( in B ordian t erms). I n m ost r espects t hey a re a llied t o t he A cheulean Y iron P lateau 's a ssemblages ( see O hel a nd B ruder 1 980). F urther, n atural f lint v arieties e xploited a re t he s ame: e ven p atination s hades ( despite l ocal d ifferences o f s oil a nd c onditions) a re o n t he w hole s imilar; a nd t he s ites l ie a t a pproximately t he s ame a ltitude a s t hose o n t he n orthern s lope o f t he Y iron P lateau.

6 1

P erhaps t he o ne d isturbing p oint i s t hat n o h andaxes ( except o ne h andaxe r oughout) w ere f ound i n t he A vivim s amples. B ut k nives a re p resent i n r emarkable p roportions, a nd a ccording t o B ordes ( personal c ommunication, s ummer 1 980) b acked k nives a re n o l ess c haracteristic o f a n A cheulean i ndustry t han a re b ifaces. M oreover , an umber o f r eported d efinite A cheulean a ssemblages o r d istinct A cheulean l evels h ave s hown a r emarkable s carcity o f h andaxes, o r b een t otally v oid o f t hem ( e.g. B ordes a nd P rat 1 965; B ordes 1 968, 1 972; F reeman a nd B utzer 1 966; d e L umley 1 969; A rmand 1 979). I t i s p robably b ecause t here w as n o n eed o r n o u se f or t hem t hat h andaxes w ere n either p roduced i n n or b rought t o t he A vivim s lope. W inter l odges? T he f undamental t ypotechnological h omogeneity b etween t he A vivim a ssemblages a nd t hose o f t he Y iron P lateau w as r ecognized a lready d uring t he s urvey . T his o bservation h inted a t al iving a ffinity e xisting b etween t he A vivimian a nd Y ironian A cheuleans; t hey m ight e ven h ave b een o ne a nd t he s ame, m oving b etween d wellings u nder t he d ictate o f s easonal c limatic c onditions. A t t his j uncture m anipulative p ower o f t he p resent e nvironment a nd i ts s easonality , a s o utlined i n c hapter a bove, b egan t o b e r evealed. N ot o nly d id t he f avorable t opography a nd w eather p oint t o t he Y iron P lateau 's s ites p otential t o h ave s erved a s m ore p ermanent s ummer h abitations, b ut t he a rtifact a ssemblages a lso s eemed t o s upplement t his n otion. T he a ssemblages o f t he p lateau w ere f ound t o b e f ar r icher a nd m ore v aried t han A vivim 's ( Ohel a nd B ruder 1 980 , O hel 1 982b, 1 98 b). F urther, e ven t he d ifference i n s ize a nd a rtifactual c ontents b etween t he t wo A vivim s ites t hemselves c ould b e e nvisaged a s s patially i nfluenced. A 63 l ies a t t he e dge o f t he s lope b ordering o n N ahal A viv , t herefore c loser t o t he p lateau s ites t han A 43 ( in f act, d irectly o pposite Y 18: s ee F ig . 5 .1), a nd p roved t o b e e xceedingly m ore p rolific a nd a lso m ore v aried. A 63 m ight h ave w ell b een t he m ajor , o r a t t he v ery l east, o ne o f a f ew , w inter b ase c amp o f t he Y iron A cheuleans. C onclusion T he t wo A vivim a ssemblages a re l argely s imilar . T hey r epresent a n A cheulean f lake t echnology e mphasizing s mall s haped t ools. H ighly i ntensive c ore u tilization p resumably r eflects u nwastefulness. Y et, t he s carcity o f s ystematically r educed c ores , t he h igh r ate o f i rregular m anufactural p roperties, a nd t he h igh d egree o f i ntra-attribute v ariation p oint t o i ts o pposite, n amely , c onsiderable t echnological i nefficiency , r esulting i n p ractical w astefulness. T his i s p articularly a ccentuated b y t he h igh p roportion o f e xhausted c ores t hat h ave n ot i n f act b een f ully e xploited, a s c ould b e e xpected h ad t he r eduction t hroughout b een m ore s ophistically s tandardized. H ence, a n i nner c ontradiction ( or p aradox) i s n oted b etween i ntention a nd e xecution. A nother p ossibility e xists, t hough , t hat t he c asualness i n p roduction r esulted f rom i mmediate, t ransitory n eeds. C onsidering t he h arsh w inter m onths, u nbearable o n t he o pen s ummit, t he i nhabitants w ould h ave d eserted t heir l odgings t o t ake r efuge o n t he o pposite s lope o f M t. A vivim , m ore w ooded a nd m uch m ore p rotected, a t i ts l owest p art, " the b elly", t hus e nduring t he s eason. C onditions w ould h ave b een f ar f rom i deal, w ork w ould h ave b een c arried o ut i n t he q uickest w ay

6 2

p ossible. T he s ame p eople t hat s killfully f ashioned s ystematic a nd s tandardized t ools u nder a w arm s ummer s un a nd r efreshing b reeze, b ecame i mpatient a nd s omewhat o pportunistic i n t he f reezing w inds. T heir e xpertise w as n ot l ost, b ut d iminished, a nd c ould n ot d isappear c ompletely f rom t heir w ork , T he " strain" b etween t hese h abits a nd t he c onstraints o f p hysical c ircumstances c redibly e xplains t he p aradox o bserved i n t he d ata. S ubsequently , t his p aradox m ust n ot n ecessarily r epresent s ome k ind o f d isconnection o r b reak b etween p reconception a nd p ractical i mplication , b ut t he c ompelling b urden o f d ifficult a nd n ot t oo p leasant o r c omfortable c onditions. I nterassemblage v ariability i s o n t he w hole r ather l ow . A f ew c haracteristics h int, h owever, t o a s omewhat m ore s ystematic-standardized a rtifact p rocessing a t A 63 t han a t A 42, w here t he c onfiguration o f t he c ore a nd t ool c omponents a lso v ary l ess. A 43 m ight h ave b een o perated a s a s mall t ask-specific s ite ( or a s t he h abitation o f a s ingle f amily?) r elated t o t he m uch l arger A 63 b ase. A 42 w as m uch c loser t o t he N ahalit S pring: a lthough u nable t o i dentify t he s pecific t asks c arried o ut t here, I e nvisage a d irect c onnection b etween t he t wo. T he s pring u ndoubtedly w ould h ave a ttracted p eople i n r egularly r ainy w inters, e specially s o i n d rier o nes o r t imes o f d rought. T he e xperience g ained f rom t he a nalytic a pplication

o f

t he

A vivim

a ssemblages, a s i ndicated e arlier, w as t o b e u sed t o a dopt t he a nalytical m ethod ( see C h. 2 ). A lthough a ll t he b asic c oncepts a nd t echniques o f a nalysis o riginally c hosen w ere k ept f or t he p rocedures c oncerning t he Y iron P lateau a ssemblages, s ome a lterations - s hortcuts i n p articular - w ere i ntroduced. C onsequently , i n d ealing w ith t he u pcoming s ites, t he s yntheses o f r esults a nd h eadlines o f i nterpretations w ill t ake a s omewhat d ifferent f orm o f p resentation. T he " Sister S ites" ( Y27 a nd Y 28) Y 27 ( Hatapuah = t he A pple) a nd Y 28 ( Hashaked t he A lmond) a re v ery c lose t o e ach o ther , s eparated b y a 1 6m s trip o f c ompletely a rtifact f ree l and. T he t wo c oncentrations w ere t herefore e ach d esignated a s s ites b y t he s urvey . T hey l ie i n t he s outheastern p art o f Y iron P lateau's s ummit, n ear t he e roding b asalt e dge ( see F ig. 5 .1) i n a s hallow , s addle-like d epression. T his s light d epression i s e nclosed o n a ll s ides b ut t he s outhern, w here a g radual t apering o ccurs. T he d ifference i n e levation b etween t he t wo c lusters i s n ot m ore t han o ne m eter: Y 27's a ltitude i s a bout 6 77m, a nd Y 28's a bout 6 76 m a .s.l. T he i tes l ie o nly a c ouple o f h undred m eters f rom t he r ich Y iron S pring ( center-right f oreground i n F ig. 5 .1, o n t he w estern b oundary o f Y 2 ), o ne o f t he v ery f ew i n t he v icinity t hat e merge a t s uch h igh a ltitude o wing t o t he i mpermeability o f t he l imestone l ayer u nderlying t he b asalt ( see C h. 3 , a nd a lso B rosh a nd O hel 1 981). T he Y iron i s a p erennial s pring, m ost p rolific f ollowing r ainy w inters. I t w as e xploited b y K ibbutz Y iron u ntil t he e arly . 1970s f or d rinking a nd i rrigation w ater. B efore 1 948 i t s erved a s am ajor w ater r esource f or t he A rab i nhabitants o f t he v icinity a nd m uch e arlier w as u sed b y t he o ccupants o f t he l arge c ontiguous C halcolithic s ite Y 33 ( Ein Y iron = Y iron's S pring). T hat t he A cheuleans w ere a lso a ttracted t o t he s pring i s a ttested t o b y t he l ocations o f Y 27, Y 28 a nd t he p roximate l arge a nd c omplex a ggregation l ocale o f Y 25 ( see C h. 6 ).

6 3

Y 27, 6 7 x 6 7m, i s n ine t imes l arger t han Y 28, 2 6 x 1 9m ( see T able 5 .1). B oth w ere r andomly s ampled b y t he B ig X t echnique. T he Y 27 s ample f ormed 2 5% o f t he B ig X a nd 0 .008% o f t he s ite's a rea w hile t hat o f Y 28's c overed 3% o f t he B ig X a nd 0 .03% o f t he s ite's a rea. F or a d etailed a nalysis o f t he d ata t he r eader s hould r efer t o O hel 1 981c. S ummary a nd s ynthesis o f r esults G eneral ( 1) T he t wo a ssemblages a re s imilar i n t he p roportional d istribution o f p rimary a rtifact c ategories. ( 2) I n s econdary c ategories, h andaxes, c hoppers, c leavers, a nd l arge k nives a re s imilarly d istributed a nd m orphotechnologically a kin ( Fig . 5 .4), b ut t he l atter t wo s how a s ignificant d ifference i n r elative f requencies: m ore c leavers a ppear a t Y 28 t han a t Y 27, a nd v ice v ersa f or l arge k nives.

( 3 ) O f 1 8 q ualitative v ariables f or l arge k nives, o nly o ne - d egree o f r olling - h inted a t a s ignificant d isparity b etween t he a ssemblages. ( 4) O f 1 8 q uantitative v ariables d ifferent b etween t he s ites. ( 5) 5 .5).

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( 7) T he s ame i s t rue f or t he 1 2 q ualitative a nd 1 3 q uantitative v ariables f or m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts.

( 8 ) S imilarity o r n ear i dentity o f p roportions i s f ound i n 1 0 ( out o f 1) q ualitative a nd 6q uantitative v ariables f or c ore ( Fig . 5 .6) s cars. A d ubious s ingle s ignificant d issimilarity w as n oted i n p latform s tate . ( 9) E xhausted c ores o f b oth a ssemblages a re m orphologically a like. ( 10) N o s ignificant d ifference w as f ound i n 1 q ualitative a nd 4 ( of q uantitative v ariables o f e xhausted c ore s cars. T he o utstanding v ariables a re p latform i nclination a ngle a nd f laking a ngle . T hese a ctually , c onstitute o nly o ne d ifference, s ince t he l atter i s c omplementary t o t he f ormer. T his r esult i s a lso c onsidered q uestionable.

6 )

( 11) O f 1 5 q ualitative v ariables f or d ebitage f lakes, a ll b ut o ne ( terminal r elease) s how n o d ivergence b etween t he s ites. A ll 1 3 q uantitative v ariables a re s imilar. Q ualitative a ttributes a cross c ategories S ince n ot a ll a ttribute s tates a nd s ubstates c an b e a ccommodated i n o ne i llustration, o nly t hose i mportant f or t he f ollowing i nterpretation a re p resented h ere ( Fig. 5 .7). T he s even c ategories p articipating a re: s mall s haped t ools ( SST), m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts ( MTA), c ores

6 1 4

5

F ig. 5 .4 L arge-cutting a nd h eavy-duty t ools f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28: 1 , c ordiform h andaxe; 2 , a mygdaloid h andaxe; 3-4 , knives; 5 , c hopper; 6 -7, d rills. ( Drawings b y M . L amdan .)

1 0

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F ig. 5 .5 S mall s haped t ools f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28: 1 -2, p oints; 3 -6, d rills; 7 -8, k nives; 9 -10, r ectangular s crapers; 1 -14, c omposites. ( Drawings b y M . L amdan .) •

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F ig . 5 .6 C ores f rom Y 27 a nd Y 28: 1 -2, p olyfacet ted b idirectional; 3 , p olyhedric; 4 , f lat; 5 , n odular; 6 , f lake-core. ( Drawings b y M . L amdan .)

6 7

( C), c ore s cars ( CS), e xhausted c ores ( EC), e xhausted c ore s cars ( ECS), a nd d ebitage f lakes ( DF). T o a id a f irst-step e valuation , m arkedly c lustered v alues a re c ircled. F igure 5 .7 i s a lmost s elf-explanatory , n eeding o nly s ome b rief r emarks.

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( 1) T he g reat m ajority o f a rtifacts a re m inimally r olled

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( 3) P rotruding c ones ( C : p ) a re u ncommon, d iffuse ( C : d ) a nd a bsent a ) c ones a re m ore c ommon. ( 4) T he p redominance o f e nd-struck b lanks ( PF : e ) i s m anifest.

( 5) O verall, t here i s af air a greement i n v entral c urvature; h ere o ne s hould o f c ourse c ompare " positives" t o " negatives", i .e., c onvex f aces ( VC: v ) t o c oncave ( VC : c ), s traight s pecimens a re s omewhat s cattered.

( 6 ) T he i nteresting f eatures i n p reparation p atterns a re ( a) t he c onsiderable p roportion o f d orsal f lakes r emoved f rom t he s ame s triking p latform a s t he f lake's ( PP:s), a nd ( b) t he r elatively h igh p ercentage o f g eometric c ontour o f t hese d orsal f lakes ( PP :g). ( 7) T his l atter t endency i s s tressed b y e ven h igher p ercentages o f g eometric p latform c ontour ( PC: g ). N ote t hat o ver a q uarter o f t he t ools h ave h ad t heir p latforms r emoved ( by r etouch). H alf o r m ore o f t he f lakes w ere d etached f rom r idges ( PC : r i). I rregulars ( PC: i ) a re n eatly c lustered.

( 8 ) T here i s s ome d iscrepancy b etween s triking p latforms o f C S a nd E CS o n t he o ne h and, a nd S ST a nd M TA o n t he o ther ( PS : 3 o r m ore). M ore t han 2 5% o f t he l atter h ave p repared p latforms; n ot s o t he f ormer p latforms. I t m ight b e t hat m any o f t he t ools w ere m anufactured o n f lakes p roduced i n e arlier s tages o f t he r eduction p rocess ( as i s a lso s uggested b y t heir s ize: s ee b elow . N ote t hat w hat w e o bserve o n t he c ores i s o bviously o nly t he f inal s tage o f e xploitation). T his p ossibility g ains s ome s upport f rom t he c lose p roximity o f D F t o C S a nd E CS . T he u se o f f ormer s cars a s s triking p latforms f or e nsuing f lakes ( PS: f ) i s w idespread. .( 9) T wo o r m ore s triking p latforms w ere c ounted ( SP : 2o r m ore) o n a bout t hree-quarters o f t he c ores. ( 10) T he s ame i s t rue f or f laking e dges ( FE: 2 o r m ore). ( 11) About o ne-tenth o f u ncore a rea r emaining ( UA: c ortex-adhered ( UA: n + t han t wo u ncore a reas ( UA:

t he c ores a re c ompletely w orked , w ith n o p+n ). M ost o f t he r emainder a re m inimally 1 /4), a nd n early h alf o f t he c ores s how l ess 4

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A 43/63, t he l ow p ercentage o f c hips c of lplies w ith t he u nderstanding o f t echnological p ractice a t t he A vivim w inter s ites a s p roposed e arlier. T he s eason-prescribed b ehavior r esulted i n l ess c arefully r efined, a nd m ore o pportunistic t ools a nd w as v irtually b ound t o p roduce l ess c hips t han t he p lateau 's s ummer s ites. N o g reat d ifferences c an b e d iscerned i n e xhausted c ores ( E). T he d ivergences s tem m ainly f rom t he f requencies o f c ertain c ore f orms; t hus , e .g., w hen r elatively m any n odular c ores w ere u tilized, t his w ould d irectly l ead t o m ore e xhausted c ores ( and s ee b elow f or t he c omparison o f c ore f orms). T he s ingle e xtraordinary v alue i n t he c ategory o f o thers ( 0 : c onstituting s hattered p ieces, a ngular p ieces, a nd w aste p ieces t hat c annot b e a ccommodated i n a ny o ther c ategory) i s t hat o f A 43/63: 3 7% . T his c an o nly d erive f rom t he A vivim s ites' p eculiar m ode o f p roduction , w hereby t he l ess r efined a nd m ore c areless p ercussion a nd f laking p erformance, m ore s hatters, a ngulars, a nd i ndeterminable p ieces m ight h ave r esulted. T he s omewhat h igh p ercentage a t Y 13 i s, h owever, c onsistent w ith i ts h aving b een a p rimary f laking a rea . B y c ontrast, t he b roken-artifact c ategory ( Br) r eflects t he a forementioned i mpression o f l ocational h ierarchy : t he p lateau s ites r ank h ighest, t he t ransitional-preparatory s ite, Y 13, l ower a nd t he A vivim w inter s ites d isplaying t he l owest p roportion o f b roken a rtifacts. F rom t he a ctual d ata i t i s c lear t hat m ost b roken p ieces w ere e ither s mall, v ery s mall, a nd e ven t iny f lakes b roken i n t he c ourse o f t he m ore-advanced s tages o f c hipping; o r m edium a nd s mall-shaped t ools. S uch f ine a nd e laborate s tages w ere m ainly r eached a t t he p lateau s ummer s ites ( see a bove). A lthough t here . c an b e n o d oubt t hat p art o f t he b roken p ieces a re t he o utcome o f a nima l a nd h uman t rampling , t he c learcut h ierarchical o rder c annot b e t otally i gnored. S mall s haped t ools T he d istribution o f S STs i s s hown i n T able 5 .4 . A q uick g lance r eveals t hat i n f orm v ariety o f s mall t ools Y 13, t he t ransitional-preparatory s ite, l ags c learly b ehind a ll t he o ther s ites. A s a rgued p reviously , v ariety r ange o f t ools i s a f airly g ood i ndicator o f b asic s ite s tructure: a ll o ther s ites w ere a pparently t rue h abitation s ites ( or b ase-camps). I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat t he A vivim a ssemblages l ack a f ew f orms o f l arge t ools, s uch a s h andaxes a nd c leavers, w hich a re p resent i n t he o ther s amples. T hus, t he A vivjm w inter s ites a re p oorer i n f orm v ariety t han t he s ummer p lateau s ites. P oints ( P) a re d istributed u nevenly a mong t he a ssemblages ( range: 7 % • t o 1 91), b ut w ith n o d istinct d ifferentiation a ccording t o l ocation ( disregard f or t he m oment, a s n oted a bove, t he v alues f or Y 25). O n t he o ther h and, t he p roportions o f d rills ( D) s how s ufficiently c lear a ccordance w ith t he s ummer/winter-sites d ichotomy: a t t he f ormer t hey r ange f rom 3 1% t o 4 3% v s 1% a t t he l atter; Y 13 r emaining i n b etween. T he p roduction o f d rills w as a pparently a m ajor i ndustrial o ccupation a t t he p lateau s ummer s ites. T he r everse h olds f or k nives ( K) w hich f orm n early a q uarter o f t he A vivim s ites' S STs v s l ess t han a t enth o n

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t he p lateau s ummit. Y 13 h as t he g reatest p roportion o f k nives: p erhaps a l arge n umber o f k nives h ad t o b e p repared e n r oute t o t he w inter r esidences. P inpointing a s pecific p urpose p roves d ifficult. C omparatively m ore f aunal v s f loral s ources w ere p robably t apped i n w inter, b eing m ore a vailable t han i n s ummer a nd m ore n utritionally r ewarding p er e nergy i nvested ( see a bove o n c onditions m inimizing e asy f oraging). K nives ( Pl. 5 .1) m ay a lso h ave r eplaced h andaxes, c hoppers, a nd c leavers, b eing e asier a nd f aster t o m anufacture t han b ifaces. T he l atter a re u sually l arger t ools, a nd c arrying t hem o n t o a nother s ite ( curation) w ould h ave b een a n u nwelcome t ask . W e m ay a dd t he p resumption t hat b ifaces w ere n ot n eeded a s m uch i n w inter. T he p ortion o f k nives a t Y 18 ( 19%) s omewhat s poils t he a bove " ideal" p icture. P erhaps, a fter a ll, Y 18 a lso s erved i n p art a s at ransitional l ocale ( see C h. 7 b elow) N otches ( N) a re f ound i n a ny m eaningful q uantity o nly a t Y 51/53 , t he w estern p lateau s ummit's s ite. M any w ere m ade e ither o n t he c enter o f t he c oncave e dge o f e longated " canted" f lakes ( banana-like) o r o n t he t ransverse c oncave e dge o f b road d omed p oint-like f lakes. W hether t hese n otches w ere i ntended f or p ushing h afts, I c annot t ell f or s ure. W hat d oes s eem l ikely i s t hat t hey w ere a s pecialty o f t he Y 51/53 d wellers. T his k ind o f v ariability h inting a t c ertain s ite-specialties, p robably e ngendered b y s pecific t asks, i s r epeated i n t he r emaining S ST f orms: b urins ( Bu) a re f ound m ore i n t he A vivim s amples: s ide- a nd e nd-scrapers a gain a t A vivim a nd Y 51/53 ; r ectangular s crapers a t Y 27/28; a nd c omposite t ools a re q uite c ommon i n a ll s amples b ut Y 51/53. I n a ll t hese n o h ierarchy o f a ny s ort i s n oticeable, a nd n o p artition b y s ummer/winter l ocations c an b e a ssumed. R egular c ores S mall e xhausted c ores ( in t he o riginal d ata s heets r ecorded a s a s ubcategory o f d ebitage) a re e xcluded f rom t he s cope o f f orm c omparisons; m ainly b ecause e ven t hough t hey m ight n ot h ave b een w orked s ystematically a ll a round, d ue t o h aving b een r educed t o s mall s ize w hile r eaching t he s tage o f e xhaustion , t hey n aturally t ended t o e nd u p w ith a g lobular o r p olyhedric s hape. I ncluding t hem i n t he c ompositional c onsideration w ould c ertainly i ntroduce a t oo g reat b ias. T able 5 .5 s hows t he d istribution o f r egular c ore f orms ( for d efinitions, e tc., s ee O hel 1 981a). B iconical c ores ( Bic) a re a bsent i n t he A vivim s amples, y et c onical ( Con) a re p resent. T he l atter , i t i s w orth e mphasizing, r equire o nly a bout h alf o f t he f ormer's p roduction t ime. P yramidal c ores ( Pyr) a re f airly e asy t o w ork , s truck r ound t he c lock e ither o n an atural p lane o r o n ap lane a chieved b y a s uccessful s plit-blow; t hey a re f ound i n v arying f requencies i n a ll a ssemblages, n ot d isplaying a ny p articular s ignificant d ifference. T he s ame i s t rue f or f lat c ores ( Fl) e xcept a t Y 51/53 , w here t hey a re r ather r are. D iscoidals ( Dis) a ppear m ost a t Y 51/5 , a ltogether a bsent f rom Y 27/28, a s a re L evallois c ores ( Lev.). I t s eems t hat a lthough t he L evallois t echnique w as k nown a nd p racticed, i t h as n ot a ttained a n i mportant r ole i n a ny o f t he a ssemblages.

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P olyhedric c ores ( Pol) a nd p olyfacetted-bidirectional ( = c hopper-cores: P B) w ere b oth c learly m ore c ommon a t t he p lateau s ites t han A vivim . T he l atter c omprise t he h ighest p roportion o f Y 13's s ample ( 29%), q uite i n a ccordance w ith t he e ndless s upply o f p ebbles a t t he s ite a nd i ts n ear v icinity - t he n orth-central z one o f n atural f lint ( see C h. 7b elow). C hopper-cores w ere t he a lmost " automatic" p roduct o f p ebble m odification , f rom t he b eginnings o f M an 's t ool-making t o w ell i nto N eolithic t imes. C asual ( Cas) a nd a morphous ( Ar no) c ores a re m ost f requent i n t he A vivim s amples; n odular c ores ( Nod) l east f requent i n Y 13 's. T he l ow p roportion o f n odulars s tems f rom Y 13 's p reoccupation w ith p ebbly r aw m aterial. F ew r ecognizable h andaxe b lockouts ( HB) w ere f ound i n t he v arious a ssemblages, a nd o nly o ne i n A vivim 's; e ven t hough f inished h andaxes w ere f ound a t t he p lateau s ites ( even a fter t he m any c ollected b y a mateurs b efore o ur s urvey), n one o n t he A vivim s lope. L astly , f lake c ores ( FC) a re m ore c ommon a t Y 13 a nd Y 51/53 t han a t t he o ther s ites. T he v arieties o f c ore f orms i n m ost c ases d o n ot r eflect a s ummer/winter l ocational d ivision. H owever, w hen t he c ores a re g rouped a ccording t o d egree o f g eometric p erfection ( a p rocedure u ndertaken i n t he a nalysis o f t he i ndividual a ssemblages f rom t he f irst t o t he l ast), a n i nteresting p henomenon e merges. T able 5 .6 s hows t he d istribution o f c ore f orms u nder t he f ollowing t hree h eadings. G eometric: b iconical, c onical, p yramidal, f lat, d iscoidal, L evallois, a nd h andaxe b lockouts; s emigeometric: p olyhedric , p olyfacetted-bidirectional, a nd f lake c ores; a nd n ongeometric: c asual, a morphous, a nd n odular c ores. W hile t he A vivim a ssemblages f all b ehind m ost p lateauu s ites o nly s lightly i n g eometric c ores, t hey a re m uch p oorer i n s emigeometric o nes. W hen t he t wo l evels a re c ombined, A vivim's r etardation i s h ighly s ignificant. T his i s m irrored i nversely b y t he n ongeometric f orms. S ubsequently a t t he p lateau s ummer s ites, a s w ell a s t he t ransitional s ite o f Y 13, c ores w ere m ore s ystematically w orked t han a t t he A vivim w inter s ites. T hese d ifferences c annot h ave b een d etermined b y t he n ature a nd v ariety o f r aw m aterial. F irstly , a ll f lint w as b rought f rom t he s ame p rovenance, t he n orth-central z one o f t he Y iron P lateau ( see C h. 7 ). S econdly , a ccess t o t his z one w as e asier f rom t he p lateau s ites, p articularly Y 13 a nd Y 18 , t han f rom A 43/63 . T hus, i f a nything , t he p attern s hould h ave b een r eversed , i .e., c ores s hould h ave b een u tilized m ore e fficiently a t A vivim t han o n t he p lateau . T hat t hey w ere n ot, a nd l ack o f e xpertise c annot b e t he r eason, f or a t A vivim g eometric c ores w ere a lmost a s c ommon a s o n t he p lateau . T he c ause m ust t herefore l ie i n h uman p reference, a nd I c ontend t hat t his s temmed f rom t he h arsh w inter c onditions, u nder w hich t he p eople h ad t o e ndure a s b est t hey c ould; a pparently p roducing m ostly t hose t ools t hey a bsolutely n eeded, a nd i n t he q uickest, s implest w ay p ossible.

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1 01

T echnological C omparing t he a ssemblages b y t he t echnological a ttributes i nvolved a l ong a nd l aborious p rocess o f c ompilation, c omputation, a nd t esting. T wo l arge s ummary t ables w ere p repared: o ne f or q ualitative , a nd t he s econd f or q uantitative v ariables a cross c ategories, p roviding t he c ross-category m eans, s tandards o f d eviation, a nd c oefficients o f v ariation o f e very v ariate. A s t he g reat m ajority o f s eeming d ifferences p roved i nsignificant ( alone a ttesting t o a ll a ssemblages h aving b elonged t o t he s ame i ndustrial c omplex), t hose t ables a re o mitted h ere. T he i nterassemblage m ean-ranges a re p resented, b ut o nly s ignificant d ivergences w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail. Q ualitative v ariables T wenty-nine a ttribute s tates a nd s ubstates w ere c ompared. T able 5 .7 s hows t heir c ross-category m ean-ranges. F or t he f ollowing 2 3 v ariables, d ifferences i n r elative f requencies f ailed t o b e e stablished a s n onrandom , t hus t he t echnological p roperties r elated t o t hem m ay b e e valuated a s " equally" s hared b y a ll a ssemblages ( numbers c orrespond w ith t hose i n T able 5 .7): 1 ) A n o verwhelming m ajority o f a rtifacts s lightly r olled.

a re

n ot

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o r

o nly

2 ) M ost a rtifacts c arry n o c ortex l eftovers, o r j ust o ne-quarter o f t heir a rea i s c ortex-adherent. 3 ) O nly a m inority o f f lakes d emonstrate p rotruding c ones, w hereas 4 ) A bout o ne-third h ave d iffused c ones, a nd A bout o ne-quarter h ave h ad t heir c ones r emoved b y r etouch . 6 ) M ost f lakes a re e nd s truck . 7 ) A bout o ne-half o f f lakes a nd s cars d isplay c onvex/concave v entral c urvatures. 8 ) A bout o ne-quarter v ice v ersa , a nd 9 ) M ost o f t he r emainder s how s traight ( "plane") b ulbar f aces. 1 0) U p t o o ne-third o f d orsal s cars ( negatives o f f ormerly r emoved f lakes) o riginate f rom t he s ame s triking p latform a s o f t he f lake o n-hand, a nd 1 2) O ver o ne-quarter t o n early o ne-half o f t hese s cars d emonstrate g eometric o utline. 1 3) A bout o ne-third o f f lake s triking p latform r emnants e xhibit g eometric c ontours. 1 4) M any f lakes h ave h ad t heir p latforms a ltogether r emoved b y r etouch. 1 5) A round o ne-half o f f lakes ( as s een f rom s cars) w ere s truck f rom r idges ( i.e., t he r idge s erved a s s triking " platform"), a nd 1 6) N early o ne-half o f a ll f lake a nd s car p latforms • a re o f i rregular c ontour. 1 7) A bout o ne-third t o o ne-half o f f lakes w ere r esulting f rom f ormerly r emoved f lakes o n c ores.

s truck

f rom

s cars

2 2) M ost c ores b ear n o c ortex , o r o nly o n o ne-quarter o f t heir a rea . 2 4) M ost d ebitage f lakes a nd c ore-scars d emonstrate c ountour, b ut 2 5) O nly a m inority s how s mooth e dges.

1 02

s ymmetric

2 6) D eep b ulb i mprints o ccur o n u p t o o ne-quarter o f s cars, y et F lat i mprints a re m ore c ommon.

2 7)

2 8) S ome t hree-quarters o f d ebitage f lakes a nd c ore-scars t erminate n ormally , w hile 2 9) T he r est s how " abnormal" t ermination ( hinged, p lunged, s tep-vertical, s tep-concave o r i rregular). T here r emain s ix v ariables t hat d emand c loser a ttention. t he f ollowing:

T hese a re

1) P reparation p attern: 2o r m ore p latforms, i .e., d orsal f lakes ( as s een f rom t he s cars o n t he u pper f ace o f t he f lake) w ere r emoved f rom v arious d irections. T he o utstanding v alue h ere i s t hat f or Y 18 ( 49%), b ut n o s ound e xplanation f or t his s pecific c haracteristic o f Y 18 s prings t o m ind. T he o ther p lateau s ites s tand f ar b ehind Y 18 ( about 2 0%), w hereas Y 13 r ests i n b etween ( 34%). 1 7) P latform s tate: 3o r m ore p reparation f acets, i .e., s triking p latforms w ere c arefully p repared. I n t his r espect t he p lateau a ssemblages c learly o verride ( 14% t o 1 9%) b oth A vivim 's ( 8%) a nd t hat o f Y 13 ( 7%), i ndicating t hat o n t he p lateau t he p latform p reparation m ode w as m ore e nacted. 1 9) T wo a nd m ore s triking p latforms o n c ores. H ere a gain t he p lateau s ites t ake a c lear l ead ( 76% t o 8 1%) o ver A 43/63 ( 55%), a nd Y 13 ( 71%). A s m entioned e arlier, t he f ormer c ontain f ar m ore s emigeomtric c ores, p olyhedric i n p articular, t han d oes t he l atter , a nd b y d efinition, s uch c ores m ust b ear 2 o r m ore s triking p latforms. T he s ame i s t rue f or 2 0) T wo a nd m ore f laking e dges o n c ores ( the p ercentage d ivision b etween t he s ite-groupings i s s imilar t o t hat f or p latforms). 2 1) N o u ncore a reas a nd n o c ortex l eftovers, i .e., t he c ore i s w orked a ll a round, s howing s cars ( and o ften a lso s triking p latforms) a ll o ver. O nce m ore t he d ichotomy i s c learcut: t he p lateau s ites 5 % t o 1% v ersus A vivim 2 % . B ut i n t his f acet Y 12 ( 6%) j oins t he p lateau s ites, w hich c ertainly a rgues f or a t ransitional/preparatory n ode, w here p eople t ended t o e xtract a s m any f lakes a s t hey c ould f rom t he c ores t hey h andled b efore t aking t hem a way t o t he h abitation c amps. A s c an b e r eadily a ppreciated f rom T able 5 .7 ( last c olumn), i ntravariable v ariation-ranges a re i n m ost c ases q uite w ide, a nd i n s ome t he a pex r eaches c onsiderable h eights. Y et, i n a f ew , s uch a s 1 ) R olling, 2 ) C ortex, 4 ) D iffused c ones, 5 ) P rimary f orm, 7 ) C onvex a nd c oncave . v entral c urvature, 2 2) C ortex-adherent c ores, a nd 2 4) S ymmetric s car c ontour , t he r anges a re r ather l imited, a nd i n a ll b ut o ne a lso v ery l ow . F urther , i n o nly t wo v ariables ( nos. 3 a nd 2 1) d oes t he s tandard d eviation o vertake t he m ean ( i.e., t he c oefficient > 1 00%), w hile i n s ome t en v ariables t he p eak s hows m oderate v ariation v alues (

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1 2 1 3

g eometric ( scar m orphology) P latform c ontour : g eometric

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2 6

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2 7

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2 8 2 9

T erminal r elease: n ormal a bnormal

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6 2 -7 7

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2- 72

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6 6 -7 6

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2-17

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1 07

o f t he r anges o f v ariation b e a fter a ll a ppraised s tandardized a nd e fficient i ndustry o n t he w hole.

a s

a

r elatively

W hen t he v ariation i s c ompared a ssemblage v ersus a ssemblage ( not s hown h ere), t he c oefficient s hows l ower v alues, o ften m arkedly s o, i n h alf o f t he 2 9 v ariables r elated t o t he s ummer p lateau s ites, w here , t hus, t he s pread a bout t he m ean i s n arrower t han a t t he A vivim w inter s ites, a nd o ften t han a t Y 13 a s w ell. T he c oefficients o f t hese v ariables ( nos. 1 2 t o 2 1, 2 3, 2 5, a nd 2 8-29 i n T able 5 .7) c learly p oint t owards a m ode o f r eduction a nd p roduction m ore s tandardized a nd m ore e fficient a t t he s ummer s ites t han a t t he w inter o nes. M ost o f t he r emaining v ariables d o n ot h int a t a ny d iscernible p attern. T hus o ur a forementioned d ichotomy b y s eason a nd l ocation a ppears t o b e c onfirmed b y t he t echnological q ualitative d ata. Q uantitative v ariables F ifteen v ariables w ere c ompared a cross c ategories b y p recisely t he s ame m anner a s b efore ( Table 5 .8). T heir m ean-ranges a re r emarkably n arrow , p er s e a n i mportant i ndication o f t he c lose p roximity o f a ll a ssemblages i n a rtifact d imensions, i n t urn s ignifying t hat a ll s hared b asic p roduction h abits. T ests f ailed t o a ttach a ny n onrandom s ignificance t o t he s mall d ifferences. Y et w hen t he a ssemblages w ere c ompared i ndividually ( not s hown h ere), a n i nteresting p attern e merged. I n a ll v ariables b ut t hree ( nos. 6 , 7a nd 1 4), t here i s ar ecurrence o f a s light d isparity i n t he m eans b etween t he p lateau a nd A vivim a ssemblages, w ith Y 13 o ften i n-between . T hus, o n t he p lateau f lakes a nd s cars a re s omewhat 1 ) l onger a nd 2 ) b roader; f lakes a re s lightly " ) t hicker, w ith 4 ) t hicker b utts, 5 ) t hicker p latform r emnants, a nd 8 ) t hinner b ulbs; f lakes a nd s cars s how 9 ) n arrower m edial a xis a ngles a nd 1 0-11) p latform i nclination a ngles ( vice v ersa i n f laking a ngles: 1 2-1" 2), a nd f lakes s how 1 5) m ore d orsal s cars. S ome o f t hese v ariables, f or i nstance n os. 9 a nd 1 5, h int t hat t he p lateau s ites e mployed a m ore s tandardized a nd e laborate m ode o f p roduction w hich w ould m atch t he p reviously s uggested l ocational/seasonal d ichotomy . B ut, a lbeit c ollaborative, e ven t hese v ariables c annot b e c onfidently c ounted o n a s p roof b ecause t he d ifferences w ere n ot s ufficiently p roven t o h ave b een n onrandom . • V ariation o f i ntravariable d imensions ( last c olumn i n T able 5 .8) i s o n t he w hole l ow t o v ery l ow , a ttesting t o a c onsiderable o verall c onsistency i n p roduction. T he i ndividual a ssemblage c omparisons ( not s hown h ere) r eveal l ittle m eaningful d ivergence i n v ariation b etween t he p lateau a nd A vivim s ites. O nly i n t he f ollowing t hree v ariables: 1 ) l ength o f f lakes a nd s cars, 2 ) t hickness o f f lakes, a nd 1 4) w eight o f f lakes, i n a ll o f w hich t he v ariation i s g reater a t t he A vivim s ites t han a t t he p lateau's, w as m eaningful d ivergence n oted. T hese a re t he t hree m ost e asily c ontrolled b y t he k napper. O ne m ay p erhaps i nfer t hat a t t he p lateau s ummer s ites t he r eduction p erformance w as s omewhat m ore c onsistent a nd s tandardized t han a t t he A vivim w inter s ites. F inally w e a rrive a t t he e fficiency i ndex, q ualitative a nd q uantitative v ariables , a s f ollows:

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A vivim ( A43/63): Y 27/28: Y 51/53 : Y 13: Y 18 :

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F rom t his g eneral, a ll-inclusive t echnological i ndex i t s eems c lear t hat p roduction o n t he p lateau w as o n t he w hole m ore s tandardized a nd e fficient t han a t t he A vivim s ites ( highest v alue). Y 51/53 h ad t he m ost s pecialized m ode, a s a lready n oted e arlier . F acing t he I ndicators N ow w e m ust c heck t he r esults i ndicators l isted i n C hapter 4 ,

o f t he d ata a nalysis a gainst t he

A n A cheulean i ndustry A ll o f t he t en " Indicators f or h omogeneity" ( Ch. 4 a bove) d efining a s olely A cheulean i ndustry w ere s atisfactorily m et b y t he d ata. T he Y iron P lateau a nd A vivim a ssemblages c ontain b oth f lake a nd c ore t ools, c learly d ominated b y t he f ormer . A ll p lateau a ssemblages i nclude h andaxes, c leavers, a nd b acked k nives. A lthough t he A vivim a ssemblages l ack h andaxes a nd c leavers, i t h as b een a mply d emonstrated t hat t hey a re p art a nd p arcel o f t he p lateau 's A cheulean i ndustry . T he t ool k it i s t ypically A cheulean , c omposed o f 9 -12 t ool f orms: h andaxes, c leavers, c hoppers, p oints, d rills, k nives, n otches, b urins, s ide-scrapers, e nd-scrapers, r ectangular s crapers, a nd c omposite t ools. D rills, k nives a nd c omposites d ominate. P oints r each a n i nterassemblage a verage o f 1 2% o f s mall s haped t ools w hile a ll o ther f orms a re o f m inor p roportions. F orm v ariety o f c ores i s g reat t hroughout ( 10-13), r anging f rom h ighly g eometric t hrough s emigeometric t o n ongeometric f orms, c asuals, p olyfacetted-bidirectional ( = c hopper-cores), a nd p olyhedric c ores p redominate. N o a rtifact c ompositions t ypical o f a ny t echnological c omplex o ther t han t he A cheulean w as o bserved. T hus, t he f irst a spect o f h omogeneity i s f ully s atisfied. R elative i ntra-assemglage h omogeneity T he r esults o f t he a ttribute a nalysis a re c ertainly n ot s o d etermined a nd c learcut f or t he s econd a spect o f h omogeneity , i .e., l ow i ntravariable v ariation. W hereas i n q uantitative v ariables ( Tab. 5 .8) t he l evels o f v ariation a re q uite l ow a nd t he r anges o f v ariation m arkedly n arrow ( i.e., n ear h omogeneity), i n q ualitative v ariables ( Tab. 5 .7) s ome l evels a re l ow , s ome m oderate, a nd s ome h igh, a nd r anges o f v ariations v ary c onsiderably ( i.e., r elative h omogeneity o nly). B ut t his s hould b y n o m eans d eter u s f rom l ooking u pon a ll a ssemblages a s b elonging t o t he s ame f undamental t echnology , a s c onvincingly d emonstrated b y t he l ow l evels a nd n arrow r anges o f m ost o f t he q uantitative v ariables. F urthermore , t he h igher l evels a nd w ider r anges o f m any o f t he q ualitative v ariables h ave b een c arefully e xplained a bove.

I t w ould b e m ost u nreasonable a nd u nwise t o e xpect

10

t hat t he m illenia o f p ostdepositional a dmixture o f t he p roduce o f i ndividuals o f d ifferent s tyles, t astes, a nd s kills c ould i n a ny w ay h ave d isplayed a lmost c omplete i ntravariable h omogeneity . I ndeed, u nder s uch c onditions a h igh d egree o f c onsistency w ithin t his a spect o f h omogeneity w ould b e q uite s uspicious, i f n ot a mazing. T echnological c haracteristics o f t he Y iron i ndustry T he t hird a spect o f h omogeneity h as b een e mphasized i n d iscussing t he s eparate a ssemblages a nd i n c omparing t hem . Ar eview w ould c learly s how t hat t he a ssemblages s hare m any t echnological p roperties, a nd i n a g reat m any a ttribute s tates s ignificant p roximities h ave b een e stablished. I n t his r espect a ll a ssemblages m ay b e t hought o f a s r elatively , o r e ven n early h omogeneous d espite t he d iversities. R ather t han r eiterate t he l ong l ist o f v ariables h ere ( see a bove), I w ill s ummarize, b y w ay o f a b rief c ommentary , t he g eneral t echnological c haracter o f t he Y iron i ndustry . A n o verwhelming m ajority o f a rtifacts f rom a ll a ssemblages r emained i n f airly g ood p hysical c ondition i n s pite o f t he c limatic r igors a nd p ostdepositional d isturbances. T he p art o f ( formal) b lades i n t he Y iron i ndustry i s n ext t o n egligible. M ost o f t hem a re i n f act e longated f lakes r ather t han i ntended b lades. R emoval o f p rimary f lakes f rom c ores w as a pparently m ost c arried o ut a t t he n orth-central z one o f t he p lateau , t he p rovenance o f n atural f lint, a nd a t t he t ransitional s ite o f Y 13 w hich b orders t hat z one: i t i s o nly t here t hat t he p roportion o f p rimary f lakes i s h igh; i n a ll o ther a ssemblages t he g reat m ajority o f f lakes a re c ortex-free o r m inimally c ortex-adherent. M ost f lakes a re e nd-struck. S oft h ammers w ere u sed e xtensively f or a ll s tages o f f laking a nd r etouching, a s s hown i n t he h igh f requencies o f d iffused c ones a nd f lat i mprints; b ut n ot e xclusively: h ammerstones w ere a lso u sed. T he c omplete r emoval o f c ones b y r etouch w as n ot u ncommon, e specially , o f c ourse, i n t he f inal s haping o f s mall t ools. " Normal" c urvature o f t he b ulbar f ace ( i.e., c onvex i n f lakes a nd c oncave i n s cars) i s t he p reponderant s tate , a s i s n ormal t ermination o f f lakes a nd s cars. P reparation p attern ( i.e., d orsal s cars r epresenting f ormerly r emoved f lakes) p oints a t a c onsiderable c onsistency b oth b y t he o rigin o f s cars f rom t he s triking p latform o f t he f lake, a nd b y t heir g eometric c ontour. T his s ame t endency t o g eometrize i s e xpressed b y t he h igh r ate o f g eometric c ontours o f s triking p latforms, a nd b y m ost d ebitage f lakes a nd c ore s cars s howing s ymetrical o utline. Q uite c ommon w as t he h abit o f s triking s uccessive f lakes o ff r idges, e ither o f n atural p lanes o r, i n p articular, o f a rtificial s cars. L ike c ones, s triking p latforms w ere o ften r emoved b y r etouch. T he i ntensity o f c ore e xploitation w as i n g eneral c onsiderably a dvanced, a s e videnced b y s everal d ifferent a spects. F irstly , m ost c ores a re c ortex-free o r m inimally c ortex-covered. S econdly , m ost c ores b ear t wo o r m ore s triking p latforms a nd f laking e dges. T hirdly , t he f requency o f a bsence o f u ncore a reas i s, t hough p erhaps n ot i mpressive, c ertainly n oticeable w hile l ess t han t wo u ncore a reas r each p roportions b etween a lmost o ne-half t o a lmost t hree-quarters. C onsiderable c oherence i n p roduction t erms i s n eatly d emonstrated b y t he c lustering a bout t he m eans o f m ost o f t he c ontinuous v ariables ( Tab. 5 .8). A rriving f inally t o o ur e fficiency i ndex, i t i s

11

u nfortunate t hat s uch a n i ndex, w ith a ll i ts p ossible f laws, h as, t o m y k nowledge, n ever b efore b een f orwarded f or a n A cheulean a ssemblage. I t i s d ifficult t o d ecide w ithout a c omparison t he Y iron A cheulean 's d egree o f s tandardization a nd e fficiency . I w ould b e i nclined t o r egard i t a s m oderate. I n s ummary , t herefore, t he Y iron v ariant o f t he A cheulean, b y i ts c ompositional a nd t echnological c omponents, m ay b e v iewed a s ar egular , " normal" A cheulean c haracterized b y a f air d egree o f c onsistency , s tandardization, a nd e fficiency . P lateau/summer v ersus A vivim/winter C onvinced t hat t he d ata h ave r esponded f avorably e nough t o t he i ndicators o f h omogeneity, w e a re n ow c onfronted w ith t he i ndicators o f v ariability w ithin h omogeneity ( see C h. 4 a bove). C ompositional A s h ypothesized, s haped t ools a re i ndeed f ound s ignificantly m ore i n t he p lateau a ssemblages t han i n t he A vivim o nes, w ith Y 13 ( the t ransitional s ite) t aking a n i ntermediate p ost ( see a bove). H owever, t he d ata c ould n ot d iscern a ny d istinct d ichotomy b etween t he t wo s eparate s ets o f a ssemblages i n c ores o r d ebitage d istributions. T he e xplanations a ttempted e arlier a re c ertainly o pen t o d ebate. Y et d ebitage c hips ( tiny w aste f lakes m ainly r esulting f rom f inal s haping o f t ools) a nd b roken p ieces d o v erify t he p lateau/Avivim d ivision. T heir s ignificantly h igher r elative f requencies i n t he f ormer 's a ssemblages s eem t o m aintain o ur n otion t hat m ore a ttentive, e xtensive, a nd c omprehensive e fforts w ere i nvested i n t he f inal s tages o f t ool s haping t here t han a t t he A vivim s ites. R easons f or t his d ifferent a ttitude h ave a lready b een s uggested a bove. W ith r egard t o f orm v ariety o f s haped t ools, t he d ata f ully s ubstantiate o ur a ssumption, i .e., t he p lateau a ssemblages p resent m ore t ool f orms t han t he A vivim o nes. T he o nly t ool f orms t hat s how s ignificant d iversity b etween t he t wo s ets o f a ssemblages a re d rills ( more o n t he p lateau) a nd k nives ( more a t A vivim); p ossible e xplanations w ere p roposed e arlier. C oncerning c ore f orms, n o r eal d ichotomy b etween t he s ets c ould b e a ssessed. B ut, w hen t he f orms w ere g rouped b y d egree o f g eometric p erfection i t b ecame p erfectly c lear t hat t he A vivim a ssemblages c ontained m ore n ongeometric c ores t han d id t he p lateau 's. T hus, a m ore c asual, o pportunistic, a nd h urried m ode o f p roduction a t t he f ormer c ould b e f urther i nferred. T echnological I t w as e xpected t hat l ess c ortex c over o n s haped t ools w ould b e f ound o n t he p lateau t han i n t he A vivim a ssemblages; t his f ailed t o b e p roven b y t he d ata . T he e xpected d ifferences f or c ones r emoved b y r etouch a nd g eometric p latform r emnants ( more o n t he p lateau) a lso p roved i nsignificant. O n t he o ther h and, c areful p reparation o f s triking p latforms w as, a s e xpected, s hown t o b e s ignificantly m ore e nacted a t t he p lateau t han a t t he A vivim s ites. A lso, c ores w ere e xploited m ore s ystematically a nd e fficiently a t t he f ormer t han a t t he l atter , a s c ertified b y t he r elative f requencies o f s triking p latforms, f laking e dges, a nd u ncore a reas o n c ores. A lthough m edial a xis a ngles

12

a re n arrower a nd d orsal s cars m ore f requent i n t he p lateau v ersus A vivim s ites, t ests s uggested t hat t hey a re o f r andom n ature.

t he

R egarding i ntra-assemblage v ariation , t he d ata a ppear t o s upport t h, a ssumption t hat v ariation r anges a re o n t he w hole n arrower f or t he p lateau t han f or t he A vivim a ssemblages. T his i s m ore c learly b orn o ut b y t he g eneral t echnological e fficiency i ndex. A vivim 's E I v alue i s h igher t han t he p lateau 's, i .e., p roduction a t t he l atter 's s ites w as m ore c onsistent, s tandardized, a nd e fficient t han a t t he f ormer's. A nd, i ndeed, a s a ssumed, e ach c ombination o f a ssemblages a t al ocation d emonstrate m ore c oherence t han t hat b etween t he g roupings ( or, i ntraset > i nterset). I n s um : a lthough t he d ata d o n ot a lways c onform w ith e xpected o bservations, t hose i ndicators c onfirmed b y t he d ata f ar o utweigh t hose f ew v ariables t hat d isplay n onconformity . A bsolute f itness w as n ever p reconceived ( see a bove). A lso, i t m ust b e a ppreciated t hat n o b old c ontradictions a re p osed b y t he u nsupported i nstances: T hey l eave t he i mpression t hat i n c ertain f eatures t he h abitation s ites o n b oth s ides o f N ahal A viv a re p robably m ore a like t han d ifferent. I n m y v iew , t herefore, t hey l ack t he s ufficient p ersuasive p ower t o r eject t he o verall n otion o f a l ocational s eason-functioned d iversity b etween t he p lateau a nd A vivim s ites. S ubsequently , Im aintain t hat o ur m ajor h ypothesis m ay b e c onsidered v alid.

13

6 M ITZPEH Y IRON ( Y25): T HE A GGREGATION L OCALE I mmediately u pon d elineating i ts b oundaries w e r ealized t hat Y 25 w as a n o utstanding o ccurrence - u ndoubtedly t he m ost i ntricate a nd i ntriguing o f a ll A cheulean s ites o n t he Y iron p lateau a nd e nvirons. T he b orders w ere v ery e asy t o t race: t he s pread o f f lint a rtifacts p rovided a n o bvious a nd u nequivocal d iscrimination b etween t he l arge c luster o f a rtifacts a nd n atural f lint p ieces a nd i ts n early b arren c lose s urroundings. W e w ere a stounded b y t he a rea o f t he s ite: n early 1 6,000 s q. m . ( 190x100m), t o t he b est o f o ur k nowledge i ncomparable t he w orld o ver f or a n A cheulean s ite. H ad w e e rred? W hat s ized g roup w ould h ave o ccupied s uch a v ast a rea? W as i t j ust a r ich r andom s catter? H ad t his a ccumulation o f a rtifacts r esulted f rom a w ashdown f rom e lsewhere? W e s imply c ould n ot b elieve o ur e yes. T he b oundaries w ere c hecked a nd r echecked, a nd f ound t o b e s ecure. W äshdown, d erivation a nd a ny o ther s uch n atural a gency w ere d ismissed u nanimously i n a s pecial f ield c onsultation. W e s pread o ut t o c omb t he s ite , s timulated b y t he k nowledge t hat s omething e xtraordinary s tood b efore u s. N o s ooner h ad w e p arted t han a c ry c ame f rom t he n ortheast c orner o f t he s ite. K evin P ape h ad p ointed o ut t o u s, r unning s outhwards a long t he e astern b oundary i n a s lightly s igzagging l ine, a s eries o f n ine l arge b asalt-stone c oncentrations ( Fig. 6 .1), t he o nly o nes t o b e d etected t hroughout t he w hole s ite. ( We t entatively l abelled t he c oncentrations " the b asaltic s tone f ormations.") N one o f u s d ared v oice t he e xcitement o f t hat s pecial h our, b ut i t w as o bvious t o e ach o f u s t hat t he s urvey w ould b e h eld u p f or a t horough i nvestigation o f Y 25, d own t o t he r ecording o f t he f inest d etail ( Ohel a nd B ruder 1 980; O hel 1 980 , 1 982b, c , 1 983b, d , 1 986b). T he L ocal S etting Y 25 b orders t he e astern e dge o f t he b asalt " table" a t a n e levation o f a bout 6 70 m a .s.l. ( Fig. 5 .1). I t l ies i n t he r ear o f a s hallow " saddle," c lose t o t he e astern e dge o f t he w eathering b asalt e xposure, t hereafter f ollowed b y am oderate l imestone s lope t owards N ahal D ishon ( Fig. 6 .2). T he s ite i s p erfectly e nclosed b y ar im o n t hree s ides: w est, n orth, a nd s outh. T he d ifference i n a ltitude b etween t he t op o f t he r im a nd t he l owest p art o f t he s ite - o n i ts c enter-eastern b oundary - d oes n ot e xceed 1 t o 1 .5m. T his i s s ufficient, n onetheless, t o p revent a nyone s tanding i n t he c enter f rom s eeing t he r est o f t he p lateau. H owever, a s s oon a s o ne a pproaches t he r im i n a ny d irection t he e ntire s urroundings a re r evealed: t he p lateau a nd b eyond t o t he w est, t he s lopes t oward N ahal A viv a nd b eyond t o t he n orth , a nd t he s lopes r unning d own t o N ahal Y iron a nd b eyond t o t he s outh ( Pl. 6 .1). N o o bstacles w hatsoever b lock t he v iew t o t he e ast i n t he d irection o f N ahal D ishon. B ecause o f t his p ivotal t opographic l ocation , Y 25 w as n amed M itzpeh Y iron ( Yiron's L ookout i n H ebrew). T he l ocal l andscape c onsists o f g rassland, a lmost e ntirely d evoid o f w ooded t errain, a nd p resumably h as b een s o f or t he l ast 2 00 ,000 y ears ( Brosh a nd O hel 1 981 a nd C h. 3 a bove). A bout 3 50m f rom Y 25 t o t he s outhwest i s t he p rolific E in Y iron S pring ( Fig . 5 .1). T opographically Y 25 m ust h ave b een a n i deal l ocus f or A cheulean h unter-gatherers.

14

1 00 m 10 0 M

^

T RANSECT

O F RANDOM TAT P ITS _

2 g E !cc? * L c 2_ rA "

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I

0

1 0

2 0

T RANSEC S AMPL I

F OR RANDOM 2 50m

F ig. 6 .1 M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25): s ampling a nd s tone f ormations. U pper-case l etters: l ocation o f f ormations; l ower-case l etters: c oncentrations b etween f ormatio ns; d ark s quares: s elected t est p its; n umbers o n t ransect: r andom p its d ug.

1 ' 5

Modified

•

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i n 0 N › +

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O +2 S 1 0 Z > 1

N

c n

• H 0 c e I 0 0 ' t z o 4 1 P P ( 1 ) X )

C 1 3 0

• •

c zg q 0

e o • - 0 1 a ) N

• D 0 • r i

r ,

Pl. 6 .1

Mitzpeh Yiron (Y25) from a general north direction.

Cluster of four stones ( 0 hearth"?) at formation C from Pl. 6.2 we to Scales are of 10 em intervals o

According to our observations of the cross-sections of test pits excavated opposite the centeral area of the site (Figs. 6.3 - 6.5), the depression had a somewhat steeper eastward dip during Acheulean times. Thus Y25 was even more sheltered then from view and sweeping winds (see Ch. 4 above, and Ohel 1983b). This suggestion was confirmed by a sedimentological analysis carried out by Arlene Rosen (a geoarchaeologist from the University of Chicago, currently at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem). In the more southern of the two pits dug down to the basalt bedrock by mechanical backhoe, Rosen detected a lower clayey unit, missing from the more northern pit, underlying the two homogeneous colluvial units shared by both pits. The clayey layer is interpreted as a seasonally water-logged feature, and to quote Rosen's statement (personal report 1982: 2): "The underlying bedrock, and the evidence for seasonally standing water indicate that the area of this pit was previously a deeper depression than at present."

-

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w

2

2

.

-

190 0

•

s

w

1

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Cross-sections of pits 53-55 (see Fig. 6.1). BS: Fig. 6.3 basalt stones; BR: basalt rocks. Figures represent "layers."

118

F urthermore, R osen's i nvestigation h as h elped i n r esolving a p reviously o nly p artially u nderstood p uzzle. A s n oted e arlier , w e h ave a ttempted a n e xplanation t hrough p edoturbation p rocesses ( Bruder 1 979, 1 982, 1 985; a nd s ee W ood a nd J ohnson 1 979 f or e xcellent i llustrations) f or t he f act t hat c omparatively n umerous l arge f lint a rtifacts w ere f ound o n t he s urface, r ather t han i mmediately u nder t he s urface w here s mall a nd t iny p ieces w ere m ost a bundant. I n t he l owermost s pits o f o ur t est p its o pposite t he c entral p art o f Y 25 ( Fig. 6 .1) h owever, w e w ere s uddenly c onfronted w ith m any a rtifacts, i ncluding l arge o nes. A ccording t o R osen's e xamination ( p. 2 ), o wing t o t he d eeper , o nce w ater-logged d epression i n h er s outhern p it o pposite t he c enter o f Y 25, " Unit 3 ( the l ower c layey l ayer) m ay c orrespond s tratigraphically t o h igher l evels i n t he a rea o f t he s ite s urrounding t he t est p it. T his w ould e xplain t he f act t hat t he e xcavator f ound h eaviest f lint d ensities i n t he u pper l evels o f s ome o f t he a rchaeological t est p its a t Y 25 w hile t his t est p it h ad h eaviest f lint d ensities 5 5 c m b elow t he s urface ( Ohel 1 983b: T able 1 )."

2 30 CM

1 00 C I T 1

a 1

1 4 2

4 5

5 0 5 3

5 5

6 0

3

3 B R

B R

1 00

Fig.

6 .4

Cross-sections

o f p it

Fig.

6 .1).

Letters and figures a s

11 9

1 8 with 1 9 and half o f 2 0 in Fig.

6 .3.

( see

S ubsequently i t c an b e f airly c onfidently s tated t hat a ) a n a ggradational p rocess h as b een g oing o n i n t he c entral p art o f Y 25 s ince A cheulean t imes, a nd b ) t he a ssemblages e ncountered a bove t he s urface a ll o ver t he s ite c orrespond t hrough s tratigraphic c orrelation t o t hose u nder t he s urface i n t he m ore c entral a rea o f Y 25, i .e., n o c ultural d ichotomy c an b e e stablished b etween a ssemblages a bove a nd b elow t he s urface ( both t hese p ossibilities w ere h inted a t i n O hel 1 983b). M oreover, R osen 's r eport r einforces t he c ontention t hat n atural f lint w as n ot t ransported n aturally t o Y 25 ( nor a pparently t o a ny o ther s ite o n t he p lateau e xcept Y 13 : s ee C h. 7 b elow) b ut i ntroduced b y m an. I n h er w ords: " There i s av ery h igh p ercentage o f f lint i n t his l evel ( unit 3 ) w hich c annot b e e xplained a s t ransported b y n atural p rocesses s ince t he p ercentage o f b asalt p ebbles i n t his u nit d oes n ot r ise p roportionally t o t he f lint a s w ould b e t he c ase i f b oth w ere t ransported a s c olluvium"(p. 2 ). W orth e mphasis i s t he s tablished f act t hat n o m echanical p lowing h as e ver b een d one t hroughout t he e astern e nd o f t he b asaltic p art o f t he p lateau, w hich i ncludes Y 25. A rab v illagers m ay i n t he p ast h ave p lowed s ome s ections u sing t heir t raditional n ail-plow , w hich r eaches

2 20

1 00C M

C I 1 1

c m

a

1

1 5

1

20

2

2 B S

C 0

7 5

S

c m

1 2 5

40

2 5

2 B R

7 5

F ig. 6 .5 C ross-sections o f p it 8 9 w ith 9 0 a nd p art o f 9 1 s ee F ig . 6 .1). L etters a nd f igures a s i n F ig . 6 .3.

1 20

ar egular d epth o f o nly 1 0-15 a m . B ut t his d oes n ot d ismiss d isturbance b y a nimal a nd h uman t rampling c ausing v ertical d isplacement o f a rtifacts ( e.g., S tockton 1 973; Y ellen 1 977; G ifford a nd B ehrensmeyer 1 977; B aker 1 978; V illa 1 982; C ourtin a nd V illa 1 982). V ertical m ovement h as a lso b een c aused b y p edoturbative p rocesses ( e.g., C ahen a nd M oeyersons 1 977; Y aalon a nd K almar 1 978; W ood a nd J ohnson 1 979; B utzer 1 982; S tein 1 983), a n umber o f w hich c onnected d irectly t o t he Y iron P lateau w ere i nvestigated b y B ruder ( 1979, 1 982, 1 985: s ee a bove). T hese l atter e xperimental s tudies s uggested t hat d espite a ll t he c onceivable v ertical d isplacement, n o h orizontal m ovement o f e ither n atural f lint p ieces o r a rtifacts h as t aken p lace o n t he Y iron P lateau t o a ny s ignificant e xtent. T hus, a r elative i n s itu c ondition f or t he Y 25 c lusters c an b e c laimed. F inally , f ollowing t he p articularized s tudy o f Y 25, f ormerly p ublished n otions c oncerning i ts g eneral c onfiguration m ust n ow b e r eappraised. Y 25 c an n o l onger b e r egarded a s as ingle s ite, b ut a s a c omplex o f s patialy d istinct o ccurrences l ikely t o h ave b een o ccupied s imultaneously a nd i n t emporal s uccession, a s w ill b e a rgued l ater. H ence Y 25 i s h ereafter r eferred t o b y t he t erm " locale" o r " locality ." S ampling P rocedures R ecognizing t he c omplicated s tructure o f t he Y 25 l ocale, n ot l ess t han s ix s ampling o perations w ere e nacted ( see F ig. 6 .1), a s f ollows: 1 ) T he B ig X f or t he l ocality a s aw hole: 8 6 s quares o ne m eter o n a s ide o ut o f at otal o f 4 30 s quares w ere r andomly s ampled ( 20% o f t he t ransects a nd 0 .5% o f t he l ocale's a rea). S ample s ize: 6 32; o verall d ensity : 7 .4 a rtifacts p er s q. m . T he h ighest d ensity o ccurred b etween s quares 5 1 a nd 18, i .e., o n t he N W-SE t ransect j ust a bove t he i ntersection. 2 ) N ine t est c rosses w ithin t he b asaltic s tone f ormations. s ize: 9 22; d ensity: 9 .1 a rt./sq. m . 3 ) S ix t est c rosses b etween f ormations. 1 4.7 a rt./sq. m .. 4 ) F our i ntuitively s elected t est p its,

S ample

S ample s ize: 8 96; d ensity:

1x 1 m , e xcavated

b y

5

c m

s pits: D 1 ( eastern s quare) d ug t o ad epth o f 4 0 c m; s urface d ensity: 1 9 a rt./sq. m .; s ubsurface: 5 52 a rt./cu . m . D , ( western s quare) d ug t o 2 5 c m ( 1/2m s ides, c alibrated t o l m f or t he s ake o f s tandardization); s urface: 1 6 a rt./sq. m .; s ubsurface: 5 60 a rt./cu . m . D -E d ug .to 4 0 c m; s urface: 1 0 a rt./sq. m .; s ubsurface: 2 65 a rt./cu . m . E -F d ug t o 3 5 c m ; s urface: 1 8 a rt./sq. m .; s ubsurface: 3 03 a rt./cu . m . 5 ) T ransect o f r andomly c hosen t est p its: 2 0 p its, 1 x l m ( 201 o f t ransect), d ug i n as uccession o f 5c m s pits d own t o e ither t he l ayer o f w eathering b asalt, a t w hich a rtifacts a bruptly c eased t o a ppear , o r ad epth w here w ork b y h and c ould n ot b e c ontinued ( deepest p its r eached 6 0 c m). S urface s ample s ize: 2 77; d ensity : 1 3.9 a rt./sq. m . S ubsurface s ample s ize: 8 912; d ensity : 1 061 a rt./cu . m . D ensest z one o n t ransect i s b etween p its 4 4 a nd 6 4 ( each o ver 1 000 a rt./cu . m .). F or e xact c ounts b y p its a nd s pits, s ee O hel 1 983b: T able 1 . A s i llustrated t here i n F igure 2 , h ighest d ensities w ere r ecorded b etween 0a nd 2 0 c m d eep i n t he S W a nd N E e nds o f t he t ransect w hereas i n i ts c enter t he 2 0 t o 4 0 c m r ange w as a lso h ighly p rolific. A round p its 5 2

1 21

t o 6 9 w ell.

a

g reat

m any a rtifacts w ere f ound i n t he s till l ower s pits a s

6 ) E mployment o f am echanical b ackhoe f or r eaching d own t o t he b asalt b edrock ( unable t o p enetrate d eeper) a t p its 5 3 t o 5 5, 1 8 a nd 8 9 ( the e xtremely h igh c ost p revented f urther u tilization o f t he m achine). T he e arth f rom t he f irst t hree p its w as r emoved i n f ive " layers" o ne m eter w ide: I - 6 0 t o 8 0 c m; s ample s ize: 4 50; d ensity : 7 40 a rt./cu. m . I I -8 0 t o 1 00 c m; s ample s ize: 1 70; d ensity : 2 80 a rt./cu. m . I II 1 00 t o 1 25 c m ( weathered b asalt); s ample s ize: 5 7; d ensity : 8 0 a rt./cu . i n . I V - 1 25 t o 1 60 c m ( weathered b asalt): n il. V - 1 60 t o 1 90 c m ( basalt r ocks): n il. ( For f ull d etails, s ee O hel 1 983b). T his d ig e stablished b eyond d oubt t hat a rtifacts p ractically d isappeared o nce w eathering b asalt w as e ncountered. T he s ame w as t rue f or p its 1 8 a nd 8 9 ( weathered b asalt m et a t 7 5 t o 10 c m a nd 8 0 t o 1 30 c m d eep, r espectively). I t i s t oo r isky , e ven o n t he b asis o f a ll t he a bove, t o a ttempt t o d raw p recise i sometric c urves f or Y 25. N evertheless, a r ough i dea m ay b e g ained a s s hown i n F igure 6 .6. W hile i t i s h ard t o e ntirely r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat p art o f t he a rtifacts w ere d erived t o a l imited e xtent, p articularly i f t he l ocalized i nfilling o f t he c entral a rea o f Y 25 s ince A cheulean t imes i s a ccepted ( somewhat c ontra o ur d ecisiveness o n t he d ay o f d iscovery ; a nd s ee O hel 1 983b), F igure 6 .6 i ndicates t hat d erivation c annot s ufficiently a ccount f or t he c onfiguration o f t he d ensity z ones. T he p resent s hallow d epression i s a t a bout m id-locality a round f ormation C , r unning i n a n a pproximately s traight W -E d irection . E ven i f t he d epression w as c onsiderably d eeper a nd s omewhat b ending n orthwestwardly i n a ncient t imes ( see a bove), t he h igh d ensities a t t he n orthern a nd s outhern e nds c an h ardly h ave r esulted f rom d erivative a gencies. W hatever t he p art o f t he l atter, i t w as c ertainly m inor , i f a t a ll. S o t he g eneral d istribution o f d ensities m ust b e a ttributed t o m an. T he S tone F ormations: G eneral T he s ummer/winter l ocational d ichotomy a nd t he g roups' m ovement p attern w ere d iscussed ' s ufficiently i n t he f oregoing c hapters. A cceptance o f t he m odel a s o utlined l eads d irectly t o t he c onclusion t hat Y 25, b eing a p lateau-summit l ocale, c ould n ot h ave b een o ccupied d uring t he w inters. C onsequently i t i s h ere p ostulated t hat t he b asaltic s tone f ormations r epresent t he r emnants o f s upports f or l ight s helters ( shades? w indbreaks? h uts? l ean-tos? o r t he l ike) c onstructed f or p rotection a gainst s un a nd w ind. S uch p rimitive d omiciles h ave b een w idely r eported f rom n umerous r ecent h unter-gatherer g roups i n r elatively o pen a reas ( e.g., C oon 1 971; B icchieri 1 972; S pencer , J ennings e t a l. 1 977 ; H ayden 1 979; G ould 1 980, a nd m any o thers). R arely d o s uch l oose s upport-stones h ave a c hance t o b e p reserved i n t heir p recise o riginal- p laces. T o d eclare t hem a s v alid A cheulean r emnants, a c ouple o f o ther p ossibilities f irst h ad t o b e r uled o ut. V eteran m embers o f K ibbutz Y iron w ho s ettled i n t he n ear v icinity i n 1 949, g ave p ersistent t estimony t hat n o m anner o f h uts o r c onstructions e xisted o n t he e astern e dge o f t he p lateau-basalt w hen t hey a rrived. A lso, n o m assive s tone c learance h as e ver t aken p lace i n t he a rea o f Y 25. T he A rab f ellahs o f t he f ormer v illage o f S aliha c ultivated m ainly t he s urrounding m oderate l imestone s lopes c overed w ith t hick

1 22

F ig. 6 .6 D ensity z ones a t Y 25: f rom l east ( outer) m ost ( inner). D esignations o f s tone f ormations a nd c oncentrations b etween t hem, a s i n F ig. 6 .1.

t o

f ertile t erra r ossa , a s c learly e videnced b y t he n umerous a rtificial t erraces a nd t he e ndless h eaps a nd w aves o f s tones r esulting f rom f ield c learance. T here a re a lso m any s tone r uins ( sometimes s tanding t o t heir o riginal h eight) o f o n-season f ield r ooms, s torage s tructures, e tc. N ot o ne o f t hese i s i n a ny w ay r eminiscent o f t he f ormations a t Y 25, s imilarly , t he t wo b elieved C halcolithic " temples" j ust a bove Y 33 ( see F ig. 5 .1). H ad A rab s hepherds a ssembled t he b asaltic s tones t o u se t hem f or a c offee b reak , a t l east o ne s herd o f t heir c eramic o r o ther v essels a nd i mplements w ould h ave b een l eft b ehind t o b e s potted b y u s; a nd t he i dea t hat t hey a ccumulated c onsiderable-sized s tones i n n ine s eparate s pots a long o ne l ine i s a bsurd. M oreover, n o t race o f a ny p ost-Acheulean i ndustrial c omplex c ould b e d iscerned a mong t he t ens o f t housands o f a rtifacts, w hich i ncluded h andaxes, o bserved a t Y 25 a nd t he t housands c ollected a nd a nalyzed. T he i ndustry i s s olely A cheulean. M any o f t he b asalt s tones c ontained i n t he f ormations a re s lab-like, r esting o n t he g round o r p artly i mbedded i n i t. D rs. M . I nbar a nd M . K lein, g eomorphologists f rom t he U niversity o f H aifa w ho e xamined t he f ormations, a greed u pon i nitial o bservations t hat t he s tones i ncorporated i n t he f ormations a re c learly n ot i n t heir n atural p ositions. H ad t hey s imply b ecome d etatched f rom o riginal b asaltic r egular " pillars," t hey w ould s urely h ave r etained t heir c haracteristic h exagonal s hape a nd r emained s tanding , a s i s t he c ase i n t he b roken s tep j ust e ast o f Y 25's b oundary . I n f act, m ost o f t he l arger s tones o f t he f ormations a re r esting o n a n e dge o r o n a f lat s urface ( see T able 6 .3), w hich c learly s uggests t hat t hey h ave b een h andled b y m an. M oreover, t here i s n o s tone s o l arge o r h eavy t hat o ne m ale , o r a t t he m ost t wo, c ould n ot h ave r olled o r m oved a round. A ssociated a rtifact c oncentrations I f t he s tone f ormations r epresent m ajor a ctivity l oci a t Y 25, o ne w ould e xpect t o f ind a c onsiderably h igher d ensity o f m aterial w ithin a nd/or a round t hem t han o ver t he l ocality a s a w hole. T able 6 .1 d emonstrates t hat w ithin ' six f ormations t he d ensities d o i ndeed s urpass t hat o f t he l ocality a s aw hole, t hough i n o nly o ne o r p erhaps t wo c ases ( B a nd D ) i s t he d ifference s triking. I n f ormations G a nd H t he a rtifact d ensity i s b elow t he o verall f igure f or t he l ocality ( 7.4 a rt./sq. m .), w hile i n Jo nly a m inute n umber o f a rtifacts w as p resent ( J . l ies i n f ront o f t he o pening i n t he f ence l eading t o t he e astern s lope: t he p ath o f c attle t o a nd f rom t he p lateau t raverses f ormation J ). T he a verage o f d ensities w ithin t he f ormations r eaches 8 .8 a rt./sq. m . Ao ne-tailed t -test a t 0 .02 c onfidence l evel f ailed t o s uggest s ignificant d ifference i n d ensity w ithin t he f ormations v ersus t he l ocality a s aw hole. T able 6 .1 a lso s hows t he d ensities o f a djacent c oncentrations w hich o ccur b etween t he f ormations ( see F ig. 6 .1). A part f rom c oncentration b , w here t he d ensity o f a rtifacts i s l ess t han t hat w ithin t he c orresponding f ormation B ; a nd g , w here t he d ensity i s o nly a l ittle g reater t han t hat f or G a nd H , t he d ifferences a re q uite i mpressive. I t w as h ypothesized t herefore t hat m ore i ntensive a ctivity c onnected w ith a rtifacts t ook p lace a djacent t o t he f ormations t han w ithin t hem - a ssuming, o f c ourse, t hat t he m aterial i s m ore o r l ess i n i ts p rimary p osition. I f i t h ad b een s ubstantially m oved, t hen t he

1 2 1 4

f ormations' s tones t hemselves c ould h ave p revented a rtifacts f rom e ntering t he s tructures, c reating o bvious l arge c oncentrations e ither a long t he b asaltic s tone " barriers" o r a nywhere e lse b etween t he f ormations a nd b eyond t heir l ine i n t he d irection o f t he s urrounding r im o f t he l ocality . N o s uch c oncentrations w ere f ound. T wo t -tests w ere e mployed. T he f irst c ompared t he m ean o f d ensities b etween t he f ormations ( 15.2) v ersus t he m ean d ensity o f t he l ocality a s aw hole ( 7.) 4). T he o utcome s uggested t hat t he c oncentrations

T able 6 .1

D ensities o f a rtifacts w ithin a nd b etween s tone f ormations

O verall d ensity o f s ite 7 .39 a rtifacts p er s q. m . ( average o f 8 6 r andomly c hosen s quares r epresenting 2 0% o f t he 4 30 B ig X s quares o f 1x 1m )

W ithin f ormations

B etween

D ensity

p er s q. m .

f ormations

p er s q .m .

A

8 .93

a

1 6 .73

B

1 3 .87

b

1.09

C

9 .67

D

1 0 .23

d

1 9 .86

E

9 .55

e

2 0 .10

F

8 .29

f

1 5 .90

G

6 .30

g

7 .58

H

3 .44

J

A verage

D ensity

N egligible

8 .79

1 5 .2 1

1 25

b etween f ormations w ere i ndeed s ignificantly h igher t han t he l ocale's o verall d ensity ( at . 025 c onfidence l evel). T he s econd r elated t o d ensities b etween v ersus w ithin f ormations, r esulting a gain i n t he p robability ( at . 10 c onfidence l evel) t hat t he c oncentrations b etween w ere s ignificantly d enser t han w ithin. G reat d ifferences i n r elative f requencies o f s ome o f t he p rimary a rtifact c ategories w ere n oticed. T he f requency o f s haped t ools i n t he c oncentrations b etween w as d ouble t hat w ithin t he f ormations ( 20.5 v s 1 0.0%). C ores w ere a lmost f our t imes a s f requent i n t he f ormer a s i n t he l atter . B y c ontrast, d ebitage w as f ar m ore a bundant w ithin t han b etween t he f ormations ( 70.8 v s. 4 8 .8%), i ncluding c onsiderable q uantities o f b roken p ieces. Ac hi-square t est f or a ll f ive p rimary c ategories w as a ttempted w ith a s trict s ignificance l evel o f . 001. T he o utcome g reatly e xceeded t he g iven v alue ( chi-square = 1 21.613 > 9 .234 a t 4d egrees o f f reedom). S ubsequently , t he p roportions m entioned a bove w ere a pparently n onrandom i n n ature, f easibly r epresenting h uman p references. T he o ccupants o f t he s tructures r epresented b y t he f ormations a pparently p referred t o s tore c ores a nd d iscard u sed t ools o utside t he s tructures, b ut t o k nap i nside. S uch h abits a re q uite r easonable a s c amping a t Y 25 m ust h ave o ccurred o utside t he r ainy , c old s eason. O ur o wn e xperience i n t he f ield s oon t aught u s t hat i n s pite o f t he r efreshing J une b reeze, t he s un i s q uite h arsh, e specially e arly i n t he a fternoon, e ven t hough t he n ights a re r egularly c ool. A cquiring s ome s hades a nd l ight s helters ( open b each t ents a nd l arge u mbrellas) f or t he t eam d uring e xcavation a nd s orting p rovided g reat r elief . A s f or t he d ebitage w ithin t he f ormations, i t c annot b e a rgued t hat t his w as b rought t here b y n atural a gents b ecause o f t he s mall p ieces i nvolved. M any o f t he s haped t ools a nd m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts a re a s s mall a s m any d ebitage i tems, a nd t hese w ere m ostly f ound b etween t he f ormations. T he f ormations i n d etail T he e xpression " in d etail" i s s omewhat e xaggerated. I n f act I w ill p rovide h ere o nly a c oncise s ummary, f or f uller d etails, t he r eader i s i nvited t o r efer t o O he1 .1 982b. T he m ain d ata a re c oncentrated i n T ables 6 .2 a nd 6 ., a nd t he f ormations a re i llustrated i n F igures 6 .7-6.15. T o a void m isunderstanding i t s hould b e n oted t hat i n a ll f ormations s ome s mall b asalt f ragments a re p resent. I n m ost c ases t hey w ere n either m easured n or e ntered i nto t he f igures. O nly i n am inority o f c ases, s uch a s G o r H , w here t heir a mount a nd c onfiguration w ere n otable, t heir o verall s pread w as m arked w ithout m easuring. F eature t erms s uch a s " hearth" o r " wall" i n s ome o f t he p lates ( Pls. 6 .2-6 .8) s hould n ot b e r egarded a s m ore t han t entative s uggestions. I t w ill b e n oted t hat t he o utline o f m ost f ormations i s a pproximately c ircular o r r ectangular . A lso, s ome o f t he s tones i n D , i ncorporated i n w hat w e c alled " the w all," h ave s quare s urfaces. O ur p reoccupation w ith " the w all" c aused a n umber o f s maller s tones i n D a part f rom " the w all" t o e scape o ur s crutiny. A lso i n D , v arious s mall s tones a nd f ragments b etween t he t hree " wall s ides" w ere n ot r ecorded. G a nd H i n p articular c ontain m any b asalt f ragments b oth i nside a nd o n t he f ringes. T he t wo p yramidal s tones , o ne e ach i n F a nd G s tood u pright, t heir b ases b uried i n t he g round.

1 26

0•

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1 27

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S ummary o f p ositions o f s tones

C ' c l

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T he r eader w ill d oubtlessly p erceive m any f eatures o f p otential s ignificance. T he s ummary o f t he d ata i n T ables 6 .2 a nd 6 .3 c ertainly r eveals c onsiderable v ariability , b ut s ome p henomena s eem i mportant, n otably t he o ccurrence o f an umber o f c ommon f eatures, a s f ollows. 1 . M ost o f t he f ormations c over a pproximately s imilar a reas. 2 . L ength a nd b readth o f s tones a dmittedly v ary l argely , b ut t he c oefficients o f v ariation a re a ctually n ot w idely s eparated ( they w ere i ntentionally r estricted t o o ne d ecimal p oint s o t hat t his o bservation

C 2

99

l o

'. n ; ? 1

8 C?

4

0 1 3

7C :7

4 11 03

6

5

Fig. 6 .7 S tone f ormation A . S cale in this and all f ollowing f igures • i s approximately 1 :100.

1 29

c an b e b etter a ppreciated). I f t he s tones w ere i ndeed h andled b y m an, t hen t he r eason f or t he b asic s imilarity m ight b e e ither l imitations o f h uman s trength o r d eliberate c hoice o f s ize.

3 . T he e ntries o f h eight a bove s urface m ay , i t i s h oped, b e o f s ome a id i n f uture s tudies o f m icroflow p atterns, i nundations, e rosion, e tc. T he s ame m ay p erhaps a pply t o t he p ositional d ata a s w ell. 4 . T he m ost i lluminating o utcome a ppears t o b e t hat o f p osture. A n egligible p roportion o f t he s tones w ere f ound s tanding ( 3.7%) w hile t he g reat m ajority l ay f lat. I f t he a forementioned s uggestion b y t he g eomorphologists i mplied n on-natural a gencies, t hen t he d ata c ertainly s upport i t.

1

2

8

o

6

0 3

7

5

F ig .

6 .8

S tone f ormation B .

1 30

E vidence f rom o ther s ites A re t hese s tones r eally s o i mportant, a nd w orth s uch a d etailed s tudy? F or s tudents o f t he e arlier P alaeolothic t he a nswer • i s s imply y es. L ower P alaeolithic s ites, o pen-air s ites i n p articular , e xhibiting d efinite e vidence o f s tructures a re v ery f ew . T here i s t he w el-known s tone c ircle a t t he D K s ite a t O lduvai, a nd t he t wo c ircular a rtifact c oncentrations a t F C W est a s w ell a s t he b arren a rea o n t he " Zinjanthropus" l iving f loor a t F LK N orth ( Leakey 1 971; O hel 1 977b). T he C havaillons r eported b riefly ( Chavaillon , J . 1 967; C havaillon, N . 1 972) o n i n s itu l iving f loors w ith f eatures s uggestive o f s urface m odification , s tone a lignments, a nd s ome k ind o f e arth p latforms a t M elka K ontoure, E thiopia . O ne o f t he f our a lternative s peculations a dvanced b y I saac ( 1977) o n t he l arge q uantities o f u nmodified c obbles a nd b locks i ntroduced t o s ites a t O lorgesailie ( Kenya), i n p articular a t D E/89 B , w as t hat t hey h ad b een u sed a s f ootings f or w indbreaks. T he s ame i nterpretation w as o ffered f or a s emicircle o f s tones o n o ne o f t he f loors a t K alambo F alls o n t he Z ambian-Tanzanian b order ( Clark 1 970; H owell a nd C lark 1 963).

A

1 1 0 2

1 9

1 4Q o 15 6

7

Fig.

6 .9

c lustered

g e5

S tone f ormation C . in a s emicircle

( Z24

N ote

s tones

( see also Pl.

1 31

1 3,

6 .2).

1 2,

1 6 and

1 7

A t I simila, T anzania, r ubble c oncentrations w ere f ound o n o ccupation a reas i ntimately a ssociated w ith h uman a ctivities. A s s uggested b y t he e xcavators ( Kleindienst 1 961; H owell 1 961; H owell, C ole a nd K leindienst 1 962), e specially w ith r egard t o s ites l ike K 6 , t he A cheuleans h ad d eliberately a ssembled t he s tones t o f orm t he r ubble c oncentrations. S ince w aste m aterial r esulting f rom a rtifact m anufacture c ould n ot b e a ccounted f or a t K 6 a nd s ome o ther c ases b y w orkshop a ctivity , t hese

«. 1. 1 1 1. 1 1/• •

g C ) 0 1 3

1 0ü

1 5t 0 14 0 ö p 1 9 11 1 00

0

9 0 0 8 g 0 7 1 4 2 6

° ' DO 1

a

6

3

«MI MI»

F ig . 6 .10 S tone f ormation D . N ote t he w alll ike l ayout o f t he s tones ( see a lso P l. 6 .3).

1 32

r ubble a ggregates m ust h ave s erved o ther , a s y et u nclear p urposes. C lark ( 1970) m entions b riefly t hat s tony r ubble m ight h ave b een u sed a s f oundations f or h ome b ases i n an umber o f A frican s ites w here g round c onditions w ere s wampy . T his s uggestion, h owever, w as p ut m erely a s o ne o f s everal; o thers w ere, f or i nstance, s upports f or w indbreaks, o r c ollected a mmunition f or u se a gainst s cavengers.

A

0 e g o

s zi2 4 C I

03 04

F ig. 6 .11 S tone f ormation E ( see Pl. h andaxe f ound i n this f ormation).

1 33

6 .5

f or

A t t he s ite o f O rangia 1 i n t he M iddle O range R iver , S outh A frica , a c onsiderable n umber o f i nteresting s tone a rrangements w ere r evealed o n as ealed f loor ( Sampson 1 968, 1 974: 1 66 a nd f ig. 5 8). T hese w ere " composed o f l arge b locks a nd c obbles p artly e nclosing d ense a rtifact s catters, s ome o f w hich w ere c ore h eaps a nd b undles o f u tilized f lakes." T his d escription i s q uite s uited t o t he s ituation a t M itzpeh Y iron, t hough t he f ormer, b elonging i n w hat i s t raditionally r eferred

o 92

50 06

Fig. 6 .12 S tone f ormation F . N ote s tones 2 , 5 and 6 in a c lustered s emicircle ( see also Pl. 6 .6).

1 31 4

1 ,

t o a s t he " Middle S tone A ge" o f S outhern A frica , m ay p erhaps b e a l ittle l ater t han t he A cheulean o f t he Y iron P lateau ; i t i s l ikewise l ater t han t he A cheulean i n i ts o wn r egion ( Sampson 1 974: 1 75). S ampson's s uggestion i s t hat t he s tones w ere a rranged t o a nchor t horn-bush w indbreaks f or d aytime u se w hen w inds g ust d own t he r avine f rom t he n orth . T he d egree o f c redibility e njoyed b y t he v ery c lear O rangia s tone f ormations c annot y et, h owever, b e c laimed f or t hose o f M itzpeh Y iron.

• •

•

•

1 249 43 1 3 • 0

c 2 1

010

•

o

O0 •

2

0 0

c i ) 4 e>

1 4

9

6 .13

d

••

( 24

0

Fig.

3 c z t

S tone f ormation G ( see also Pl.

1 35

6 .7).

T he t races o f s helters a t T erra A mata, F rance, h ave b een e xtensively r eported a nd i llustrated ( de L umley 1 967; L amberg-Karlovsky 1 972; P feiffer 1 972; a nd e lsewhere), s o i t i s u nnecessary t o r epeat t hem h ere. I f a ll d e L umley 's i nterpretations o f t he r ecord c an b e a ccepted, t hen T erra A mata c an b e r egarded a s t he m ost c omplex L ower P alaeolithic o pen-air s ite y et k nown, s o f ar a s s tructural f eatures a re c oncerned. W idely k nown, t oo , a re t he l inear a rrangements o f l arge e lephant b ones a t T orralba a nd A mbrona i n S pain , a pparently p laced t hat w ay b y t he A cheulean h unters ( Howell 1 966, 1 971; F reeman a nd B utzer 1 966; B ordes 1 968; F agan 1 977; a nd e lsewhere). P addayya ( 1977) r eports

0 01 1

1 2

1 0d e

•

0

' MA NY ) ' S CA TT ER E L Y S TON ES ,' 'N

8

ó

2

a ,

le

3

5

Fig.

6 .14

S tone

2 -8 c lustered

f ormation H .

i n a s emicircle

6 .8).

1 36

N ote

s tones

( see a lso P l.

o n a " dozen g ranite b oulders .. b etween " C ) a nd 8 0 c m .. t hat w ere i ntentionally a rranged b y m an t o s erve a n e nclosure f or t he l iving a rea" a t t he A cheulean s ite o f _i n sgi i n I ndia. T urning n ow t o t he M iddle E ast, w e h ave s o f ar o nly t wo o ccurrences c laiming t o c ontain p ossible c onstruction r emnants. O ne i s t he " pavement" a t U beidiya, I srael ( Bar-Yosef 1 970, 1 975a, b ). T he s econd i s a n A cheulean o ccupation s urface a t L atamme, S yria ( Clark 1 967, 1 968 , 1 970), w here a c onsiderable n umber o f l imestone b locks w ere f ound

A

1

2

1 2 1 0°

t e6 1 3 8

07

99

F ig. 6 .15 S tone f ormation J . s tones 3 -5 and 6 -8.

1 3 7

N ote g roups o f

P l.

6 .3

W al

a t f ormation D f rom n ortheast.

P l. 6 .4 S outhern " wall c orner" s tones i n l ine u nder s urface.

t est p it a t f ormation D .

N ote

P l.

6 .6

6 .5

H andaxe a nd f lakes a t f ormation E .

C luster o f f our s tones

h "

)a t f ormation F .

P l. 6 .7

P l. 6 .8

F ormation G f rom w est.

C luster o f s even s tones a t f ormation H .

a ssembled i n l ines a nd g roups a ssociated w ith r ubble a nd a rtifacts. T hese l arge s tones a ppear t o h ave b een i ntroduced t o t he s ite a nd u sed b y t he i nhabitants. C lark ( 1968) f ound s ome i nteresting s imilarities b etween t he c onfiguration o f t he s ite's d ebris a nd t hat o f a bandoned B edouin t ent c amps i n t he s ame r egion. M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25) e merges n ow a s t he t hird p robable c ase, a nd p erhaps t he m ost i mpressive e xample i n t his p art o f t he w orld. C omposition o f A ssemblages F or r easons a lready c onsidered m ore t han o nce e arlier, t here s eems t o b e n o j usitification f or t he t echnological a nalysis t o s eparate t he s urface a nd s ubsurface d ata f rom Y 25 i n t he s pecific c ases w here b oth a re c oncerned ( see s ampling o perations 4 t o 6a bove). I n t urn, t hese c ases m ay g enerally b e r ightfully c ompared w ith t he s olely o nsurface s amples ( operations 1 t o 3 ). A s b efore, f or t he s ake o f s pace-saving , I w ill j ump d irectly t o t he r esults a nd t heir s ynthesis ( more d etails c an b e f ound i n O hel 1 986b). P rimary c ategories T he d istribution o f a rtifacts b y p rimary c ategories w as d iscussed i n p art i n r elation t o t he s tone f ormations e arlier. H owever, o nly o nsurface m aterial w as c onsidered t here, h ere t he a nalysis i ncludes t he s ubsurface m aterial a s w ell. N evertheless, t he r esults h ave e ssentially n ot c hanged. T he s amples f rom b etween t he f ormations a nd t he s elected p its ( also b etween t he f ormations) w ere s ignificantly r icher i n s haped t ools a nd c ores t han t he s amples f rom w ithin t he f ormations, t he t ransect's p its, a nd t he l ocality i n g eneral. D ebitage, h owever, w as m ore n umerous w ithin t he f ormations. T his o utcome l ends f urther s upport t o t he p revious a ssumption t hat t he a reas w here f laking, r etouching a nd r esharpening a ctivities t ook p lace w ere u nder s ome k ind o f c over o r s hade ( within t he f ormations: h igher p roportions o f d ebitage). U tilized a nd r eplaced t ools w ere t hrown o ut, o r e ven p iled o utside ( between t he f ormations: h igher p roportions o f s haped t ools). C ores, l arger o nes i n p articular , w ere a ssumedly a lso s tored ' outside t he f ormations ( i.e., b etween: h igher p roportions o f c ores). S haped t ools . The p art o f t he l arge t ools ( Figs. 6 .16-6.17) i s g enerally q uite p oor . Y et, a m arked d iversity i s d isplayed b etween t he s urface s amples a nd t hat o f t he t ransect's p its. I n t he l atter t he p roportion o f l arger t ools i s v ery l ow , c learly c oncurring w ith B ruder's s uggestion ( see a bove) t hat w hile s mall i tems t ended t o b ecome b uried, l arger o nes s ucceeded i n r emaining o n t he s urface o r w ere p ushed u p o nto i t. T he l eading t ype a mong s mall t ools ( Figs. 6 .18-6.19) a t Y 25, l ike i n a ll o ther s ites, i s t he d rill, w hich i n e very s ample c omprises a bout o ne h alf o f a ll s haped t ools. N otches, w hich h ardly f igure a t t he o ther s ites, r each a c omparatively h igh f requency a t Y 25. F or s ome t ool f orms a s ignificant d issimilarity b etween t he d ifferent s amples o ccurs. T he s pecial s tructure o f t he Y 25 l ocale i s a p ossible g uide t o u nderstanding t hose d epartures.

1 41

T he z one o f t he p its' t ransect ( see F ig. 6 .1), o r e ven t he e ntire w estern p art o f t he l ocality, w as t he l ocational p eriphery , i .e., t he b ackyard o f t he o ccupation u nits ( the f ormations a nd a reas b etween). U tilized, r eplaced, u nsuccessful, a nd e xhausted t ools w ere d iscarded o nto t his w estern m argin. I t m ight a lso h ave s erved f or p lay a nd/or p ractice f or c hildren a nd/or a dults. H andaxes a nd s ome o ther s imilarly "e xpensive" t ools, a s w ell a s c omposite t ools, w ere r arely b rought i nto t his o uter a rea. T hey w ere p robably k ept w ithin t he r esidential z one ( the e astern p art o f t he l ocale), w here m anufacturing, m aintenance, a nd o ther a ctivities t ook p lace.

F ig. 6 .16 H andaxes f rom Y 25: 1 , 4 , 5 f rom B ig X ; 2 , f rom w ithin s tone f ormation G ; 3 , f rom t ransect, p it 4 1, 0 -5 c m.

1 42

4

8

5

6

9

7

1 0

f ig. 6 .17 L arge-cutting a nd h eavy-duty t ools f rom Y 25: 1 , 2 , c hopper a nd k nife f rom s elected p it A l; 3 , p oint f rom b etween s tone f ormation D -E; 4 -7, d rills: f irst t hree f rom t ransect p its, f ourth f rom s tone f ormation C ; 8 , r ectangular s craper f rom t ransect; 9 -10, c omposites: f irst f rom t ransect, s econd f rom B ig X .

1 43

F urther , t he r ichest a ccumulation o f a rtifacts - s haped t ools i ncluded - i n t he t ransect o f p its w as f ound b etween p its 4 4 a nd 8 9, i .e., t he a rea t hat l ies c loser t o t he f ormations ( = t he r esidential z one). A round p its 55 t he d epression i s b elieved t o h ave b een s omewhat d eeper t han i t i s t oday , a nd f easibly w ater-logged a t t imes. T hus s ome d erivation o f s pecimens t o t hat a rea c annot b e i gnored. B oth n atural a gents a nd h uman b ehavior a pparently c ooperated t o m ake t his z one r icher i n a rtifacts t han a ny o ther i n t he l ocality.

E- Z I U- 1 3 1F-1

A ) .

6bd DA “ö r g

F ig . 6 .18 S mall s haped t ools f rom Y 25: d rills ( top h alf) a nd p oints ( bottom h alf) f rom a ll s amples. D rills a ligned w ith s triking p latform a t b ottom, p oints w ith t ip u p. N ote t he s mall a nd t iny d rills a nd p oints.

1 4 1 1

Ag reat m any s mall t ools, p oints i n p articular, a re v ery s mall, e ven t iny ( see F ig. 6 .18). A t s ome o ther A cheulean o r e arlier s ites w ith s mall t ools, t he r eason f or t heir s ize h as u sually b een a ccredited t o t hat o f t he r aw m aterial ( e.g., M errick 1 976; F ranssen a nd W outers 1 982; V an E s a nd F ranssen 1 982; K retzoi a nd V ertes 1 965; V ertes 1 965). F rom t he t ransect p its w e i ndeed l earn t hat Y 25's r aw m aterial w as q uite c haracteristically , t hough c ertainly n ot e xclusively , s mall.

28

33 3 2

30

29

0

n

111 1 11-

1 1111

34

35

-15

C

Fig.

6 .1 9

Small

shaped

t ools

from Y 25:

1 -8,

knives; 9 -15, n otches; 1 6-21, r ectangular s crapers; 2 2-24, s ide s crapers; 2 5-28, burins; 2 9-36,

c omposites.

1 45

N umerous a rtifacts, b oth o n a nd u nder t he s urface, a re n ot s o s mall. M oreover, l arger p ieces o f f lint a bound a t v arious s pots o n t he p lateau i n t he n ear v icinity o f Y 25, a nd t he n orth-central m ild s lope ( about t en m inutes w alk f rom Y 25) b ristles w ith n atural f lint p ebbles, c obbles a nd b oulders ( see C h. 7 b elow). T hus t he s ize o f t he a rtifacts d erives i n p art a t t he v ery l east, n ot f rom a ny l ack o f l arger r aw m aterial b ut f rom a p reference o f t he k nappers t o p roduce s mall a nd t iny t ools. N o l ess t han 4 1% o f t he 5 19 p oints f rom t he t ransect's p its h ave b een i ntentionally b lunted. E ven i n t he m any c ases w here t he b lunt e nd i s a ctually t he s triking p latform r emnant, l ending t he s hape o f a p unctiform ( pointform) p latform, t hey w ere n ot s o o riginally . T he o riginal p latform w as f laked, r etouched, o r t rimmed o n b oth s ides t o a chieve t he b luntness o f t he e nd b y t aking a dvantage o f t he p latform p lane a nd d eliberately n arrowing a nd t hinning i t t o t he s eeming p unctiform . L astly , i t i s i mpossible t o o verlook t he o ccurrence o f s ome f orms o f t ools a t v ery c ertain p its, s ometimes e ven s pits ( 5 c m t hick ) t hat a re h ighly s imilar m orphologicaly ( Fig. 6 .20). T hese b espeak n ot o nly r elative i n s itu c onditions, b ut p robably a lso s ome s pecific ( individual) s tyles a nd/or a v ery s pecific f unction i ntended f or s uch t ools. U tilized p ieces T hese c onstitute a v ery l ow p roportion i n a ll s amples ( average 0 .5% o f t he t otal o f a rtifacts). A mong t hem a re e ight p ossible h ammerstones, a ll o f w hich c ome f rom w ithin o r b etween t he f ormations a nd f rom p its o pposite a nd c losest t o t he f ormations. A n umber o f b urnt f lint p ieces e mbedded i n s ome b urnt e arth f ragments c ame f rom p it D ( inside f ormation D ) a t ad epth o f 1 5-20 c m ( hearth r emnants?) A lso, t hree s mall p articles o f o chre, i dentical i n h ue, w ere d iscovered i n p it 4 6 o f t he t ransect w ithin t he 3 5-40 c m s pit. ( Thanks a re d ue t o E . W reshner , H aifa U niversity , f or i dentification). C ores ( Fig .

6 .21-6.23)

T he p roportion o f g eometric c ores a t Y 25 i s e xtreme ly l ow ( 5.4%) i n s trong c ontrast w ith t he s ituation i n a ll t he o ther a ssemblages f rom t he p lateau a nd A vivim. T hey a re f ound h ere a nd t here i n s mall n umbers, f lats a nd d iscoids m ore t han o thers. Y et t his v ery p resence, a lbeit f eeble, t estifies t hat t he i nhabitants h ad t he c omparatively h igh s kill r equired t o r educe t hem . T he r eason f or t heir s carcity c ould n ot t herefore h ave b een t he l ack o f k now h ow . T he m ajority ( 52.6%) a re s emigeometric - m ostly p olyhedric , f ollowed b y p olyfacetted-bidirectional a nd f lake c ores. N ongeometric f orms c omprise 4 2.0%, s omewhat e xceeding t he o ther p lateau s ites, b ut n ot t he A vivim o nes ( 72.9%). T he g eneral p icture t hat e merges i s, t hat c ores w ere u tilized m ainly i n r elatively s imple, s peedy , a nd d irect m odes o f p roduction. O ne c annot i gnore a c ertain d egree o f s tandardization, y et i t a pears t hat b oth c onception a nd p ractice f ocused m ore u pon g etting q uick r esults, n amely , b lanks f or p reforms a nd t ools, t han o n v ery c areful, t oo s ystemized o r s pecialized c ore e xploitation. N ot t hat t he p eople w ere i gnorant, f or t hey o bviously k new h ow t o w ork h ighly g eometric c ores; r ather, i t w as n ot i n t heir i nterest t o d o s o. T his

1 46

a ttitude i s b orne o ut b y t he e xcessive p roportion o f s emi- a nd n ongeometric f orms ( 94.6% i n r egular , a nd 9 5 .5% i n e xhausted c ores). D ebitage T he t ransect's p its a re s ignificantly p oorer i n d ebitage f lakes t han a ny o ther s ample; t he r everse i n s hatters. W hereas t he l atter m ight b e m ostly t he p roduct o f n atural a gencies, t he f ormer m ust h ave h ad

F ig. 6 .20 S everal e xamples o f t echnomorpholog ically s imilar t ools f rom Y 25. T op r ow: d rills f rom f ormation 1 3 , s econd r ow, l eft: r ectangular s crapers f rom b etween-formations A l, a ll o ther d rills a nd p oints, f rom s ame s pits o f v arious p its o f t he t ransect.

1 47

a nother c ause. N ote t hat t he t ransect i s s tretched o utside t he p resumed z one o f c entral i ndustrial a ctivity ( Figs. 6 .1 a nd 6 .6). T his f act m ay e xplain t he r arity o f d ebitage f lakes a long t he t ransect w hile a t t he s ame t ime r eassess t he m ore c entral z ones o f t he l ocality a s t he m ain f ocus o f m anufacture. T he a bundance o f c hips w ithin t he f ormations a gain s upports t he n otion t hat t ool s haping a nd m aintenance w ere c onducted m ainly u nder t he l ight s helters, w hatever t heir f orm .

2

1

3

4

0 C

Fig. 6 .21 Large c ores f rom Y 25: 2 , p olyfacetted b idirectional; 3 , f lake-core.

1 48

1 , p olyhedric; c asual; 4 ,

M ajor T echnological C haracteristics T he h andaxes,

c leavers,

c hoppers a nd o ther l arge t ools d o n ot d iffer

f rom t heir c ounterparts a s f ound i n t he o ther a ssemblages. A s ample o f 8 86 s mall s haped t ools f rom a ll s amples ( total 1 922) w ere a nalyzed. O ver h alf o f t hese a re s harp o r i n m int c ondition w hile

1 3

1 4

1 5

F ig. 6 .22 R egular, c ommon-size c ores f rom Y 25: 1 , p yramidal; 2 -3, d iscoid; 4 -6, p olyh edric; 7 -9, p olyfacetted b idirectional; 1 0-12, c asual; 1 3-15, n odular; 1 6-17, f lakec ores.

1 49

l ess t han a t enth s how h eavy r olling s igns. C ortex a dherence i s n ear t o m inimal: w ell o ver o ne h alf a re d evoid o f c ortex. C ones a re a ltogether a bsent o n 4 1% o f t ools, h aving b een r emoved b y r etouch . A lmost a t hird o f f ormer d orsal s cars a re o f g eometric c ontours, a s a re o ver a q uarter o f p latform r emnants. Ag reat m any ( 38%) h ave r emoved p latforms. I ntended, c areful p reparation o f s triking p latforms, a s w ell a s L evallois t echnique, d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een o f m uch i mportance. I n t he a bove a nd i n a lmost a ll o ther q ualitative a ttributes, t he Y 25's a ssemblages a nd t hose f rom t he o ther s ites s hare t he s ame p roperties, s o t here i s n o n eed t o r eiterate t hem h ere ( see O hel 1 986b

5 3

2

7

6

4

8

9

5

0

2

1 5

Fig. 2 -3, nal;

1 3

1 4

1 6

1 7

1 8

6 .23 Exhausted c ores f rom Y 25: 1 , f lat; p olyhedric; 4 -5, p olyfacetted b idirectio6 -11, c asual; 1 2-13, n odular; 1 4-1 8, f lake-

c ores.

1 50

f or f ar b elow .

m ore d etails).

T he q uantitative v ariables w ill b e m entioned

A bout 6 2% o f t he 3 67 r egular c ores a re s harp a nd j ust l ess t han 2 % c arry h eavy r olling m arks ( Evidently t he d etermination i s b ased u pon t he e dges o f t he f lake s cars. T hus a c ore m ay b e " rolled," y et c onsidered n onrolled i f f rom t he m oment i t h ad b een u sed u ntil c ollected t he s car e dges r emained s harp). F lakes w ere m ostly ,removed f rom e ither t wo o r > 3 s triking p latforms. M ore t han a t hird s how j ust as ingle f laking e dge, a bout t he s ame a mount, > 2 f laking e dges, a nd t he r emainder t wo. N early h alf o f r egular c ores a re e xhausted, a nd a bove 4 1% a re c onsiderably e xploited. A ll-around w orked c ores a re e xtremely r are. O ne h alf o f t he c ores s how n o o r j ust o ne u ncore a rea ( noncortical u nutilized p lanes) w hile t he o ther h alf h ave t wo o r m ore s uch a reas. M ean v olume o f r egular c ores i s 1 22 c u .cm . a nd m ean w eight 1 43 g r. At otal o f 1 462 s cars w as c ounted o n t he c ores, a n a verage o f f our s cars p er c ore. G eometric c ores n aturally p rovide t he h ighest r ate o f s cars p er c ore , y et a t Y 25 s uch c ores f orm a s mall m inority, t hus t he g reat m ajority o f s cars c ome f rom s emi- a nd n ongeometric c ores. O nly a bout 6 % o f s cars d emonstrate h ighly s ymetrical c ontours. V ery r are a lso a re g eometric p latform c ountours. M ost c haracteristics o f t he r egular c ores a re r epeated i n e xhausted c ores. T he l atters' m ean v olume i s 3 2 c u.cm . a nd m ean w eight 3 4 g r. F inally , 1 7% o f a ll c ores - r egular a nd e xhausted - s how d ouble p atination o f s cars, i .e., t hey w ere a parently s cavenged. S igns o f l ater u se o f a rtifacts w ere o bserved o n a bout 7 % o f s haped t ools a nd m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts. T he l arger p roportion o f c ores t han t ools s cavenged i s t o b e e xpected w herever t he p henomenon i s e ncountered. As ystematic s ample o f 2 5% ( n =2 55) o f d ebitage f lakes w as d rawn f or a nalysis. S igns o f h eavy r olling a re s een o n o nly a bout 2 %, w hile 7 6% a re i n s harp c ondition. J ust t hree s pecimens c an f ormally b e c aled " blades." L evallois f lakes c onstitute 3 % o nly . O ver o ne h alf o f t he s triking p latform r emnants a re o f i rregular c ountour. I ntensive p reparation o f p latform r anges l ow ( 4%), a nd n early o ne h alf o f d orsal s cars d isplay s emisymmetric o utline. I n a ll r emaining a ttributes, Y 25 d oes n ot d eviate f rom t he o ther s ites t o a ny m eaningful e xtent. S ynthesis o f R esults 1 . M inimal h orizontal d isplacement o f a rtifacts. T he s harp o r m int c ondition o f m ost a rtifacts, t he m orphological s imilarity o f m any s haped t ools l imited t o c ertain p its ( sometimes s pits), t he g reat n umber o f m atching t echnological a ttributes, a nd t he r esults o f e xperimental s tudies o f a rtifact m ovement o n t he p lateau, a ll p oint i n o ne d irection: r elative h otizontal i n s itu p reservation. 2 . M ajor a ctivity z one w ithin a nd b etween t he f ormations. T his i s s uggested b y t he s ignificantly d ifferent d ensity r atios o f a rtifacts, a nd b y t heir d ifferential d istribution b y p rimary c ategories. T hus, t he a reas w ithin t he f ormations m ay b e c onceived o f a s t he l oci o f

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k napping a nd m aintenance, p robably a lso h abitation, t he a reas b etween t he f ormations a s t he l oci o f d iscard a s w ell a s c ore s torage, a nd t he w ide a rea t o t he w est o f t he f ormations a s a l arge " backyard" p eripheral t o t he m ajor a ctivity z one.

3 . A s ingle i ndustry . T he e ver-ongoing v ertical m ovements o f a rtifacts c oupled w ith t he c onclusions o f t he s edimentological a nd p alaeogeomorphological i nvestigations r ule o ut a ny o ption f or a d ivision i nto p ossible t emporal c ulture p hases, h ad t hese e xisted a t a ll. T his i s o f c ourse a n egative d ictate. H owever, o n t he b asis o f t he c omposition o f t he a rtifact a ssemblages, a nd o f t he t echnological a ttribute a nalysis, i t m ay c onfidently b e e stablished t hat t he i ndustry i s o ne a nd t he s ame t hroughout: p urely A cheulean . 4 . N ature a nd t ransportation o f r aw m aterial. B oth m y s uggestions a nd R osen's c onclusions ( see a bove) a rgue f or t he g reat l ikelihood t hat f lint w as i ntroduced t o Y 25 b y m an. Ap lethora o f n atural f lint p ieces o f a ll s izes c an b e f ound o n t he l ower p arts o f t he n orthern-central s lope o f t he p lateau , c lose t o t he Y 25 l ocale ( se C h. 7 b elow). R aw m aterial w as b rought i nto Y 25 m ostly , t hough c ertainly n ot e xclusively , i n t he f orm o f s mall p ieces a nd f ragments. T his i s b orne o ut b y t he d imensions o f c ores, i n p articular t he s o-classified " exhausted" c ores, w hich a pparently s atisfied t he n eeds o f t he k nappers, a s as ubstantial p roportion o f t he t ools t hey p roduced w ere s mall a s w ell. T he m ost c ommon m ode o f b lank r emoval w as r ather u tilitarian , r egularly e xploiting s emi- a nd n ongeometric f orms. N onetheless, g eometric c ores w ere a lso u tilized t o s ome e xtent. E laborate c ore r eduction m ust h ave b een f amiliar t o Y 25's k nappers, y et i t s eems t hat t hey c hose n ot t o e ngage t hemselves t oo o ften i n s uch a r eduction f ashion. 5 . H igh-grade w orkmanship o f e nd-products. B oth c ategories o f s haped t ools a nd m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts d emonstrate a s killful p erformance o f t ool m anufacture. O f s pecial i nterest a re t he g reat m any s mall, e ven t iny t ools - p oints i n p articular , w hich a re o ften t ip-blunted p urposely .

6 . I ntensity o f c ore u tilization. W hilst i t i s t rue t hat t he g reat m ajority o f c ores a re e ither e xhausted o r c onsiderably u sed, w hich s peaks f or a h igh r ate o f c ore e xploitation , o nly a f ew c ores a re w orked a ll a round. A bout o ne h alf o f t he r egular c ores a nd o ver 4 0% o f t he e xhausted c ores r etain c ortex o n a bout h alf o f t heir a rea. A lso, o ne h alf o f t he c ores, i n b oth s ubcategories, s how a t l east t wo u ncore a reas, t his s ignifying s ome k ind o f w astefulness o n b ehalf o f t he k nappers. H ow c an t hese t wo s eemingly o pposite b ehaviors b e r econciled? H ad t his c ontradiction b een e xpressed b y f ormally e xhausted c ores a lone, w e w ould b e a ble t o a ttribute i t t o t he n atural s mallness o f t he c ores. B ut t he p henomenon i s a parent o n r egular c ores a s w ell. O n t he o ther h and o ne c ould a rgue t hat t he a bundance o f s uitable r aw m aterial ( and s cavenging i n a ddition) s hould e xplain a c ertain d egree o f a c asual a ttitude, r esulting i n r elative w astefulness. H ow, t hen, a re h alf o f t he r egular c ores e xhausted a nd a nother 4 1% c onsiderably u sed? T he s ole e xplanation I a m a ble t o p rovide f or t his c ontradiction l ies i n t he s pecific n ature a nd r ole o f t he Y 25 l ocale, t o w hich I w ill a rrive s hortly .

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Y 25 V ersus t he O ther S ites Y 25 p ossesses t hree o utstanding p roperties u nmatched b y a ny o ther s ite i n t he Y iron-Avivim c omplex. F irstly , Y 25 c overs a n a rea o ver 1 5 ,000m 2 d ivided i nto d istinct a ctivity z ones. S econdly , Y 25 c ontains n ine s tone f ormations r epresenting h abitation a nd p roduction l oci. A nd t hirdly , Y 25 e njoys a n e xcellent p ivotal t opographic p osition, c lose t o a w ater r esource a nd a r ich n atural f lint p rovenance. T hese s pecial s tructural, c onfigurational, a nd l ocational p roperties o f Y 25 c annot b ut h int a t s ome v ery s pecific r ole-and-status w ithin t he s ettlement f ramework o f t he A cheulean Y iron p lateau . W hat s eems t o b e l eft n ow i s t o c ompare t he a rtifact a ssemblages o f Y 25 t o t hose o f t he o ther s ites a nd s ee w hether o r n ot t he s pecificity o f Y 25 c an b e s upported b y t he d ata. P rimary c ategories. Y 25 i s b y f ar p oorer i n c ores t han o ther a ssemblage, b ut r icher i n d ebitage ( Table 5 .2). S econdary c ategories. Y 25 i s a gain m uch p oorer i n l arge t ools b ut r icher i n s mall o nes ( Table 5 .3 : l eft). I t f alls b ehind t he o ther s ites i n d ebitage f lakes b ut e xceeds t hem i n c hips ( Table 5 .3 : r ight). T here a re l ess s mall e xhausted c ores a t Y 25, y et i f t he e xhausted r egular c ores a re t aken i nto a ccount, t hen Y 25 l eads o nce m ore. C ore f orms. Y 25 l ags f ar b ehind a ll o ther s ites i n g eometric b ut d ominates i n s emigeometric f orms ( Table 5 .6).

c ores

S mall s haped-tool f orms. Y 25 s ignificantly o verruns a ny o ther s ite i n p oints, l ess i n d rills, y et f alls b ehind i n k nives a nd s crapers ( Table 5 .4). T echnological v ariables: q ualitative. Y 25 d oes n ot d iffer s ignificantly f rom a ll o ther s ites, e xcept i n t he f ollowing v ariables: m ore r emoved c ones b y r etouch; l ess p repared s triking p latforms; a nd l ess w orked a ll-around c ores. V ariation i s q uite h igher a t Y 25 i n a ll t he t hree v ariables. T echnological v ariables: q uantitative . F or t hree o f t he v ariables o nly d o t he v alues o f Y 25 d iffer f rom a ny o ther s ite. F lakes a nd c ore s cars a re s horter a nd n arrower, a n f lakes w eigh f ar l ess. V ariation , h owever, i s m uch g reater f or a ll 1 5 v ariables a t Y 25. . Efficiency i ndex. Y 25 s hows a n e xceptionally h igh v alue o f t he E I ( 43 .5) c ompared t o t he o thers ( cf . C h. 5 a bove). O n t he f ace o f t hings t his s hould m ean a l ow l evel o f e fficiency . H owever, e valuation o f t he s pecific r ole a nd f unction o f Y 25 ( see b elow) n ot o nly e xplains t his v alue b ut a lso j ustifies i t. W hat I s Y 25? T he s uggestion I a m a bout t o o ffer h ere m ost f its t he d ata t o t he b est o f m y j udgement. Iw ill f irst p ose t he q uestions r aised b y t he d ata, s ome o f w hich a re i ndeed p erplexi rm, t hen a ttempt a n i ntegrated i nterpretation.

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T he q uestions 1 .

I s

Y 25

i ndeed

a n

A cheulean

o ccurrence?

C an i ts h uge s ize

( unheard o f f or A cheulean s ites) a nd i ts i ndustrial p eculiarities, s uch a s t he a bundance o f p oints a nd s o-clasified d rills, v ery m any o f w hich a re s mall a nd t iny , b e r econciled w ith a " typical" A cheulean a ssemblage? 2 . W hy i s Y 25 s uch a v ast s ite a nd w hat d o t he n ine s tone f ormations w ithin i ts b oundaries m ean? I s i t p ossible t hat t hese w ere i nhabited a t t he s ame t ime a s a ll t he n eighboring s ites?

3 . W hy a re t here s o m any p oints, d rills a nd n otches, m ore t han a t a ny o ther s ite? W hy a re s mall o r t iny p oints s o n umerous a t Y 25 a nd n owhere e lse? W hy a re a g reat n umber o f t hem t ip-blunted? H ow w ere t hey u sed a nd w hat f or? 4 . W hy a re t here l ess r egular c ores b ut m ore e xhausted c ores, s mall s haped t ools, d ebitage, a nd w aste m aterial a t Y 25 a s a gainst t he o ther s ites? W hy a re t here m ore c ones r emoved b ut l ess p reparation o f s triking p latforms? W hy i s v ariation, p articularly i n t he q uantitative t echnological v ariables, s o m uch h igher a t Y 25 c ompared t o t he o thers? 5 . W hy a re t here s o f ew g eometric c ores? W hy a re s uch f orms a s, f or e xample, p olyhedric , c asual, a nd f lake-cores s o c omon a t Y 25? W hy a re c ompletely w orked-around c ores s o r are? W as t he f ashion o f c ore e xploitation a t Y 25 i ntensive a nd e fficient o r r ather n ot s o e laborate a nd w asteful, a nd w hy? W hat i s t he m eaning o f t he s eemingly o pportunistic m ode o f c ore r eduction? W hy d id t he k nappers a t Y 25, w ho w ere s o i nterested i n ar apid, u tilitarian, s traightforward M anner o f b lank a nd p reform p roduction, n onetheless t ake p ains ' o c arefully s hape t he e nd p roduct, t he f inished t ool?

6 . C an a ny e xplanation b e p roposed f or t he o bservation t hat m any v alues c oncerning t echnological a ttributes f all c loser t o t he A vivim s ites o r t o Y 13 t han t o t he o ther s ites? P eculiar, n onetheless A cheulean T he a ssemblage o f Y 25 n egates a ny c haracteristics o f ap re-Acheulean c omplex . T he t ypicality o f a n A cheulean t ool k it i s c learly i ndicated i n t he f irst p lace b y t he f orceful p resence o f h andaxes a nd b acked k nives, a s w ell a s b y av ariety o f o ther t ool f orms ( Bordes 1 961, 1 968 , 1 97 6 /7 7 , 1 979). B y t he s ame t oken i t a lso c annot f igure a s a p ost-Acheulean i ndustry . T he n ear a bsence o f d eliberate b lades a nd m ost t ool t ypes t ypical o f a n U pper P alaeolithic a ssemblage r ules o ut s uch a p ossibility ( let a lone t hat n o M ousterian o r U pper P alaeolithic o ccurrence h as b een s potted t o d ate i n t he r egion: s ee C h. 7 b elow). F urthermore, t he Y 25 a ssemblage i s o ut o f l ine w ith t he w idely a ccepted n otion o f t he L evantine M ousterian: " The M ousterian h as b een w ell d efined i n t he L evant b y i ts c onsistent u se o f t he L evallois t echnique, d ominance o f e ither r acloirs o r p oints o r b oth..." ( Bar-Yosef 1 980:112, e mphasis a dded). T he L evallois t echnique i s n egligible a t Y 25, r acloirs ( side s crapers) a re e xtremely r are, a nd L evallois-Mousterian p oints ( which I s uppose a re w hat B ar-Yosef m eans b y " points") n onexistent. M ost A cheulean a ssemblages, w herever t hey

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o ccur, i nclude p oints; a nd t hose f ound a t Y 25 w ere m anufactured b y t he v ery s ame p eople w ho p roduced t he o ther t ools. Iw ould a lso s trongly h esitate t o r elegate t he Y 25 a ssemblage e ven t o o ne o f t he c omplexes i mmediately f ollowing t he L ate A cheulean i n t he L evant, r ecently u nified b y A . J elinek u nder t he t erm " Mugharan T radition" ( Bar-Yosef 1 982: 3 1). A ccording t o O rquera 's ( 1984) c ombined i ndices, Y 25 c ertainly c annot q ualify a s U pper P alaeolithic; a lso n ot a s M iddle P alaeolothic e ven i f o nly t he t echnological a spect i s c onsidered. T hus, b oth p ositive a nd n egative c riteria i dentify t he a ssemblage o f Y 25 a s i ndeed A cheulean, a s a re a ll o ther a ssemblages s urrounding Y 25. E nvironmental f eatures ( Brosh a nd O hel 1 981; a nd a bove) a nd t he n ature o f t he i ndustry m orphologically , a nd t echnologically - s uggest a A cheulean , c irca 2 00,000 - 1 00 ,000 y ears a go.

t ypologically , c ontext o f L ate

H afted p oints f or s mall-game h unt S mall a nd t iny a rtifacts, a lthough n ot t oo c ommon i n m any L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic a ssemblages, a re n o l onger a n u nacknowledged c uriosity ( see r eferences i n t he S haped T ools s ection a bove). M oreover, i n s everal a ssemblages m uch e arlier t han M esolithic a nd U pper P alaeolithic o nes, m icrolithic t ools w ere f ound i n a bundance. O ne s uch c ase i s r eported b y J ia, G ai, a nd Y ou ( 1972, c ited i n Y i a nd C lark 1 983: 1 89): t he Z houkoudian L ocality 1 i ndustry i s d efined a s " almost m icrolithic," a nd t hat o f L ocality 1 5 a s " microlithic." A nother s uch c ase i s t he H owieson's P oort i ndustry i n t he S outhern C ape s tudied b y V olman ( 1981, c ited i n B utzer 1 982: 2 72): " ... a u nique M iddle S tone A ge i ndustry w ith a bundant m icroliths, i ncluding g eometric f orms a nd s uggestive o f c omposite h afted t ools." ( And t here a re m ore e xamples: s ee, e .g., F ranssen a nd W outers 1 982; V an E s a nd F ranssen 1 982; L agerweij a nd V an D er M ade 1 982). A s n oted e arlier , i n m ost s uch d iscoveries ( not i nvolving t hose o f m icroliths) t he u nusual s mallness o f t ools w as a ccredited t o t he s ize o f t he a vailable r aw m aterial, w hich , a s a rgued a bove, d oes n ot a pply a t Y 25. V ery s mall, e ven m inute p oints, s mall d rills a s w ell, m ust h ave b een m anufactured a t Y 25 o n p urpose, a s ac onsiderable p ortion o f t he n atural f lints a re n ot s o s mall a t a ll. Y et, t hese s pecific t ools a re c ertainly n ot m icroliths ( as u nderstood i n p rehistoric s tudies). O h o bserving a nd h andling s uch s mall t ools h afting m ust s pring t o m ind. R egardless o f t he u nfortunate f act t hat t hese t ools h ave n ot y et u ndergone m icrowear a nalysis ( for t echnical a nd o ther r easons i n s pite o f g reat e fforts), t heir e mployment w ithout h afts c an b arely b e c onceived ( and s ee K eeley 1 982: 8 01). F or s ome t ime I h ave b een h esitant t o c onvey t he i dea o f h afting b y A cheuleans i n p rint. A ccording t o t he w idely a ccepted v iew , h afting b egan o nly i n t he U pper P alaeolithic. K eeley ( 1982: 7 98) t akes a f urther s tep b y s tating: " Stone i mplements h ave b een h afted c ertainly s ince t he U pper P aleolithic a nd q uite p robably s ince t he M iddle P aleolithic." T his s tatement, t he e xamples q uoted a bove a nd t he e vidence f rom t he s mall t ools a t Y 25 l ead m e t o v enture t he s uggestion o f h afting i n t he ( Late) A cheulean. F urthermore, t hese t ools m ay h ave b een a chieved b y i ndirect p ercussion.

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T he s mall p oints f ound a t Y 25 m ust h ave s erved f or t he h unting o f s mall g ame o r b irds ( on t he i mportance o f s mall a nimals i n p rehistoric p eople's d iet, s ee e .g., S tahl 1 982, a nd r eferences). T hough f ar m ore e laborate t han t hose a t Y 25, t hey a re q uite c ommon i n n umerous p ost-Acheulean a ssembleages t he w orld o ver, f rom t he U pper P alaeolithic a nd t hereafter i n p articular. T he r egular f unction a ttached t o s uch p oints i s t hat s uggested a bove. T his i s s upported b y e thnographic o bservations o f r ecent h unter-gatherers. A mong s uch p oints t he s pecial t ypes o f t ransverse a nd b lunt p oints a re v ery w ell k nown b oth f rom p rehistory a nd e thnology . T hese f orms w ere, a nd s till a re u sed s pecifically f or h unting b irds ( e.g., W iessner 1 983, a nd r eferences). T his d oes n ot m ean o f c ourse t hat a t Y 25 o ther a nimals w ere n ot h unted t oo, b ut t hat t hey w ere h unted b y d ifferent m eans. A s I h ave r epeatedly a rgued, t he Y iron P lateau s ummit ( or " table") w as a bandoned t oward t he h arsh w inter m onths, r einhabited i n l ate s pring a nd t hrough t he s ummer. A ssuming t hat c limatic c onditions d uring t he A cheulean o ccupation w ere n ot b asically d ifferent f rom t he p resent o nes ( Brosh a nd O hel 1 981), i t i s q uite f easible t hat m ost s pecies o f b irds a nd o ther s mall a nimals s tationed i n o r f requenting t he a rea t oday d id s o t hen a s w ell. A mong t he m ost c ommon s pecies a re t he r ock-pigeon ( Columbia l ivia), t he p artridge ( Alectoris g raeca), t he b lack r aven ( Corvus c orax), t he s olitary t hrush ( Monticula s olitarius), t he h yrax ( Procavia c apensis), a k ind o f w easel ( Vormela p eregusna), t he g reen l izard ( Lacerta v iridis) ( Yom-Tov 1 983). O f s pecial i nterest a re s ome m igratory b ird s pecies, s uch a s t he w hite s tork ( Ciconia c iconia) w hich v isits t he r egion i n t he f all e n r oute f rom n orth t o s outh, a nd b ack a gain i n t he s pring, o r t he E gyptian v ulture ( Neophron p ercnopterus), t he b ea-eater • ( Merops a piaster) a nd t he m ountain s wallow ( Apus m elba). T he l atter t hree a re p art o f t he G alilee a vifauna, j oining t he s outhward m igration t o r eturning t o t he r egion ( Yam-Toy 1 983). I s ingle o ut t he m igratory b irds, t he s torks i n p articular , b ecause Ia m a bout t o s peculate o n s ome k ind o f l ink b etween t heir a rrival a nd d eparture i n f orce - i n f light-formations c onsisting o f h undreds, s ometimes t housands o f i ndividual s torks - a nd t he s pecific n ature o f t he Y 25 l ocale a nd t he a pproximate d uration o f i ts o ccupancy . T o h aft s mall p oints o ne n eeds l ight, d elicate h afts. T hese w ere m ost p robably m ade o f w ood b rought i nto Y 25 o n r eturning f rom t he w inter c amps o n t he m ore w oody n orthern s lope o f t he p lateau a nd t he s outhern s lope o f M ount A vivim . A s d escribed b y K eeley ( 1982), t he m aking o f h afts i s a f ar m ore l aborious t ask t han o f p roducing t he h afted t ools. T he n umerous s mall d rills ( which m ight h ave a lso f unctioned a s " burins" o r t he l ike) w ere a pparently a lso h afted f or t he s ake o f m anufacturing s uitable p oint h afts. A gain w e l earn f rom K eeley ( 1982: 7 99) t hat o ne o f t he m ajor r easons f or h afting t ools i s " to e nhance t he e fficiency o f p recision o f w ork a s i n t he c ase o f d rills." I t i s q uite l ikely t hat t he n otches ( usually o f l arger s izes) f ound p rofusely a t Y 25 s erved t o h elp i n t he p reparation o f t he w ooden h afts.

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As easonal, s hort-term a ggregation n ode T he o utstanding l arge a rea o f t he l ocality : n early 1 6,000 s q.m . u nprecedented f or A cheulean o ccurrences; a nd t he n ine s tone f ormations w ithin i t p osed q uite a p uzzle t o m e. W ere I t o v isualize Y 25 a s a r egular A cheulean s ite, w hich I d id i nitially ( Ohel a nd B ruder 1 980), I w ould h ave f aced a n i nsurmountable d emo-economic d ifficulty . B y a pplying a ny i ndex, f ormula o r " magic n umber" ( see, e .g., H assan 1 981, a nd r eferences), I w ould h ave a rrived a t n ear-astronomic p opulation s izes f or A cheulean h unter-gatherer g roups. A nd w hat a bout t he o ther s ites i n t he c lose v icinity? W e ( Brosh a nd O hel 1 981) c ategorically d isbelieved t hat t he Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons c ould h ave s upported b ut a f ew g roups a t t he s ame t ime; s ay , s omething b etween 2 0 t o 6 0 p eople. M y t endency i n t he b eginning w as t herefore t o r egard t he s ites a s n oncontemporaneous. I ndeed I a lso c autioned i n s everal p reliminary p ublications a gainst e nvisaging a ll t he s tone f ormations a t Y 25 a s h aving b een o ccupied s imultaneously . F or t his I f ound s ome s upport i n H assan's ( 1981: 8 7-88 , 9 2) s uggestion t hat t he m aterials' s catter i n s ites, e specially t he l arger o nes, m ight b e t he r esult o f r ecurring o ccupation a t t he s ame p lace b ut n ot o n p recisely t he s ame s pot, a v iew t hat c annot b e d isregarded e ven n ow . B ut t he l ocational u niqueness o f Y 25, t he p ecularities o f i ts a ssemblage a nd t heir s pecific d ivergences v is-a-vis t he o ther s ites s eem t o f avor a d ifferent i nterpretation. Y 25 o ccupies a l ocal-regionally p ivotal p osition, g eographically a nd t opographically ; a n i deal c amping l ocale f or h unter-gatherer g roups, f airly p rotected w ith m aximal v ision a nd p roximity o f w ater a nd r aw m aterial r esources. T he l ikelihood o f Y 25 h aving b een a n a ggregation l ocale, w here s mall A cheulean g roups o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd p erhaps a lso t he e nvirons w ould h ave c ongregated o nce o r e ven t wice a y ear , f irst s truck h ome o n r eading t he i nspiring a rticle o f C onkey ( 1980) o n t he s ites a round A ltamira. A ll a t o nce m ost o f t he b izarre f eatures c haracterizing Y 25 s eemed t o f all i nto p lace. O ne o f C onkey 's ( 1980) m ajor i ndicators f or a n a ggregation s ite i s g reater d iversity o f a rt ' m otifs t han i n a ny o f t he o ther p articipating s ites. R eplacing t he m otifs w ith t ool f orms, I p roceeded t o e xamine t he s tanding o f t he Y 25 a ssemblage v ersus t hose o f t he s urrounding s ites. T he Y 25 a ssemblage i ncludes e very t ool f orm t hat a ppears i n t he o ther s ites' a ssemblages, w ith a f ar h igher l evel o f v ariation o f t echnological a ttributes, q uantitative ( or d imensional) i n p articular . Y 25 a lso d emonstrates a s pecial f eature t hat i s l acking i n a ll o ther s ites, n amely t he s mall a nd t iny p oints a nd d rills. T hanks t o t hese t wo c learcut p roperties I s uppose w e s hould n ot b e " haunted" b y t he g rave p roblem o f s ample s ize d iscussed b y K intigh ( 1984). M oreover, t he u nique p resence i n s uch f orce o f s mall p oints a nd d rills c ontributes a s pecific f unctional s hade t o Y 25 a s a n a ggregation n ode. W hile c ongregating t here, p eople w ere l argely o ccupied i n t he p roduction o f h afts, t ools t o b e h afted, a nd m aintaining, r esharpening, a nd r eplacing t hese t ools c ontinuously f or t he n ew s eason's s pecial, c ooperative h unt, l ikely t o h ave b een a ccompanied b y f estive a ctivities.

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T hat t he s mall A cheulean g roups o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons, b eing e ncircled b y h igh m ountainous t errain, h ad t o h ave t hese g atherings s eems t o b e b eyond q uestion. T he c onvergence w as n ot o nly s ocially a nd c ulturally r ewarding, b ut m ost p robably a lso e nhanced k inship t ies a nd p rovided a n e xcellent o pportunity f or t he e xchange o f m aterial o bjects, v aluable i nformation, a nd s trategies a nd t actics o f s ubsistence. F urthermore, c ongregating e nabled n ew t ies b y m ating o r m arriages, o r a t l east d eciding o n t hem a nd p reparing t hem. I n t his r egard s uch m eetings b ecome a s urvival n ecessity f or s mall, s cattered g roups i n p articular ( see, e .g.,

C ampbell

1 97 )4 ; H assan

1 981).

T he m obility p attern o f t he g roups c onstituting t he s ettlement u nits o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd i ts v icinity a pproaches w ith s light m odification o ne o f t he m odels o utlined b y B utzer ( 1982: 2 40 a nd F ig. 1 3-2E). A ccording t o t he c urrent e vidence, t he Y iron P lateau s ystem m ay b e r eferred t o b y r ather s hort m igration d istances, l ikely t o h ave b een c onfined w ithin t he u pper-middle D ishon b asin. Y 25 i tself m ay p erhaps s uit C larke's ( 1977) n otion o f as emimicroscale t ype o f s ite. I p ropose f igure 6 .24 a s a p robable m odel f or t he s ettlement a nd m obility s ystem o f t he A cheulean Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons ( and s ee a lso C h. 7 b elow). M t

A V IV IM

S LOPE

A

wint er

4 ,

TRA NSITION AL spri n g

r i

eut u m n

V IR O N PL A T E A U

N

• i t B ARAM

Fig.

6 .24

P LATEAU

Outline

o f

s ettlement

Plateau and Avivim s ites Butzer

1 982:

e

Figure

and mobility model o f the Yiron

( modified

1 3-2E), not

t o

and a djusted s cale.

1 58

t o

our c ase after

N = s tream.

C ould Y 25 b e l ooked u pon a s a " choiced p atch" i n t erms o f o ptimal f oraging t heory ( Smith 1 983)? I f a c hoiced p atch i s t ypified b y t he a ppearance o f s pecific p rey d uring a s pecific, l imited d uration , s easonally b ounded, c ausing g roups t o a ggregate i n o rder t o m aximize p er-capita r eturns, t hen Y 25 a ppears t o h ave b een a g ood c andidate. M igratory b irds, s torks i n p articular, a nswer t he s pecific c onditions o f s eason a nd b ountiful y et s hort-term a vailability. T he p lenitude o f s mall a nd b lunt p oints f rom Y 25 a lone t estifies t o ap reoccupation w ith h unting b irds. E fficient e xploitation o f a r estricted-in-time s ubsistence s ource i s a t l east a s g ood e nough a r eason f or c ongregating a s a ny o ther , e specially w hen t he g roups w ere f amiliar t o e ach o ther a nd m ost l ikely e ngaged i n a t radition o f k inship r elationships. T he c limatic c ircumstances t hat t riggered t he m obility p attern, d riving t he g roups a way f rom t he p lateau i n t he f all a nd a ttracting t hem b ack i n l ate s pring, p recisely c orrelated w ith t he a ppearance i n t he r egion o f i mmense f locks o f b irds; m ostly m igratory a nd s torks i n p articular. G roups a ssembled a t Y 25 i n t he s pring a nd p erhaps a lso i n t he a utumn i n p art f or e conomic r easons. B ut t his a bundance o f t he s pecific, t ime-limited r esource w as r elatively b rief , a nd t he a dvantages o f c ooperative h unting a nd f oraging t urned i nto d isadvantages w ith t he a pproach o f s ummer o r w inter. T he s plit i nto s eparate s mall g roups b ecame i nevitable. E thnographic d ata s how t hat s ocial t ensions e scalate w ith t he e xtension o f t he a ggregation p eriod. T hus, f rom t he s ocial a nd d emographic a ngles t oo, j ust a s t here h ad b een a v ital n eed t o a ssemble a nd e xchange m ates, i nformation, e tc., s o t here c ame a n h our w hen s eparation a gain b ecame n ecessary . I r egard t he a bove a s a n i ntelligent, e ven p ersuasive i nterpretation; n o m ore. D isregarding f or t he m oment t he c riticism r aised b y an umber o f c ommentators o n S mith ( 1983), t he d ata e manating f rom Y 25 a re f ar f rom s ufficient i n b oth s cope a nd d etail t o a nswer t he r equirements m entioned i n h is a rticle. T o t ake j ust o ne e xample, I d on 't b elieve t hat e ven s ystematic e xcavations a t Y 25 c an s upply t he e xtensive i nformation e ssential f or t esting a g roup-maximization m odel, a s r ightly d emanded b y S mith, u nless m icrofaunal r emains a re u ncovered i n q uantities. T his i s r ather u nlikely b ecause l ittle o rganic m atter, i f a t a ll, c ould h ave b een p reserved i n t he t ypes o f s oils a nd s ediments o n t he p lateau , l et a lone t he r igorous w inter i nfluences. F inally , t wo s peculations: t he f irst, g oing b eyond t he p reviously d iscussed c onsiderations, c oncerning a l ink b etween t he a rrival o f t he s torks a nd t he m ovement o f t he g roups. T he s torks d o n ot a ppear i n t he r egion a t a f ixed d ate e very s pring o r a utumn. Is urmise t hat t he f irst f locks ( Pl. 6 . 9 ) o r s olitary s torks a ppearing i n t he s ky s erved a s a s ignal f or t he s tart o f m ovement b ack t o t he Y 25 a ggregation l ocale. T he s econd t ouches u pon t he o bservation t hat m any p roperties a nd d imensions o f a rtifacts a t Y 25 c ome c loser t o t hose o f t he A vivim a ssemblages, s ometimes t o . t hose o f Y 13. P erhaps i t d erives f rom t he " fact" t hat t he a ggregation t ook p lace d irectly a fter l eaving t he w inter c amps ( Avivim s ites) a nd t hat s ome g roups p assed t hrough a t ransitional s ite o n t he w ay (113: s ee a bove a nd C h. 7 b elow).

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P l. 6 .9 A f lock o f s torks o ver Y 25 o n May 5 th, t he s urface o n o ur c lose a pproach).

1 60

1 98 1

( took o ff

S pecific t echnological t actics f or s pecial n eeds T he c ommon s ense o f t he p eople w ould h ave l ed t hem t o e ndeavor t o m aximize t he e fficiency o f t heir e xploitation o f t he a vailable r esource; e specially w hen t hey w ere w ell a ware t hat, w ith a ll i ts a bundance w hile a vailable, i t w ould v anish a fter a r elatively s hort p eriod. B riefly s tated: M ake h ay w hile t he s un s hines. " Relative e fficiency i s... t o b e d etermined b y t he s ystemic i nteraction o f t echnology w ith d emonstrably r elevant e nvironmental a nd d emographic p arameters t hat a ffect t he c osts a nd r eturns f rom t echnological o r o ther b ehaviours" ( Price 1 982: 7 22). I f s o, t hen t he A cheuleans a t Y 25 c learly k new w hat t hey w ere d oing, a nd w hy t hey w ere d oing i t. A side f rom t heir r egular y et n ecessary d aily t asks, a s r eflected i n t he g reat v ariety o f t ool f orms, t heir m ain g oal w as t o p roduce i n as hort p eriod a s m any p oints a nd d rills a s p ossible, a nd m ost s uited a s p ossible f or t heir f unction . M oreover, a s K eeley ( 1982: 7 99) o bserves, " hafted t ools .. a re p articularly p rone t o b reakage o r r apid w ear, o r o therwise h ave b rief u se l ives," a nd s mall p oints o nce t hrown a re p rone t o e asy l oss a nd m ust b e r eplaced q uickly a nd b y t he d ozens. T he l arge q uantities o f b roken p ieces, w aste a nd d iscarded t ools w ithin t he m ajor a ctivity z one o f Y 25 c learly r epresent t his s ituation. T he k nappers a t Y 25 w ere t he v ery s ame p eople w ho m anufactured t ools e lsewhere u nder d ifferent c onditions. T hat t hey d id n ot l ack a h igh d egree o f e xpertise ( see a bove) i s a sserted b y t he p resence a t Y 25 o f b eautifully w orked h andaxes, g eometric c ores, a nd h ighly r efined s mall s haped t ools. B ut t hey d id n ot e specially n eed m any l arge-cutting a nd h eavy-duty t ools f or t heir c omparitively s hort s tay a t Y 25: t hey h ad t o c oncentrate o n am ode o f p roduction t hat w ould f urnish t hem w ith t he m ost n eeded a nd e xpedient t ools, w hich w as e xactly w hat t hey d id. T his c omprehension o f a b riefly a vailable s ubsistence r esource d ictated t he t actics o f t echnological p roduction a t Y 25. R egular c ores w ere r educed i n am anner t hat w ould r esult i n a s m any b lanks a s p ossible; t hus t he p redominance i n t he c ore c ategory o f p olyhedric, p olyfacetted-bidirectional, a nd f lake-cores. Y et i t w as a pparently a ccepted t hat n o e xtra e nergy s hould b e i nvested w henever i ntensity a nd c onvenience w ere h ampered; i n o ther w ords: s trike a nd g et a s uitable b lank, b ut w hen y ou d on't e nvisage a g ood, q uick r esult, d iscard t he c ore a nd t ake a nother p iece. T herefore i t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind s o m any u ncore a reas ( unworked p lanes) o n e ven c onsiderably e xploited c ores, o r f ind c ores s uch a s n odular o r c asual o nes f rom w hich j ust a s ingle b lank o r a f ew w ere d etatched. A nd s ince a vailable r aw m aterial w as n o g i 'eat p roblem, t he s eeming w astefulness w as o bviously w orthwhile a nd r ewarding. • T here a ppears t o b e n o c ontradiction b etween t he i ntensity o f c ore u tilization o n t he o ne h and a nd t he r emaining u ncore a reas a nd c ortical s egments o n t he c ores o n t he o ther. T he o pportunistic b ehavior o f t he k nappers w as a n i ntended u tilitarian t echnological t actic a imed a t a chieving t he b est r esults i n t he s hortest t ime p ossible f or t he s pecific n eed a t h and. A nd, s ince t he c onsumption o f s mall p oints a nd d rills w as c ontinuous, f easibly e ven p ressing , t he p reference f or s mall c ores s hould n ot b e s urprising; q uite t o t he c ontrary . H aving b een s killed w orkers o f f lint, t hey s ucceeded i n r educing c ores t o s ometimes a stonishing s mall p ieces: t o r eal e xhaustion.

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T he h igh v alues o f v ariation i n t he t echnological v ariables a re r eadily e xplained b y t he e ffect o f a ggregation. A lthough b elonging t o t he s ame g eneral, o verruling c omplex, t he a ssembled g roups w ere s till d ifferent t o s ome e xtent i n v arious r espects, s uch a s h unting a nd f oraging h abits, m anufacturing p ractices a nd s tyles, u tilization c oncepts a nd p erformances, p ast e xperience, a nd s ociocultural b ehavior ( see a lso P rice 1 982: 7 31; O rquera 1 98 ) 4: 8 1. T he k ind o f v ariability o bserved i n t he Y iron P lateau 's s ettlement/subsistence s etting f its O rquera's V ariation n o. 1 : " The f irst k ind o f v ariation a rises f rom d ifferences i n s easonal a ctivities, i n t he f unction o f s ites, e tc., o f t he s ame g roup o r o f s everal g roups t hat s hare a t radition o f c ultural a daptation o f t he e nvironment"). L ast b ut n ot l east, t he c ontribution o f e very i ndividual k napper t o v ariation c annot b e o verlooked. A t Y 25 a s a n a ggregation e ntity t his c ontribution i s n aturally d ouble o r t reble t hat o f a ny o ther s ite. T he s tructure o f t he l ocality i s d ivided i nto t hree m ajor a ctivity z ones: t he k napping, m aintenance a nd h abitation z one w ithin t he f ormations, t he d iscard a nd s torage z one b etween t he f ormations, a nd t he l arge w estern " backyard" o r " plaza" t hat g ives Y 25 s uch a l arge a rea. C onclusion M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25) i s u ndoubtedly t he m ost c omplex a nd i nteresting o ccurrence w ithin t he A cheulean s ettlement s ystem o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd e nvirons. I ts l ocational u niqueness, i ts c onstruction r emnants ( the n ine s tone f ormations), a nd t he p eculiarities o f i ts a rtifact a ssemblage ( the p lethora o f s mall p oints a nd d rills a nd s everal t echnological p erplexities) h ave r aised s ome r ather p uzzling q uestions c oncerning i ts n ature a nd s tatus i n r elation t o t he o ther s ites. E valuation o f e nvironmental c onditions a nd t heir d ynamics c oupled w ith a t horough a ttribute a nalysis o f t he a ssemblage l ed t o a n i nterpretation o f Y 25 a s a n a ggregation n ode. Y 25 w as f requented o n a y early b asis d uring t he ( late) s pring ( and p erhaps a lso t he a utumn) f ollowing t he g roups' m ovement b etween t he w inter c amps o n M ount A vivim's s outhern s lope a nd t he s ummer h abitations o n t he p lateau 's s ummit. •T he m ain i mpetus f or c ongregation w as p robably o f e conomic n ature. T he p eople w ere e ager t o e xploit t o t he m aximum t he r elatively b rief s easonal a bundance o f m igratory b irds, s torks i n p articular , a s ubsistence r esource t hat c ould b e q uickly a nd e fficiently t apped b y c oopera Uve u ndertakings. T o t his p urpose t he t echnological e fforts w ere m ainly a nd m ostly g eared, c oncomitantly p rescribing a s pecific m ode o f p roduction a nd s pecific t echnological t actics, i ncluding t he h afting o f p oints a nd d rills. Y et, b y n o m eans s hould t he v itality o f t he d emographic a nd s ociocultural n ecessities .be u nderestimated. F or s mall g roups p ossibly c onfined t o c omparatively s hort m obility r outes w ithin a n e ncircling h igh m ountainous l andscape, t he a ggregation e vent s erved f ar m ore t han a g ood o pportunity f or i nformation e xchange a nd t he l ike, b ut c reated a n a rena f or t he e xchange o f m ates a nd t he c ontinuous r einforcement o f k inship t ies a s w ell; t his b eing i ndeed a m atter o f s urvival.

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O wing t o t he o ngoing v ertical d isplacement o f a rtifacts l ittle c ould b e g ained i n s patial t erms. H owever, t hree m ajor a ctivity z ones c ould b e d iscerned: 1 ) W ithin t he s tone f ormations, w here t he m anufacture, m aintenance, a nd r etooling t ook p lace; 2 ) B etween t he f ormations, w here e xhausted a nd u nfit t ools w ere d iscarded a nd c ores s tored; 3 ) Aw ide " backyard" w est o f t he f ormations w here a ll s ort o f o ther a ctivities, i ncluding m utual o nes, w ere i nitiated a nd p racticed. I n

a m ethodological

s ense p ertaining t o t he r esearch o f t he Y iron

P lateau a nd e nvirons a s aw hole, t he o stensible r ole a nd s tatus o f Y 25 w ithin • t he s ettlement/subsistence a nd s easonal m obility p attern w as c onceived a fter a c onsiderable p eriod o f p uzzlement a nd " confusion." B ut, o nce i t w as r ealized, t he d ata w ere o rthodoxly c onfronted w ith t he h ypothesis o f a n a ggregation l ocale, r esulting i n a s ound v erification. T his h as o pened u p a n ew d imension i n L ower P alaeolithic s tudies; n amely , t he r ecognition f or t he f irst t ime ( to t he b est o f m y k nowledge) o f a n a ggregation n ode w ithin t he f ramework o f a l ocalized A cheulean s ettlement a nd m obility s ystem .

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7 F LINT A MOUNTS , W EIGHTS , S OURCES , A ND E CONOMY T hat t he A cheuleans h ere p referred f lint f or t he m anufacture o f a ll t heir t ools i s o bvious. A mong t he t ens o f t housands o f a rtifacts f rom t he Y iron P lateau o bserved, a nd t he t housands e xamined, n ot o ne w as f ound t o b e m ade o f a ny r aw m aterial o ther t han f lint; d espite t he g reat a bundance i n m ost p arts o f t he a rea o f b asaltic a nd/or h ard l imestone r ocks. Y et, t his v ery t otality , a nd e xclusiveness c all f or s everal i mportant q uestions, s uch a s: w hat w as t he n ature o f t he f lint t hat m ade i t s o p referable? W here d id i t c ome f rom? H ow e asy o r d ifficult w as i t t o t ransport t o t he s ites? D id t he a vailability , a nd t he l ogistics c onnected w ith t he n atural f lint h ave a ny b earing - a nd i f s o, t o w hat e xtent - o n l ocational d ecisions a nd m obility p atterns, a nd o n t he u tilization o f t he f lint i n t he f ramework o f t echnological b ehavior? I n a ddition t o d iscussing t hese p roblems h ere I w ill a lso v enture s ome s timates - o r, r ather , s ome s peculative c omputations - c oncerning t he q uantities o f f lint i ntroduced t o t he p lateau a nd t heir w eights, a nd u sing t hese f igures, t o a rrive a t ar ough a pproximation o f t he d uration o f A cheulean o ccupation ( for m ore d etails, s ee O hel 1 986c). S amples a nd S urveys

-

S amples f or a nalysis w ere d rawn f rom t hree d ifferent p opulations, a s f ollows: 1 . T he n orth-central f lank o f t he p lateau 's n orthern s lope, a bout h alf-way f rom t he e dge o f t he b asalt s ummit d own t o t he u pper s ection o f t he l ower p art o f t he s lope ( see F ig. 7 .1). T his i s t he o nly z one o f t he p lateau w here n atural f lint o f a ll s izes, f rom p ebbles t o b oulders, c an b e f ound. Ih ave s uggested e lsewhere ( e.g., O hel 1 982c, 1 983c) t hat i t w as t he m ain , i f n ot t he s ole p rovenance o f f lint f or t he A cheulean o ccupants o f t he Y iron P lateau: t heir " quarry ." T he c urrent e ffort w as e xpected, i nter a lia , t o c onfirm o r r efute t hat s uggestion. •At otal o f 1 38 s tones r epresenting t he v arious s izes a t e ight l ateral s ections a nd g radients w ere s plit, a nd t he r emoved p ieces b agged. A mong t hese, a bout 1 5% w ere d eliberately s truck o ff a rtifacts, i .e., f rom s pecimens a lready f laked b y A cheulean p eople. S ome i mportant g eomorphological i mplications, t o w hich I w ill r eturn l ater , w ere a lso d educed f rom t he u ndertaking i n t he n orth-central ( NC) z one. 2 . T he f ive l ong t ransects ( average 6 00m l ong a nd 2 m w ide) t raversing t he c entral p art o f t he p lateau f rom s outhwest t o n ortheast ( Fig. 7 .1). T his a rea w as c hosen i n o rder t o a void m odern a rtificial d isturbances ( e.g., t he k ibbutz) a nd a t t he s ame t ime i nclude m ost o f t he A cheulean s ites. T he - 1 000m N W-SE b ase l ine w as d ivided i nto 2 00m s ections, r andom n umbers w ere t hen d rawn f or t he s tarting p oints o f t he t ransects w ithin t he s ections. T he f irst 2 x 2 m s quare i n e ach t ransect w as a lso s elected f rom a r andom t able; t hen a ll n atural f lints a nd a rtifacts w ere c ollected f rom s uccessive s quares 1 00m a part ( in a S W-NE d irection). T hus, 3 s quares ( 132 s q.m.: 0 .02% o f w hat c ould b e c alled t he t arget a rea , a nd 0 .004% o f t he w hole 3 s q.km . p lateau)

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f ormed t he s ample, c ontaining 2 741 n atural p ieces t he r atio o f t he f ormer t o t he l atter i s 5 .4:1.

a nd

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3 . T wenty-six s amples ( in a ddition t o, a nd s eparate f rom t he p ure a rtifact s amples: s ee a bove a nd a lso O hel a nd B ruder 1 980; O hel 1 983b)containing 7 76 n atural p ieces a nd 6 64 a rtifacts w ere t aken f rom a bove a nd b eneath t he s urface o f v arious s ites ( see F ig . 7 .1). T he a rtifacts i ncluded 9 5 l arge a nd s mall s haped t ools o f a ll f orms t ypical o f t he l ocal A cheulean t ool k it. I n a ddition, w ith t he a im o f o btaining a g eneral i dea o f t he d istribution a nd t ransfer o f n atural f lint t hroughout t he v icinity , s everal s urveys o n f oot w ere c onducted a round t he p lateau . O ne c overed t he w hole a rea, d ivided i nto s even t racts m ainly d ictated b y t opographic f eatures, a nd t o ad istance o f o ne t o t wo k m a way f rom t he p lateau ( see F ig . 7 .1). As econd i nspection t raced t he p resence o r a bsence o f n atural f lint i n t he b ed o f N ahal A viv f rom i ts u pper r eaches n orth o f t he p lateau , a nd i n t he b ed o f am ajor t ributary j oining t he A viv f rom t he w est, t hen a long t he p lateau , a nd a t t he A viv's o utlet t o t he D ishon ( see F ig. 7 .1). At hird r ecorded t he f low o f w aters i n t he t hree m ajor s treams ( Dishon, A viv , a nd Y iron: F ig. 7 .1) i n t he m id-rainy s eason o f J anuary 1 981. F inally , t he m ap i n C hapter 5 o f f lint d ensities o n t he p lateau p roper ( Fig. 5 .1; a lso F ig. 7 .1) s hould s erve t his c hapter a s w ell. Q uantities a nd W eights A c autionary n ote i s i n o rder b efore c ontinuing. A lthough t he b asic d ata a re s ufficiently r eliable a s f ar a s m y t allies a nd w eighings a re c oncerned, t he a lternative r esults o f m ass c omputations t hat f ollow s hould b e r egarded a s o nly v ery r ough e stimates. N evertheless, s peculative a s t hey a re t hey s till l end a c ertain o rientation, w hich i n m y v iew i s b etter t han n one. A ggregates o f i ntroduced f lint I a rgued e arlier ( also O hel 1 982c; 1 983c) t hat a l j _ n atural f lint p ieces o n t he p lateau e xcept w ithin t he n orth-central ( NC) z one w ere i ntroduced b y m an. T he s ample ( 0.02%) f rom t he t arget a rea c ontains 3 245 p ieces, n atural a nd a rtifacts, i .e. 1 6,225,000 f lint p ieces o n t he s urface o f t his a rea, a nd 8 1,125,000 o n t he w hole p lateau ( the s ample = 0 .004%). T his e stimate i s p erhaps e xaggerated, a s i t i s b ased o n t he p art o f t he p lateau w here b oth n atural a nd a rtifactual m aterials a re m ost d ense ( see F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1). O n t he o ther h and, n ot e very s mall o r t iny p iece i n t he s ampled s quares c ould b e c ollected. T hus t he f igure o btained m ay n ot b e s o f ar f rom t he a ctua J . a mount. T o e xtrapolate f rom t he l atter v alue t o t he n umber o f f lint p ieces u nder t he s urface o f t he w hole p lateau s eems t oo h azardous. T herefore Iw ill s uffice w ith a n e valuation o f t he t arget a rea a lone. F rom t est p its d ug a t v arious s pots o n t he p lateau , p articularly w ithin s ites ( see a bove, a nd O hel 1 983b, e specially T able 1 ), t he f ollowing w ere c omputed: ( a) R ange o f r atios o f s ubsurface t o s urface f or 2 6 c ases i s 2 .7:1 t o 3 16:1; ( b) M ean o f r atios = 4 9.7 ( standard d eviation = 6 5.44); ( c) M edian o f r atios 3 0. Ic onsider t he m edian a s a m ore s uitable m easure t han t he m ean f or t he p resent p urpose.

1 6 6

Y et, s ince t he a bove m easures a re b ased o n m aterial f rom s ites, I l ook a t t he n umber o f 4 86,750,000 p ieces o n a nd u nder t he s urface i n t he t arget a rea a s a n e xtreme m aximum . N ow , i f It ake a ll r atios t hat a re b elow t he m edian ( n = 1 2), t heir m ode f alls a round 5 . T he f igure t hus o btained i s 8 1,125,000: t his v alue c an b e r egarded a s am inimum , a nd m y e stimate i s t hat i t i s c loser t o r eality. A pplying t he c onservative r atio o f 5 :1 t o u ndert o o nsurface p ieces f or a rtifacts o nly , t he f ollowing r ough a pproximation r esults. A rtifacts f orm 1 5.5% o f t he t otal i n t he s ample, t herefore 1 2,574 ,375 a rtifacts a re c onjectured f or t he t arget a rea, i .e., a bout 5 .5 n atural p ieces f or e very a rtifact. A lthough t his m ay s eem a r ather l ow p roportion , Ia ssume i t i s q uite r easonable u nder t he l ocal c onditions, s uch a s t he r eady a vailability o f h igh-quality f lint a t c lose p roximity ( the N C z one), t he d egree o f i ntensity o f c ore e xploitation b y t he A cheuleans o f t he Y iron P lateau, t heir e xpertise i n t he r eduction p rocess a nd t he f inal s haping o f t ools, e tc; u pon w hich I w ill c oncentrate l ater. L astly , t he m ap o f f lint d ensities ( Figs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1) n ow g ains d efinite s upport f rom t he t ransects' s ample o f t he t arget a rea . A ll t he s ampled s quares t hat f all w ithin s ites o r p ass n earby , s uch a s e .g., I : 2 36,336; I I : 4 18; I II: n early a ll s quares; I V : 1 00 ,200; V : 2 55 ( not s hown i n t he F igures) a re t he m ost d ense o f a ll, b oth i n a rtifacts a nd n atural p ieces. W eights o f i ntroduced f lint T en p ieces w ere t aken a t r andom f rom e ach b ag f or w eighing. T he t arget a rea 's s ample ( n =2 30) r esulted i n am ean w eight p er p iece o f 3 0 g r, w hile t hat o f t he s ites' s ample ( n 1 90), 8 5gr. T he c ombined ( n =4 20) i s 5 5 g r. T he n early t hree-fold a verage w eight p er p iece o f t he s ites' s ample v ersus t he t ransects' i s m ost s triking. A lthough l arge n atural c hunks w ere n ot c ollected e ven w ithin t he s ampled s quares o f t he t arget a rea , t he d ifference i s s o i mpressive t hat I m ust i nfer t hat m uch m ore f lint c lustered a t t he s ites t han e lsewhere: 1 6 ,065 g r f rom 2 0 c ases i n t he f ormer a gainst 6 ,957 g r f rom 2 3 e ases i n t he l atter . T hese r esults f urther r einforce t he p icture s uggested b y t he i nitial f lint d istribution o n t he p lateau ( see a lso a bove). V ariation , h owever, i s r ather l ower i n t he s ites' s ample t han i n t hat o f t he t ransects o f t he t arget a rea : 5 6.9 v s 7 8.3 c oefficients o f v ariation , r espectively . T his s hould c ome a s n o s urprise, a s o ne w ould e xpect s ome d egree o f d eliberate s election b y t he k nappers a t t he s ites o f m ore u niform n atural p ieces f or m anufacturing t he t ools ( and s ee b elow). A pplying t he a verage w eight p er p iece f rom t he s ites a nd m ultiplying i t b y t he m aximum n umber o f p ieces f rom t he s ites l eads t o ah uge s um ( on a nd u nder t he s urface): 4 1,373,750 k g ( or 4 1,374 t onnes) f or t he w hole t arget a rea; I a ppraise t his v alue t o b e a n e xtreme m aximum e stimate. M ultiplying t he a verage w eight p er p iece o f t he t ransects b y t he m inimum n umber o f p ieces i n t he t arget a rea r esults i n 2 ,433 ,750 k g ( or 2 ,434 t onnes), w hich c an b e t hought o f a s am inimum v alue. A m ore r ealistic e stimate i s p erhaps g ained f rom t he c ombined a verage o f b oth s amples m ultiplied b y t he ( minimum) n umber o f p ieces b ased o n t he t ransects' s ample: 4 ,461,875 k g ( or 4 ,462 t onnes).

1 6 7

A ll n otes o f c aution a nd t he d ifficulty i n c ollecting t iny o r l arge p ieces m entioned i n d iscussing q uantities s hould c ertainly b e t aken i nto a ccount f or w eights a s w ell. D uration o f A cheulean o ccupancy C ould a r ough e stimate b ased o n f lint p ieces i ntroduced i nto t he p lateau , o f t he d uration o f t he Y iron P lateau 's i nhabitation b y A cheulean p eople b e v entured? T his i s, o f c ourse , ag reat r isk f or i t m ust i ncorporate s ome g uesswork i nto t he c alculations t o c reate " magic n umbers." B ut f irstly t here i s o ne v ery i mportant c onsideration t o b e e ntered h ere. A s Ih ave s uggested m ore t han o nce, t he A cheulean g roups n ever s tayed o n t he p lateau 's s ummit f or m ore t han e ight m onths o f t he y ear, p erhaps e ven l ess. S ubsequently e very " year" b elow i s a ctually 3 2 w eeks. I n c onsequence, e very v alue s hould b e i ncreased b y at hird. I f w e e mploy t hree w eights o f i ntroduced f lint p er w eek , s ay a ) 2 k g, b ) 5k g , a nd c ) 1 0 k g, w e a rrive a t t he f ollowing: a ) T wo k g/week e quals 6 4 k g/year. I f t he m inimum w eight i s c omputed, t he r esult i s 3 8,027 y ears; t he m aximum , 6 46 ,465 y ears-the m iddle w eight, 6 9,717 y ears. b ) F ive k g/week e quals 1 60 k g/year. I n t he s ame o rder a s a bove, g et: 1 5,211 y ears; 2 58,586 y ears; 2 7 ,887 y ears. c ) T en k g/week e quals 3 20 k g/year . 1 29,293 y ears; 1 3 ,943 y ears.

w e

I n t he s ame o rder: 7 ,605 y ears;

B rosh a nd O hel ( 1981; s ee a lso a bove) s uggested a r ather l imited n umber ,of s mall A cheulean g roups l iving s imultaneously o n t he p lateau. T herefore, a nd f or r easons o f e asy r aw m aterial a vailability , e fficient e xploitation, e tc. ( see b elow), I a ssume t hat t he 6 4 k g/"year" s hould h ave s ufficed f or t heir n eeds. T his w ould a ttract m e m ost t o t he 6 9,717 y ears a lternative. A dding o ne-third i ndicates t hat t he A cheulean o ccupancy l asted a bout 9 3,000 y ears. T o b e s ure, i t i s i mpossible t o a ssess w hether o r n ot h abitation w as s teady a nd c ontinuous o ver t he y ears o r i nterrupted f or s horter o r l onger p eriods. N o t emporal c ultural s tages c ould b e d etermined i n a ny o f . t he m any p its d ug . E ven i f s uch s tages d id o nce e xist, a ny s igns o f t hem h ave s ince b een c ompletely o bliterated b y t he t remendous v ertical t unrover. o f e arth a nd a rtifacts d ue t o p edoturbation p rocesses a nd b urrowing a nimals ( see a bove). O ne w ould e xpect, t hrough, t hat h ad g aps o f m any m illenia o ccurred, s ome d etectable d ifferences i n t he t echnological a nd c ompositional a spects o f t he a ssemblages w ould h ave b een r ecognized. N othing o f t he s ort w as d iscerned. I f , i n s pite o f a ll t hat, t here w ere i ndeed l ong b reaks i n t heir o ccupancy t hen t he A cheulean p resence i n a nd o ut o f t he r egion , t he Y iron P lateau i ncluded, w ould h ave l asted m ore t han 1 00 ,000 y ears., F lint S ources a nd T ransportation •T he G alilee, p art o f w hose m ountainous c entral n ortheastern m argin i s f ormed b y o ur s tudy a rea , w as c overed b y as hallow s ea d uring t he C retaceous P eriod a nd l ater d uring t he E ocene E poch ( e.g., F ruman 1 983:

1 68

4 8). E ocene s ediments f ill t he Y iron s yncline ( e.g., H orowitz 1 979: 5 0). T he L evant, t o w hich t he Y iron a rea b elongs a s w ell, i s r enowned f or i ts w ealth o f E ocenian f lint ( e.g., B ar-Yosef 1 983: 12). O ne o f t he m ajor f ormations o f t he E ocene l imestone, w ide s pread t hroughout o ur r egion, i s t he T amrat F ormation, c omposed o f i nterchanging l imestone, c halk a nd f lint ( e.g. R abinowitz Wein 1 983: 1 70). A ccording t o B rosh a nd O hel ( 1981: 2 5, a nd a lso a bove) " At R amat Y iron t he p lateau-basalt s traddles t he e mergent b oundary b etween t he n orthward .. b eds o f t he L ower a nd M iddle E ocene a ge r epresenting t wo d ifferent .. f ormations," o ne o f w hich i s t he L ower E ocene A viv F ormation c onsisting o f c halky l imestones w ith f lint. M ount M arun e l-Rass, n orthwest o f t he Y iron P lateau , l ies a t t he s outhwestern b oundary b eyond w hich t he v ast C enomanian-Turonian ( lower U pper C retaceous) s ediments e xtend i nto s outhern L ebanon. T he m ountain i tself , h owever, s till b elongs t o t he E ocene l imestone r egion ( Nir 1 970: 2 72). O n t he r idges o f b oth M t. M arun e l-Rass a nd M t. A vivim ( north o f t he Y iron P lateau) p asses t he w atershed l ine ( Nir 1 970: 2 65). N ahal A viv h as i ts s ource i n ab road v alley b etween t he t wo m ountains a t a n a ltitude o f o ver 7 00 m a .s.1., f lows s outhwards t o j ust n orth o f K ibbutz Y iron, w here a m ajor t ributary c oming f rom t he w est j oins i t, t hen c urves r ather s harply t o t he e ast t owards i ts c onfluence w ith N ahal D ishon. M y o wn s urvey a round t he Y iron P lateau h as s hown t hat i n t racts A , B , a nd D ( Fig. 7 .1) a n a bundance o f f ree, n atural f lint s tones a re s cattered ( Pl. 7 .1), i ntermingling w ith l imestone f ragments a nd g ravels. T he c ommon c olors o f t he f lint t here a re g ray , l ight a nd d ark g ray , b rown, l ight a nd d ark b rown ( tending s ometimes t o b lackish, e ven b lack), a nd r eddish b rown, m ostly w ith l ight g rayish p atination. T here i s n o t race o f t he v ery l ight g ray o r w hitish f lint w ith g rayish w hite o r w hitish p atinas q uite t ypical o f n umerous p ebbles a nd c obbles i n t he b ed o f N ahal Y iron, s outh a nd s outheast o f t he p lateau ( tracts E a nf F ), a nd s o c haracteristic o f t he l arge C halcolithic s ite, Y 3 * ( see F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1) t hat w e d iscovered o n t he s outheastern s lope o f t he p lateau ( I w ill r eturn s hortly t o t he E -F t racts). N orth o f t he p lateau a cross t he A viv c anyon, a nd t o t he n ortheast o n t he m iddle a nd l ower r anges o f M t. A vivim ( tract C ), n o f lint a t a ll w as e ncountered, n either n atural n or a rtifactual. I t t hus b ecame a pparent t hat a ll t he f lint i n a nd a round t he A vivim s ites ( A43 a nd A 63) w as i ntroduced b y m an, m ost p robably f rom t he n orth-central p art o f . t he p lateau 's n orthern s lope ( and s ee b elow). A ll t he a bove-mentioned t racts a re p art o f t he Y iron s yncline. A ccording t o I nbar a nd Z iv ( 1983 ; s ee a lso i n C h. 3 a bove, b ut w orth r eiterating h ere), t he t ectonic a ctivity i n t he G alilee i s m ostly y oung , o f P lio-Pleistocene a ge, a s a re t he h ydrographic n etwork a nd o ther m orphological s ystems. T hey o utline t he h istoric s tages o f t he l andscape i n t he Q uaternary a s f ollows: a ) A bout t he P lio-Pleistocene b oundary , s ome t wo m illion y ears a go , t he G alilee w as s hallowish, u ndulating, w ith s light f olds; s treams r an w estward t o t he M editerranean; • b ) Am ajor b reak o ccurred: t he c entral b lock e merged a nd m ost o f t he f aults w ere c reated ;

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F lint p ebbles a nd n odules f rom t racts A , B , a nd D .

c ) A s a r esult, t he p rincipal m orphological o utline o f i nitiated, a nd t he p resent s tream n etwork b egan t o d evelop;

t oday

w as

d ) V olcanic a nd t ectonic a ctivity c ontinued d uring t he Q uaternary , p articularly i n t he E astern G alilee; e ) T he c urrent m orphological c onfiguration i s m ostly t he r esult o f s tream a ctivity , g radually d owncutting i n t he m ountainous r egion, p roceeding w ith t he d eposition p rocess i n t he v alleys. T he i ncision i n t he e astern U pper G alilee r eached d own t o s everal h undreds o f m eters, f orming c anyons s uch a s t he D ishon a nd A viv i n o ur s tudy a rea. T he e astward s treams a re s hort-routed a nd p ass t hrough c onsiderable v arying t opographies, t herefore t heir v elocity a nd c arrying p ower a re g reater t han t hose o f t he w estward s treams; t hus t he u pper r eaches o f s ome s treams t hat u sed t o f low t o t he w est w ere c aptured a nd r eversed ( Inbar a nd Z iv 1 983: 13) - a l ikely s cenario f or t he h istory o f t he u pper p art o f N ahal A viv a nd i ts t ributaries. T he w inter o f 1 968/69 w as t he r ainiest i n t he n orth o f I srael i n 6 0 y ears ( since r ecords w ere k ept). T he m onth o f J anuary 1 969 w itnessed a n e xtraordinary s welling o f t he s treams f ollowed s hortlr b y e xtremely h eavy f loods, a s harp r ise i n w ater l evels, e tc. " Many s lides o ccurred i n t he c anyon r egion, a nd s ome t wo m illion c ubic m eters o f m aterial, l arge r ocks i n p articular , r eached t he ( Jordan) b ed o r i ts b anks" ( Inbar 1 983: 1 30). S uch s torms a s t hat o f J anuary 1 969 - w ith t heir i ncumbent f orceful t ransportation a nd h eavy d eposition - o ccur , a ccording t o I nbar, i n ap eriodic c ycle o f 1 00-200 y ears. W hen I s urveyed t he s treams a round t he Y iron P lateau o n J anuary 9 , 1 981, f ollowing 3 -4 r ainy d ays w ithin a m ore o r l ess a verage s eason, I f ound a p owerful f low i n N ahal D ishon a nd a s omewhat m ilder o ne i n N ahal A viv. I t s eems c lear, a s I nbar s tates ( 1983: 1 30) t hat, a lthough s uch e vents a s m entioned a bove a re o f l ow p robability , t hey c reate p owerful t orrents. I t i s m ost l ikely t hat d uring t hese s tormy e pisodes p ebbles, c obbles, a nd b oulders o f f lint w ere e asily d isplaced ( see, e .g., S hepherd 1 972: 1 30), c arried b y t he A viv w aters, a nd d eposited a long i ts b ed a nd o n i ts b anks, o f w hich t he n orth-central z one o f t he Y iron P lateau 's m iddle a nd l ower n orthern s lope i s ap art. T he b uilding b locks o f t he b asaltic p lateau r egion, p art o f w hich i s t he Y iron P lateau, a re o f E ocene l imestone ( e.g., P icard a nd G olani 1 975; D an 1 983; I nbar a nd Z iv 1 983). N ahal A viv , l ike t he o ther s treams o f t he r egion, c uts t hrough t his s ediment e xposing i t t o g reat l engths a nd d epths ( see, e .g ., R onen e t a l. 1 980: F ig. 3 ). W hile s urveying t he s outhern s urroundings o f t he Y iron P lateau ( tract E .i n F ig. 7 .1) I e ncountered a l arge n umber o f f lint p ebbles a nd c obbles i n t he b ed o f N ahal Y iron ( Pl. 7 .2). Ag reat m any o f t hese w ere w hitish o r v ery l ight g ray , a nd o f h ighly h omogeneous t exture i n a ppearance. B ut t here . w ere a lso m any m ore o f ad arker g ray s hade, b eautifully b anded, a nd c overed b y ar elatively t hick c halky c ortex . T he s ame i s t rue o f t he b ed o f N ahal D ishon f urther t o t he n ortheast ( tract F i n F ig. 7 .1). T his f lint m ight h ave b een b rought b y t he t wo s treams f rom t he E ocene s ediments t hat t hey t raversed. H owever, I c ame u pon a n i nteresting p henomenon i n t he s teep s lopes a bove t he s tream b eds. I n t he l imestone m atrix a long t he c liff o f

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P l.

7 .2

F lint p ebbles i n t he b ed o f N ahal Y iron .

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N ahal Y iron, s ome 5 -15 m eters a bove i ts b ed, w ere c emented a g reat m any f lint p ebbles a nd n odules, l ike i n a c onglomerate ( Pl. 7 .3 ; f or a d escription o f t he p rocess, s ee S hepherd 1 972: 1 35). T he s ame f eature w as o bserved o n t he o pposite s ide, i n t he c liff f orming t he n orthern s lope o f t he B aram P lateau , a nd f urther t o t he n ortheast o n t he v ery s teep s outheastern a nd s outhern s lopes o f N ahal D ishon ( tracts F a nd G ). O n t he l atter, o wing t o t he e ver-deepening i ncision o f t he s treams w hile p roceeding i n ag eneral e asterly d irection, t he c emented f lint f eature w as s een a t ah igher e levation, s ome 5 0-100 m a bove t he b ed. G iven t his d ifference i n h eight, w hich, a t t he s ame t ime, m eans a l arger s lope a rea , i t i s n ot s urprising t hat m any m ore l oose f lint s tones w ere o bserved o n t he s lopes a bove t he D ishon t han a bove t he Y iron; m ost l ikely a ll e roded f rom t he c ontinuously w eathering " conglomerates." F urthermore, a t t he c onfluence o f t he Y iron a nd t he D ishon I n oticed a s eam o f f lint i n t he l imestone r ock s omewhat h igher u p t he s lope. T racing t his s eam w estwards, I f ound i t t hinning o ut o ver a l ong d istance. H owever, t o t he n ortheast, o n t he s lopes o ver t he D ishon, t he s eam k ept t hickening , t o u p t o 1 0 c m a nd m ore , a nd o utcropping f or m uch l onger i ntervals. M ore v eins w ere d etectable t oward t he n orthern e nd o f t ract F , o ne o ver t he o ther b ut s eparated f rom o ne a nother ( Pl. 7 .4). A t o ne p oint I c ounted n o l ess t han s ix. T he l oose f lint s tones o n t he s lope u nderneath , a nd p erhaps a lso p art o f t he c emented f lint, w ere m ost l ikely e roded f rom t he s eams a nd v eins. B ut t hese v eins c ould n ot h ave b een t he o rigin o f t he l arge p ebbles a nd b oulders i n t he s treams' b eds a nd o n t heir i mmediate b anks. A lso, t he v ein f lint h ad a m ore s labbed, t abular s tructure; q uite u nlike t he f lint a t t he b ottom . Iw ould m aintain, t herefore, t hat w hile m ost o f t he f lint i n t he b eds o f t he D ishon a nd t he Y iron w as d erived ( like i n N ahal A viv), a nd t hat t he c emented f lint w as i ntegrated i n s itu w ithin t he l imestone, t he f lint i n t he v eins i s a p art o f t he l ocal E ocene b edrock ( apparently t he T a r nrat o r t he A viv F ormation). W hatever t he s ources a nd t ransportations, i nteresting a s t hey a re p er s e, am ore i mportant q uestion f or o ur s tudy i s w hether o r n ot t he A cheuleans i nhabiting t he Y iron P lateau e xploited t he f lint s ources o n t he s outhern a nd e astern s lopes a nd s tream b eds, o r c onfined t hemselves t o t he f lint o f t he n orthern s ide o nly . T he f orthcoming a nalysis i s n ecessary t o a nswer t his q uestion. F lint C haracteristics A ll s amples c ollected w ere e xamined u nder t hree c ategories: f lint's n ucleus, p atina, a nd c over; d ivided i nto t wo s ubcategories: n atural p ieces, a nd a rtifacts. T he p resence o f e ach c haracteristic i n e very s ample w as m arked a nd s ummary t ables p repared. T o s ave s pace a nd p rint c ost, I w ill a void p resentation o f t he p rocedure a nd c omplex t ables, a nd s uffice w ith a b rief c ommentary o f t he f inal r esults. N ucleus T he d ominant c olors i n a ll t hree s ample g roups ( north-central, t ransects, a nd s ites) o f b oth n atural p ieces a nd a rtifacts a re t he f ollowing, i n o rder o f h igher t o l ower s ample f requencies: b eige ( mostly a nd m ainly l ight g rayish b rown); l ight g ray; a nd g ray .

1 7 3

P l. 7 .3 F lint p ebbles a nd c hunks c emented i nto a l imestone matr i ( "conglomerate") o n t he s lope a bove N ahal Y iron ( on t he r ight, hi E h and p ointing t o a f lint p ebble, G . B ruder, F ield A ssistant; o n t he l eft, h is s on, D avid, f or s cale).

F ollowing t hese t hree, w ith s lightly d iffering f requencies o f s amples m arked " present" a re: d ark g ray, r eddish o r r eddish b rown; b rown; d ark b rown; a nd b lackish d ark b rown. I n t wo s amples o f t he e ight f rom t he n orth-central ( NC) z one w hitish f lint t urned u p: o ne s pecimen i n e ach. F our s amples o f t he t wenty-six f rom t he s ites, e ach h ad a s ingle w hitish n ucleus. I n a ll s amples f rom t he N C z one c halky e mbedded i n a t hicker o r t hinner c over p resent. S uch f lint a ppears i n t he g reat t he t ransects a nd t he s ites a s n atural p resence d rops c onsiderably i n a rtifacts.

f lint ( i.e., t he n ucleus i s o f c halk u nder t he c ortex) i s m ajority o f t he s amples f rom p ieces. B ut t he f requency o f T his i s t o b e e xpected f or

m any o f t he a rtifacts a re w orked a ll a round w ith a ll t races o f c over o r c ortex r emoved. W hat I c all " calcareous f lint" ( i.e., n ucleus l ending t he v isual i mpression o f l imestone, u sually o f s lightly v arying s hades o f g ray) i s a lso c ommon. B anded f lint i s f ound i n n early a ll s amples. M ottled f lint ( usually l ight-colored, t iny s pots) i s p resent i n v arying f requency o f s amples f rom a ll t hree p opulations. M ost f lint a pears t o b e o f h omogeneous t exture ( but s ee S hepherd 1 972: 2 3 w ho s tates t hat d espite s uch a ppearance, " microscopic e xamination w ill s how t hat i t i s f ar f rom h omogeneous." F or o ur p urposes, t he d ifferentiation b y a ppearance i s s ufficient). O nly r arely a re n onhomogeneous n uclei m et. T his i s t rue f or a ll s amples. I n

s ummary:

w hatever t he p roperties o bserved i n n atural p ieces a nd

a rtifacts f rom t he t ransects a nd t he s ites, t hey a re f ully a ccounted f or b y t he r aw m aterial a t t he N C z one. F urthermore, t he p reponderance o f t he t hree m ajor c olors a t t he N C z one c ompletely m atches t hat a t t he t ransects a nd s ites. P atina P atination w as e xamined o n t he s amples f rom t he t ransects a nd s ites. T he d ominant c olors o f b oth n atural p ieces a nd a rtifacts a re b eige, l ight b rown, a nd r eddish b rown. F ollowing t hese c ome d ark b rown, g rayish, a nd b lack ( extremely r are). A gain , a s i n t he c ase o f f lint n ucleus, t he p atinas c orrespond b eautifully , a nd i n t he s ame o rder o f p resence b y s ample f requencies f rom n atural p ieces t o a rtifacts a nd v ice v ersa. I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t he v ery l ight g ray o r w hitish p atinas s o t ypical o f n umerous v ery l ight g ray , w hitish f lints a nd a rtifacts a t t he C halcolithic s ite ( Y33) o n t he s outheastern s lope o f t he p lateau, a re c ompletely a bsent f rom t he s amples f rom t he A cheulean s ites. T his d ichotomy i s s o c lear t hat a t t he s ole s pot o n t he p lateau w here A cheulean a nd C halcolithic a rtifacts i ntermingle, i .e., i n t he s trip o f l and b etween Y 27/28 a nd Y3 ( see F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1) t o w hich m aterial w as w ashed d ownslope f rom t he f ormer t o t he l atter, t he A cheulean a rtifacts c an b e e asily d istinguished f rom t he C halcolithic o nes b y p atina a lone. T he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f p atinas a re e xtremely c omplicated, s trictly m icrolocally r estricted, s electively i nfluenced b y d iverse e nvironmental a gencies, e tc.; i n s hort, t he f actors i nvolved a re i nfinite, a nd n o o ne h as t hus f ar m ade a r eal b reakthrough i n t he m atter. M ost a uthorities a gree ( e.g., G oodwin 1 960; S chmalz 1 960; V iereck 1 96 ) 4; J osselyn 1 967; R ottlander 1 975; S axson e t a l. 1 978; P atterson a nd S ollberger 1 979) t hat d ating b ased o n p atina a lone i s

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f raught w ith r isks. S ome ( e.g., H onea 1 964) e xpress t he v iew , h owever, t hat w ithin a l imited a rea w ith s hared e nvironmental c onditions, m ore o r l ess t he s ame p edologic t exture a nd p rocesses, e tc.; a nd w hen a rtifacts a re o f t he s ame f lint, a b road n otion o f " earlier" v ersus " later" c an s ometimes b e g ained. A nother v iew : t hat u nder c ertain s pecific c ircumstances p atina w ill t end t o d arken w ith t ime, i s p resumably t rue f or o ur s tudy a rea. O n a rtifacts s econdarily m odified ( occasionally r eaching n early 5 % i n s everal o f o ur a ssemblages), t he p atina o n t he l ater s cars i s c learly l ighter t han t hat o f t he a rtifact's o riginal p lanes a nd s cars ( see a lso S hepherd 1 972: 1 77). T herefore, t he f act t hat p atinas o n a rtifacts f rom A cheulean s ites o n t he Y iron P lateau a re r egularly d arker t han t hose f rom C halcolithic s ites o f t he Y iron P lateau s hould c ause n o g reat s urprise, f or m any t ens o f m illennia e lapsed b etween t he t wo c omplexes. M oreover, i f o ne e ncounters a r eddish b rown-patinated a rtifact a nd a v ery l ight g rayish o r w hitish-patinated o ne, i n o ur l imited a rea , e ven o utside t heir " cultural" c ontext, i t c an b e q uite s afely a ssumed t hat t he f ormer i s A cheulean, t he l atter o f am uch l ater a ge. T his i s p ossible w ith t he t wo p olar c olors o nly , a nd t hanks t o t he v ery l ong g ap i n o ccupation; f ollowing t he A cheulean, n o t races o f a ny t echnological c omplex w ere f ound u ntil t he E pipalaeolithic, N eolithic , a nd C halcolithic ( see a lso G ilead 1 975; R onen e t a l. 1 974; L amdan a nd R onen 1 983). O n t he o ther h and, a ttempting ( as s ome s tudents v entured: G . B ruder , p ersonal c ommunication 1 979) t o d istinguish d evelopmental s tages b y p atinas w ithin t he l ocal A cheulean i s h ighly u nreliable. O ur e xamination o f t housands o f a rtifacts f rom t he Y iron P lateau h as s hown t hat d ifferent p atinas a pear i n a ssociation . W hether t he r eason b e t he e xtreme v ertical d isplacement ( see a bove), a nd/or t he d ifferential i nfluences o f e verchanging m icroenvironments, t he e stablishment o f t emporally b ounded " cultural" s tages w ithin t he l ocal A cheulean o n t he b asis o f p atina s hades i s p lainly h azardous. S ome k ind o f d evelopment c ertainly t ook p lace d uring t he l ong p eriod o f A cheulean o ccupancy . B ut, u nfortunately , p atina s hades c annot b e t aken a s a n i ndicator f or t hat. T wo t ools m ight h ave b een m anufactured o n t he s ame d ay : o ne; h aving u ndergone a s pecific " posthumous" p edoturbation p rocess e xposing i t t o a n a ccelerated p atination r ate, a ttains a d arker p atina; t he s econd, e scaping h eavy p edoturbation , h as a l ighter p atina ( see a lso S hepherd 1 972: 18). T his i s t he m ost l ikely c ommon d ifferentiating p rocess i n o ur s tudy a rea , s o a ttempts t o s eparate s equential i ntra-Acheulean " cultural" s tages b y p atinas c annot b e a ccepted, a nd a re b est n ot c laimed. C over H ere, a gain, t he s amples f rom t he t ransects a nd s ites w ere s tudied. T he f ollowing t hree s orts o f c over a re p resent i n ad escending o rder o f s ample f requencies i n b oth p opulations a nd f or b oth n atural p ieces a nd a rtifacts. T he f irst i s . w hat I c all " flint c over," w hich r eally m eans n o r egular k ind o f c ortex, f lint b eing i ts o wn c over ( naturally " decorticated": s ee S hepherd 1 972: 2 2). T his n oncortical o uter f ace i s o f c ourse p atinated, m ostly i n r eddish b rown o r b rown, o ften i n l ight b rown, a nd r arely i n b eige. T he s econd i s al imestony c ream ( i.e., p ale y ellow t o y ellowish w hite), a nd t hird, t he b asaltic r eddish b rown.

1 7 6

T he c over a nd c olor o f a p iece w ere m ost l ikely m ainly i nfluenced d uring i ts h istory b y t he l ocal, s pecific, p hysical, a nd m icroenvironmental c ircumstances. S ince l imestone, c halk , b asalt, a nd f lint s edimens a s w ell a s t erra r ossa a nd b asaltic s oils a re b asic l and c omponents i n o ur r egion, q uite o ften i nterchanging, i nterfingering a nd m ingling, t heir i mpacts o n f lint c overs w ere l ikely t o h ave a lso b een o f g reat i mport ( see a lso B ruder 1 985). H ard-to-fracture f lint W hile s plitting a nd f laking f lints t o r each a t t heir n uclei, I s oon r ealized t hat s ome o f t he p ieces w ere q uite h ard t o f racture, s ometimes d emonstrating s tubborn r esistance e ven t o h eavy b lows. I t o ccurred t o m e t hat p ieces o f t his k ind w ere u sually o f i rregular o utline w ith d istorted, u neven c over ( or c ortex), m ostly p itted, s tained a nd w eathered, o ften w ith p rotrusions a nd d epressions, e ven h oles, m any o f t hem n odular i n s hape, a ngular o r p ebbly w ith b lack o r b rown a reas a nd s pots, t he n uclei h ighly c alcareous a nd/or c halky, n onhomogeneous w ith f laws a nd a morphous i ntrusions ( recalling s ome o f t he e xamples i n S hepherd 1 972: P lates X , X I, X III, X IV , a nd X VI). Ib ecame e xpert i n p redicting q uite q uickly w hether a p iece w as a bout t o b e f ractured e asily a nd c leanly ( like, e .g., t hose w ith m ore u niform c ontours a nd s moother e xteriors, e tc.) o r w ith d ifficulty , s ometimes m isshapen. F ollowing t his e xperience I t ook 2 5 p ieces a s d escribed a bove a t r andom f rom v arious s amples, f ractured t hem a nd t allied e very c haracteristic I w as a ware o f . C olors w ere d istributed a s f ollows. N ucleus: b eige - 1 0, l ight g ray - 9 , g ray - 5 , a nd c ream - 1 ; p atina: l ight b rown - 1 0, b rown - 6 , b eige - 6 , d ark g ray , r eddish b rown, a nd c ream - 1 e ach; c over: b rown - 9 , d ark b rown - 8 , l ight b rown - 6 , g ray a nd b eige - 1e ach. A ll i n a ll t he r ecordings o f t he w ithdrawn s ample c orresponded c losely w ith t he i nitial d eterminations e xcept f or t wo p roperties: o nly 1 3 o f t he 2 5 w ere o f c alcareous n ucleus, a nd 7 o nly o f n onhomogeneous a pearance. T he l atter t wo i ndicate t hat e ven a mong t he p ieces o f d istorted o utline, p itted, a nd s omewhat h oley c over , t hose w ith c alcareous n uclei c ould s till b e c onsiderably e xploited ( as t hey i ndeed w ere: s ee o n N ucleus a bove), a nd t hat e ven a mong t he d istorted p ieces, o nly a m inority w ere o f n onhomogeneous t exture b y a ppearance. T here i s n o d oubt i n m y m ind t hat t he A cheuleans w ere b y f ar m ore c lever a nd e xperienced t han m yself i n s electing t heir r aw m aterial n eeds; t hat a s w ell a s l ooking a t t he e xterior o f a n atural p iece t hey c ould a lso s ense i ts i ntrinsic q ualities. T wo a dditional o bservations m erit r eporting. F irstly , w hile r eexamining a rtifacts o nly , f ollowing t he a bove e xperiments, m y g eneral i mpression w as t hat w hereas s mall c ores a nd s mall t ools s howed m ore h omogeneous, g ood-quality ( in t erms o f d eliberate f racturing) n uclei, l arge c ores a nd l arge t ools ( including, e .g., h andaxes) d emonstrated a g reater v ariety o f n uclei, m ore c alcareous f lint, a nd e ven l ess h omogeneous a ppearance. T he s ize o f t he a vailable c ore o r t he d esired b lank w as m ost l ikely a n i mportant f actor i n s electing n atural f lint f or w ork. T he s econd o bservation i s t hat a n umber o f u nworked p ieces, i ncluded i n t he s amples f rom t he p lateau , o wing t o t heir f linty a ppearance t o t he c ollector's e ye t urned o ut t o h ave b een a fter f racture j ust

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l imestone p ieces. S ince t here a re n umerous i n s itu s mall a nd m edium l imestone f ragments, p ebbles, e tc. o n t he p lateau , m y t allies c onducted b efore t he f racturing a re p robably s omewhat e xaggerated; y et c ertainly n ot t o a ny s ignificant m easure, f or s uch m istakes w ere l ow i n n umber . F lint E conomy F our m ajor t opics w il b e d iscussed i n t his l ast s ection. F irstly , t he p rovenance o f r aw m aterial. T he t erm p rovenance h ere m eans t he z one o r z ones o f a vailable n atural f lint f requented b y t he A cheuleans o f t he Y iron P lateau w hence t hey f etched t he m aterial f or t heir i ndustrial p roducts. S econdly , t he a vailability o f r aw m aterial, i .e., t o w hat e xtent c ould t he q uantities a nd q ualities o f f lint a t t he p rovenance z one o r z ones a nswer t heir n eeds. T hirdly , l ogistics: e valuation o f t he d egree o f e ase o r d ifficulty i n g etting t o a nd f rom t he p rovenance z one o r z ones, a nd t he s trategy o f d elivery o f n atural f lint, c ores, a nd b lanks t o t he s ites. A nd f ourthly , a pproximation o f t he l evels o f i ntensity o f e xploitation o f t he r aw m aterial a t t he d ifferent s ites. P rovenance A s I h ave m ore t han o nce m entioned a bove, t he n orth-central ( NC) z one ( see F ig. 7 .1) i s t he o nly a rea o n t he p lateau ( sumit a nd s lopes i ncluded) w here a n otably d ense a ccumulation o f n atural f lint a ggregates e xists. I t i s o nly h ere, a part f rom t he s tream b eds, t hat n atural f lint a ppears i n a ll s izes; f rom p ebbles t o b oulders. T he v iew t hat t he N C z one w as t he s ole p rovenance o f r aw m aterial f or t he A cheuleans o f t he Y iron P lateau f irst t ook s hape d uring o ur i ntensive s urvey i n 1 979 a nd 1 980, g aining f urther s upport f rom t he l ong t ransects' s ampling i n M arch 1 981 a nd t he • r econnaissance i n M ay a nd J une 1 981 o f t he t racts a round t he p lateau . M y m ost r ecent i nspection o f t he N C , i n J une 1 985, e nabled t he r ough d elineation o f t his r aw m aterial p rovenance, a s s hown i n F igure 7 .1. O n t his l ast v isit I c arefully e xamined t he z one b oth l aterally a nd b y g radient. I ts w estern p art, a round t he r elatively n arrow w adi r unning d own f rom t he e dge o f K ibbutz Y iron t o N ahal A viv ( apparently t he s ole r emnant o f t he l ong-abandoned b ed-curve o f t he A viv : s ee b elow), w as f ound t o b e t he r ichest i n f lint q uantities a nd i n t he v ariety o f s izes. T he f urther I p roceeded e astwards o r u pslope, q uantity a nd s ize g radually d iminished. T he n ear a bsence o f f lint o n b oth t he n ortheastern b asaltic s tretch ( "the t ongue") a nd t he u pper r anges o f t he s lopes d escending e astwards t oward N ahal D ishon ( see F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1) c an b e r egarded a s q uite f irm c onfirmation o f m y d elineation o f t he N C z one. • T he z one i s i n f act a s eries o f t erraces, n ow c onsiderably e roded a nd o bliterated, c reated b y as tream w hose b ed c ontinued t o r etreat t hrough t ime u ntil b eing .f inally c aptured b y t he p resent-day A viv b ed. T his a ncient s tream c urve m ight h ave b een p art o f N ahal A viv i tself o r o f i ts m ajor t ributary , w hich f lows i nto t he A viv f rom t he w est, a t t he p oint w here t he h airpin b end i n t he Y iron-Avivim b ack r oad i s s ituated. T hese s treams w ere n ot i ncised a s d eeply t hen a s t hey a re n ow ( Inbar a nd Z iv 1 983; s ee a lso R onen e t a l. 1 97 ) 4; L amdan a nd R onen 1 983; a nd a bove), a nd t heir w aters f lowed i n b road r anges, p articularly d uring f loods: t hus e xplaining t he c omparatively w ide s pread o f t ransported

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f lint p ebbles, c obbles, a nd b oulders t hroughout g eneral d escription o f s uch p rocesses, s ee F igure 3 1).

t he N C z one S hepherd 1 972:

( for a 1 3 1 a nd

T he m ost r emarkable e vidence f or t he a ncient s tream r egime j ust d escribed, a nd f or i ts e nsuing i mport o f n atural f lint t o t he N C z one c ame f rom o ur s urvey o f N ahal A viv 's b ed a nd b anks i n 1 979. S etting o ut f rom t he h airpin b end m entioned a bove u p t o t he m arvelous A viv C aves ( somewhat e astwards a nd u nder A 63 i n F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1), w e w ere a stounded t o f ind a lmost n o f lint, e ither n atural o r m odified, a long t he w hole t rack . T he f ew p ieces w e p icked u p l ay d irectly u nder o bvious a rtifact c lusters h igh a bove t he c liff . O n m y s urvey a round t he p lateau i n 1 981, I d iscovered a t t he o utlet o f t he A viv t o t he D ishon ( upper r ight e dge o f F ig . 7 .1, p art o f t ract G ) a mazing q uantities o f f lint p ebbles, c obbles a nd b oulders, r eminiscent o f t hose i n t ract D a nd t he N C z one. C urious a nd e ager I s trode b ack u pstream i n t he d ry b ed t hrough h uge p iles o f r ocks a nd s tones i ntermingling w ith e ndless m asses o f f lint p ebbles o f a ll s izes ( Pl. 7 .5). Ic ould t hen e asily g uess w here t he a mounts o f f lint w ould b egin t o t aper o ff , a nd f inally d isappear , a s i ndeed t hey .did, a c ouple o f h undred m eters e ast o f t he A viv C aves, a nd a bout h alf a k ilometer e ast o f A 63 a s t he c row f lies. I n s um: t he o bvious p resence o f t he s ame n atural f lint o f a ll d ifferent s izes i n a g eneral n orthwest d irection f rom t he p lateau ( tracts A , B , a nd D ), a nd. a t t he c onfluence o f t he A viv w ith i ts t ributary j ust n orth o f K ibbutz Y iron, a nd w ithin t he N C z one ( but n ot i n t he p resent A viv 's b ed a long t his z one), a nd i n t he A viv's b ed t oward i ts o utlet t o -t he D ishon ( northern p art o f t ract G ), seem t o s ustain t he a bove i nterpretation o f t he l ocal p alaeogeomorphological f eatures a nd t heir o perational r egime i n p re-Acheulean t imes a s w ell a s t he w ay f lint r eached t he h ighly i mportant p rovenance a rea, n ow c alled t he N C z one. T he f act t hat a t t he l ower r eaches o f t he A viv b ed I c ame u pon c ores a nd o ther A cheulean a rtifacts, e ven s haped t ools, m ay w ell a rgue t hat t he a ncient c urve o f t he b ed w as s till a ctive d uring A cheulean o ccupancy . I f s o, Y 13 a nd Y 18 m ust h ave b een s ituated a lmost o n t he b anks o f t he a ncient b ed ( see F ig. 7 .1). F urthermore, b ased m ainly o n t echnological a nalyses, I h ave p reviously s uggested t hat Y 13 s erved a s as hort-term t ransitional n ode i n t he s easonal m obility s ystem o f t he l ocal A cheuleans ( see a bove, e specially F ig. 6 .24; a lso O hel 1 985, 1 986b), a nd t hat Y 18 m ight h ave b een a ctivated i n t he s ame c apacity . B oth l ie o n t he n orthern s lope o f t he p lateau , b eyond t he b asaltic s ummit w here t he r egular s ummer s ites w ere l ocated. I t i s v ery l ikely t hat t he l ocations o f Y 13 a nd Y 18 a s t ransition c ampings w ere c hosen , p artly a t l east b ecause t hey w ere p ositioned o n t he b oundaries o f t he N C z one, w hence n atural f lint w as t aken o r c ores a nd b lanks p repared a nd c arried a way e n r oute t o t he A vivim w inter s ites a nd b ack t o t he p lateau s ummit's s ummer l ocales. Id o n ot b elieve t hat t he f lint p rovenances o n t he s outhern a nd e astern s ides o f t he p lateau w ere t apped b y t he Y iron A cheuleans. T o b egin w ith, a s w idely a ccepted ( e.g., I nbar a nd Z iv 1 983; L amdan a nd R onen 1 983; O hel 1 983d; a nd a bove), s tream-bed l evels w ere h igher i n A cheulean t imes. J ust a s k arstic a ctivity f orming t he n umerous c aves a nd c avities i n t he c anyon c liffs w as p ost-Acheulean ( also n o t races o f A cheulean a rtifacts w ere f ound i n t he m any c aves a nd t erraces e xamined

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P 1. 7 .4 S ix f lint s eams ( at l east) 5 0 m a bove N ahal D ishon 's b ed.

o ne a bove t he o ther a bout

P l. 7 .5 F lint p ebbles, c obles, a nd b oulders i ntermingled i n l imestone p iles i n t he b ed o f N ahal A viv a t i ts c onfluence w ith

i n N ahal A viv: s ee O hel a nd B ruder 1 980; A viam a nd O hel 1 980), s o i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat t he f lint v eins a nd t he c emented f lint ( conglomerate-like: s ee e arlier) a bove t he Y iron a nd D ishon w ere e xposed a s e arly a s A cheulean t imes. W ith r egard t o t he d erived f lint p ebbles, e tc. i n t he s treams' b eds, s everal o bservations a rgue a gainst t heir h aving b een d rafted b y t he Y iron P lateau A cheuleans e ven i f t he p ebbles w ere a lready p resent a t t hat t ime: a ) V ast, s uccessive a reas o n t he u pper p arts o f t he s outhern a nd e astern s lopes a re a lmost d evoid o f n atural f lints, a rtifacts i n p articular ( see F igs. 5 .1 a nd 7 .1). T hat g enerations o f p eople c arrying f lints n ever d ropped o ne p iece s eems i nconceivable; b ) A lmost n o m odified f lints c an b e s een i n t hese b eds, t hus t he c hances t hat h ere l arge p ieces w ere f ractured f or b lanks e tc. t o b e c arried a way a re n egligible. T he f ew a rtifacts e ncountered m ight h ave b een w ashed d own f rom t he B aram P lateau , j ust a cross f rom t he Y iron ( whether o r n ot t he A cheuleans o f B aram t apped t his s ource i s y et t o b e i nvestigated); c ) T he A cheulean s ites a nd t heir s urroundings o n t he Y iron P lateau c ontain n o t races o f e ither t he w hitish , v ery l ight g ray f lint o r t he v ery f ine b anded g ray f lint s o a bundantly s cattered o n t he Y iron 's b ed. T he a ppearance o f s uch f lint i n t he C halcolithic s ite (. n3) m ay s tem f rom e ither o ne o r b oth o f t wo r easons: o ne, t his s pecific f lint v ariety w as d erived i n t he Y iron p osterior t o A cheulean o ccupancy; o r t wo, t he C halcolithic p eople s ought t his f lint i n p articular; d ) N ot o nly n ow , b ut a lso i n A cheulean t imes t he d escent i nto a nd a scent f rom t he Y iron a nd D ishon V alleys w ere i ncomparably h arder t han t he e asy a pproachability o f t he N C z one a t t he n orthern s ide o f t he p lateau . W hatever t he m eans u sed b y t he A cheuleans, a part f rom t heir h ands, C halcolithic p eople u ndoubtedly h ad f ar b etter d evices f or t ransporting t he f lint; e ) N ot o ne s ingle A chAulean s ite l ies o n t he s outhern o r e astern s lopes. I n f act, t he Y iron P lateau A cheuleans' o rientation t ook a ltogether t he o pposite d irection ( see F ig. 6 .24). T he N C z one m ight h ave b een a n i mportant f actor i n t he f ormation o f t hat o rientation . . Bearing a ll t his i n m ind, I c an h ardly a ccept R onen e t a l's ( 197 ) 4: 1 4) s tatement " that a s ubstantial t ransportation o f r aw m aterial b y m an i s u nlikely .. t he f lint n odules w ere l aid o n t he b asalt a reas b y w ater a ction .." O n t he c ontrary , Im aintain t hat a ll m aterial u pon t he b asaltic p art o f t he p lateau w as i ntroduced b y m an. I t w as a rgued e arlier ( also B rosh a nd O hel 1 981: 2 5) t hat " Although t he d epth o f t he i ncision m ust h ave b een s hallower a t t hose t imes, R amat Y iron a lready c onstituted a w ell d efined s teep-sided a nd f lat-crested f eature o nly s omewhat l arger i n e xtent a nd o f l esser r elative a ltitude t han a t p resent." H ow c ould n atural f lint h ave b een c arried u phill o nto t he b asalt s ummit? F urthermore, e xamination o f F igures 5 .1 a nd 7 .1 w ill s how t hat t he d ensest a reas o f n atural f lint a re i n t he s ites a nd a round t hem w hereas m any o ther a reas m ore o r l ess o f t he s ame a ltitude a re d evoid o f f lints. H ow c an t hese s elective d ifferences b e e xplained b y n atural a gencies?

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F urther s till, a nd i n a ddition t o t he n atural f lint p ieces b rought b y m an, a g reat m any f lint a rtifacts o n t he s ummit s uffered l ocal, s pecific, l ong-term c easeless w eathering a nd r ounding s o a s t o r esult i n a n a ppearance o f n atural p ebbles o r f ragments; t hey w ere n ot o riginally s uch o nes ( Bruder 1 982: 2 9; 1 985 ; M . I nbar a nd M . K lein , p ersonal c ommunication D ecember 2 7, 1 979; s ee a lso S hepherd 1 972: 1 30). A nd, e ven t he h uge q uantities o f f lint p ieces f ound o n t he p lateau , s hould c ome a s n o s urprise ( see O hel 1 983c w ith r eferences, a nd a bove; a lso S hepherd 1 972: 1 73). A fter a ll, i f t he o ccupancy l asted a bout 1 00,000 y ears, o ur s eemingly s tartling e stimate o ffered e arlier i s r endered t o a n a verage f or t he t arget a rea o f o nly 8 11 p ieces p er y ear. E ven t ripling t he n umber f or t he w hole p lateau b rings u s t o o nly 2 433 p ieces/year: s till a r ather c onservative, p ossibly t oo c onservative a pproximation f or e ven a f ew s mall g roups. C onsequently , m y c ontention i s t hat t he N C z one w as t he m ajor , a nd m ost p robably t he s ole p rovenance o f n atural f lint f or t he A cheuleans o f t he Y iron P lateau. A vailability I t h as b een d emonstrated a bove t hat t he Y iron P lateau A cheuleans u sed f lint v arieties f ound i n g reat a bundance a nd i n v arious s izes w ithin t he N C z one. T here i s n ot a s ingle a rtifact w hose f lint v ariety -b y n ucleus a nd c over - c annot b e f ound i n t his a rea. T he g reat m ajority o f f lints t here a re o f a f ine-grained, h omogeneous t exture b y a ppearance, o f g ood q uality, a nd e asy t o f racture a nd m odify . T he A cheuleun a rtifacts c learly d emonstrate t heir p roducer's p reference f or s uch f lints. T o e stimate, e ven r oughly , t he a mounts a nd w eights o f f lint p ieces a t t he N C z one i s i mpossible. I nfinite a mounts o f f lint p ebbles, c obbles a nd b oulders a re b uried i nside l arge, l ong w aves o f l imestones p iled b y m odern m an i n t he p rocess o f c learing l and f or c ultivation. W ithout d oubt t his p rofusion o f n atural f lint a mply p rovided t he A cheuleans w ith t heir m anufactural n eeds f or m any g enerations. T here w as s imply n o n eed, i t a ppears, f or t hem t o s earch f or o ther r aw m aterial p rovenances. A lso, a s i t i s l ikely t hat t he a ncient s tream c urve s till e xisted d uring t he A cheulean p eriod o f r esidence, s upplies o f f lint w ere r eplenished w henever r ainy w inters c aused o utbursts a nd f loods. L ogistics M ovement b etween t he N C z one a nd t he s ites w as p robably q uite m anageable, e ven t hough t he s lopes m ight h ave b een i n p arts l ess c omfortable t o w alk u pon t han t oday . I t i s ar elatively m ild s lope n owadays, a ccessible f rom a ll s ides e xcept t he v ery s teep c anyon o f N ahal A viv, w hich a ccording t o a ll a uthorities ( referred t o a bove) h ad n ot y et f ormed i n A cheulean t imes, o r a t t he v ery l east h ad n ot d eveloped t he s harp g radients s een t oday . A g lance a t F igure 7 .1 w ill r eveal t hat m ost s ites a re c lose t o t he N C z one, n one f urther t han 8 00 m : C hildren c ould h ave b een s ent t o c ollect s ome p ieces. A nd, i f t he s easonal m obility m odel I h ave s uggested i ndeed e xisted, t hen t he p eople p robably c ollected n atural p ieces t o t ake a long w ith t hem w hen m oving n ortheastwards f or t he w inter a nd b ack t o t he p lateau s ummit f or t he s ummer.

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O f c ourse i t w as n ot p ossible t o r emove l arge b locks o f f lint f rom t he N C z one t o t he v icinity o f t he s ites, b ut n or w as i t n ecessary . I ndeed, n o l arge p ebbles, n odules, o r c hunks w ere e ver e ncountered o n o r u nder t he s urface o f t he b asaltic p art o f t he p lateau . I n a ddition, o n F eburary 2 6, 1 981, I t horoughly e xplored t he w aves a nd h eaps o f s tones - a lso t he r esults o f f ield c learing o n t he p lateau 's " table," m ainly b y t he f ormer A rab v ilagers o f t he a rea - j ust e ast o f Y 25 a nd o n t he u pper p arts o f t he n orthern s lopes. T hese p iles a re a n a dmixture o f m ostly b asalt s tones, s ome l imestones a nd f lints. I e ncountered o nly o ne 3 0cm l ong p ebble, o ne 2 2cm , a nd a f ew a bout 2 0 c m . A ll t he r emaining p ieces m easured l ess t han 2 0 c m , m ost o f t hem c onsiderably l ess. O n t he o ther h and, a s I s tressed a bove, a g reat m any s plit a nd f ractured p ebbles, c obbles, a nd b oulders w ere s een w ithin t he N C z one a s w ere c ores, l arge, m edium a nd s mall p rimary f lakes a nd, o ccasionally , e ven s haped t ools. T he A cheulean k nappers s eem t o h ave t urned t he N C z one i nto a k ind o f p reliminary p reparatory a rea ( for a nother e xample o f ap reparatory a rea, s ee O hel a nd L echevalier 1 979; s ee a lso B ryan 1 950; G ould, K oster a nd S ontz 1 971; P urdy 1 981; E ricson 1 984). H ere t hey r educed l arge p ieces t o s uitable c ores a nd r emoved f lakes f or b lanks, s ome o f w hich t hey c hose t o c arry a way w ith t hem f or l ater m odification i nto p reforms a nd t ools. I t i s n ot u nreasonable t o i magine t hat Y 13, a nd p erhaps Y 18 a s w ell, s ituated o n t he b order o f t he N C z one w ere i ntentionally d esignated a s t ransitional n odes, w here t he p eople s tayed f or s hort i ntervals i n t he f all a nd s pring t o p repare s ome t ools f or i mmediate o r f uture n eeds. E xploitation T he d egree o f e xploitation i ntensity o f t he r aw m aterial h as b een j udged b y t he m anner o f c ore u tilization. T he f ollowing e ight i ndices w ere i ncluded i n t he e valuation ( for d ata b ase, v ariable l ists, d efinitions, a nalytical p rocedures, e tc., s ee e arlier c hapters a bove; a lso O hel 1 981a a nd c , 1 985, 1 986a a nd b ): p roportion o f g eometric c ore f orms; r atio o f s cars p er c ore; p roportion o f e xhausted c ores; p roportion o f w orked a ll-around c ores ( without c ortex l eftovers a nd u nused p lanes); p roportion o f n oncortical c ores a nd t hose w ith o ne q uarter o f t heir a rea c ortex-adherent; p roportion o f t wo a nd f ewer u nused p lanes; r atio o f s haped t ools a nd m iscellaneous a rtifacts t o c ores; a nd r atio o f d ebitage t o c ores.

t rimmed

. All A cheulean o ccurrences o n t he Y iron P lateau a nd M t. A vivim a re i ncluded h ere: T he A vivim w inter s ites A 43 a nd A 63 ; t he f all/spring t ransitign s ite Y 13 ; t he p ossible t ransition s ite Y 18; t he " sister s ites" ( perhaps a s ingle t wo-compartment s ite) Y 27/28; t he t wo-compartment s ite Y 51/53; a nd t he a ggregation l ocale Y 25. Iw ill s pare t he r eader a ll c alculations e tc., a nd p resent o nly t he r esults. P roportion o f g eometric c ores. O f a ll c ore f orms t hese a re t he m ost s ystematically a nd e fficiently r educed. T hey c omprise a bout o ne q uarter i n m ost s ites ( range: 2 1% t o 2 3%). A t t he A vivim s ites t hey m ake u p n early 1 7%, w hile a t t he a ggregation l ocale ( Y25) 5 .4% ( the a ssemblage o f t he l atter i s r icher b y f ar t han t he o ther s ites i n s emigeometric f orms: s ee C h. 6 a bove). T he A cheulean i ndustry a t t he Y iron P lateau p erhaps h ardly c ompetes w ith s ome i n E urope, A frica , a nd A sia ( see, e .g., i n B ordes 1 961,

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1 976-1977 , 1 979; G ilead 1 970; C lark 1 975; L umley 1 975; R oe 1 981; W ymer 1 982) t hat a re p articularly r ich i n , f or i nstance, d iscoid, g lobular , b iconical, o r p erfectly p erformed L evallois c ores. Y et t he Y iron A cheulean w as c ertainly f ar f rom u nskilled. F irst, i t c ontains a c ertain p roportion o f a ll t he a bove f orms. S econd, s uffice i t t o l ook a t t he m any b eautifully a nd m asterfully w orked g eometric, a nd e ven p olyhedric c ores ( categorized a s s emigeometric), t he n umerous m arvellously f inished h andaxes, o ften q uite d elicately , a nd o ther t ool f orms t o b ecome c onvinced t hat t he k nappers h ere p ossessed a g reat d eal o f e xpertise. I f o ne p refers t o u se t he c omparatively l ow p roportion o f g eometric c ores a s am easure, I w ould s uggest t he a bundance o f a vailable, g ood q uality f lint, o btained e asily f rom n earby , a s t he m ain r eason. T he p eople s imply h ad n o n eed t o b ehave s paringly w ith t heir r aw m aterial. T his d oes n ot m ean, t hough, t hat t hey w ere w asteful, a s i ndicated b y s everal o ther m easures ( see b elow). I n s hort, t he d egree o f e xploitation h ere c an b e l ooked u pon a s m oderately i ntensive. W ith r egard t o Y 25 ( the a ggregation n ode), t he e xtent t o w hich t his l ocale i s o utstanding i n v arious f eatures d ue t o i ts s pecific r ole i n t he s ettlement a nd m obility s ystem o f t he l ocal A cheuleans h as b een a mply d emonstrated e arlier ( Ch. 6a bove; s ee a lso O hel 1 986b). F or e xample, c ores w ere a massed t here s ignificantly m ore t han a t a ny o ther p lace, a pparently b rought b y t he c ongregating i nhabitants e n r oute f rom t he w inter s ites t hrough t he N C z one ( see F igs. 6 .24 a nd 7 .1). T here w as t herefore a s urplus o f s upply . H owever, a s s uggested a bove ( Ch . 6 ) t he n eeds a t Y 25 w ere i mmediate , p ressing , a nd f or a t ransient p eriod o nly . T hus t he k nappers p robably w ere n ot i nterested i n p ainstakingly p roducing l arge n umbers o f h ighly g eometric c ores ( discoids , e tc.). T hey c ould r eadily a nd e conomically s atisfy t heir n eeds f rom s emigeometric c ores ( such a s p olyhedric, p olyfacetted-bidirectional, e tc.), a nd e ven n ongeometric f orms ( e.g., c asuals a nd n odulars). T his i s ap lausible e xplanation f or t he e xtraordinary l ow p roportion o f g eometric c ores f ound a t t he l ocale. R atio o f s cars p er c ore ( average o f a ll c ore f orms). F our t o f ive s cars p er c ore a re t he n orm f or a ll o ccurrences o n t he p lateau. A t t he A vivim s ites t he r ate i s t hred p er c ore . O f c ourse , o nly t he f inal s cars a re v isible. E xcept i n t he e vent o f c ores f rom w hich a f ew p rimary o r s econdary f lakes w ere r emoved, i t i s i mpossible t o g uess h ow m any f lakes w ere s truck o ff b efore t he l ast o nes. N evertheless t hese c an l ead o ne t o ar ough e stimate. F urther i mpeding a n a ccurate e stimate i s t he r arity o f o ccasions w here t he r atio o f s cars p er c ore h as b een p ublished i n s tudies o f o ther A cheulean a ssemblages: c omparisons a re t herefore r isky i ndeed. H owever, a s f or o ther i ndices m entioned a bove, m y g uess i s t hat t he Y iron A cheulean h as a n a verage r atio o f s cars p er c ore. I n f act t he r atio o f 4o r 5 :1 c omplements t he p roportion o f g eometric c ores, a nd c an b e u nderstood b y t he s ame t erms o f f lint a vailability a nd a pproachability. P roportion o f e xhausted c ores. T he c onsiderably h igh p ercentages o f e xhausted c ores, w ell o ver 5 0% o f a ll c ores a t a ll s ites ( range: 4 6% t o 6 5% w ith 7% f or Y 25), r eflect t he o ther s ide o f t he c oin, s o t o s peak; u ndoubtedly a rguing a gainst a d eeply-rooted h abit o f t oo c asual, w asteful, o r o pportunistic e conomy o f c ore e xploitation. G ranted t hat

1 8 4

8 32 a re e xhausted s mall c ores ( from 1 ,991: 4 2%), s ome o f w hich m ight h ave b een s mall t o b egin w ith, t hus r eaching t he s tate o f e xhaustion a fter t he d etachment o f o nly a f ew f lakes. B ut 4 4% o f r egular, i .e., m edium a nd l arge c ores , a re e xhausted ( 511 f rom 1 ,159). O ver 5 0% d isplay c onsiderable u tilization , a nd o nly a s mall m inority - m ostly n odulars a nd o ther d istorted f orms - w ere m inimally u sed. T he Y iron A cheuleans m ight n ot h ave p racticed f ully s ystematic a round-the-clock d etachment o f f lakes, o r t he L evallois t echnique, e xcept t o al imited e xtent; a nd t hey m ay n ow a nd t hen h ave d iscarded a n atural p iece a fter s triking o ff o nly o ne o r ac ouple o f f lakes d espite i ts f urther e xploitive p otential; b ut o n t he w hole t hey c annot b e a ccused o f f alling i nto t houghtless, c areless a nd w asteful h abits. C onsidering t he a bundance o f r aw m aterial a vailable t o t hem , t hey c an b e s aid t o h ave b een o n t he w hole c onsiderate a nd e conomical. T he h igher p roportion o f e xhausted c ores a t Y 25 w as a gain c onnected t o t he s pecific s ubsistence n eeds a nd o ther t asks a t t he a ggregation l ocale. W hat w as i mportant h ere w as t o o btain, a s q uickly a s p ossible a s m any s mall t ools a s p ossible, p oints i n p articular . T herefore s mall c ores w ere u sed h ere m ore t han e lsewhere, a nd t he m ajority o f r egular c ores w ere s truck i n as traightforward, p ractical m ode s o a s t o a chieve f ast y et s uitable r esults. I t i s a lso l ikely t hat o n c oming t o Y 25 f rom t he N C z one, t he p eople b rought s everal l arge c ores i nitially p repared a t t he z one a nd a g reater n umber o f m edium a nd s mall n atural p ieces a nd c ores. P roportion o f w orked-all-around c ores. T he s trategy o f e xploitation o utlined a bove, c ombining l ess g eometrization o f c ore f orm a nd p ractical, s traight-to-the-point, a nd r elative e conomical i ntensity, a ppears t o b e m irrored i n t he r emaining i ndices. T he p roportion o f e ntirely u tilized c ores i s 8 % a t t he p lateau s ummit s ites ( Y27/28 a nd Y 51/53), f alls t o 7 % o n t he m id-upper n orthern s lope ( Y18), t o 4 % d own s lope ( Y13) a nd a t t he A vivim s ites ( A43 a nd A 63), a nd f inally t o j ust 1 % a t Y 25. T he c ase o f Y 25 h as a lready b een d ealt w ith a bove. T he p roportion o f Y 13 s hould p robably a gain b e u nderstood b y i ts l ocational f unction. T his w as a t ransitional s ite. A pparently t he k nappers h ad n either t he t ime n or t he d esire t o s pend t ime c ompletely w earing o ut t heir c ores a s t hey w ere u sed t o d oing m ore r egularly a t t he c omparatively l ong s ummer r esidence o n t he s ummit. Iw ill r eturn t o t he A vivim s ites s hortly . P roportion o f n oncortical a nd 1 /4 c ortex-adherent c ores. H ere a gain , i n l ine w ith t he o verall s trategy , t he p revious i ndex 's c omplementary f acet i s i llustrated. T he r ange s preads f rom 4 9% ( "naturally" a t Y 25), t hrough 5 9% ( the A vivim s ites) t o 8 0% ( Y27/28). T hese p roportions a re g enerally q uite h igh, e videncing t he r elative i ntensity o f e xploitation. P roportion o f t wo o r l ess u nutilized p lanes ( in J ohnson's 1 975 t erminology u ncore a reas; w hich I u sed i n a ll m y a nalyses). T he p roportions h ere c omplement t he f ormer o nes, r anging f rom 7 6% t o 8 8%. T he s ingle o utrider i s Y 27/28 w ith 5 4%, w hich I a m u nable t o e xplain e xcept t hrough r eexamination o f t he e ntire s ample o f c ores, a nd t hat i s n o l onger p racticable.

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R atio o f s haped t ools a nd m iscellaneous t rimmed a rtifacts t o c ores A s e xpected, Y 25 l eads, w ith 4 .1 p er c ore; f ollowed b y Y 5T753 a nd Y 27/28 w ith 2 .5 a nd 2 .3 r espectively ; Y 18 a nd Y 13 w ith 1 .5 a nd 1 .4 r espectively; a nd f inally t he A vivim s ites w ith 0 .9 p er c ore. T ools a re, i n t he f inal a nalysis, t he d esired e nd t owards w hich t he e ntire m anufactural e ffort i s g eared. I f eel t hat t he a bove g radually d ecreasing r atios e lucidate t he p attern o f t echnological v ariability f irmly l inked w ith t hat o f l ocation a nd s ubsistence: t he a ggregation l ocale m arkedly d iffers f rom t he r egular h abitation s ites o n t he p lateau 's s ummit, a nd t hese i n t urn d iffer f rom t he t ransitional n odes a nd t he A vivim w inter s ites. R atio o f d ebitage t o s ocres. T his i ndex s eems s omewhat m ore c omplex t han t he f ormer. Y 25 m aintains i ts e xpected s upremacy ( 11.2 p er c ore); t ailing i t c omes Y 51/53 ( 7.0); t hen Y 27/28, w hich r emains a n e nigma ( 1.8); Y 13 a nd Y 18, w ith 2 .3 a nd 1 .1 r espectively ; a nd t he A vivim s ites w ith 4 .1 p er c ore. Ic an a ccept t he A vivim r atio , b ecause t hey a re h abitation s ites. B ut a n i ntelligent e xplanation f or Y 27/28 d oes n ot c ome t o m ind. I t m ay l ie i n as ignificant c ause t hat I c annot a s y et p enetrate. P erhaps m y a rchaeological v isibility , s orting a nd a nalysis a re a t f ault. O r, p erhaps, i t m ight b e t hat t he v ertical , d isplacement, w hich h as a ffected s mall a nd t iny d ebitage i tems m ore t han a ny o thers, h as s eriously b lurred t he r eal s ituation i n t his e vent. A w ord r emains t o b e s aid a bout t he A vivim s ites ( A43 a nd A 63) l agging i n m ost o f t he i ndices. A s a lready s uggested a bove ( Chs. 5 a nd 6 ), t here i s a g reat l ikelihood t hat t he m arked s easonality c haracteristic o f o ur m ountainous r egion s trongly i nfluenced t he b ehavior o f t he p eople, t heir t echnological h abits i ncluded. S ummer o n t he p lateau w as n ear ' t o i deal: s unny , w arm ( occasionally h ot), m ostly p leasant, w ith a r efreshing b reeze s weeping t he " table" f rom l ate m orning t o l ate a fternoon. M ovement w as e asy a nd c omfortable; a nd t o s it k napping i n t he s hade ( i.e., t he s tone f ormations) w as p resumably m ore t han j ust t he f ulfillment o f ap ressing n eed: i t m ust h ave b een q uite e njoyable. W inter, h owever, w as e xtremely h arsh; t he c old, r ain , w ind a nd m ud m aking m an a nd b east a like s earch f or w hat l ittle s helter w as t o b e f ound. Ac omfortable s pot t o s it l eisurely a nd c ontinuously p reparing t ools w as a r are c ommodity i ndeed. T hus, o nly t he p ressing i mmediate n eeds w ere p rovided f or, a nd b y t he q uickest s hortcuts p ossible. T he o stensibly o pportunistic - a t t imes e ven h aphazard m ode o f t he t echnological r eduction p rocess o f c ore t o s haped t ool a t t he A vivim w inter l ocations i s b etter e xplained b y t his p ragmatism t han b y a ny o ther r eason. C onclusion S everal s urveys o n f oot a nd v arious s amples d rawn f rom d ifferent p opulations h ave l ed t o aw ider u nderstanding o f i ssues c oncerning t he r elationship b etween t he A cheuleans o f t he Y iron P lateau a nd t he w ays b y w hich t hey e xploited t he r aw m aterials i n t heir v icinity f or a rtifact p roduction. T hrough c omputations o f q uantities a nd w eights o f f lints, n atural p ieces a nd a rtifacts, I h ave a rrived a t s ome v ery r ough e stimates ( better p erhaps: s peculations) o f t he a mounts o f f lint i ntroduced o nto t he p lateau a nd t heir a pproximate w eight. O n t he b asis o f t he l atter a t ime s pan o f r oughly 9 3 ,000 y ears' d uration o f A cheulean o ccupancy i n t he a rea h as b een s uggested.

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T he z ones o f n atural f lint i n t he s urroundings o f t he Y iron P lateau w ere l ocalized w ith t he a id o f t he g eologic a nd p hysiographic l iterature, a nd t he p rocess o f t ransportation o f f lint b y s tream w aters, t o t he n orth-central z one o f t he p lateau i n p articular , w ere o utlined. T he r esults o f a n a nalysis o f t he l ocal f lint c haracteristics w ere f orwarded a nd d iscussed, d emonstrating a n a lmost p erfect m atch b etween t he n atural f lint v arieties o f t he N C z one a nd t hose a ctually u sed b y t he A cheuleans o f t he p lateau . F inally , t he A cheuleans' f lint e conomy w as s tudied f rom f our a spects: 1 ) P rovenance: b ringing t o t he c onclusion t hat t he N C z one w as t he s ole s upply p rovenance a nd " quarry"; 2 ) A vailability : i llustrating t he g reat a bundance o f s uitable f lint, a mple t o p rovide t he A cheuleans w ith a ll t heir n eeds f or a rtifact p roduction; 3 ) L ogistics: e mphasizing t he a ccessibility a nd a pproachability o f t he N C z one f or t he d ifferent s ite i nhabitants; a nd 4 ) E xploitation: e valuating t he d egree o f i ntensity o f f lint u tilization b y e mployment o f e ight i ndices r elated t o c ores, a nd a ttempting t o e xplain t he o bserved v ariability b etween t he s ites w ith r egard t o e xploitation. F rom t he a bove, i t w as d educed t hat a ll i n a ll t he Y iron A cheuleans p racticed a m oderate o r r elatively i ntensive , e fficient, e conomical m ode o f e xploitation i n s pite o f t he a bundance o f n atural f lint q uite c lose t o t heir a bodes. F urthermore, i t i s f easible, i n l ine o f o ur a rguments, t hat t he N C z one o f n atural f lint t o s ome e xtent h ad a n i nfluence o n t he m obility t radition, a s w ell a s o n t he l ocational c hoice o f o ne o r t wo t ransitional n odes w ithin t he f ramework o f t his t radition.

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8 E PILOGUE: A F EW P OSTSCRIPTUS C OMMENTS N o o ne k nows a s w ell a s I , o r r egrets a s Id o t he s hortcomings o f t his s tudy . Ia m p erfectly a ware o f t he r eaction t hat t he c ry " hard t imes" w ill c reate, a nd w ill s pare t he r eader e numeration o f t he v arious d ifficulties I m et t hroughout t he e nterprise. ( Who, a fter a ll, h as n ot?) S even y ears h ave p assed f rom t he i nitiation o f t he Y iron P roject t o t he w riting o f t hese l ines. Y et n o p eriod w as a s t rying a s t he p reparation o f t he m anuscript f or p ublication. T he u niversities o f I srael - t he o ne I s erve i ncluded - h ave n ever b efore e xperienced s uch c ut-backs a s t hose b eing i mposed d ue t o t he n ation's p resent g rave e conomic s ituation. Is imply h ad n o c hoice b ut t o c ompromise ( = s urrender) o n t yping, c orrections, i nclusion o f t ables, f igures, p hotographs, e tc.; t o s ay n othing o f t he c osts o f p rinting. I h ave d one t he b est t hat a s traight-jacket a llows. O bjectives a nd A ccomplishments I w ould l ike t his e ssay t o b e t hought o f a s am onograph. F rom t he v ery o utset m y o verall o bjective h as b een t o c onfine t he r esearch t o t he Y iron P lateau o nly . O nly w hen t he l ocal A cheulean s ettlement s ystem i s f ully o utlined a nd t he i nterrelationships a nd i nteractions b etween i ts s ites a re u nderstood, m ay a f urther s tep b e t aken. T his m onography i s o nly t he f irst s tep. Iw ill b e t he l ast t o c laim t hat t he s ystemic c ontext ( in S chiffer 's 1 976 t erms) o f t he Y iron A cheuleans h as b een w holly r econstructed; f ar f rom i t. N onetheless, I f eel t hat s ome a spects o f t hat c ontext h ave b een e lucidated b y t he p resent s tudy . W ith m erely a rtifactural r emains, a nd t hrough v arious e nvironmental i nformation, I r egard t he o utline o f t he l ocational a nd s easonal-mobility m odel a s a m odest y et m eaningful c ontribution. M oreover, w ithin t he s cope o f t his m odel t wo q uite i mportant i nnovations h ave b een r evealed: O ne i n s patial t erms, i .e., t he M itzpeh Y iron ( Y25) a ggregation l ocale, t he f irst t o b e r ecognized f or t he A cheulean w orld; a nd o ne i n t echnological t erms, i .e., t he f easibility o f t ool h afting b y A cheuleans. A dmittedly , t hese a chievements h ave n ot b een g ained i n t he s upposedly e ntirely c orrect p rocedure o f c urrently-accepted t heory b uilding. Y et I m aintain t hat t he c arefully a nalyzed a nd t ested d ata, c omplemented b y v arious o ther l ines o f e vidence, g ive m y i nterpretations a r easonable d egree o f f oundation. G ranted t hat o wing t o p ostdepositional p edoturbative a nd o ther d isturbances I w as a p riori d enied a n o pportunity t o p ut m y f inger o n a ny s ynchronized s pecific t ime w ithin t he l ong d uration o f A cheulean o ccupancy . Ih ope, h owever, t hat s ome g eneral a spects o f t he Y iron A cheuleans' l ifestyles a nd b ehavior p atterns h ave b een v ividly a nd n ear-realistically d rawn. M ethodological L essons a ) U ndeniably , r igorous s ystematic e xcavations p ossess o ver s urface s urveys t he a dvantage o f m ore p rofitable a nd r eliable r esults a nd

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i nformation, a nd i n a ddition l end t he d iachronic ( or e volutionary) p erspective. Y et, t wo q ualifications a re i mmediately c alled f or. F irstly , e ven i f o nly j ust a s ingle c ave a nd n othing e lse i s t he t arget o f e xcavation, a t horough s urvey o f t hat c ave's v icinity s hould b e u ndertaken b efore d igging b egins. S econdly , w hen a w ide o pen-air s pace s aid t o c ontain a t l east s everal a rtifact c lusters, i s a pproached, t he w hole a rea m ust f irst b e p roperly s urveyed b efore a ny e xcavation i s d ecided u pon. T his w as t he c entral c onsideration w hile p lanning t he Y iron P lateau p roject f rom t he v ery o utset. N amely , t he r esearch a s d esigned i n 1 979 s et t he i ntensive s urvey a s a n o pening s tage, w ith e xcavations t o f ollow a fter a s ufficiently s olid a nd r epresentative i dea o f t he s tudy a rea a s aw hole h ad b een a ttained. T he s urvey t urned o ut t o b e t he m ajor, p robably t he s ole, s ource o f d ata , f or r easons w e c ould n ot h ave r ealized a t t his e arly p hase. I n t he c ourse o f o ur f ield w ork i t s oon b ecame e vident t hat v ertical d isplacement o f e arth a nd c ontained a rtifacts w as a m ajor c haracteristic o f t he p lateau w ith d ecisively u npromising i mplications f or a ny t emporal-sequential e fforts. T he m any t est p its w e s unk a nd B ruder's e xperiments n ailed t his i ssue d own. T hus w hat c aused u s g reat d isappointment o n t he o ne h and, s aved u s s uperfluous, s urely u nrewarding i nvestment a nd w ork o n t he o ther. I s till * contend t hat e xcavations a t t he Y iron P lateau c annot f urnish m uch m ore i nformation t han h ave o ur s urvey a nd t he t est p its. I n a fterthought, t herefore, a nd d ue t o t his e xperience, I h ave t o a ppreciate s urveys e ven m ore t han b efore.

c ome

b ) F or t he n 'th t ime I h ave l earned t he l esson t hat a d etailed r esearch d esign i s a bsolutely i ndispensable. Q uite a part f rom h ow m any a nd t o w hat d egree a leterations i n t he o perative i mplementations h ave t o b e i ntroduced i n t he f ield, w orking a ccording t o p lan g ives o ne t he s teady c onfidence t hat o ne k nows w hat o ne i s l ooking f or a nd l ooking a t. T o g o o ut i nto t he f ield w ithout a d etailed r esearch d esign p replanned, i s c ompletely i mpermissible. c ) i n m y m ethodological p ilot s tudy ( of t he A vivim s ites) ( Ohel 1 981a) w hich h as n ot h ad t he g ood f oturne t o a ppear i n p rint, I p resented t he a nalytic p rocedure, t estings, e tc. s tep b y s tep . T his o f c ourse c ould n ot b e i ncluded h ere. W hat i s p erhaps t he " moral" d rawn f rom m y e xperience i s t hat i t i s n ot c ompulsory t o b e ag reat m athematician, s tatistician , o r t o h ave a ccess t o c omputers o r o ther c omplex d evices. H owever, t he i nsistence o n p roper p rocedures a nd i ntellectual h onesty i s e ssential. A s f or t echnical m ethods: s ampling s trategies a nd a g ood p ocket c alculator a re e asy t o m aster , a nd o ne c an d ö a f airly g ood j ob w ith j ust t hese, p rovided o ne i s d etermined t hat t he r esults b e r eliable a nd r epresentative, a nd t hat o ne h as p atience a nd d edication t o t he u ndertaking. d ) T he n ext o bjective i s t he e xploration o f t he B aram P lateau a nd e nvirons. T hen t he o ther p lateaux a nd t heir s urroundings i n t he u pper-mid D ishon b asin a re to b e i nvestigated. W hen t he r egional s ystem a nd t he i nterrelationships b etween i ts c omponents a re t horoughly s tudied, t he t ime f or c omparison w ith o ther r egions w ill d uly a rrive.

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R EFERENCES

A viam, M . a nd M . O hel. 1 980. A n a rchaeological t rip t o t he N ahal A viv C aves. T eva V ehaaretz 6 : 2 45-249 ( Hebrew). A rmand, J . 1 979. T he M iddle P leistocene p ebble t ool s ite i n D urkadi i n C entral I ndia. P aleorient 5 : 1 05-144 . B aker, C .M . 1 978. T he s ize e ffect: a n e xplanation o f v ariability i n s urface a rtifact a ssemblage c ontent. A merican A ntiquity 4 3 : 2 88-293. B ar-Yosef , 0 . 1 970 . U beidiya: a L ower P alaeolithic s ite i n t he V alley . M ada 1 5: 1 43-149 ( Hebrew).

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B ar-Yosef , O . P leistocene

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