Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 4: Eastern Europe [1 ed.] 9783737011242, 9783847111245

Citation preview

Wiener Forum für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft / Vienna Forum for Theology and the Study of Religions

Band 10, 4

Herausgegeben im Auftrag der Evangelisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien und der Katholisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien von Karl Baier und Christian Danz

Die Bände dieser Reihe sind peer-reviewed.

Martin Rothgangel / Yauheniya Danilovich / Martin Jäggle (eds.)

Religious Education at Schools in Europe Part 4: Eastern Europe

In cooperation with Sabine Hermisson and Maximillian Saudino With 4 figures

V& R unipress Vienna University Press

www.rel-edu.eu

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet þber https://dnb.de abrufbar. Verçffentlichungen der Vienna University Press erscheinen bei V& R unipress. Gedruckt mit freundlicher Unterstþtzung des Vereins der Freunde religiçser Bildung (Association of Friends of Religious Education) und des Research Centre “Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society”.  2020, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Theaterstraße 13, D-37073 Gçttingen Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Das Werk und seine Teile sind urheberrechtlich gesch þtzt. Jede Verwertung in anderen als den gesetzlich zugelassenen FÐllen bedarf der vorherigen schriftlichen Einwilligung des Verlages. Umschlagabbildung:  Erich Foltinowsky Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage j www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISSN 2197-0718 ISBN 978-3-7370-1124-2

Inhalt

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

. . . . . . . .

7

Yauheniya Danilovich Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education at Schools in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Rashad Huseynov Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

Yauheniya Danilovich Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

Ketevan Gurchiani Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

Nicolae Fus¸tei Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova . . . . . . . . 125 Igor Metlik Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Iana Poliakova Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Contributors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

At a time when educational issues have increasingly come to determine the social and political discourse and major reforms of the education system are being discussed and implemented, and when migration has become a significant phenomenon, contributing to changes in the religious landscape of the European continent, it is highly appropriate to focus our attention on the concrete situation regarding religious education (RE) in Europe. Across the continent there are many different conceptions and organisations involved in shaping the local practice of RE, which includes the 47 member states of the Council of Europe. With few exceptions, RE has been established as a specific subject in publicly funded schools, while, in a few cases, studies of religion represent a dimension of other parts of the curriculum. At the same time, it is a subject area that is undergoing considerable change. (In this series, authors use the term “religious education” in a variety of ways, partly according to the history of their own education systems). Beyond the all-important tasks of taking stock and making international comparisons, the aim of this series of books is to create a foundation for further action in the field of education, especially with regard to interfaith expertise. In stark contrast to a move in the direction of religion being a “private matter” and towards “religion-free schools”, supranational organisations are, for the first time in Europe, addressing issues related to religion and education. While 9/11 may be seen as the triggering event here, there are wider reasons for such a development. The fact that the OSCE (Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe) has addressed the issue of religion and belief in education into its programme “Tolerance and Non-Discrimination” clearly shows that the topic has become a key issue for the future of Europe and for security and cooperation on the continent. In their Toledo Guiding Principles (OSCE 2007), the OSCE considers teaching about religions and beliefs part of a high-quality education system that expands pupils’ horizons, makes the complexity of religions and world views comprehensible for pupils in an interdisciplinary way and provides them with information and skills appropriate to the development of an impartial

8

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

approach, as well as encouraging freedom of religion and belief, as reflected in the human rights codes. The Council of Europe, in several of its documents, has focused on the religious dimension of intercultural dialogue, paying particular attention to the issue of religious diversity in schools. It values religious diversity highly and demands that it be given appropriate space, rejecting any restriction of religion to the private domain as well as rejecting the notion of “religion-free” schools. The Council of Europe’s publication Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: a Reference Book for Schools (Council of Europe 2007) provides a checklist that makes clear the extent to which school as a whole needs to play a part, while the 2008 Recommendation from the Committee of Ministers, the Foreign Ministers of the 47 member states, is a major step towards encouraging policy makers, schools and teacher trainers to prioritise the development of inclusive forms of education about religions and beliefs in their respective countries (Council of Europe 2008). It is expected that guidance on implementing the recommendation will be published for policy makers, schools and teacher trainers in the member states, in 2014 (discussed in Jackson 2014). The phenomenon of migration is triggering contentious discussions on suitable responses to the challenges it can create. Irrespective of this issue, it is becoming increasingly clear that education and religion can play an important role in clarifying issues such as identity and belonging, ethnicity and culture. Such clarifications are important both for shaping the future of migrants as well as the attitude towards migration on the part of the host population. Since for many people religion is a crucial element in how they interpret themselves and the world around them, its recognition and appropriate representation is critical for the recognition of the individual. The complex issue of RE in public schools also concerns school in its entirety as well as many of its subjects of instruction and projects. We will focus our attention on the organisational form of RE, i. e. the subject of religion or its alternatives, in which the issue of religion(s) is an integral part. We acknowledge here that we will not deal with the topic exhaustively, even though we are making an important contribution towards an understanding of the issues involved. The project “Religious Education at Schools in Europe” (REL-EDU), which is divided up into six volumes (Central Europe, Northern Europe, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, South-Eastern Europe, South Europe) (cf. www.rel-edu.eu), aims to research the situation with regard to RE in Europe. The chapters in each regional volume begin by outlining the organisational form of RE in the particular countries covered. This will be done along the lines of thirteen key issues, which were agreed upon by the authors from the various countries at two symposia held at the University of Vienna in 2011 and 2012, in order to achieve as

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

9

much coherence as possible for the publications. The formulation of key issues allows specific points of comparison between different countries in Europe, thereby facilitating a comparative approach and further research into specific aspects of the comparison. The publication by Rothgangel and Schröder (2009) preceded this project and was also conducted based on key issues. In addition, earlier internationally oriented predecessor projects may be recommended for futher reference. Since a comprehensive discussion of the corresponding literature is undertaken in the methodological contribution by Friedrich Schweitzer (2013) in volume 1, four published projects will be mentioned as examples. The following five-volume work from the mid-1970s was a pioneering publication on the subject of RE: – Schultze, H. / Kirchhoff H. (1975–1977) (ed.), “Christian Education in Europe” (German title: Christliche Erziehung in Europa), Stuttgart, 5 volumes (England, the Netherlands, Sweden, France, Poland). – The fact that research into the area of RE has become more international in recent years and comparative research on the topic is uncircumventable is shown by the following three publications: – Jackson, R. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religion and Education in Europe. Developments, Contexts and Debates, Münster ; – Kuyk, E. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religious Education in Europe. Situation and current trends in schools, Oslo; – Lähnemann, J. / Schreiner, P. (2009) (eds.), Interreligious and Values Education in Europe. Map and Handbook, Münster. Below, the thirteen key issues mentioned above are presented briefly. The first three key issues examine the frameworks of society, law and politics. Here, historical explanations should be very useful in helping us understand the status quo. 1. Socio-religious background This brief insight into the socio-religious situation deals, in particular, with important changes, such as those that follow in the wake of migration. 2. Legal framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state The relationship between churches, religious groups and the state is regulated differently in each country, with consequences for the different legal frameworks that exist for religious education.

10

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

3. Developments in the country’s education policies Across Europe, efforts to reform the education system are being made, which have direct and indirect effects on religious education. After outlining this general framework, points four through six present key aspects of religious education: 4. Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships The place of religiously sponsored schools in the educational landscape of each country reveals much about the state and societal recognition of churches and religious groups in the education system, as well as about the commitment to education of the churches and religious groups. 5. Conceptions and tasks of RE The conceptions and tasks of religious education are negotiated by the religious communities, school and young people – as well as within society as a whole. It is in the interrelationship between these different players that the challenge of religious education lies. 6. Practice/reality of RE in different schools Depending on the type of school in question, religious education can present different frameworks, challenges and difficulties. In issues seven to ten important contextual phenomena in religious education at the level of the school are addressed, and a targeted focus is laid on ecumenical and interfaith cooperation and the education of religion teachers. 7. Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc. Consideration of subjects / learning areas offered “parallel” to religious education is important, as their availability or non-availability as well as their relationship to religious education (e. g. as an alternative subject or as an elective subject) has not only an indirect effect on the way in which religious education is provided, it also affects what kind of ethical and religious education those pupils who do not attend religion class receive. 8. Dealing with religious diversity The question of how to deal with diversity and which forms of cooperation the different religious players within society can come up with has become a critical challenge in European countries.

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

11

9. Religion in school outside of RE Does religion have a role to play in school beyond that of a specific subject offered to pupils? The answer to this question reveals to what extent the whole climate of the school is religion-friendly. 10. Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues This point addresses an important structural determinant, which, based on the empirically proven importance of the character of the religion teacher for the religious education of pupils, deserves special attention. Since the aim here is not merely to take stock of the situation but instead to make suggestions for the next steps required in the area of religious education, it was important to formulate concrete desiderata as well as challenges for each country and direct the reader towards further sources of information. 11. Empirical Research concerning RE For a long time empirical research concerning religious education was neglected. In the last ten years, however, there have been more and more empirical studies. The relevant studies in the respective country and the different areas addressed in empirical research are of special interest. 12. Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context Here, the results for each country from the analysis of the key issues mentioned above are examined with a view to finding out which topics or issues may be important for further work in the area of religious education in Europe. 13. Further information The selection of additional sources of information should facilitate further research in the field of religious education in the respective countries. Based on these key issues, the articles listed here contain interesting results, the comparative analysis of which is reserved for a later publication. At this point, only some initial allusions to the notable diversity in RE at schools in Eastern Europe can be mentioned. This volume deals with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and the Ukraine, seven very different Eastern European countries that shared a common political history up to their independence 30 years ago. As Socialist Soviet Republics (SSR), they were part of the Soviet Union (USSR) for almost seven decades and became independent states in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union around 1990. In the Soviet period, they had a certain cultural autonomy as constituent republics, so that, among other things, the respective national language could persist alongside the Russian language. Ideologically, Marxism-Leninism was the offi-

12

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

cial atheist state doctrine to which education in particular was subject. Public religious practice was forbidden or subject to state control or restrictions. The Russian Orthodox Church was fought with particular harshness, schools were places of anti-religious education. As so-called transformation countries, all seven states with their independence faced the task of overcoming the Soviet system, creating democratic structures, securing fundamental rights and freedoms, establishing relations with churches and religious communities, and reforming the education system. The latter also included expel Marxist-Leninist ideology from the education system. Depending on the country, pre-Soviet traditions and structures included in the transformation process. The results of this transformation vary from country to country. Six states became members of the Council of Europe in the mid-1990s, membership in which is only denied to Belarus because of its authoritarian regime, which systematically violates fundamental rights and freedoms and because it is the only European country that still practices the death penalty. Azerbaijan is the only country treated that has an almost exclusively Muslim population, two-thirds of which are considered members of Shia Islam. In all other countries Christian Orthodoxy represents the largest religious group submerged within a population, which has remained largely religion-critical and secular despite the collapse of the Soviet Union, but different depending on the country. The term Christian Orthodox means belonging to one of two different ”church families”: The Byzantine Orthodox church family (e. g. Russian Orthodox C., Georgian Orthodox C., in parts of Moldova Romanian Orthodox C. etc.) and the Oriental Orthodox church family (Armenian Apostolic C.). 30 years ago there was no official religion in any of the seven Eastern European countries and education was distinctly anti-religious in character. Now an essential result of all of these contributions is that RE is differentiated in the schools of these countries and partly characterized by formats that have not yet been consolidated. In all seven countries RE is a part of the local history, culture and social education. The religious tradition of the individual countries shapes the names of the corresponding subjects: ”Armenian Church History”, ”History of the Christian Religion of Georgia”, ”Religion and Culture in Russia”, ”Orthodox Culture in Russia” or ”Islamic Studies in Azerbaijan”. In some countries RE is offered as an optional subject, e. g. at the request of parents in the afternoon. RE has not been established as an ordinary school subject in any of the countries examined; only in the confessional private schools is religion an ordinary compulsory subject. We would like to thank the “Verein der Freunde religiöse Bildung” (Association of Friends of Religious Education; www.religious-education.info) as well as the Research Centre ”Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society” (http:// www.religionandtransformation.at) for their printing subsidies, Dr. Sabine Her-

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Eastern Europe

13

misson and Maximilian Saudino for preparing and proof-reading the script as well as Karin Sima and Marietta Behnoush for taking care of the layout. Vienna, 01/09/2019

Martin Rothgangel, Yauheniya Danilovich and Martin Jäggle

Yauheniya Danilovich

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education at Schools in Europe

This chapter reflects the development of Orthodox religious education at schools in Europe in light of the post-Soviet context and other relevant factors such as secularization, migration, the minority and majority situation of Orthodoxy in different European countries. Furthermore, the topic will be shaped by the public debate about religion. Finally the challenges and perspectives for Orthodox religious education at schools in Europe will be considered.

1.

Orthodox religious education in post-Soviet countries: historical background, special features and common tendencies

Post-Soviet countries share a number of similarities, which are relevant to Orthodox religious education. These include the common antireligious communist past as well as a search for forms of religious education in the public space of the school. Some case studies of the establishment of Orthodox religious education at schools in post-Soviet countries will be discussed below.

1.1

Orthodox religious education at schools from the perspective of relations between the Orthodox Church and the state

A special feature of Orthodox religious education at schools in the Eastern Europe is that the discussion about religious education at schools under the conditions of secularity of education and about the appropriate role of religious communities only began in the 1990ies. In Russia and other Eastern European countries like the Ukraine or Belarus there existed a well-established practice of Orthodox religious education at

16

Yauheniya Danilovich

schools before 1917, which had an obvious catechetical approach1. There was a very intensive cooperation between the Orthodox Church and the state in the sphere of “public” education, because the Orthodox Church was the state Church. In 1918 due to a decree establishing the separation of the Church from the state and school, public education was proclaimed to be secular (Briem 1948, 178f.). In reality it was not secular meaning areligious, but actively hostile to religion (Danilovich 2016, 211ff.). In the educational sphere so-called scientific atheism replaced religious education. This prohibition of any religious education extended to the parishes. Under communism the state determined, how antireligious the education should be. The Orthodox Church was marginalized in society and had no voice in public discourse. It could be said in fact that public discourse did not exist because all aspects of social life (including all areas of education) were dominated by communist ideology and propaganda. In the 1990ies secularity of education was reintroduced in many post-Soviet countries (Danilovich 2016, 235f.). This time secularity was intended to protect education from atheistic propaganda. Over time, in some countries the principle of secularism in education was interpreted as a complete expulsion of religious content from school education. In Georgia a strict separation between the state and the church was caused by the rising influence of the Georgian Orthodox Church. In this case, such an interpretation of the secularity principle is meant to protect the rights of religious minorities and prevent indoctrination in schools (Gurchiani 2017a, 1f.). Insofar the Orthodox Church in all countries of Eastern Europe (Moldova, Belarus, Russia, Armenia, Ukraine, Georgia etc.) exists under social contexts, which were all more or less under ideological pressure for a long period of time (approximately to 70 years) in the 20th century. The consequences of atheistic ideology still exert explicit and latent influence in post-Soviet societies. In these terms secularization and the consequences of the ideological pressure can be observed in this connection as these factors reinforce each other (2VX^o[ 2006, 128f.). Currently there is still an ongoing search for ways to implement religious content in the realm of public education. A balance between the influence of the state and of the Church has not yet been reached. Also, there are still only few examples for Orthodox Religious Education in public space of a school (Kozyrev 2003, 69).

1 The subject was called “God’s Law” [8Q[_^ 2_WYZ].

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

1.2

17

Back to the roots and “traditional values”

The communist past and the post-Soviet period affect the present situation, the (self-)image of the Church and its role in the society. In this regard, many see the communist era as a historical aberrance. Now is the time to go back to the roots. During the post-Soviet time the Russian Orthodox Church, which has jurisdiction over nearly all post-Soviet countries, took on a special position as a connector or mediator to the time before 1917. There are several reasons for a such development such as financial and social crisis, lack of stability, missing value orientation, which contribute to the high reputation and authority of the Orthodox Church in post-Soviet society, which is equaly recognized on the political level (Bremer 2003, 163ff.; Sprinceana 2014, 40). The key issue is the discussion about traditional values. The Orthodox Church is seen as the bearer, guardian and protector of so-called traditional values, which are upheld by the Orthodox Church.2 But in reality, the connection between these kinds of values represented by the Orthodox Church and the foundations of these values in Orthodox theology are beginning to be fragile (Hovorun 2016). This affinity towards the Orthodox Church can be explained both by the claim of the Church to be the important part of the national identity and because Church is used as an identity maker by different parts of the society including politicians (Agadjanian 2001, 475ff.; Bremer 2003, 164f.; Serrano 2014, 75ff.; Sprinceana 2014, 36f.). There are also efforts on the part of the Church to maintain a visible presence in public space: It can be seen in the form of massive Church buildings projects in several European countries with Orthodox majorities.3 This return to Orthodoxy in the public arena still differs from the Church affinity in the private realm or concrete church socialization. The surveys show a different picture of religiosity of individuals as opposed to the public presence of the Orthodox Church.4 In the current Orthodox religious education in the post-Soviet countries the main emphasis lies on the moral and ethical issues (5YS^_T_agVSQ 2012). In the discussion about Orthodox religious education at schools religious communities are seen as the mediators of moral values education. The Orthodox Church has 2 This includes for example the idea of the traditional family. 3 It is remarkably, that almost in all post-Soviet or post-communist countries there is kind of big Church building project, usually actively donated from the state (Memorial Church of all saints in Minsk: http://hramvs.by/istoriya-vozniknoveniya; Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow; Cathedral of Salvation of the Nation (National Cathedral) in Bucharest: http://www. catedralaneamului.ro/; Holy Trinity Cathedral in Tbilisi. 4 Although here still the application of mostly western sociological approaches to research the religiosity in Eastern Europe are discussed. Also the alternative approaches are being developed (;QaQbVSQ/I[da_SQ/IQcaQSb[YZ 2017; HVb^_[_SQ 2005).

18

Yauheniya Danilovich

also reinforced this image in “The Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church”, the document adopted 2000 at the Bishop’s council of the Russian Orthodox Church in Moscow (Sacred Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church 2000). Especially the chapter “Secular science, culture and education” reflects the contribution of the Church to the field of education: “From the Orthodox perspective, it is desirable that the entire educational system should be built on religious principles and based on Christian values. Nevertheless, the Church, following the age-old tradition, respects the secular school and is willing to build relations with it on the basis of human freedom. At the same time, the Church considers it inadmissible to impose on students antireligious and anti-Christian ideas and to assert the monopoly of the materialistic worldview. […] School is a mediator that hands over to new generations the moral values accumulated in the previous centuries. School and the Church are called to co-operation in this task.” (Sacred Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church 2000, XIV. 3.)

1.3

The Orthodox Church as a part of national identity. Confessional shifts and claims of “traditional” religious communities in Europe

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, laws were passed in several countries, ensuring equal rights for all religious organizations (for example in Ukraine 1991, in Belarus 1992, in Azerbajdzhan 1992, in Moldova 1992, in Georgia 1995). After some time (in Russia in 1997, in Belarus in 2002, in Georgia 2002, in Moldova 2007), modified laws and legal agreements came into force that identify a particular (mostly Orthodox Church) or some religious communities5 as kind of “traditional” in the country, which is justified by the assumption that this community plays an outstanding role in the history of these countries and thus provides them with advantages over other religious communities. In some post-Soviet countries there are efforts underway to reestablish the neutrality between the state and religious communities, but the inequality can be still found in the different fields of society (Gurchiani 2017b, 517; Serrano 2014, 81f.; Sprinceana 2014). Concerning this distinction between “traditional” and “non-traditional”6 religious organizations the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the state on the one side and between state and other religious denominations on the other side can be misbalanced in some terms: It can 5 In Russia for example, this includes Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism. 6 To the “non-traditional” religious communities usually belong in this terms the religious organizations, which presence in the former CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries could be perceived first after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

19

influence – restrict or support – the possibilities of participation of different religious communities on religious education at schools. This can also lead to a kind of monopoly of a handful of religious communities in the field of religious education. It includes also a risk that religious education in public space can be misused either by the state or by the “privileged” religious community or both at the same time: for the political aims of the state, for the upbringing of “good” citizens. Accordingly, there are challenges to the Orthodox religious education in dealing with religious plurality at schools. In the countries represented in this book the Orthodox Church is always counted as one of the “traditional” religious communities even though it has in some countries the minority status (see for example Azerbajdzhan). How is this role reflected in the Diaspora situation of Orthodoxy in other European countries like Germany or Austria, where the Orthodox Church neither has a majority nor represents a “traditional” religious community? And how does this reflection influence the situation at the country of origin?

2.

The discussion about religious education at schools as the discussion about religion in public space

The implementation of religious education in the public space of the state secular school are still the issue of discussions. There are different views in the discourse on religious education in regard to society on the one side, to the state on the other side and to the Church on the third side. All of these actors in the domain of religious education are seen from different positions. So here the question arises as to how public space is interpreted by different players of religious education. One of the central questions and one of the main developments in terms of Orthodox religious education at schools is the process of transition and change from a catechetical approach to education towards a view of Orthodox religious education as a contribution to the general school education. The latter is about the perspective of public space, which sets relevant requirements for religious education, like competence discourse, dialogue and discourse skills, dealing with religious plurality etc. We can see this development not only in the post-Soviet countries, but also in the other European countries. There is still a very intense discussion with a focus on curricula or the format of religious education (Confessionality) about the issue, how the orthodox education at public School has to be organized (Danilovich 2019; Vletisis 2014; Stogiannidis 2015). The discussion on the curricula in Greece can be mentioned here, where a new curriculum triggered a controversial discussion (Vletsis 2014). The curriculum

20

Yauheniya Danilovich

indeed referred to Orthodoxy but it aims primarily at the exploration of the religious phenomenon in general and does not intend to strengthen the Orthodox identity of pupils. Content regarding other religions are included (Stogiannidis, 2015, 332f.). On the one hand, the new curricula are supported by the argument of the religious neutrality of school education. On the other hand, one sees the contribution of the Orthodox tradition to education in terms of its outstanding role in the country’s history and a kind of identity maker in this case neglected (Stogiannidis 2014, 72). Similar discussions also can be observed in the Eastern European countries, where the main question is, what form religious education at public Schools should take? So the issue is relevant both in a majority and minority situation of the Orthodox Church. In Russia, Georgia and Greece the Orthodox Church represents the largest religious community. The argument for the clear Orthodox confessional profile is that the majority of pupils grow up in the cultural context that is influenced by one major religious community (for example Orthodoxy in Greece, Orthodoxy in Russia, Orthodoxy in Belarus). The cultural value of such religion is mentioned as relevant for the history of the country. So the knowledge about this major religion can help to better understand and interpret the environment of the pupils (Shnirelman 2011, 2). But how does the Orthodox syllabus represent the pluralistic, democratic society in general and minorities such as Muslims, Jews, atheistic or no-confessional groups in particular? The other perspective is to interpret the secularity principle from the point of view of society, so also from the perspective of pupils and their parents. What kind of religious education do they expect? This way of interpreting the concepts of religious education at schools (not only orthodox) are based on empirical studies, conducted for example in Belarus or Russia. This inductive method is the way to establish and to explain, why a certain concept is better according to the interests and expectations of parents and pupils. There are some attempts to research the position of the society towards religious education at schools. In some post-Soviet countries, the studies and polls were conducted to the question of how advisable the introduction of contents referring to religion in school education is and which concepts it should be based on (Kozyrev 2003; ;QaQbrSQ/ I[da_SQ 2015). Although it is assumed that the society is pluralistic: The study, conducted by F. Kozyrev and his team shows the unexpected result that still less than 10 % of school students, who don’t attend any kind of lessons about religion at school (St. Petersburg, so the results are not representative for the whole Russia, also the specific situation of St. Petersburg) “answered with certainty that there is no God while just 4 % decisively reject religion as such” (Kozyrev 2003, 75). In the schools, where religion is taught, not one student with atheistic conviction was found (Kozyrev 2003, 76). Kozyrev also has found out that the young people do

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

21

not make a connection to the cultural tradition through the religion (Kozyrev 2003, 77). Another interesting finding was the following: The majority of the students interviewed see themselves as religious, but do not identify with any specific confession. The second most numerous group were Orthodox Christians. Kozyrev summarizes that the religious attitudes of students in St. Petersburg are mostly individualistic and relativistic. They do not identify with one particular religious tradition. Only 2 % of the students attend church at least weekly (Kozyrev 2003, 79). Surely the results of the survey cannot be applied to all of Russia or be transferred wholesale to other countries. But the results give some impulses for the discussion about Orthodox religious education: For example, it makes doubtful the arguments claiming the culture of the country determines the profile of religious education.

3.

Orthodox Religious education at schools in the European Diaspora

In the European Orthodox Diaspora, Orthodox religious education faces a similar challenge – a search for the profile of Orthodox religious education in a pluralistic society. In addition, the peculiarities of the Diaspora situation must be considered, in which the religious education in the school must meet a panOrthodox claim in the face of the cultural diversity of Orthodoxy.

3.1

Orthodoxy in European Diaspora

The Orthodox Church is present now in many European countries. Migration is one of the most relevant factors for the presence of Orthodoxy in the traditionally “not-orthodox” countries like Germany, Spain or Italy. In Germany the migration processes led to the situation that the Orthodox Church has become the third biggest Christian denomination7 with a clear growth tendency (Die Beauftragte der Bundesregierung für Migration, Flüchtlinge und Integration 2016, 362; Sekretariat der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz 2017, 7). Among the Orthodox Christians in Germany many people came from the post-Soviet countries but also from EU-countries with Orthodox majorities such as Romania

7 After Catholic and Protestant Church.

22

Yauheniya Danilovich

and Bulgaria (Bundesministerium des Innern, für Bau und Heimat & Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge 2018, 6, 46, 49). The example of Germany illustrates the specifics of the Diaspora situation of the Orthodox Church. The Diaspora situation in this case is not just a minority situation. So in this way it is different to a minority situation of the Orthodox Church for example in Croatia or Azerbajdzhan. Orthodoxy is very heterogeneous in the European Diaspora: There is no kind of origin traditional Orthodox Church, which could integrate the other Orthodox newly arrived minorities. All the various Orthodox Churches came to Germany from other predominantly Orthodox countries. There is a vision by some theologians that over time there will be kind of German Orthodox Church, but such a development will not take place in the foreseeable future. The individual Orthodox Churches in Europe share the common liturgical tradition, the common faith and canon law. Between the Churches there is also the Eucharistic community. But the visible unity of the Churches remains an important issue and task, which becomes particularly obvious in the Diaspora situation. Recent events concerning the question of Church autocephaly in the Ukraine are challenging this unity and collaboration between the Orthodox Churches8. At the moment the Orthodox dioceses cooperate in the Orthodox Episcopal Conference. This format of cooperation can be seen for example in Austria, Germany, the Benelux countries (Orthodoxe Bischofskonferenz in Deutschland 2019; Orthodoxe Kirche in Österreich 2019). This is a structure, in which the bishops of Orthodox dioceses cooperate in common fields of work. This includes Orthodox Religious Education at schools. So at schools in Germany there is no Russian-Orthodox or Romanian-Orthodox Religious Education, but only Orthodox Religious Education for all children, who are members of one of the Orthodox dioceses represented in the Episcopal Conference. This kind of cooperation is relatively new for the Orthodox Churches: Firstly, some Orthodox Churches don’t have a lot of experience of Orthodox education within the public space of school9, secondly the cooperation between different Orthodox Churches as such is a new experience, which hasn’t been practiced in the countries of origin. At the moment, two kinds of development can be identified: The first one concerns the field of religious education within individual dioceses witch has clear specifics of the cultural and national background: The target group in this case is youth and children belonging primarily to one spe8 Due to the conflict between the Moscow Patriarchate and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople referring the Church situation in Ukraine the Eucharistic community between these two Churches is not practiced at the moment. The work on the pan-Orthodox committees in the diaspora was also hindered. 9 Here especially Orthodox Churches from CIS countries.

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

23

cific cultural space (for example Russian-speaking, Romanian-speaking, Greekspeaking). In different formats of religious education like youth work, camps and excursions the contents of religious education are intertwined with the aim of upholding the national identity and culture. In this case, there is the language, country of origin or culture that unite but also create borders and have an effect of exclusion. Secondly, there are efforts to develop the formats of religious education that enrich all orthodox children and youth and this way to primarily strengthen the pan-Orthodox identity in face of the diversity of particular cultural backgrounds. This includes Orthodox Religious Education at schools for example or pan-Orthodox youth work. Currently it seems that religious education within particular dioceses is developing much more intensively than in pan-Orthodox framework.

3.2

Special features of the Diaspora situation: chances, challenges for the Orthodox religious education at schools

The Diaspora situation of the Orthodox Churches in Europe has several special features, which can influence the practice of religious education. Thomas Bremer notes that especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox Church reflected its role intensively as a protector of the Russian people living abroad. In this way not only Russia, but actually nearly all CIS-countries (with exception of Georgia, because of having the own Autocephalous Orthodox Church) are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church called “canonical territory”. This also means that the Orthodox Church in the Diaspora serves not only a religious function but plays the role of carrying the national identity (Bremer 2003, 166f.). It can influence the aims and conditions /formats of religious education, which pursues the aim not just of handing down the contents of religious tradition, but also of developing and furthering national identity. For Orthodox religious education in the Diaspora, which claims a pan-Orthodox character this situation brings chances but also challenges: The plurality of national and cultural backgrounds is increasingly becoming the new normal in Europe. But the focus on particular national identities can bring with it a tendency towards disintegration as a side effect, which complicates cooperation between Orthodox partners and hinders the integration of Orthodoxy in mostly not-Orthodox societies. The Diaspora situation is challenging Orthodox religious education in terms of its further development. This development should be reflected under the conditions of multiculturalism, religious plurality and secularization. One of the

24

Yauheniya Danilovich

challenges is the plurality of values and as a possible consequence there are conflicts over differing values (Vliagkoftis 2015, 27). Some positions represented by the Orthodox Church refer to “traditional values”. The task is to reflect the roots and the foundations of these values in Orthodox theology profoundly and to contextualize them in a European framework and social environment, the aim referred not just to religious education, but also to Orthodox theology. The Diaspora situation also influences the argumentation referring to Orthodox religious education. Orthodoxy in the Diaspora cannot argue with the past, like with the time bevor 1917, but with the present situation. But still here the argument of tradition can be seen. Orthodox tradition is something that parents of the children bring to Germany, Orthodoxy is the binding factor to the past of the parents and is still kind of identity factor (Hirtenwort 2011). Here the argument of cultural heritage can be seen. There are other issues beyond the argumentation for the Orthodox religious education as to get to know the tradition of the country of origin or reflect it as part of the fluid multicultural identity of the second and third generations. Religious education is kind of mediator of cultural influenced values. So how is Orthodox religious education interpreted in the public space of school under the conditions of Diaspora? Are there differences to the interpretation in the post-Soviet countries? The syllabus for Orthodox Religious Education both in Germany and in Austria shows mostly the catechetical approach of Orthodox Religious Education at schools (see for example, Lehrplan für die Grundschule in Nordrhein-Westfalen 2018; Lehrplan für den orthodoxen Religionsunterricht an Volksschulen 2008). Also what little teaching materials have been published so far show a similar situation (Keller 2016).

3.3

Thinking Orthodox religious education at European context

In some countries with Orthodox majorities Orthodoxy is considered the traditional denomination representing one of the most relevant factors of national identity, history and cultural heritage (for example Russia, Belarus, Romania, Moldova, Georgia, Serbia, Greece) (Gurchiani 2017b, 517f.). At the same time most of these countries placed in Europe are the countries where the Autocephalous Orthodox Churches (Patriarchates) like the Russian Orthodox Church, Romanian Orthodox Church, Georgian Orthodox Church or Bulgarian Orthodox Church come from and have had their regular place till now. In this sense Orthodoxy belong to and has been forming the European space over the centuries. The Diaspora situation can give important impulses for the reflection and conceptual development of Orthodox religious education at schools in Europe.

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

25

Under the conditions of collaboration, Orthodoxy should focus both on the contents of religious education essential for all Orthodox Churches and on the cultural particularities which are very specific like language at the same time. What should children and youth learn who are native to the different Orthodox traditions or unfamiliar with any of it during the common lessons? The argumentation for the Orthodox religious education in this case should be related to the environment, in which children and youth grow up, which can be different from the situation in the countries of origin. The cultural aspects or historical roots become fragile as the primary arguments for the contents of religious education. Nevertheless, they are still important, because of indispensable cultural and historical contextualization of each Orthodox Church. In Orthodox religious education there is something going on, which refers not just religious education. In the curricula of Orthodox Religious Education in Germany there are several issues, which are relevant, because of developments in Europe. The problems of integration and self-reflection of the integration processes (Vliagkoftis 2015), issues of multilingualism as an ordinary case of the children and youth growing up in Europe, issues of belonging and both cultural and religious identity, conflict of values, tensions between the country of origin and its culture and language and “new” environment, new land and the question, from which point of time the “new” country is not new anymore.

References 2VX^o[, 5.;. 2006. B_bc_p^YV Y b`VgYeY[Q b_SaV]V^^_Z aV\YTY_X^_Z bYcdQgYY S 2V\QadbY. In B_gY_\_TYhVb[YV Ybb\VU_SQ^Yp (2/2006), 128–135. 5YS^_T_agVSQ, B., 2012. 5df_S^_-^aQSbcSV^^_V S_b`YcQ^YV S cV_aYY Y _`lcV `aQS_b\QS^_Z `VUQT_TYhVb[_Z [d\mcdal. =_b[SQ: 9XU. `aQS_b\QS^_T_ BSpc_-CYf_^_Sb[_T_ d^YSVabYcVcQ. ;QaQbrSQ, B.4., I[da_SQ, 6.3. 2015. 8^Q^Yp _ aV\YTYY S i[_\Qf 2V\QadbY: b_bc_p^YV Y `Vab`V[cYSl. =Y^b[: 9XU. gV^ca 24D. ;QaQbVSQ, B.4., I[da_SQ, 6.3., IQcaQSb[YZ B.9. 2017. FQaQ[cVaYbcY[Y S_S\VhV^^_bcY ^QbV\V^Yp RV\QadbY S aV\YTYo: ]Ya_S_XXaV^hVb[YZ Qb`V[c. In 3Vbc^Y[ @BC4D. BVaYp I: 2_T_b\_SYV. EY\_b_eYp. AV\YTY_SVUV^YV 70, 85–109. HVb^_[_SQ, 3. 2005. CVb^l] `dcV]: @a_gVbb S_gVa[_S\V^Yp ^QbV\V^Yp A_bbYY S [_^gV FF SV[Q. =_b[SQ: 1[QUV]YhVb[YZ @a_V[c.

Agadjanian, A. 2001. Revising Pandora’s Gifts: Religious and National Identity in the PostSoviet Societal Fabric. In Europe-Asia Studies, 53:3, 473–488. Bremer, T. 2003. Auferstanden aus Ruinen? Die öffentliche Präsenz von Religion im heutigen Rußland. In Jahrbuch für Christliche Sozialwissenschaften 44, 161–172. Briem, E. 1948. Kommunismus und Religion in der Sowjetunion: Ein Ideenkampf. Basel: Reinhardt.

26

Yauheniya Danilovich

Bundesministerium des Innern, für Bau und Heimat & Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (ed.). 2018. Migrationsbericht der Bundesregierung Migrationsbericht 2016/ 2017. http://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Publikationen/Migrationsberichte/ migrationsbericht-2016-2017.pdf ?__blob=publicationFile (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Cathedral of Salvation of the Nation (National Cathedral) in Bucharest.2019. http:// www.catedralaneamului.ro/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Danilovich, Y. 2016. Religiöses Lernen im Jugendalter. Eine internationale vergleichende Studie in der orthodoxen und evangelischen Kirche. Göttingen. Danilovich, Y. 2019. Religionsunterricht, orthodoxer. In Wissenschaftlich-Religionspädagogische Lexikon im Internet (WiReLex), https://www.bibelwissenschaft.de/stichwort/ 200266/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Die Beauftragte der Bundesregierung für Migration, Flüchtlinge und Integration (ed.). 2016. 11. Bericht der Beauftragten der Bundesregierung für Migration, Flüchtlinge und Integration – Teilhabe, Chancengleichheit und Rechtsentwicklung in der Einwanderungsgesellschaft Deutschland. https://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Artikel/IB/ Anlagen/2016-12-09-11-lagebericht.pdf ?__blob=publicationFile& v=2 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Gurchiani, K. 2017a. Georgia in-between: religion in public schools. In Nationalities Papers. The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. https://www.researchgate.net/pub lication/317132350_Georgia_in-between_religion_in_public_schools (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Gurchiani, K. 2017b. How Soviet is the Religious Revival in Georgia: Tactics in Everyday Religiosity. In Europe-Asia Studies, 69:3, 508–531. Hirtenwort der Orthodoxen Bischofskonferenz in Deutschland zum Religionsunterricht 2011. http://www.obkd.de/Texte/HirtenwortderOrthodoxenBischofskonferenzinDeutsch landzumReligionsunterricht.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Hovorun, C. 2016. Ideology and Religion. In Kyiv-Mohyla Humanities Journal 3, 23–35. Keller, K. (ed.). 2016. Mit Christus unterwegs 1/2. Das orthodoxe Schulbuch. Berlin. Kozyrev, F.N. 2003. The Religious and Moral Beliefs of Adolescents in St. Petersburg. In Journal of Education & Christian Belief. (7/1), 69–91. Lehrplan für den orthodoxen Religionsunterricht an Volksschulen (Vorschulstufe & Grundschule). 2008. Wien. http://www.orthodoxekirche.at/files/lehrplan_vs.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Lehrplan für die Grundschule in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Orthodoxe Religionslehre. 2018. http://www.obkd.de/Texte/LP_GS_ORL.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Memorial Church of all saints in Minsk. 2019. http://hramvs.by/istoriya-vozniknoveniya (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Orthodoxe Bischofskonferenz in Deutschland 2019. http://texte.obkd.de/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Orthodoxe Kirche in Österreich. 2019. http://www.orthodoxe-kirche.at/site/orthodox ebischofskonfrenz (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Sacred Bishops’ Council of the Russian Orthodox Church. 2000. The Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church. https://mospat.ru/en/documents/social-con cepts/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Sekretariat der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz (ed.). 2017. Katholische Kirche in Deutschland. Zahlen und Fakten 2016/17. https://www.dbk.de (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Developments and Challenges of the Orthodox Religious Education

27

Serrano, S. 2014. The Georgian Church. In Russian Politics and Law, vol. 52, no. 4, 74–92. Shnirelman, V.A. 2011. Russian Christ: The Struggle of the Russian Orthodox Church to Introduce Religion into the Curriculum in the First Decade of the Twenty-first Century. In Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society, vol. 3, Issue 2, 1–22. Sprinceana, V. 2014. God in the “Border Zones”. In Russian Politics and Law, vol. 52, no. 4, 34–52. Stogiannidis, A. 2015. Grundlegung einer modernen Religionsdidaktik der Öffentlichkeit und die Frage nach Identitätsbildung. In Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie 67 (2015) 4, 328–336. Vletsis, A. 2014. Der Streit um den Religionsunterricht in Griechenland als Beispiel der Suche nach der orthodoxen Identität im Kontext europäischer Normen. In Ökumenische Rundschau 63 (1/2014), 94–114. Vliagkoftis, K. 2015. Religiöse Identität und Integration. In Orthodoxie aktuell. XIX/ Sonderheft 2015, 26–30.

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

Introduction Over the past twenty years Armenia has gone through enormous changes in socio-economic, political, cultural, as well as in religious life. The reemergence of religion in the public sphere was full of hindrances and obstacles. The reemergence or revival of religion (Tomka 2011) in Armenia was different from the other CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries (Curanovic, 2013, 330) as the traditional and historical situation of Christians in Armenia was different compared to many post-Soviet countries (Georgia, Russia, etc.). The post-atheistic society was very sensitive to religious ideas and the spiritual vacuum was filled with different religious ideas and ideologies (Dubin 2011). In addition to the general tendencies in the post-Soviet space, Armenia also suffered from different traumatic situations, including the earthquake in 1989, political movements on Nagorno-Karabakh which eventually turned into a bloody war with Azerbaijan, the closing of borders by Turkey, economic blockade, etc. At the same time the terms like “desecularization theory” (Berger 1999) or their modifications (Martin 2005) or “modernization of religion” are not fully attributable to the Armenian context as those terms have been used for different realities, societies and contexts. One of the reasons for such an argument is that Armenia was forced under the atheistic ideology, though in reality many people still remained “hidden believers and adepts”. The secularization and desecularization took place not in accordance with global processes but out of political necessity and pressure. We should agree that there can be different interpretations of the terms as there are a number of various dimensions behind these terms (Casanova 1994, 19–39). We would like to analyze how the “religious revival” has been taking place in Armenia, how various religions have been reemerging in the Armenian public space, how religious education has been introduced in Armenian educational institutions, what the legal frameworks for such education are, what kind of issues these are solving or producing, etc. The analysis of religious education

30

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

shall not be implemented purely from theological or pedagogical perspectives but mostly from the scientific study of religion. Such an approach supposes to understand the societal meaning of such education and also “the political legitimization that supports the national religious education model“(Jödicke 2013, 8). In the Armenian educational model the State transferred some of its educational functions to the hegemonic Armenian Apostolic Church in an attempt to involve the Church in the maintenance of national identity and to foster this process in the era of globalization. Religious education in schools is one of the publicly discussed topics in modern Armenia as it mainly focuses on the History of the Armenian church and the subject taught at schools is called “History of the Armenian Church”, raising a lot of questions among the religious minorities, as well as NGOs and international organizations dealing with such issues. In recent years several studies were conducted on religious education in secondary and higher institutions which proved the fact that there are several interconnected issues related to the teaching of the mentioned subject in schools starting from teacher training, teachers’ professionalism, content of text-books, content the directions for teachers, teaching process and methodology, attitude to “other thinkers” during the classes and schools, etc. Since the 1990s, Armenian political and social life was introduced to a variety of religious organizations and beliefs which became very important factors for the future of political and social life. The Armenian Apostolic Church started to regain its lost spiritual and physical territories entering into close relationship with political actors and also starting a new phase of church-building. In recent decades hundreds of new churches have been built. These construction projects have been deemed essential to regaining its power within society. Yet despite these processes society has remained mostly atheist and secular even though many new religious movements (mostly Pentecostal) have tried to fill the vacuum in public life.

1.

Socio-religious background

After the adoption of Christianity in 301 as the state religion, Armenia gradually became Christian and Christianity started to play an essential role in the construction of the ethnic identity of Armenians. Any attempt to undermine the religious independence of Armenians was considered a danger to the identity of nation. This attitude was strengthened during the submergence of Armenian statehood when the Armenian Apostolic Church was the main authority responsible for the organization of the nation and its structures. Especially after the 1045 when the last Armenian dynasty of Bagratuni lost its power the Church

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

31

remained the most organized institution for Armenians in Armenia. Even though the Cilician Kingdom (1219–1375) played an essential role in the organization of Armenian life, Cilicia proved too remote from historical Armenian lands to have any real influence on the life of Armenians living in the Caucasus. Even the Armenian Church with its head was established in Cilicia but after its elimination the Armenian Apostolic Church moved from Cilicia and re-established itself in Etchmiadzin where it still is today. New developments took place in Armenia starting from the 1850s which were tightly linked to the European enlightenment. Many young people and clergy graduated from the famous European Universities and started to talk about the reformation of Armenian society and, of course, the Armenian Apostolic Church (Hovhannisyan 2008, 110–127). They thought that without the reformation of Armenian Church it would be impossible to think about any wider changes within Armenian society. The requirements for change concerned first of all the management functions of the Church within society as well as rituals and even dogmatic issues. The reformation movement played an essential role in reviewing many aspects of the Church’s functions but overall this movement failed as the conservative majority was always quite strong within the Armenian Church. The head of the conservative party Gevorg Sureniants eventually became Catholicos of Etchmiadzin (1911–1930) and the representatives of the reformation movement either were expelled from Etchmiadzin (Maghakia Ormanian, Karapet Ter-Mkrtchian) or left the spiritual service (Ervand TerMinasian). During the Soviet period the Armenian Apostolic Church experienced the same difficulties as other religious organizations functioning within Soviet space. Many clergymen were sentenced to death, churches were destroyed and atheism was proclaimed part of the official ideology. It is another discussion topic weather atheism equals secularism or not, but the atheistic ideology gave rise to secular attitudes within Armenian society which continue till today. The biggest wave of repressions took place in the 1930s under I. Stalin and the situation improved after his death in 1953. In 1955 the Armenian Church elected a new Catholicos Vazgen I (1955–1994) who became quite popular among the Armenian population and the popularity of his person promoted the rise of the authority of the Armenian Church. Even 20 years after his death Vazgen I Catholicos remains a noticeably popular figure of public discourse. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the declaration of independence raised new challenges not only for the newly independent State but also for Armenian Apostolic Church which not only had to adapt to a new political situation but also deal with many different religious organizations which started to function actively within the territory of the Republic of Armenia. Penetration by various religious organizations, mostly protestant denominations, was facilitated by the

32

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

earthquake in 1989, the conflict of Nagorno-Karabakh, an economic blockade and closed borders with Turkey. These hard and traumatic situations facilitated the spread of religious organizations as the vacuum created after the collapse of Soviet Union was remained to be filled. This situation created a social gap between the Armenian Apostolic Church and other non-traditional religious organizations and denominations. The relations with traditional religious organizations (Armenian Catholic Church, Russian Orthodox Church, etc.) continue to be amicable and cooperative. Because of the high authority of the Armenian Apostolic Church with the State authorities, Mass Media and other social Institutions, the religious minorities sometimes experience cases of intolerance and discrimination which was revealed as a result of some qualitative studies. The US Government’s 2012 International Religious Freedom Report states that most registered religious groups reported no significant legal impediments to their activities, but that there have been reports of societal discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. Members of minority religious groups experience societal discrimination and intolerance, including in the workplace. Many media outlets were shown to have demonstrated biases against minority religious groups1. Despite these findings the overall situation in Armenia can be described as tolerant as religious organizations can freely execute their rituals and other activities and organize religious camps without any intervention by local authorities or other forces. The biggest concern is the Mass Media, the reason usually being the lack of professionalism on the part of journalists2. Societal discrimination is an important notion in this discourse since many phenomena such as “stigmatization”, “alienation”, “humiliation” that happen on the level of mass society often through mass media are at least formally outside of bounds state control. Limitations of rights also happen within the minority groups, i. e. right to education, right to opinion, right to medical help etc. Hence, issues should be considered in wider spectrum of actors including families, mass media, educational institutions, medical centres and others. Ethnic Armenians make up more than 90 % of the Armenian population. According to the census of 2011 the population of Armenia is 3 018 854 inhabitants. Very often Armenians view their country as mono-ethnic and monoreligious. That perception is also quite common for the Armenian Government and regularly articulated in various communication materials, including official 1 http://photos.state.gov/libraries/armenia/231771/PDFs/irfr2012.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 2 A media monitoring is regularly implemented by Collaboration for Democracy Center which reveals the problems and issues in this field. http://www.religions.am/files/3247/documents/ comments/p13.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

33

reports. However, notwithstanding the fact that according to the 2011 National Census results about 98 % of population identifies itself as ethnic Armenian and about 92 % affiliate themselves with the Armenian Apostolic Church3, there are vibrant and diverse communities of ethnic-national and religious minority groups present in Armenia. According to list of religious organizations published by the Government of Armenia there are 65 registered organizations (http://gov.am/am/religion). In fact, the number of religious denominations registered in Armenia, excluding national minority religions, is close to 15. Quite often, religious organizations registered as legal entities are confused with religious denominations. An examination of the list of registered religious organizations makes clear that religious organizations representing the same denomination have in many cases registered as separate legal entities. According to the 2011 National Census there are around three million people living in Armenia. 66.3 % of population live in urban areas and the majority of these (55.5 %) in the capital city of Yerevan. First time the Census contained a question on the religious affiliation of the population and this is the only quantitative data on the religious affiliation though the Census did not and could not measure the level of religiosity of population. According to this data 95 % of population is affiliated with a religion and 96.5 % of these are members of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The biggest religious minority is the Evangelical Church and this is only 1 % of the people with a religious affiliation4. These data are not trustworthy as the reporters who were responsible for collecting data were recruited from non-professionals and sometimes they filled out the answers on religious affiliation by themselves, as many people did not answer the questions concerning religion or faith. The reason for this was the fear people have concerning such questions and data gathering, a feeling of insecurity towards the State authorities and their representatives and concern for preserving ones privacy. The incompleteness of these data may be proved by a simple observation of religious affiliations of other ethnic groups, such as Yezidis, Russians, Ukrainians, etc. A significant number of these, according to the Census, are members of the Armenian Apostolic Church but it is evident that Yezidis practice their own form of worship (Allison 2012, 33–36) and Russians and Ukrainians are mostly Orthodox (Roudometof, Agadjanian& Pankhurst 2005). At the same time we should note that, according to the same Census, the level of education is much higher in urban than in rural areas. In rural areas many people only graduate from secondary education, as they start to work at an early age and do not have time for further education. Females get married at an early 3 http://armstat.am/file/article/sv_03_13a_520.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 4 http://www.armstat.am/file/doc/99478378.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

34

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

age and do not continue their education either. In some villages there are difficulties to attend even so much as high school, as pupils have to travel to another village for high school and many of them prefer not to go. The level of migration among the Armenian population is high. First of all it concerns to seasonal work migrants who mostly commute to the Russian federation for work. According to data from the Migration policy centre Armenia has seen continual patterns of mass emigration since 1991, yet this has been partially masked by a history of positive natural balances. In the intra-census period of 2001 and 2011 the resident population fell from 3.2 to 3.0 million persons, with a natural balance of +126,000 persons. Yet, the net migration balance was -320,000, which is 10 % of the 2002 population. The annual net migration balance passed instead from -23,100 in 1995–2001 to -32,000 in 2002–2011. Major outflows were directed toward the US and Russia (Armenia; The Demographic-Economic Framework of Migration 2013, 1). As with immigration trends, between 1988 and 1992 Armenia saw the arrival over 200,000 refugees from Azerbaijan due to the war of Nagorno-Karabakh (Yunusov 2005, 48–49). In the last twenty years, the Republic of Armenia has experienced substantial changes in migration dynamics, the causes and consequences engendering them, the groups directly or indirectly engaged in migration, as well as attitudes on how to solve these problems by means of state regulation. Naturally, these changes have had an impact on the Armenian system of public administration and the implemented migration policy, thus impacting its development (Ibid, 4). Migration is not only a demographic issue for Armenia but also a political one. Being surrounded on the East and West by Azerbaijan and Turkey Armenia views this issue as a matter of national security and one of the basic criticisms of the opposition of the authorities is the lack of effort to prevent migration, especially from villages where unemployment is a big issue.

2.

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Over the past decades there have been many attempts to analyze religious education from different perspectives (Jödicke 2013, 7–8; Willaime/Mathieu 2005; Schreiner 2000; etc), which have showed how diverse and how different religious education can be. This article shall articulate two basic concepts of religious education – religiöser Unterricht and religionskundlicher Unterricht (Frank & Bochinger 2008 183). The first teaches the religious subjects mostly from a religious point of view while the second tries to use mostly the scholarly method

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

35

employed by cultural studies. The general approach in Armenia on religious education swings between these two approaches as there is no pure religious education (except the cases discussed below) and as the religious subjects are taught from a religious point of view in public schools as clergy of the Armenian Church sometimes are invited to talk to pupils in public schools or there are collective baptisms at schools (Mkrtchyan 2013, 149–161). In this sense we can say that religious education in Armenia has developed a unique model which is a mix of the above mentioned two models (Loretan 2005). One of the basic concerns expressed by civil society groups towards the introduction of the subject is to separate “religious education” from “Christian religious instruction” (Grimmit 1973) or more precisely “religious instruction” from “education about religion”. The difference between the Armenian situation in general and the sphere of religious education in particular is the mono-ethnic nature of the country. After the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (1992–1994), the Azeri population migrated from Armenia to Azerbaijan and vice versa. After this flood of migration the Muslim population of Armenia approached zero level apart from the small number of Azerbaijanis (mostly women who are married Armenians) in one of the regions of Armenia. In this sense Armenia hasn’t faced the challenges the multicultural and multi-religious societies in the West have encountered. The continuing pluralisation of Armenian society in the face of various evangelical, Pentecostal and non-Christian religious movements raised new challenges for the concept of religious education. After the introduction of “Armenian Church History” as a subject at public schools this challenge has gained more practical implications. The basic concern was to prevent teaching religions or Armenian Church history in theological way or as a form of indoctrination and to keep the education on neutral positions or to teach from the point of inter-religious dialogue or pluralism5. The concept of religious education in the Armenian context shall be interpreted in two different ways: first, religious education is only taught at theological schools attached to churches. This model is different from western countries, where public school can be Christian or Muslim. In Armenia all public schools are legally secular though in recent years some changes have taken place in schools. The majority’s religion Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin has several such theological schools called chemaran (seminary). The main two are Gevorgian chemaran at Etchmiadzin and Vazgenian spiritual school at the lake 5 A policy research “Content analysis of Church history textbooks and its influence on young generation” was implemented by H. Hovhannisyan, A. Davtyan within the framework of OSF policy fellowship initiative. http://www.osf.am/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/H_Hovhannisyan_ Research-.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9.2019).

36

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

Sevan; second, since 2002 a subject called Armenian Church history is taught at public schools in Armenia, but legally it cannot be called religious education as the nature of the subject is historical. Yet many civil society members and scholars argue the opposite (Danielyan, Ghazaryan, Hovhannisyan, Avtandilyan 2012). The legal basis is the Constitution of the Armenia and also the laws regulating the field, but the basis for arguments in favor of interpreting this course as a form of religious education are studies implemented recently on the content of text-books, the teaching process of the subject, as well as the involvement of a religious organization in the management and supervision of the teaching process and teaching materials. One of the first laws adopted by Armenia during its movement towards independence was the Law on Conscience and Religious Organizations on June 17, 1990 but even after the declaration of independence (September 1991) the majority of Soviet laws were in force. The adoption of a Constitution in 1995 marked a new era in the legal field of Armenia and the country started to adopt new laws and regulations governing the sphere of education, including religious education. The main principle embodied in the Constitution was that of freedom of conscience (Article 23). Based on this principle many religious organizations were given a legal basis for free activities and functioning. The principle of the freedom of conscience was strongly emphasized after Armenia joined the Council of Europe on June 25, 2001. After this Armenia has ratified many international conventions and agreements and faced several challenges which especially concerned the rejection of military service by Jehovah’s witnesses. After losing several trials in the European Court of Human Rights6 Armenia adopted the law on alternative service and solved the problem that way. The Constitution amended on November 27, 2005 made some essential changes concerning this sphere. The Article 8.1 states: “The church shall be separate from the state in the Republic of Armenia. The Republic of Armenia recognizes the exceptional mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as the national church, in the spiritual life, development of national culture and preservation of the national identity of the people of Armenia. Freedom of operation for all religious organizations in accordance with the law shall be guaranteed in the Republic of Armenia. The relations of the Republic of Armenia and the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church may be regulated by the law”. This clause of the Constitution allowed the Church to be in a closer relationship with State authorities, which has gradually lead to closer relationships between clergy and higher government officials. As a result of this close relationship the Armenian Apostolic Church succeeded in introducing the subject called “Armenian Church History” into public schools of Armenia. To be clear 6 Case of Bayatyan v. Armenia became a precedent, Application no. 23459/03.

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

37

we should reiterate that this subject was not introduced nor is interpreted as “religious education” because legally religious education is prohibited, seeing as education in Armenia is secular. However, the legal aspect and the reality in Armenia are quite distinct from each other. During classes of Armenian Church history sometimes clergy from the Armenian Church are invited and there are several tasks in the text-books which directly instruct the pupils to participate in activities connected to Armenian Church. On the 22nd of February, 2007 the Law on the relationship between the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Republic of Armenia entered into force following to the respective clause in the Constitution. According to this Law the heritage of the Church is an integral part of the national identity of Armenians, which supposes the active involvement of Church and clergy in different spheres of public life. Article 8 clearly describes the role of the Armenian church in the education sphere stating that the Armenian Apostolic Church reserves the right to establish or sponsor kindergartens (pre-school institutions), elementary, secondary and high schools, special colleges and institutions of higher education. The law also states that the Armenian Church shall have the right to work out curricula and textbooks for the “Armenian Church History” course within state educational institutions, to define the minimum requirements for instructors of the subject and to present prospective instructors to the schools. The Church can also organize voluntary scholastic courses within state educational institutions utilizing their buildings and resources, coordinating the issues regarding the realization of courses with mentioned institutions.

3.

Developments in the country’s education policies

After the collapse of the Soviet Union the Armenian Apostolic Church has been gaining privileges in the sphere of education. The close relationship between clergy and high government officials has promoted the rising influence of Church in school and on society at large. In Armenia there are public and private schools, both of which teach almost all the same subjects. There are no community financed schools and the vast majority of schools are under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Education. The education system in Armenia is more centralized than those of most European countries. There are no Catholic, Protestant, Jewish or Muslim schools and in this sense there isn’t any confession-based public education in Armenia. The Armenian Apostolic Church and some Protestant denominations provide theological education in their churches but this education is not public. Article 3 of the Law states that “the state guarantees the implementation of the right to a religious education on a voluntary basis”. This clause mainly refers to

38

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

religious education organized in the mentioned seminaries attached to the Church. The permission to recruit professors, manage curriculums and teaching materials and exams falls completely under Church jurisdiction. The head of the seminary is appointed by the Catholicos and regularly reports to the Catholicos on the situation in the seminary. Discipline is very high and because of it many students do not finish the seminary. The professors in the seminary are half secular, half clergy from the Church. The curriculum is very flexible as it is defined by the board of the seminary and there are no formal requirements to follow as in most public institutions. In recent years then seminaries have been going through big reforms aiming at reconstruction from a one level to a two level system (BA, MA) and later to try to integrate a third level (PhD). For this purpose there is close cooperation with the Ministry of Education of the RA and Yerevan State University, Faculty of Theology. The funding of the seminaries is completely implemented by the Armenian Church and the funding comes from different sources, mainly consisting of donations. Except for these educational Institutions, where the Armenian Apostolic Church trains its future hierarchs, there are also Sunday-schools organized by the Armenian Church. These Sunday-schools were the “Pioneer palaces” during the Soviet period, which turned into Church sponsored schools. These schools run on a voluntary basis and the young people involved in the school implement various activities: from learning different professions to Bible studies. The Sunday schools have special significance in Diaspora. In many countries the Armenian Church or Diaspora Armenians cannot afford the maintenance of regular school and Armenian youths usually attend the Sunday schools where they learn about Armenia, the Armenian Church, participate in singing or dancing clubs, etc (Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Russia, etc.). There is one interesting case in Istanbul, Turkey where a regular school is organized by the Armenian Evangelical Church and the followers of Armenian Apostolic Church also attend the same school. The school receives its text books from Armenia and follows the educational standards of Armenia. Another important institution is the Faculty of Theology at Yerevan State University. The Faculty of theology was founded by a bishop of Armenian Apostolic Church Shahe Achemyan in 1995. Education at the faculty is secular, though much attention is paid to the study of Armenian Church history, liturgy, calendar and other disciplines connected to the Church. The dean of the Faculty is suggested by the Catholicos and appointed by the rector of the University which means that the Faculty is under the direct influence and supervision of the Armenian Church. The graduates of the Faculty may work at the public schools, universities or research Institutions. Religious education at the University, like in other countries, is mostly academic (Mitchell 1980, 133).

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

39

The Faculty of Theology professors used to teach an obligatory subject “History of religions” at all Faculties of Yerevan State University. After the reforms at the University this subject became a selective one and students could choose between “History of religions” and “Cultural premises”. After the opening of the Department of Armenian Church history and Ecclesiology at the Faculty of Theology in 2008 the major part of the “History of Religions” was allocated to Armenian Church history. These changes coincide with the logic of changes towards the church based on nationalistic attitudes fervent in Armenia. There are some other religious organizations, mostly Pentecostal churches, which have their own theological institutions attached to their churches. They do not enjoy the same privileges as the Armenian Apostolic Church but they can freely implement their theological instruction for their followers mostly. The subjects taught in those institutions are mostly theological in nature and much time is allocated to Bible studies which includes reading and interpretation of Bible. Compared to the seminaries of the Armenian Apostolic Church education in these institutions is not systematic and is not completely regulated, but it is more flexible. Funding for these institutions is raised by the respective religious organizations.

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

As already mentioned there are no religiously sponsored schools in Armenia with some exceptions. The school sponsored by the “Life of Word” organization may be considered the only religiously sponsored school where all subjects are taught as in ordinary public schools. The school is sponsored by a religious organization and most of the pupils belong to member families to the church. It does not have a clear religious inclination and there is no subject that teaches about the doctrine of the religious organization. The Armenian Apostolic Church sponsors its own Sunday schools where young people attend on a non-regular basis and mostly learn arts and crafts which aren’t taught about at public schools. They also organize Bible study courses and regular meetings with the clergy of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The role of these Sunday schools is especially significant in the Armenian Diaspora where they are attended in an effort to preserve a sense of national identity, to learn the Armenian language and dances and to maintain a connection with Armenia.

40

5.

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The concept of religious education is not relevant within the Armenian context but rather education about religion and more specifically about the history of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The subject clearly indicates its goals at the beginning of the text-books and also in the subject criteria approved by the Ministry of Education7. The goals of the subject include, but are not limited to, the teaching of Christian values, providing education about Christian ethics and morals, etc. The subject also intends to strengthen the positions of the Armenian Apostolic Church by emphasizing its historical role in the maintenance of Armenian identity and protection of the Armenian nation. A recurrent theme within the textbooks is that the Armenian Apostolic Church has had to take on governmental functions when Armenian statehood had collapsed. This is the reason why the introduction and teaching of the subject was accompanied by lot of complaints from religious minorities and people with other philosophical approaches and worldviews. Since the beginning of 1990s the preaching center of the Armenian Apostolic Church started the training teachers. The courses were implemented at Saint Sargis Church and around two hundred teachers were involved. The aim of the classes was to prepare teachers to teach religions at schools. Later the majority of these teachers became teachers for the “Armenian Church History” subject. In 2002 the Republic of Armenia and the Armenian Apostolic Church signed an agreement that from 2002 to 2004 the History of Armenian Church subject shall be gradually introduced into the public schools. It was agreed that the process should be overseen by the Christian education center in Etchmiadzin and the Ministry of Education of the RA. The preparation and publication of text-books were to be funded by the Church and the curriculum, criteria and guidelines to be prepared by the Ministry of Education. The final approval of the text books was to be given by the Ministry and the representatives of the Ministry were to take part in the training courses for the teachers8. The introduction of this subject became possible through close cooperation of the Church and the State. One of the basic arguments against the introduction of this subject was the violation of the secular basis of education which is guaranteed by the law on education, ratified international conventions, etc. The vice-director of the National Education Institute of the Ministry of Education responded to accusations of having violated the secular basis of the State and education by saying: “Our 7 See Kosyan A., and others. Armenian Church History, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2004. 8 See the agreement http://www.gov.am/u_files/file/kron/1d%20Hamadzaynagir.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

41

school is certainly secular and this subject has no religious basis but it contains knowledge on religion and history of religion”9. We should note that the subject contains knowledge not about religions but only of a single religion, which means to teach not about religion but to teach religion which is prohibited by Toledo principles and other international instruments. The subject is predominantly about Armenian Church History and pupils are given quite little knowledge on other religions. One of the most common indictments by civil society actors of the subject is tendency of “indoctrination” of the teaching material, which means “the handing on of beliefs in such a way as to make it impossible or difficult for the individual to modify or abandon them later even if he has good reason for doing so” (Mitchell 1980, 134–135). Judging from the title of the subject one would expect it to have historical content but actually the content of the textbooks isn’t limited to historical facts, but rather covers some doctrinal and dogmatic elements (such as practicing prays, etc)10. In response to the question of a journalist the Minister of Education quoted the respective clause of the Constitution emphasizing that the Armenian Apostolic Church played and is playing an essential role in the national identity of Armenians and based on the Constitution the introduction of such a subject at schools is quite logical and legal11. One of the most contentious points surrounding the subject is the fact that religious rituals are practiced during the classes as many of the teachers start the lesson by preaching and also give tasks to pupils which have religious content and interpretation. The “Collaboration for democracy” center has implemented several studies proving that the subject is not mostly about religion but has clear religious agenda12.

6.

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

The teaching of the subject of Armenian Church history varies from school to school due to the level of preparation on the part of teachers. Many teachers try to exceed their authority by spreading propaganda which aims to protect the authority of Armenian Apostolic Church and its clergy in almost every lesson. 9 http://www.sobesednik.am/old_archive/index.php?option=com_content& view=article& i d=8265:2008-07-28-14-58-20& catid=801:-31& Itemid=13401 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 10 See Ghandilyan V., and others, Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 5th year, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2008; Ghandilyan V. and others, Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 6th year, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2008. 11 http://www.lragir.am/index.php/arm/0/country/view/34232 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 12 http://www.religions.am/library/social/00021.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

42

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

There is a big gap in the teaching of the subject between the capital city of Yerevan and rural areas, where, due to the lack of specialized teachers, teachers of other (sometimes totally unrelated) subjects undertake the teaching of the subject. As a result of such teaching the content of the subject is totally misinterpreted and the subject becomes a tool in the fight against religious minorities. The textbooks of the “History of Armenian Church” subject (4–7 years) were officially presented in Etchmiadzin on the 4th of November, 2003. Currently the subject is taught from the 5th to the 11th class at public schools. The subject is obligatory and, unlike in many Western countries, parents don’t have the right to opt out. The commission for developing the textbooks was composed of historians, clergymen and philosophers. There wasn’t any pedagogic, psychological or religious studies specialist involved in the development of the textbooks. The Toledo principles also recommend that the interested parties should be involved in the open and transparent procedures for the development of textbooks and their reasonable advice should be respected. The composition of textbooks was not an open process and many representatives of religious minorities claim that they did not even know when and where the process takes place13. From 2007 the Armenian Apostolic Church took over the supervision of the subject at public schools, as well as the development of text-books, quality assurance mechanisms and criteria and the selection of teachers. Otherwise, the “Armenian Church History” subject is totally managed by Armenian Church and the role of Ministry of Education is mostly consultative-cooperative. The content analysis of text-books showed that the title of the text-books does not coincide with their content. The content of the text-books is much wider than only the history of Armenian Church. During first two years pupils are taught about the Bible, the structure of the Armenian Church, its mysteries and feasts14. Many feasts described in the text-books are not known to the public and the question arises as to why young people need to know about that. The text book for the 7th year includes some lessons on Islam, Buddhism, Ancient Armenian religion-paganism, etc15. If the text-books were named History of religions that would make sense. Otherwise the content and title do not coincide here as well. One of the defects of the text-books is the mixture of ethics with Armenian Church history. During the 10th class the pupils mostly learn about morals and ethics which are presented in close connection with the Armenian Church. Thus, 13 Interview Vanadzor church minister Rafayel Grigoryan April 12, 2014. 14 See Ghandilyan V., and others, Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 5th year, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2008; Ghandilyan V. and others, Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 6th year, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2008. 15 Kosyan A., and others. Armenian Church History, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2004.

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

43

the textbooks intend to teach the students that ethics and morality depend entirely on the Armenian Church and by extension onbeing a member of the Church. The textbooks of 11th year include topics such as worldview, Christian system of values, basic values (nation, motherland, freedom, etc.)16. Many of the concepts and topics are not based on a scholarly approach but on subjective interpretation. For example, there is a foundational value system which one cannot find anywhere but in this textbook. The value scheme involves family, church, nation, patriotism, etc. From a pedagogical-psychological approach there are several principles that are ignored in the textbooks. For example: adequacy, clarity, attractiveness, age appropriateness, socialization, cooperativeness, etc. There are several concepts that are viewed as negative, such as hedonism or cosmopolitism, which can be explained by alluding to the nationalistic nature of the subject. One of the textbooks (8th class, 6th class, page 30) contains this question: “how big of a threat has Protestantism been for the Armenian nation and the Armenian Church”. There are several such examples where the textbook directs the pupils to specific answers. Thus, one of the major defects of the textbooks is that they do not promote and encourage critical thinking through comparison and various other methodological approaches.

7.

Observation on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy, etc.

Alongside the subject “History of the Armenian Church”, a subject named “Knowledge on social developments” (it is not sociology) is also taught at the public schools of Armenia. The basic goal of this subject is to teach about social developments and to give pupils a basic understanding about their rights and responsibilities within society. The impact of the subject is quite high as pupils sometimes refer to their rights and can cite punishments for the violation of the rights of others. The teaching of the subject already has shown results as it is directly connected to the religious diversity in the country. Many of the pupils know that others have the right to practice their beliefs freely and openly without fear of attack or punishment. It also provides the pupils with knowledge of the basic principles of law, rights, responsibilities, the role of a human being within the society, the intersections of society, structure and construction of societies. During this class they also deal with religions, their role within the society and try to analyze the role and responsibilities of religious organizations within a bigger 16 Ghandilyan V., and others, Armenian Church History-10, Yerevan, INE (Institute for National Education), 2005.

44

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

and more complex perspective on society. The class also teaches them about the state, its responsibilities and the interaction between citizens and the government and other judicial bodies. The last year text-book on the “Armenian Church history” is mostly about ethics and morality. This part of the education tries to root the belief among the pupils that ethical behavior and morality derive from a sense of religious belonging. It also is an example of the interconnection of the Armenian church with ethics and morals, especially in dealing with the ways in which Armenians have struggled and died for their faith and church and any betrayal of the principles and values preached by the Christian church formed the basis for morality and ethics. The subject also teaches the understanding of contemporary ethics but also with an inclination towards the Christian religion and church.

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

The religious diversity issue in Armenia is mostly connected to the non-traditional religious movements – the Protestant denominations and Jehovah’s witnesses. Protestant denominations mostly deal with their issues and problems on the legal sphere but there have never been any vivid examples of prosecution of any representative of any Protestant denomination, except the process against the “Iravunk” newspaper by the “Word of Life” religious organization. One of the major problems in Armenia was connected to Jehovah’s witnesses as they did not want to serve in Army ad many of them were arrested for that. Armenia lost several trials against them in the European Court of Human Rights and one of them (V. Bayatyan against Armenia) became precedential. After this Armenia adopted the law on alternative service and thereby solved the problem. Though in the Armenian army there is discriminatory attitude towards people who belong to religious minorities the Church has a firm standing in the Army and many clergy serve in the Army as spiritual advisors which almost function as vice-heads of military unions. Currently, the major points of conjecture in Armenia are the identity issue and the role of the church in identity matters. This issue is vital as Armenia is surrounded by three Muslim countries, with two of whom there are currently hostile relations (Turkey and Azerbaijan). There is also a traumatic historical vendetta with Turkey (Armenian Genocide of 1915) and the issue to keep connections with Diaspora Armenians. In the Armenian Diaspora the Armenian church enjoys a privileged position, as Armenians usually gather around the church and the cultural life (schools, different clubs, etc.) is concentrated around the church. Even though the Diaspora Armenian Church is represented by four Sees (Etchmiadzin Holy See, Cilicia Catholicosate and Patriarchates of Jerusalem

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

45

and Constantinople). Each of them is independent and they do not have hierarchical relations. Another growing discourse is the role of the Armenian Church in public affairs, Church-State relationships, the atmosphere of religious tolerance in the country, etc. As there are few Muslims (mostly Iranian students and one Mosque at the center of Yerevan), few Indian students, no Buddhists, this issue is mostly discussed in the context of protestant minorities in Armenia vs. the Armenian Apostolic Church. Another basic discourse in modern Armenia is the nationalistic discourse on the role of the Armenian Church in the identity construction of Armenians historically and currently which is criticized and opposed by some intellectual circles who think that the Armenian Church was always against the Armenian State because after the abolition of the state usually the Church became the leading institution of the nation. The nationalistic discourse is intensified by the people and organizations that have some connection to the authorities and within the context of the maintenance of national traditions vs. the new “bad” tendencies coming from West.

9.

Religion in schools outside of RE

The issue of religion at schools may be discussed in two different ways – in terms of religious symbolism and in terms of the presence of religious people (mostly priests of Armenian Apostolic Church at schools). There are several symbols which may be seen in some public schools in Armenia. First of all, there are different kinds of crosses on the school walls, sometimes just at the entrance hall. In front of some schools there are cross-stones (Khachkars) which are an integral part of Armenian culture and mostly they are installed in remembrance of the victims of Genocide in Turkey in 1915. Which symbols or and/or texts are displayed at a school highly depends on the personal approach of the respective principal. The cross-stones are the “sacred spaces” in the territory of a school but most of the pupils are ignorant of such “sacred spaces”. In many of the schools there is a total absence of any religious symbol and there is no place to be called or considered “sacred”. Priests aren’t usually present at schools, though in some schools (especially in villages) a priest is present at the celebration of main church festivals. This is most noticeable during Easter when the pupils organize some events mostly involving the process of food preparation and invite a priest to bless their food and give some interpretation to the meaning of the festival. After the recent complaints and discussions against the priests’ presence at schools, the Christian Education center at Etchmiadzin made a decision to decrease the presence and

46

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

visits of clergy to schools. However, the visits of priests or any other clergy to school also depends on the personal beliefs and approaches of the head of the institution. However, it is almost impossible to imagine that priests of any other religious institution may have such rights to visit public schools alone or with any official.

10.

Training of teachers of RE

Another essential question is the training of the teachers for the “Armenian Church history” subject. During the first period the teachers from different subjects took the responsibility to teach the subject but as they didn’t have any specialized education, they faced many challenges in the teaching process. Many teachers of Armenian history, literature, or the Armenian language went through trainings at the Christian education center in Etchmiadzin17. It is interesting that even the students of the Faculty of Theology did not have the right to teach at schools until they did had received the certificate of the Church structure. Later this restriction was somehow changed but as mentioned earlier the whole process of training and teaching is supervised by the the Church. The training process is a filtration process to restrict the people belonging to other religions or having different worldviews (for example, atheistic or agnostic) from the teaching of the subject18. The manual for teachers was also prepared by the Christian Education center which sometimes shows serious discrepancies with the textbooks. Notwithstanding the manuals, the teachers usually try to teach the subject according to their own understanding and worldviews. Such approaches usually agitated against the religious minorities and many teachers openly talk about the “sects” which sometimes hurt the religious feelings of the followers of those religious organizations. Some researches revealed the fact that many teachers practice religious elements during the classes though recently they’ve been instructed by the Christian education center not to include prayers or other religious elements into their classes (Danielyan, Ghazaryan, Hovhannisyan, Avtandilyan 2012, 70–93). However, the educational level of many teachers does not correspond to the minimal standards for the teachers of such a sensitive subject.

17 http://www.armenianchurch.org/index.jsp?sid=1& id=16853& pid=16849 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 18 The interview with archimandrite Vardan Navasardyan, head of the Christian Education. center in Etchmiadzin and responsible body for the Armenian Church history subject, revealed many aspects of the teaching process as well as the selection process of teachers. http://www.religions.am/arm/interviews (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

47

The teachers are subject to regular control and supervision by the specialists working at the Christian Education center and in case of violations they can be fired from work. It means that a religious institution can fire the teachers working in a secular school. This in itself renders the school and educational system semi-secular. There even have been cases when the teacher could not get certificate to teach the subject as the trainers suspected him/her to be atheist or sectarian. This approach was asserted by the Minister of Education during a round table meeting in Oshakan village. The teachers are under permanent pressure and supervision by the supervisors of the Christian Education center in Etchmiadzin (Danielyan, Ghazaryan, Hovhannisyan, Avtandilyan 2012, 44–51).

11.

Empirical research concerning RE

Due to the fact that there is no religious education as such at public schools in Armenia, there are almost no denominational schools in Armenia and the “Armenian Church history” subject was introduced at public schools comparatively recently, there have yet not been any empirical studies in this field. Only two qualitative studies have so far been implemented. One was executed by the “Collaboration for Democracy Center” on the teaching process of Armenian Church history subject at schools (Danielyan 2012) and another study was done on the content of the text-books and their impact on the tolerance level of young generation19.

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Many of the Toledo principles are not maintained during the teaching of the “Armenian Church history” subject. The aim of the Toledo principles is to promote the educational approaches that concentrate on the teaching of religions or beliefs and not on the teaching of one religion or belief. Also one of the basic principle is not to teach the religions or beliefs themselves but about the religions or beliefs. The teaching of “Armenian Church History” subject is not congruent with the mentioned principles as the subject teaches mostly about one religion (the lessons about other religions are very few) and sometimes it teaches not about the religion but the religion itself. This conclusion is based on the praying before the classes, some tasks connected to the doctrine of the Church, etc. 19 http://www.osf.am/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/H_Hovhannisyan_Research-.pdf (last accessed: 23.9. 2019).

48

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

In 2002 an agreement was signed between the Government of Armenia and the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church and according to this agreement the “Armenian Church History” subject was introduced into the public schools of Armenia as an obligatory subject. At the same time the supervision of the teaching process, the subject criteria and also the reflection of the pupils’ evaluations were implemented by a religious organization which has taken on the functions of the Ministry of Education and therefore violates a fundamental principle of any secular state and secular education. The Toledo principles clearly state that if the subjects of teaching religions or beliefs are neutral and objective than the pupils can participate in those classes. States are entitled to give partial or general right of choosing the subject. Opt out rights, which are one of the basic rights for religious minorities, were not maintained while introducing the subject. At the same time the Toledo principles require to take into consideration the local conditions of religious diversity and traditions. The textbooks refer to other religious groups and their traditions very shortly and even the history of Armenian Evangelical church or Armenian Catholic Church or the other branches of Armenian Church (Cilician Catholicosate, Constantinople and Jerusalem Patriarchates) are not represented in an appropriate manner. It is worth mentioning that in the new publication of 2008 the passages about other religions (Islam, Buddhism, etc.) are totally absent from the textbooks. This reflects the attitude of the “Armenian Church History” subject supervisors and textbook composers towards the diversity issue, religious minorities in the country and also to the concepts of tolerance and pluralism. The results from the application of Toledo principles should be tolerance towards the rights of others to worship any religion or belief or not to follow any religion or belief, knowledge on the different religions and beliefs, a diversified and critical approach towards history (pluralism), elimination of negative stereotypes about religions and beliefs, the ability to deal with the cases of intolerance or discrimination, etc. One of the basic weaknesses of the textbooks is the absence of material to promote the critical thinking and primitive reproduction of the material. Another aspect is the state of tolerance among the pupils towards the “other” or different religious organizations other than Armenian Apostolic Church20. This study, small in scale as it was, showed that the subject does not comply with the requirements of Toledo principles and, moreover, violates them.

20 http://www.osf.am/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/H_Hovhannisyan_Research-.pdf (last accessed: 23.9. 2019).

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

13.

49

Further information

In the past twenty years of independence Armenia adopted its own pattern of development concerning the religious education which is mostly based on the traditions and on the general approach adopted by nation-states towards the building of identity. Up to the second part of 19th century there were no purely religious institutions in Armenia and the Georgian Spiritual Seminary became the first in 1874. Even after the opening of this institution very few of the graduates expressed a willingness to join the clergy or to continue serving in the Church. It would be nonsense to talk about religious education during the Soviet period or even about an involvement of any elements reminiscent of religion or church or any religious Institution or symbol. The State was fully separated from the Church and the Church from Education. Even the Georgian Spiritual Seminary was closed for several years during the Second World War. After the collapse of Soviet Union the Armenian Apostolic Church tried to regain its lost territories, churches and also its power within the Armenian Nation. This process involved the construction of new churches, the refurbishing of old churches, the broadcasting of its own TV channel, having clergymen on duty in the Armenian army and teaching the subject of “Armenian Church History”. As history has shown the Armenian Church could gradually regain much power in the country, mostly due to the favor of the political party and the president of Armenia. The Church power became much bigger during rule of the third president of Armenia – Serzh Sargsyan and his governing party Hanrapetakan (Republican). Many of the representatives of the party openly declared that the Armenian Apostolic Church was and is the in charge of maintaining the Armenian national identity and national integrity. The result of such approach became the obligatory subject “History of Armenian Apostolic Church” at public schools of Armenia since 2002. This subject cannot considered religious education as many aspects of the education is connected with the educational level and motivations of the teachers, which does not always correspond with the State legislation, i. e. maintaining the secular nature of the education at public schools. Some teachers openly talk against religious minorities or pray during the classes and take the pupils to the churches which are not envisaged by the curricula of the subject. The textbooks also need some improvement and development to promote critical thinking and get rid of dogmatic exercises and approaches. Religious education in Armenia has its own characteristics and sometimes it is hard to describe this sphere by the same terms and approaches as in European or other countries. However, this field is still under the construction as religion is coming back to public space in different forms and there are possible conflicts

50

Hovhannes Hovhannisyan

between the majority religion and minorities’ religions based also on the teaching of the mentioned subject at school. However, the developments in the sphere of religious education show that within the coming years the Armenian State should find the way and solutions for the existing controversies in this field and also make respective changes in curriculums and teaching methods to adjust the teaching of the “Armenian Church History” subject of its main goals, i. e. to teach about religions or to find any other acceptable solutions through open and transparent discussions. At the same time the teaching of such a subject should have humanistic and pro-societal purposes, to create public goods, to promote the level of tolerance in a “plural society”, to support the establishment of modus vivendi, and not use the means of religious education for the establishment and promotion of the hegemony of one religious organization over others.

References Allison, C. 2012. The Yezidi Oral Tradition in Iraqi Kurdistan. London: Routledge. Berger, P.L. 1999. The Desecularization of the World. A Global Overview. In The Desecularization of the World. Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. P:l. Berger. Washington Grand Rapids Mich. etc.: Ethics and Public Policy Center ; William B. Eerdmans, 1–18. Casanova, J., 1994. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Curanovic´, A. 2013. The Post-Soviet Religious Model: Reflections on Relations between the State and Religious Institutions in the CIS Area1, Religion, State and Society, 41:3, 330–351. Danielyan, S., Ghazaryan, A., Hovhannisyan, H. and Avtandilyan, A. 2012. The issues of religious education in the public schools of the Republic of Armenia. Yerevan. Dubin, B. 2011. Rossiya nulevykh: politicheskaya kul’tura, istoricheskaya pamyat’, povsednevnaya zhizn’. Moscow: ROSSPEN. Frank, K. and Bochinger Ch. 2008. Religious Education in Switzerland as a Field of Work for the Study of Religions: Empirical Results and Theoretical Reflections, Numen 55, pp. 183–217. Ghandilyan V., and others 2005. Armenian Church History-10, Yerevan: INE (Institute for National Education). Ghandilyan V. and others 2008. Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 5th year. Yerevan: INE (Institute for National Education). Ghandilyan V. and others 2008. Armenian Church History : Textbook for public school of 6th year. Yerevan: INE (Institute for National Education). Grimmitt, M. 1973 What Can I do in R.E.? A Guide to New Approaches. 2nd ed. 1978. Great Wakering: Mayhew-McGrimmon. Jödicke, A. 2013. Introduction in: Religious Education Politics, the State, and Society, pp. 7–22. Wurzburg: Ergon.

Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia

51

Kosyan A. and others 2004. Armenian Church History.Yerevan: INE (Institute for National Education). Loretan, A. 2005. Religionunterrichtskonzepte und ihre rechtlichen Koordinaten, In Kooperation zwischen Staat und Religionsgemeinschaften nach schweizerischem Recht, ed. de Mortanges, P. and E. Tanner, 357–387. Freiburg: Schulthess. Martin, D., 2005. On Secularization. Towards a Revised General Theory. Aldershot: Ashgate. Mirchell, B. 1980. Religious education, Oxford review of education, vol. 6, No.2, 133–139. Mkrtchyan, S., 2013. ”State and Church in Armenian State Schools”. In Religious Education Politics, the State, and Society, 149–161. Wurzburg: Ergon. Roudometof, V., Agadjanian, A., and Pankhurst, J. G. 2005. Eastern Orthodoxy in a Global Age: Tradition Faces the Twenty-first Century. Rowman Altamira. Schreiner, P. 2000. Religious Education in Europe. A Collection of Basic In-formation about RE in European Countries. Münster : ICCS/Comenius-Institute. Toledo guiding principles on teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools 2007. Prepared by the ODIHR advisory council of experts on freedom of religion or belief, Published by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Tomka, M. 2011. Expanding religion. Religious Revival in Post-communist Central and Eastern Europe. Berlin: de Gruyter. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) 2008. Report on sample survey on external and internal migration. In Yerevan, RA and A. Yunosov 2009. Migration Processes in Azerbaijan. Baku: Adologlu. Willaime, J.-P.and Mathieu, S. 2005. Des ma%tres et des dieux. Ecoles et religions en Europe, Paris: Belin. Yunusov, A. 2005. Karabakh: Past and Present. Baku. http://www.osf.am/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/H_Hovhannisyan_Research-.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://photos.state.gov/libraries/armenia/231771/PDFs/irfr2012.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.religions.am/files/3247/documents/comments/p13.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://armstat.am/file/article/sv_03_13a_520.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.armstat.am/file/doc/99478378.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.gov.am/u_files/file/kron/1d%20Hamadzaynagir.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.sobesednik.am/old_archive/index.php?option=com_content& view=article& id=82:2008-07-28-14-58-20& catid=801:-31& Itemid=13401 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.armenianchurch.org/index.jsp?sid=1& id=16853& pid=16849 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.lragir.am/index.php/arm/0/country/view/34232 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.religions.am/library/social/00021.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Rashad Huseynov

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

Introduction Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, a search for national and religious identities started in the post-Soviet countries, including in Azerbaijan. In an independent Azerbaijan Islam has become an important element in finding ideological and national identity in light of the vacuum left behind by the collapse of the Soviet Union. While most Azerbaijanis have remained secular, the practice of Islam has grown significantly in the country over the past two decades (Journal of Conflict Transition, 2011). Due to a lack of experience and an insufficient number of qualified religious figures, the religious community of Azerbaijan couldn’t become a dominant actor in this process. Instead, both moderate and radical religious circles from Turkey, Iran and the Persian Gulf states have played an active role in promoting their brand of Islam in Azerbaijan using various methods, including education, charity and humanitarian support. However, to prevent the growing influence of external actors, the government of Azerbaijan took some legislative and policy measures to bring the religious situation in the country under its control. There is an ongoing debate about the necessity of religious education at secondary schools in Azerbaijan which involves the active participation of the relevant government agencies, religious communities, civil society organisations and the mass media. In fact, religion is not taught as a separate subject at public or private schools (US State Department, International Religious Freedom Report, 2016). Currently, public schools in Azerbaijan provide some limited insight into the world’s religions as part of their “Life knowledge” course. At the same time students can obtain in-depth knowledge about Islam and other religions outside of public schools at such religious education facilities as madrasas or special courses at churches and synagogues. There are divergent views in Azerbaijan regarding the place and role of religious education. Two major approaches can be distinguished in this respect. The first one considers religious education as being in conflict with secularism and

54

Rashad Huseynov

calls for its complete removal from the public education system. Others believe that secularism doesn’t necessarily assume separation of religion from the society and that society in a secular system has to actively co-operate with traditional and non-traditional religious communities, which will influence the spiritual and moral education of population.

1.

Socio-religious background

Azerbaijan is a secular country with a Muslim majority, where the constitution stipulates the separation of state and religion. Because of its geographical location and population’s diverse ethnic composition, favourable conditions existed for the spread and diversity of religions in the country. For centuries religion was an integral and binding part of public life in the region. Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam enriched the history of Azerbaijan and have had a huge impact on the formation of the national identity of contemporary Azerbaijan (Valiyev, 2015). According to the State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan, in February 2018 the total population of Azerbaijan was 9,89 million with 52,9 per cent living in urban areas and 47,1 per cent in rural areas with 49,9 per cent of population male, and 50,1 per cent – female. According to the State Committee on the Work with Religious Associations (SCWRA), which is the main state agency dealing with religious organisations and enforcing relevant regulations, 96 percent of the population is Muslim, of which approximately 65 percent is Shia and 35 percent Sunni. It is worth noting that the percentage of Shiite and Sunni population in Azerbaijan is rather based on an assumption and is not supported by any research in this field. The remaining four per cent of the population include members of the Russian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic Churches (Armenian population living in the breakaway Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan), Seventh-day Adventists, Molokans, Roman Catholics and other Christians, as well as Jews, Bahais and those professing no religion. Among the Muslim majority, religious observance is relatively low, and Muslim identity is rather based on culture and ethnicity than religion. According to the Pew Research Centre’s study, “The World’s Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society”, which was released on 30 April 2013, only eight per cent of respondents in Azerbaijan supported the implementation of Sharia, which was the lowest figure among all Muslim-majority countries. The same research revealed that barely any Muslims in Azerbaijan (one per cent) said Sunni-Shia tensions are a pressing issue in their country and almost no Muslims in Azerbaijan considered sectarian differences in their country to be very problematic. Sociological re-

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

55

search conducted by ADAM, a local Centre for Social Research revealed that, while over 90 per cent of respondents considered themselves to be “believers”, only 19,9 per cent of them said that they prayed regularly. Only 12 per cent stated that they regularly visit mosques and 13,5 per cent recognised the authority of at least one modern religious leader (Sattarov, 2009). The Christian population of Azerbaijan is mainly concentrated in the capital Baku and several other urban and rural areas. The majority lives in the cities of Baku, Sumgayit and Ganja, as well in Gakh (the Georgian Orthodox Christians), Ismayilli, Gadabay, Gobustan (Molokans), Gabala and Oghuz districts. Most Catholics and Lutherans live in the city of Baku. Following World War II the diaspora communities of German Lutherans living in the regions of Shamkir and Goygol were deported by the Soviet authorities. Several thousand people in Azerbaijan adhere to other Protestant faiths. These are Baptists, Adventists, Pentecostals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, etc. They live in the cities of Baku, Sumgayit and Ganja (Azerbaijani Multiculturalism, online presidential library, 2016). The majority of the Jewish population, numbering 12,000 to 18,000 in total, lives in Baku. Smaller communities are settled in the Girmizi Gasaba settlement (also known as Krasnaya Sloboda, which means Red Settlement) of the Guba district and other areas of Azerbaijan. There are three Jewish communities in the country : Mountain Jews, European (Ashkenazi) Jews and Georgian Jews. Mountain Jews, which make up the majority of the Jewish diaspora in Azerbaijan, mostly live in Baku and Guba; European Jews in Baku and Sumgayit cities; Georgian Jews in Baku. The Girmizi Gasaba in Guba is the only place where Mountain Jews are densely settled throughout the whole post-Soviet region (Nuruzade, 2016). After Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence in October 1991, the country started restoring its sites of worship. According to the latest figures of SCWRA, there are more than 2,250 mosques, 14 churches and seven synagogues in the country. 136 mosques are located in the capital Baku. Six churches belong to the Orthodox community (four in Baku, one in Ganja and one in Khachmaz), while four churches belong to the Georgian Orthodox community (Gakh), there is one Lutheran church, one Catholic and two churches of the Alban-Udi religious community. Two Jewish synagogues are located in Baku, two in Oghuz district and three in the Girmizi Gasaba of the Guba district. Alongside houses of worship, there are 748 holy sites in the country associated with the grave of holy person and known as “pir” and “ziyaretgah”. As of August 2018, SCWRA has registered 835 religious associations, including 804 Islamic, 20 Christian, eight Jewish, two Bahai and one Krishna religious community (SCWRA, 2018).

56

Rashad Huseynov

2.

Legal Framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

According to Article 7 of the Constitution, the Republic of Azerbaijan is a democratic, legal, secular, unitary republic. According to Article 18, there is a separation of religion and state and all religions are considered equal before the law. Article 18 also prohibits the “spreading and propaganda of religion (religious movements)”, “humiliating people’s dignity and contradicting the principles of humanism”; and maintains that the state educational system is secular. Article 6 of the Law on the Freedom of Religious Belief, which was adopted in August 1992 and amended several times, stipulates the separation of the education system from religion and holds that educational institutions of the state may incorporate theological, religious and religious-philosophical subjects into their curricula, as well as familiarize students with foundations of sacred cultic books. The Law recognizes freedom of citizens to study theology and receive religious education individually or in groups in any language. However, only religious centres and recognized associations may establish religious education facilities. According to the amendments made to the Constitution in 2009, they can operate on the basis of license granted by the Ministry of Education, which in turn must receive a relevant recommendation from the SCWRA (Religion, online presidential library, 2016). Before this amendment, SCWRA was the only agency with the authority to give such permissions. The law also stipulates that religious organisations have the right to use properties that belong to them or that have been put at their disposal for the purpose of education. In accordance with Article 10 of this Law, the religious centre cannot establish more than one institution of religious higher education. The amendments made in 2009 also state that Islamic religious rituals and ceremonies shall only be conducted by citizens who have received their education in the country of Azerbaijan, or whose religious education abroad was approved by the relevant government agencies. Foreigners affiliated with other religions, however, are free to perform rituals and ceremonies, as long as they are registered by the government. The law stipulates punishments for individuals who lead Islamic religious ceremonies in violation of the restrictions placed on citizens receiving unauthorized religious education abroad. The penalties include up to one year’s imprisonment or fines from 1,000 AZN (507 EUR) up to 5,000 AZN (2,538 EUR). A longstanding agreement between the government and the Holy See allows foreigners to lead Catholic rituals (US State Department, International Religious Freedom Report, 2016). According to the law, SCWRA reviews and approves all religious literature for legal import, sale and distribution. Punishment for the illegal production, dis-

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

57

tribution, or importation of religious literature can include fines ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 AZN (2,538 to 3,553 EUR) or up to two years’ imprisonment for first offenses, and fines of 7,000 to 9,000 AZN (3,553 to 4,568 EUR) or imprisonment of between two and five years for subsequent offenses. (Institute for Democratic Initiatives, 2018) The issue related to wearing a Hijab, a head cover for women, at public schools is still a subject of contention in Azerbaijani society. Some schools have forbidden wearing a hijab in accordance with a directive from the Ministry of Education, while others allow girls to come to school with head-covers. There is no provision in the Law on the Freedom of Religious Belief this regard. While the directive of the Ministry of Education does not apply to schoolteachers and university students, there were some reports by civil society organisations claiming that students who wear hijab still encounter problems (Abbasov, 2011).

3.

Developments in the country’s education policies

The Education Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan was promulgated in 1992, soon after the country proclaimed its independence. However, the Milli Majlis (Parliament) adopted a new Education Law in 2009, which covers all aspects of conformity with the principles of the Bologna process (a three-cycle higher education system) and specifies modifications and improvements to all legislative acts, regulations and rules. According to Article 5 of this Law, general secondary education in Azerbaijan (grades 1 to 11) is compulsory and provided free of charge in state educational institutions (UNESCO IBE, 2011). The process of education in the country is controlled by the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education. The Cabinet decides the education strategy, supervises implementation of the Law on Education and the relevant legislative acts and documents, as well as defines the regulations for their establishment, restructuring and liquidation of higher educational institutions. The Ministry of Education is the central body overseeing the education system. It participates in the development and implementation of the state policy for education. The structure of the education system consists of pre-school, primary, secondary and higher education. Pre-school education is for children from zero to five/six years of age. It is provided in nurseries (children of less than three years of age), kindergartens for three to five/six-year-olds and in nursery-kindergartens. Compulsory general education is tiered into three levels. The first two levels include primary education (grades one to four) and basic secondary education (grades five to nine). The admission age is six. At the end of grade nine students

58

Rashad Huseynov

complete a graduation examination, as a result of which they can obtain a basic secondary education certificate (it is also called “incomplete secondary education”). The third level of compulsory general secondary education covers grades 10 and 11 (in other words “complete secondary education”). Upon successful completion of general secondary education students receive a certificate. Admission to professional secondary education requires passing the examination administered by the State Exam Centre (former State Commission on Student Admission, which was renamed following the presidential decree in April 2016). The duration of programmes is two years for graduates of complete secondary education and four years for graduates of incomplete secondary education. The latter can also enrol in two-year initial vocation education programmes. The State Statistics Committee’s data for 2017 shows that the total number of pre-school educational institutions is 1750. Of them, 1663 are state institutions and 87 are private. Total number of children involved in pre-school education is 118,685 (115,622 – state, 3063 – private). According to the State Statistics Committee there are currently 4,427 secondary schools in Azerbaijan (data for 2016–2017 academic year). Of these, 1,157 schools are located in urban areas, 3,270 in rural areas. The total number of students is 1,452,987. Of these 861,354 study in urban areas and 591,633 in rural areas. The number of public and private universities in Azerbaijan is 51 (data for 2016–2017 academic year). Total number of students is 163,779. Of these 144,505 study at public universities, 19,274 at private universities. There is a total of five Jewish schools in Azerbaijan located in the capital Baku and Guba district with a total enrolment of 1,450 students. It includes a yeshiva and a school in Baku opened in 1999–2001, and another yeshiva in the Girmizi Gasaba of Guba district. The Or Avner Foundation supported the opening of a Jewish school and kindergarten in Baku in September 2002, and another kindergarten in the Girmizi Gasaba in December 2005. In October 2006, an educational center was opened by the Jewish Agency office in Baku. In May 2010, the Chabad Or Avner learning complex in Baku moved into new premises, which is now the biggest Jewish school in the region (World Jewish Congress, 2017). According to the Development Concept ‘Azerbaijan-2020: The vision of the Future’, adopted in 2013, the government took a commitment to annually increase the total share of allocations to education to reach the level of developed countries. Two years later, in 2015, public expenditure on education had risen to 3.0 per cent of GDP, which represented a significant increase compared to 2.4 per cent in 2011. Still, this is much lower than the average of 4.5 % in other Eastern European countries and the averages of most upper middle-income countries (European Training Foundation, 2017). One of the important tasks of the Development Concept is a transition to a 12-year general education system. How-

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

59

ever, the government has not announced yet the exact year such a transition should take place. The Ministry of Education is actively working towards establishing a vocational education and training (VET) agency, which will deal with initial VET (IVET) coordination and management, public-private partnership, career guidance and recognition of non-formal and informal learning. The President Ilham Aliyev signed a decree on the Establishment of the State Agency for Vocational Education under the Ministry of Education in April 2016 (European Training Foundation, 2017). On 14 December 2017, the President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev approved the State Programme on the Development of Inclusive Education for People with Disabilities, to be implemented in 2018 and ending in 2024. The State Programme tasks the legislative body and relevant agencies with improving normative legal acts, thereby ensuring inclusive education for children in need of special attention or those with disabilities; to adjust education institutions and programmes to their needs; to create a database of children with disabilities; and raise awareness on the necessity of their inclusion into education process and the importance of increased social integration (official website of the President of Azerbaijan, 2017).

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments

As soon as Azerbaijan adopted the Law on the Freedom of Religious Belief in 1992, a number of religious education institutions (madrasas) were established in the country by foreign funds and organisations. Some of them started out as charitable and humanitarian organizations designed to help refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) as a result of the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh region, as well as other vulnerable groups suffering from poverty and hunger. Only later did they start establishing or sponsoring religious education schools and courses. According to the Cabinet of Ministers of Azerbaijan, 150 madrasas have been established in the country during the period from 1993 to 2003 (Rovshanoghlu, 2017). Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and countries of the Persian Gulf were among the most active sponsors of such organisations. They promoted different brands of Islam, including Shiism, Hanafi branch of Sunnism, Salafism and others. The Azerbaijani government was concerned that this could provoke sectarian division within the country and contribute to radicalisation, especially among the youth. One of the indicators that demonstrated the growing influence of the madrasas was the increasing

60

Rashad Huseynov

number of Azerbaijanis joining radical religious groups fighting in Syria, Iraq and other conflict zones. According to head of State Security Service, Madat Guliyev, some 900 Azerbaijanis have joined ISIS in the past five years (Turan, 2017). The government has therefore started taking legislative and policy measures in reaction to these developments by introducing new amendments to the Law on the Freedom of Religious Belief and centralising the registration of religious schools and centres. On 7 March 2017, 10 Islamic colleges (former madrasas) were registered by the relevant state agencies. They operate under the supervision of religious communities. The Caucasus Muslim Board, a spiritual body in Azerbaijan, is also involved in development of the education process in these colleges. Here is the list of existing Islamic colleges in Azerbaijan (SCWRA, 2018): 1) Zagatala Islamic College (name of the religious community is not provided on the official website of SCWRA); 2) Ganja Islamic College operating under supervision of “Imamzade ziyaretgahi” mosque in Ganja city ; 3) Lankaran Islamic College operating under supervision of the “Cuma” mosque in Lankaran city ; 4) Guba Islamic College operating under supervision of the “Ardabil” mosque located in the Guba city ; 5) Heydar Islamic College operating under supervision of the “Heydar” mosque in the Binagadi district of Baku; 6) Nardaran Islamic College operating under “Rahima khanum ziyaretgahi” mosque in the Nardaran settlement of Baku; 7) Bibiheybat Islamic College (name of the religious community is not provided on the official website of SCWRA); 8) Aliabad Islamic College operating under the “Juma” mosque in the Aliabad settlement of Zagatala district; 9) Shaki Islamic College (for Hafizes) operating under supervision of the “Juma” mosque in Shaki city ; 10) Shabnam Islamic College for girls (name of the religious community is not provided on the official website of SCWRA). Along with Islamic colleges, there are Christian and Jewish religious educational institutions, including Sunday schools at the Orthodox churches, the Bible courses of Protestant communities, the teaching courses of the Jewish language Hebrew, religion and culture of Jews (official website of Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2018).

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

5.

61

Conceptions and tasks of RE

Secondary schools in Azerbaijan provide limited religious knowledge as part of the “Life knowledge” subject, which is taught from first to ninth grades (more details will be provided in the next section on ‘practice of religious education in different schools’). However, the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations and the Ministry of Education consider expansion of the existing programme and provision of more detailed information about all religions. There is a common agreement in society that by providing religious knowledge at public schools, it is possible to give students a first impression about world religions that serves as the foundation for the acquisition of more specific knowledge in this field. This knowledge and the skills of critical thinking are intended to help inoculate students against prejudice, intolerance and radical views. They could also promote tolerance toward other religions and different Islamic trends as well as respect for people regardless of their race or affiliation. This element of religious education presupposes knowledge of other religious and religious-philosophical teachings (Kuliyev, 2009). In other words, this type of education will differ from the one taught at religious schools interested in propagating their particular brand of the truth and preaching intolerance towards any attempt to challenge that “truth.” Officials of the State Committee and the Ministry also believe that knowledge about religions and beliefs will lead to greater appreciation of the importance of respect for everyone’s right to freedom of religion or belief and promote understanding of diversity within society. The chairperson of SCWRA, Mubariz Gurbanly, stated that expanded religious education at secondary schools could be provided either as part of the existing “Life Knowledge” course or through establishing new subjects, like “History of Religions,” “World culture and Religion” or “Religion in Contemporary World” and so on (Education portal of Azerbaijan, 2014). But he excluded introduction of purely religious courses, such as Koran, Bible or Torah lessons. “Our students should learn about the history of religions, sects and their role in modern world, as well as receive general information about holy books of various religions and on geography of religious faiths in the world… It should be different from education of religion at madrasas and other religious schools,” he said (Trend agency, 2014).

62

6.

Rashad Huseynov

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

Religious knowledge at all public schools in Azerbaijan is provided on the basis of the programme approved by the Ministry of Education and taught as part of the “Life knowledge” subject from the first to ninth grades. In the first grade, students receive general information about monotheistic religions, including Islam, Christianity and Judaism, as well as their holy books and places of worship. The textbook also provides information about Islamic holidays and sacred places, such as Mecca and Kaaba. It explains a meaning of the green colour in the Azerbaijani flag which demonstrates the country’s close relationship to Islam. In the second grade, the “Life Knowledge” books provides information about the Prophet Muhammad and his life and explains the essence of such concepts as prophet, God, belief and prayer. Starting from third grade, students begin learning about other religions focusing on the some of the earliest expressions of organized faith, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Hinduism and their foundations. They are also taught about the prophets of other religions and about what it means to be a believer. The course also features some verses of Koran concerning good behaviour and relations with others. In fourth grade, most of the teaching materials are about Islam, covering such topics as the life of the Prophet Muhammad, his personal qualities and some hadiths. The course also provides information about the history and periods of Islam’s expansion in the world. Important thing is that the course also includes classes calling for respect for other religions and highlighting Islam’s firm stance against terrorism. The fifth grade allocates more hours dedicated to religion and religious matters than previous grades. Topics include the relationship between religion and moral values and culture; positive and negative behaviours; religious intolerance and its consequences; religions that have existed in Azerbaijan throughout history, including Shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Judaism and Islam; the difference between traditional and non-traditional religions and beliefs; information about the first and last prophets of humanity – Adam and Muhammad, respectively, as well as about prophets of other religions; and the terms and traditions of Islam, Christianity and Judaism. In sixth grade students learn about religious holidays and ceremonies in different faiths, including in particular Muslim Eid al Adha and Eid al Fitr, Jewish Pesach and Hanukkah, and Easter and Christmas holidays. They also receive first information about the rules of praying namaz.

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

63

The seventh grade focuses on similarities between religions, the role of religions in cultural developments, as well as informs the students about monuments and pieces of arts related to various religions. Eighth grade provides information about the role of religion in the moral development of nations; interpretation of moral values; moral values in the holy book of Zoroastrianism – Avesta; judgements from Prophet Moses and their impact on culture; as well as value that Prophet Muhammad gave culture and science. The last ninth grade focuses on issues of religious tolerance and democratic thought on religions; measures taken by the Azerbaijani government to ensure tolerance in the country ; the provision of the Constitution on religious tolerance; the work of the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations; the role of religions in maintaining stability in the country ; the concept of multiculturalism and measures to strengthen this idea in Azerbaijan; as well as on freedom of religious belief. Islamic colleges in Azerbaijan mainly focus on teaching the Koran, including recitation and memorisation. According to the official website of the Caucasus Muslim Board (CMB), a spiritual body in the country, education process in these colleges is coordinated by the Board. For instance, Aliabad Islamic College in Zagatala district, which was founded on 19 April 2002 by CMB and re-registered by SCWRA in March 2017, aims to teach citizens living in Aliabad village and neighbouring areas Koran recitation and other religious knowledge based on the programme approved by the Board (Caucasus Muslims Board, 2017). The period of education is three years. It is possible to get admission to this college following the graduation of basic (incomplete) secondary education. Those who graduate from the college with distinction get a chance to continue their education at the Baku Islamic University. Shabnam Islamic College operates in the capital Baku and is the only religious education college for girls (re-registered in March 2017). Graduates of incomplete and complete secondary education can be admitted to this college. Here, young girls learn the Koran, Arabic, Azerbaijani, as well as about history and geography. They also take courses on the foundations of Islam, faith, hadiths and tafsir [commentary] (Report agency, 2017). In addition, students of Shabnam college can take courses on housekeeping, handicrafts and IT. They receive additional certificates for these courses. Islamic College in Sheki was founded on 29 January 1997 and re-registered in March 2017. It was the first religious school in Azerbaijan that provided Koran memorization and recitation courses. The education process in this college is also based on the programme approved by the Caucasus Muslims Board. Unlike the above-mentioned colleges, the Sheki Islamic College accepts students who com-

64

Rashad Huseynov

plete sixth grade at secondary education schools. The duration of the education process is three years, which consists of summer school (one month), preparatory course (one year) and Hafiz [Koran memorisation] course (two years). Upon graduation, students receive a certificate of Hafiz and receive a recommendation for admission to the Baku Islamic University (Caucasus Muslims Board, 2017). The Chabad Or Avner Jewish school in Baku, in addition to compulsory subjects taught at all public schools, teaches the basis of Jewish culture and Hebrew.

7.

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

Currently there are no alternative subjects to religious education in Azerbaijan’s secondary schools. A compulsory subject called “Man and Society”, which provided general information about all religions and their role in the society, as well as the provision of the Law of the Freedom of Religious Belief, was excluded from the curriculum from 2016–2017 academic year.

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

As described in the section on ‘practice of religious education in different schools’, “Life Knowledge” subject provides information about all religions, including Islam, Christianity and Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, Shamanism, Buddhism and Hinduism and others. This subject is compulsory for all public schools. In addition, with support of the Knowledge Foundation under the President of Azerbaijan and the Baku International Multiculturalism Centre, various public schools organise student visits to mosques, churches, synagogues and other worshiping places to promote inter-religious tolerance and traditions of multiculturalism in the country.

9.

Religion in schools outside of RE

In Azerbaijan it is prohibited to use public schools’ resources and school premises to organise religious activities. However, there is no restriction for teachers and students to attend religious ceremonies outside of school hours.

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

65

On the other hand, religious schools, including Islamic colleges, Jewish schools and Sunday schools at the Orthodox churches, are free to celebrate religious holidays and organise religious events in the premises of their schools and in churches and synagogues.

10.

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

There are two religious universities in Azerbaijan – Baku Islamic University and a newly established Azerbaijan Institute of Theology, which produce teachers for religious education institutions in the country. Baku Islamic University (BIU) was first established by the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the 17th of January 1989 as a Baku Islamic Madrasa under the supervision of the Caucasus Muslim Board. On the 17th of March 1997, the Ministry of Justice of Azerbaijan registered it with its current name – Baku Islamic University. It also received registration by the SCWRA in June 2002 and receive a special licence by the Ministry of Education in 2009. According to this licence, students can receive bachelor’s degree in ‘Religious studies’ and master’s degree in ‘History of religions’ and ‘Islamic studies’. Currently there are two faculties at the University : Islamic studies and Sharia. Along with religious knowledge, the University also teaches secular subjects. There are departments of Koranic and Sharia law, Social Sciences and Languages. So far 2235 students have been graduated from this education facility, 450 of them continued their education abroad. Currently 1286 students study at the University (SCWRA, 2018). The Baku State University has Faculty of Theology, which was established in 1992 as a result of an agreement signed between the Ministry of Education of Azerbaijan and Turkey’s Directorate of Religious Affairs. More than 600 students have been graduated from this faculty. However, the faculty was absorbed into the structure of the newly established Azerbaijan Institute of Theology following the order signed by President Ilham Aliyev on 9 February 2018. Under the order, the Institute of Theology is established as an affiliate of SCWRA and aimed at “preparing highly qualified specialists in organizing religious activities” (Azertag agency, 2018).

66

11.

Rashad Huseynov

Empirical research concerning RE

Public schools in Azerbaijan do not offer a special subject on religious education. Therefore, empirical research has not been carried out so far on this matter. However, the ongoing debates on the introduction of a special discipline concerning religious issues in secondary schools sparked research and publications by local experts, which focus on the introduction and organisational issues of religious education in public schools.

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

The state-initiated debates on the necessity of religious education at public schools, as well as the willingness on the part of the government to consider the expansion of religion-related classes within the existing subject “Life Knowledge” are indicators of government’s readiness to take certain steps in this field. It is obvious that there is no one-size-fits-all model and religious education in each country should have its own peculiarities. As Swedish expert in the field of Islamic religious education Jenny Berglund noted, “religious education in each country has been shaped by a specific combination of factors, e. g. the structure of its educational system, the political history and others” (Berglund, 2014) Therefore, people involved in revision of the “Life Knowledge” subject have to take into account these factors and the context in which students live, as well as the religious and cultural diversity of the country. According to Azerbaijani theologist Elmir Kuliyev religious education, which would involve detailed explanation of the basic religious and legal provisions of all faiths, their moral and ethical values, and role in contemporary society, is an important instrument to be used to fully tap into the country’s religious potential (Kuliyev, 2009). Involvement of representatives from different religious communities, along with teachers and religious experts would contribute to the creation of an objective religious education programme. The ongoing public debates on the necessity of religious education at secondary schools highlighted certain challenges that the development of religious education curriculum in Azerbaijan could face, especially concerning the content and organizational forms. As for the content, the challenge would be the development of curriculum and teaching resources equally acceptable in all parts of Azerbaijan, in the Shiitedominated south and the Sunni-dominated north, to take just one example of regional diversity. It is not a secret that there are differences in interpretation of Koranic verses in many areas, which cause difficulties in the creation of content that is satisfactory for all parties involved.

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

67

This goal could be achieved through the development of a teaching programme providing objective and unprejudiced information about faiths, roughly according to the following pattern: “Shiites have the following rituals…;” “Sunnis believe the following interpretation…;” “Christians have the following ethical code …” and so on. This way, an important distinction will be expressed between the religious education in madrasas and public schools as the difference between ‘nurture’ and ‘education’. Religious schools could promote concrete forms of faith and worship, which is not acceptable for public schools (Templeton, 1999). Another challenge relates to the lack of qualified experts in the field of religious education, considering the fact that the number of public schools in Azerbaijan is more than 4,400. Employing representatives of distinct religious communities in the teaching process involves certain risks, such as their trying to promote the views of the religious sect they adhere to, which could cause unnecessary tensions in classrooms. Delivery of the course by professional teachers would be the most appropriate strategy in the context of Azerbaijan. Therefore, there will be a need for preparation of instructors via increasing the number of students at the Baku I˙slamic University and the Institute of Theology or organizing special short-term development courses for teachers from social sciences.

13.

Further information

13.1

Journals and newspapers

“C«miyy«t v« DI˙n” qazeti [Society and religion newspaper] is a weekly newspaper of the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations, which is published since 2009 in Azerbaijani language. It provides information about the work of the State Committee and other relevant state agencies, as well as about activities of the registered religious communities – http://scwra.gov.az/docs/ 170/?. “Dövl«t v« Din” jurnalı [“State and Religion” journal] – is a journal of the SCWRA, which is published since 2006 in Azerbaijani language. It focuses on promotion of religious values and inter-religious tolerance. The journal also includes researches on religious radicalization and its impact on global and regional stability – http://scwra.gov.az/docs/212/?. “D«v«t” jurnalı [“Invitation” journal] – is an independent monthly journal, which is published since 2011 in Azerbaijani and Russian languages. The journal promotes national and moral values, as well as raises awareness of religions to prevent superstition and prejudice – http://davet.az/.

68

Rashad Huseynov

I˙lahiyyat fakult«sinin elmi m«cmu«si [Scientific journal of the Theology Faculty] – This journal, issues by the Theology Faculty of the Baku State University, includes articles on interpretation of Koran, hadiths, Islamic Law, Islamic public opinion, the role of Islam in a globalized world, psychology and sociology of the religion and other topics – http://theology.bsu.edu.az/az/content/meqali_ siyahisi. Multikulturalizm jurnalı [Multiculturalism online journal] – published since 2004, Multiculturalism online magazine features articles from national and international experts on different aspects of religious policies in the country and in the world, as well as global and regional conferences promoting tolerance and coexistence – http://www.preslib.az/multiculturalism.html#.

13.2

Relevant literature

1aYe O^db_S, “9b\Q] S 1XVaRQZUWQ^V,” 2Q[d, «8Q]Q^» 2004.

Altay Goyushov, Elchin Asgarov, “Islam and Islamic education in post-Soviet and independent Azerbaijan”, Islamic Education in the Soviet Union and Its Successor States, edited by Michael Kemper, Raoul Motika and Stefan Reichmuth, Routledge Publishing, 2010 (p. 168–223). Rafig Aliyev, “State and Religion”, IRSHAD Centre of Islamic Studies, Baku, 2013. Rafig Aliyev, “Power, Society and Religion”, IRSHAD Centre of Islamic Studies, Baku, 2008. Rashad Ibadov, “Religious Education in Modern World: the Case of Azerbaijan”, in Derek Davis & Elena Miroshnikova (eds.), Routledge Publishing, 2013. Routledge studies in religion and politics, Religion and soft power in the South Caucasus, edited by Ansgar Jödicke, New York, Routledge Publishing, 2017. Vasim M«mm«d«liyev, “Quran v« Elm”, Qism«t, Bakı, 2006.

13.3

Important websites

www.scwra.gov.az/ – State Committee on Work with Religious Associations (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). www.qafqazislam.com/ – Caucasus Muslims Board (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). www.edu.gov.az/ – Ministry of Education (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). www.preslib.az/en/ – Presidential library (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). www.e-derslik.edu.az/site/index.php - Portal of e-textbooks (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). https://president.az/ – President of the Republic of Azerbaijan (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). https://www.stat.gov.az/ – State Statistics Committee of Azerbaijan (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Azerbaijan

69

References Abbasov, S. 2011. Azerbaijan: Hijab ban in schools fuels debate in Baku on role of Islam. Euroasianet.org, 6 January 2011. Azertag State Information Agency 2018. Azerbaijan sets up Institute of Theology. 9 February 2018. Berglund, J. 2014. Islamic Religious Education in State Funded Muslim Schools in Sweden. Tidsskrift for Islamforskning, The Nordic Welfare State, Vol. 8, Issue 1. Education portal of Azerbaijan Republic, Teaching religious knowledge at public schools is discussed in Azerbaijan. September 2014. Elizabeth Templeton, E. 1999. Religious Education in a Secular Pluralist Culture. Religion, State & Society, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1999. European Training Foundation 2017. Azerbaijan: education, training and employment developments 2016. Institute for Democratic Initiatives 2018. Legal framework for religious resources: practices and recommendations, 9. Journal of Conflict Transition 2011. National Identity, the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and Revival of Islam in Azerbaijan, Caucasus Edition, 1 November 2011. Kuliyev, E. 2009 Religious education vs. Religious Radicalism in Islam. The Caucasus Globalization, N 2–3/ Issue 3. Nuruzade, S. 2016. Religious views in modern Azerbaijan. Journal of Socialomics, September 2016. Pew Research Centre. 2013. The World’s Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society, 30 April 2013. Report Agency 2017. Special report from Shabnam Islamic College for girls. 26 June 2017. Rovshanoghlu, K. 2017. Religious freedom in independent Azerbaijan. Contact.az portal, 21 October 2017. Sattarov, R. 2009. Islamic revival and Islamic activism in post-Soviet Azerbaijan, “Radical Islam in the former Soviet Union”, ed. Yemelianova, G., 146–211. London: Routledge. Trend Information Agency 2012. Azerbaijani President approves “Azerbaijan 2020: Look into the Future” Development Concept, 30 December 2012. Trend Information Agency 2014. Az«rbaycanda dini bilikl«rin m«kt«bl«rd« ayrıca f«nn kimi t«drisi müzakir« olunur, 18 September 2014. Turan Agency 2017. About 900 citizens of Azerbaijan joined ISIS, 25 September 2017. UNESCO IBE 2011. World Data on Education. 7th Edition, 2010–2011. Revised 8/2011. US State Department, 2016 International Religious Freedom Report, country report on Azerbaijan, August 2017. Valiyev, A. 2015. Azerbaijan: Islam in a post-Soviet republic. Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol 9, No.4, December 2015. World Jewish Congress 2017.Jewish communities in Azerbaijan, March 2017.

Yauheniya Danilovich

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

1.

Socio-religious background

1.1

Belarus Basic information, demographic situation and developments

Belarus is located in Eastern Europe and has an area of 207.600 km2. As of January 1st 2018, 9.491.800 people live in Belarus. After a sharp decline in population at the end of the 1990s, the current number has remained stable over the past ten years. The trend shows that the majority of the population is increasingly living in the cities, while the number of people living in the countryside is constantly decreasing. At present, about 77.9 % of the population live in cities, while 22.1 % live in rural areas. Standing at 53.4 %, the percentage of the female population is slightly higher than the male. The number of older people (in retirement age) is continuously increasing. Life expectancy continues to increase (þQgY_^Q\m^lZ bcQcYbcYhVb[YZ [_]YcVc AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2017, 26, 36, 50, 176).

1.2

Migration

In terms of migration the situation in Belarus remains more or less stable. The predominant part of migration is internal. The figures for immigration, except for 2014 and 2015 remain stable, rising slightly, to a total of 18,961 persons in 2017. Most of them come to Belarus from the former Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (13,305), mostly from Russia, but also from the Ukraine and Turkmenistan. Immigration from countries outside the CIS region has increased in the last ten years (from 3,174 people in 2008 to 5,656 people in 2017). The largest numbers of people immigrating to Belarus from non-CIS countries come from China, Lithuania and the USA. Among immigrants in 2016 (21,038 in total) children and adolescents aged up to 15 form a group of about 20 %. In terms of emigration the annual figures have increased significantly in the past

72

Yauheniya Danilovich

few years from a total of 9,268 in 2008 to 15,087 in 2017 (4,058) (þQgY_^Q\m^lZ bcQcYbcYhVb[YZ [_]YcVc AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2018, 417, 421).

1.3

Religiosity in Belarus

The current religious situation in Belarus is characterized by a diversity of religious communities that differ both qualitatively and quantitatively. According to the State Committee for Religions, 26 different denominations and movements are registered in Belarus. This number has remained relatively stable in recent decades. There are currently 3,315 religious communities registered in Belarus. In addition, Belarus has non-traditional religious communities that are not registered by the state (D`_\^_]_hV^^lZ `_ UV\Q] aV\YTYZ Y ^QgY_^Q\m^_ bcVZ). 58.9 % of Belarussians consider themselves religious. Of these, 82 % are Orthodox, 12 % Catholic and 6 % representatives of other denominations and religions. These include traditional religious cults for Belarus like Jews, Muslims and Lutherans and new (non-traditional) religious and pseudo-religious cults and movements (AV\YTYp Y [_^eVbbYY S AVb`dR\Y[V 2V\Qadbm 2011). The religious situation in Belarus is characterized by the dominance of two Christian denominations: Orthodoxy and Catholicism. At the same time, the high number of members does not provide any information about ecclesiastical socialization. Another peculiarity is that national identity is not tied to religious identity. Among the groups of leading denominations Belarusians dominate by nationality : Orthodoxy – 83.3 %, Catholicism – 56.4 %, Protestantism – 73.8 %. Among the Catholics, the ethno-religious group of Poles stands at more than 40 % (2VX^o[ 2006, 131). Judaism, Islam and the Lutheran Church form traditional religious communities in Belarus. Almost a million Jews lived in Belarus before World War II. In some cities the Jewish population made up to 70–80 % of the population (Novogrudok). In Minsk, by 1941, half the population was Jewish. In Bobrujsk – 66 %, in Slutsk – 88 % (=dXVZ Ybc_aYY Y [d\mcdal VSaVVS 2V\QadbY). The constitution of 1937 (Article 25) stipulates that all laws should be printed in four languages: Belarussian, Russian, Polish and Yiddish (;_^bcYcdgYp (_b^_S^_Z XQ[_^) 2V\_adbb[_Z b_SVcb[_Z b_gYQ\YbcYhVb[_Z aVb`dR\Y[Y 1937). Later that changed again. During World War II, about 700,000 Jews were murdered in Belarus. According to other sources, about 20,000 Jews remained in Belarus after the war (=dXVZ Ybc_aYY Y [d\mcdal VSaVVS 2V\QadbY). According to official figures, between 13,000 and 14,000 Jews live in Belarus today (D`_\^_]_hV^^lZ `_ UV\Q] aV\YTYZ Y ^QgY_^Q\m^_bcVZ). Some estimate higher numbers (50,000) (Gruska, 2011). Many

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

73

people of Jewish descent emigrated to Europe, the USA or Israel after the fall of the Soviet Union. In Belarus, Islam is one of the traditional religious communities and is mostly confessed by the Tartars (currently 7,316 live in Belarus), who belong to the indigenous population. There are two Muslim associations and 25 registered Muslim communities. There are 5 mosques1 and 6 prayer houses. Islam has been represented in Belarus for over 600 years. The Tatars migrated to Belarus from Crimea (HQdb_SQ 2015). A high number of Muslims live in Iv’e [9SmV]. There is also a Muslim religious school. The peculiarities of the development of the religious situation include constructive changes in the 1990s, which were accompanied by new freedoms (“Perestroika” and “Glasnost”) and the collapse of the Soviet Union. The revival of religiosity in the 1990s was manifested by the following phenomena: rising numbers of people who claim to be believers were associated with rising numbers of new religious communities as well as religious institutions and organizations. Surveys and studies show an increase in religiosity and devotion to the Christian faith (Vardomatskii and Pankhurst 2000 149ff.; Pollack 1998 10ff.; 2VX^o[ 2006 131f.; Zulehner, Tomka and Naletova 2008, 139f.; Babosov 1997, 151). The legacy of decades of state atheism remains relevant today. Today, 43 % of the population is non-denominational (Zulehner, Tomka and Naletova 2008, 145). The number of people who describe themselves as absolute unbelievers (atheists) is lower and lies between 14 % and 17 % (þ_SY[_SQ 1998, 94). Belarus is one of the countries in which regular church attendance is lowest. Exceptions are the important church feasts such as Easter or Christmas. At such occasions many people come to the church. There are also clear differences regarding the visit of the church between the individual denominations (2VX^o[ 2006, 129).

1.4

Political situation, Chernobyl

The political situation in Belarus is associated with the President Aleksandr Grigoryevich Lukashenko. Since 1994, Lukashenko has been the first and so far the only president in Belarus. In Belarus, press freedom is limited. Some people are persecuted for political reasons. Belarus is the only country in Europe where the death penalty is still practiced. Belarus was hit particularly hard by the Chernobyl disaster (26. 04. 1986). Almost a quarter of the territory was contaminated. Of the immediate and longterm consequences of Chernobyl, children were and are especially affected. After 1 The oldest of them is in Iv‘e [9SmV].

74

Yauheniya Danilovich

the disaster, the number of Belarusian children suffering from thyroid cancer has risen 200-fold. The overall health of the children has worsened since 1986. Thus, less than 15 % of children are considered completely healthy. Every fifth Belarusian lives in contaminated territory. That is 2.1 million people, including 700,000 children (Hc_ ^dW^_ X^Qcm _ aQUYQgYY Y _ HVa^_Rl\mb[_Z caQTVUYY?; Malerius 2010, 94f.).

2.

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Freedom of belief is guaranteed as an inviolable right by the Constitution of Belarus of 1994 (Article 31): “Everyone shall have the right independently to determine one’s attitude towards religion, to profess any religion individually or jointly with others, or to profess none at all, to express and to spread beliefs connected with one’s attitude towards religion, and to participate in the performance of acts of worship and religious rituals and rites, which are not prohibited by the law.” (;_^bcYcdgYp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm) The religious law “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organisations” of 1992 protected the equal rights of all religious communities and prevented the interference of the state in the inner-church life. The religious law “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organisations” from the year 20022 replaced the law from the year 1992. According to this new law relations between the state and individual religious communities are differentiated according to their cultural and historical significance. The preamble identifies five religious communities separately, with the Orthodox Church receiving priority : The preamble emphasizes “the determining role of the Orthodox Church in the historical development and development of the spiritual, cultural and political traditions of the Belarusian people” (8Q[_^ AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm _c 17. 12. 1992 N 2054-XII (aVU. _c 31. 10. 2002)). The Catholic Church is mentioned in the preamble as having a spiritual, cultural and historical role in Belarus. Likewise, the Lutheran Church, Judaism and Islam are considered religious communities that are inseparable from the history of Belarus. Thus, a multi-religious situation is already visible in the preamble as an already normal part of history. In Chap. 1, Art. 8, the possibility of cooperation between the state and the Orthodox Church is prescribed. At present, relations between religious communities and the state are regulated at the normative level by several laws and cooperation agreements. At regular in-

2 A detailed critical look at the law at Stricker, 33ff.

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

75

tervals, the cooperation agreement is reached in various areas between the Orthodox Church and the state. The possibility of religious education is stated in the Code [law] on Education (Chapter 1, Article 2, Abs. 4) and in the law “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organisations” (Chapter 1, Article 9) as follows: “Institutions of education can interact with registered religious organizations in matters of upbringing on the basis of written applications of pupils (legal representatives of underage pupils) during off-hours, taking into account their influence on the formation of spiritual, cultural and state traditions of the Belarusian people. The procedure, conditions, content and forms of such interactions are determined by the Government of the Republic of Belarus in agreement with the President of the Republic of Belarus.” In 2003, the first cooperation agreement was concluded between the state and the Belarusian Orthodox Church in education and other fields like health care and social work. Individual steps to realize this cooperation are recorded in the program, which is signed at certain intervals between the Ministry of Education and the Belarusian Orthodox Church. Cooperation between the state and the Orthodox Church is co–led in cooperation programs. These were adopted for the years 2004–2006, 2007–2010, 2011–2014. The most recent program of cooperation was signed on 13. 02. 2015 is scheduled for the period 2015–2020. The normative basis for the implementation of Jewish religious education at Schools is the Law on Languages and the Law on National Minorities in Belarus. In this context, religious contents are incorporated within such subjects as Hebrew, Hebrew literature, culture and history. There are selective cooperations between the state and individual Jewish associations, foundations and the state of Israel.

3.

Developments in the country’s education policies

As of September 1st 2016, there are 3155 schools in Belarus. 3125 are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. 16 are the responsibility of other ministries. The number of private schools is 14. The number of pupils is 981,500 (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2016/2017, 31). The demographic development of Belarus shows that the number of pupils is continuously decreasing. The number of pupils dropped from 1,500,000 in the school year 1989/1990 to 982,300 in the school year 2016/2017. Likewise, the number of schools in Belarus has fallen: from a total of 5583 in the school year 1989/1990 to 3155 in the school year 2016/2017 (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2016/2017, 33, 35).

76

Yauheniya Danilovich

There are two official languages in Belarus: Belarusian and Russian. The Code on Education (Chapter 1, Article 2, Paragraph 4) states that the state guarantees the equality of both languages in the field of education. Learning both languages is part of the compulsory curriculum in the school. For this purpose, a foreign language or several foreign languages are learned. There are several languages in which pupils are taught. Of the total number of pupils, the majority attend lessons in Russian 838,400 (86.6 %). 128,600 pupils (13.3 %) attend lessons in the Belarusian language. 868 attend lessons in Polish and 63 in Lithuanian (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2016/2017, 32). The design of learning processes is increasingly characterized by competence orientation and output orientation. For a long time the form of tests is used in the graduation exams. On the basis of the test results, high school graduates can apply for a place to study. The aim is to give everyone access to quality education and to avoid bribery (3Vb^i[ QUd[Qgli 2016, 4). The first PISA survey was conducted in Belarus in 2018 (PISA 2018 participants). On 22. 02. 2016 the Ministry of Education approved the program of continuous upbringing of children, pupils and students for the years 2016–2020 (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2016). All those who design educational offers are responsible for the realization of the program. In addition, there are regional administrative units. Explicitly named are Belarusian Republican Pioneer Organization and Belarusian Republican Youth Union. These two organizations are direct successors of the Communist children and youth work organizations (=_\_UVWm 2V\QadbY; 2V\_adbb[Qp aVb`dR\Y[Q^b[Qp `Y_^Vab[Qp _aTQ^YXQgYp). The program, which contains 47 pages in the Russian-language version, sets forth goals of educational work, the expected results, and lists events to be carried out under the program. The educational fields or thematic units are manifold: Gender, professional orientation, value education, business knowledge or patriotic education. In the field of value education, the cooperation agreement with the Orthodox Church is mentioned (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2016, 15f.). Thus, the educational area is not limited by the providers of education, but is also perceived by administrative units. On the other hand, the state as Ministry of Education determines specific tasks of education and gives concrete rules for the implementation of the program, by concrete measures are listed. The subject of inclusion is becoming increasingly relevant to the field of school education. On October 18, 2016, the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was ratified by legislation. Article 24 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities obliges participating countries to ensure inclusive education at all levels and throughout their lives (9^[\oXYS^_V _RaQX_SQ^YV). Specialized education for children and adolescents with special needs is stipulated according to the Code on Education (Chapter 1, Ar-

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

77

ticle 14, Paragraph 1). According to statistical data, the number of children with special needs increased from about 130,000 in 2011 to 150,000 in 2016 (9^[\oXYS^_V _RaQX_SQ^YV). In Belarus, there are formats of “integrated education”, in which children with special needs learn together with children, who do not belong to this group. These formats currently cover approximately 68.2 % of children and adolescents with special needs.

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

The majority of schools in Belarus are state schools. The number of private schools is 14. Most of private schools (11) are located in the Minsk region (school year 2017/18) (=Y^b[YZ T_a_Ub[_Z Yb`_\^YcV\m^lZ [_]YcVc `_ _RaQX_SQ^Yo). One of them is run under the auspices of the Orthodox Church: Since September 2014 the private school “Ihwis” [“9fSYb”] in Minsk is sponsored by the Orthodox monastery in honor of St. Elizabeth. The school also includes a kindergarten. Participation requires the payment of a fee. Children are taught according to the curriculum of the Ministry of Education. The optional subject “Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture” is a part of everyday life at the private school. At the request of parents, conversations with a priest are offered to the children (BSpc_-6\YbQSVcY^b[YZ ]_^Qbclam). Since 2004 there is a private school “Beis-Aharon” in Pinsk. The Founder of the School is the Jewish Cultural and Educational Community named Chaim Weizmann. Although all children can attend this school, but this is associated with high costs. School attendance, including living and eating, is completely free for children, if they can prove their Jewry maternal. The costs in this case are borne by the foundation “Jewish family”. The Pupils come from all over Belarus. In addition to the normal school curriculum the children learn Hebrew and Jewish national culture (9XaQY\mb[Qp bV]mp).

5.

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The current discussion on religious education at schools has as its core the question of the interpretation of secular education: The discussion reflects the search for the balance of religious education in the secular context of school education. The relations between the state and the religious communities in Belarus have changed radically over the course of the twentieth century. If “The Law of God” [“8Q[_^ 2_WYZ”] was taught before 1917, then in Soviet times the

78

Yauheniya Danilovich

religious dimension in education was replaced by the teaching of atheism without alternative. Nowadays relations between the state and religious communities in the field of education are specifically defined in the Code [law] on Education, Chapter 1, Article 2, Paragraph 1.10 (;_UV[b AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm _R _RaQX_SQ^YY). It proclaims the principle of secularism, which aims to prevent discrimination in terms of religious affiliation. Education is accessible to all citizens regardless of their beliefs.3 After the upheavals in the 1990s, the secularity principle in Belarus was initially applied to education in such an interpretation that religious education found no place in the educational institutions. The school took no responsibility for providing religious knowledge to the pupils (2a_Z[_ 2002, 40ff.). Later in the discussion, the need to open up religious questions and to interpret the secular nature of education as devoid of religious education was emphasized again and again (;Qc_SYh 2000, 47). The secularity principle does not prevent the cooperation of the state and the church in the field of education (;Qc_SYh, 5ff.). To this day, the discussion on the interpretation of the principle of secularity in the field of school education remains current and incomplete. Olga Breskaya points out that until the 1990s Belarus had historically experienced two models: denominational and atheistic (Breskaya 2017, 43). An alternative model is currently under development. Education was left to the ideologicaly dictates of the atheist state. Academic discourse on the conceptions of religious education as such is still in the making. In all places of theological education, there is no separate department or chair for religious education. In addition, the weak establishment of religious education as a subject at schools does not promote discussion about the concepts of religious education. The orientation of religious education in the school in which the Orthodox Church can participate is stated in the cooperation agreement between the state and the church as well as program documents. The objectives of religious learning are explained in the discourse on the reconstruction of traditional values for Belarus, which in turn are represented by Orthodoxy (;_c\pa_S 2014, 168f.; ;d\QWQ^[Q 2014; B_^TQ\m 2014, 94; P[_S\VSQ 2014, 106). According to the agreement on cooperation between the state and the church, cooperation in education aims to educate “the interaction of educational institutions and the Belarusian Orthodox Church is aimed at bringing up a morally mature, spiritually developed personality capable of realizing its responsibility for the fate of the Fatherland and its people. Cooperation is focused on the use of the potential of Orthodox traditions and values in the formation of a person’s personality, the spiritual, moral and patriotic education of the younger 3 In contrast, students in the religious schools (for example, the Spiritual Academy or the seminary) can only be admitted if they belong to a specific denomination.

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

79

generation.” (?b^_Sl `aQS_b\QS^_Z [d\mcdal 2015, 3). These goals of religious education are also supported by the Orthodox Church. Religion in the field of education should contribute to the development of personality as a whole and reinforce people’s ability to make free choices and go their own way. The goal of education, as in Orthodox religious education as a whole, is the restoration of the image of God in man. The transfer of knowledge is not its main focus, but the education and overcoming of sin, which makes people unfree (@aQS_b\QS^Qp GVa[_Sm S b_SaV]V^^_] RV\_adbb[_] _RjVbcSV 2014, 18). The Catholic Church sees the potential and necessity of religion in education. In religion, people can find answers to the questions of the meaning of life, selfknowledge, to the questions that science cannot answer. Religion is seen as a building block in the process of education, without which a harmonious development of the person is not possible. The Catholic Church sees core arguments for religion in education, as does the Orthodox in its contribution to moral and ethical education and value education. Religion in the area of the school should enable the spiritual life of the pupils. Another argument is the contribution to religious pluralism. Whereby destructive sects and new religious movements are in view. In order for pupils to receive orientation, religion should be part of education. Overall, personality development is seen as spiritual development to which religion makes a primary contribution (A_\p an\wTww ¡ `aQgnbV QUd[Qglw 2014, 19f.). Collaboration with the Church is desired for certain purposes and educational concepts. Olga Breskaya points out that these objectives do not reflect the interests of parents and pupils in relation to religious education at school. Breskaya uses the results of a survey among parents as well as pupils on the possibilities of introducing a course on religions (;QaQbrSQ, I[da_SQ 2015). Thus, the majority of parents (88 %) wish to introduce a possible course on religions with a focus on the history of religion. Also 79 % of the pupils would like such a course as elective subject. Only 4.4 % of pupils and 14.5 % of parents believe that religion is not a legitimate part of the school curriculum (Breskaya 2017, 42). As Breskaya observes, the objectives of cooperation between the church and the state diverge from the interests of the pupils and their parents. In this regard, Breskya notes that religion (Orthodox Church) is thereby functionalized in the field of education: the transmission of religious content is not allowed, while for certain purposes (patriotic education) the tradition of the Church should be harnessed (Breskaya 2017, 44). This can also as an indication that the educational content in Belarus is impulse-oriented and not developed from the perspective of the addressees of educational processes. For religious education in schools from a Jewish perspective, the following is characteristic: Religious learning takes place in the context of learning about Jewish feasts and traditions. Dealing with the religious texts of Judaism occurs in

80

Yauheniya Danilovich

the framework of learning the Hebrew language. Religious learning is linked in the first line to Jewish identity and the history of the people of Israel. An important component is the remembrance culture of the holocaust.

6.

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

Religious education is not a compulsory subject in school in Belarus. Currently, religious education is organized in school in several formats. At present, cooperation between the Orthodox Church and the State is most intense. Thus, the Orthodox Church can only contribute to schools in the framework of upbringing duties. The cooperation between the Orthodox Church and the state educational institutions covers almost all forms of schooling (including the offer of pre-school education, that is, nursery schools to higher education). Also included are orphanages, special facilities for children and adolescents with disabilities. From the end of the 2000s, several Orthodox initiatives for religious education at schools were launched. Religious education at schools is mostly realized as part of several projects like “The Center of Orthodox Education named holy Euphrosyne of Polotsk” [GV^ca @aQS_b\QS^_T_ @a_bSVjV^Yp Y]. `a`. 6ea_bY^mY @_\_g[_Z], Republican public association “Parents and teachers – for the revival of Orthodox education” [AVb`dR\Y[Q^b[_V _RjVbcSV^^_V _RkVUY^V^YV “A_UYcV\Y Y dhYcV\p – XQ S_Xa_WUV^YV `aQS_b\QS^_T_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp”], Project “LOGOS” [ý?4?B] (B\dWV^Yp 3lb_[_`aV_bSpjV^^_T_ @QS\Q 2016, 7). Such initiatives are aimed at the realization of religious education in schools under cooperation agreements with the state and cooperation programs. There is the possibility of organizing religious learning as an elective (additional) subject, which can be offered outside the regular school hours. The condition for this is the will of the children or the parents in the form of a written application. This elective subject may take place in connection with the compulsory subject. Thus, the curricula for the elective subjects are always made in relation to a compulsory subject. At present, there are several curricula for such an elective subject with different emphases and different links to the other subjects. Orthodox perspective can be seen in the following courses: “Culture and Religion” for the 10th-11th school year (A_TQ\mb[YZ 2008) in the context of the subject “Social studies”. The course “Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture” [“?b^_Sl `aQS_b\QS^_Z [d\mcdal”] is provided in the section “Extracurricular activities of upbringing orientation” (National educational portal). Currently, the innovative project is running as a collaboration between the state and church organizations “Introduction of the model of formation of per-

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

81

sonal and social identity of preschool and school age children on Orthodox traditions and values of the Belarusian people (2016–2019)”. The project involves 62 educational institutions (kindergartens, primary schools and schools) in the whole of Belarus (@VaVhV^m dhaVWUV^YZ _RaQX_SQ^Yp, ^Q RQXV [_c_alf _bdjVbcS\pVcbp n[b`VaY]V^cQ\m^Qp Y Y^^_SQgY_^^Qp UVpcV\m^_bcm S beVaV _RaQX_SQ^Yp S 2017/2018 dhVR^_] T_Ud).

Most projects and events are the responsibility of the respective diocese. The individual dioceses usually have a Department of Religious Education and Catechesis that coordinates such matters. Often, schools or teachers cooperate with local communities. The format of conversations with a priest or lectures on various topics is a very common one. The range of topics is wide, but repetitive: topics such as healthy living and prevention of addictions (drugs, alcohol), family values (against abortions), responsible use of social networks or the internet. A regular practice has become inviting a priest into the classroom or to a class discussion on a specific topic (3 aQ][Qf VI =VWUd^Qa_U^_T_ eVbcYSQ\p `_UUVaW[Y bV]mY; Da_[ ^Q cV]d “@QbfQ S `a_YXSVUV^Ypf adbb[Yf `YbQcV\VZ” S i[_\V Nr. 3 JdhY^Q). As far as the Jewish community is concerned, the following should be mentioned: There is a kindergarten and a primary school called “Atikva” [Hope] in Gomel, which are the only state educational institution in Belarus actively integrating elements of Jewish culture into the learning processes. The school curriculum includes the study of Hebrew literature and Hebrew. There is also an intense collaboration with a community of Progressive Judaism (4_bdUQabcSV^^_V dhaVWUV^YV _RaQX_SQ^Yp “[…] bQU-i[_\Q No 68 ,1cY[SQ‘”.). To mention is also the school nr. 132 in Minsk. Already since 1993 there were classes in which pupils also learned Hebrew and Hebrew literature as well as Jewish traditions and history. This is the only state (secular) school in Belarus with such classes (4_bdUQabcSV^^_V dhaVWUV^YV _RaQX_SQ^Yp “BaVU^pp i[_\Q No 132 T. =Y^b[Q”).

7.

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

Since religious education is not a compulsory subject in the school curriculum, ethical and philosophical subjects are not an alternative, but are part of the curriculum unlike religious education. As early as elementary school children learn some content of Orthodox culture e. g. through the literary works. These can be small stories about a famous saint (Efrosinija of Polotsk), central festivals (birth of Christ, Easter) (1st grade). In the 4th grade, children learn more about the educational work of Efrosinija

82

Yauheniya Danilovich

von Polotzk in the course “My home – Belarus” [“=Qp AQUXw]Q – 2V\Qadbm”]. Some educators and teachers discuss religion in the context of local history. The history of monasteries and churches, biographies of famous people who were active in the ecclesiastical field are dealt with likewise (=Yca_`_\Yc =Y^b[YZ Y 8Qb\QSb[YZ @QSV\, @QcaYQaiYZ N[XQaf SbVp 2V\QadbY). The subject “Social studies” deals with topics that are also religiously educational, e. g. values, morality, etc. Furthermore, anthropological and cultural focal points are set. However, some of the textbooks do not address religious issues directly when dealing with these issues (?RjVbcS_SVUV^YV 2009, 157ff.). The topics are treated neutrally and without reference to concrete discourses. The priorities “spirituality” [Udf_S^_bcm], worldview are defined without reference to concrete religious contexts. The textbook defines different terms, but does not invite pupils to actively engage with them. Religion is spoken about very concisely and in religious studies almost materialistic way. Although religion is mentioned as one of the sources of spirituality, it remains very unclear and general (?RjVbcS_SVUV^YV 2009, 35ff.). Although some pictures are used in the textbook, the contents represent the Christian tradition in particular. However, there is no explanation or concrete reference to this in the text. Belarusian textbooks contain topics and emphases that incorporate the contents of religious traditions. For example, history textbooks contain topics that shed light on the religious situation in Belarus at different times from a historical perspective. In textbooks, for example, to the spread of religions in Belarus, spread of Christianity in the form of individual denominations and their changing dominance. The chapters explicitly point to this, e. g. “Population and religions in Grand Duchy of Lithuania”, “Ethnic development of the Belarusian country. Church and Religion” (2_fQ^, GV]diQ¡, 50ff, 116ff.). Another focus in textbooks on history is cultural development, which overlaps with the contents of religion. The development of architecture, literature (books), fine art can be mentioned here. It also uses the terminology of religious traditions (such as vitas of the Saints, church architecture), but does not address the content of religion from the perspective of religious education (2_fQ^, GV]diQ¡, 48, 128ff.). So it is not explained in more detail what the gospel is, which role the saints have in the Christian tradition etc. There are work groups among the subject teachers on the subjects of spiritualmoral education (for example, in biology). These work groups are organized in cooperation with the church’s educational structures (=Vc_UYhVb[_V _RkVUY^V^YV dhYcV\VZ RY_\_TYY). Within the scope of an elective subject, dealing with religious content is also possible from non-denominational perspectives. The contents of the curricula make it clear that religious learning will be shaped from different perspectives. Some of them can be mentioned here: The historical-critical and atheistic per-

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

83

spective without the denominational context is visible, for example, in the following courses: “Bible as a monument of history and literature” for the 6th grade (EVU_bY[, 1SUVVS 2007), “History of religion and atheism” in the context of the compulsory subject “World History” (National educational portal), “Fundamentals of Religious Studies” for the 11th grade (BcQa_bcV^[_ 2009) in the field of “Social studies”. The subject “Hebrew Literature” implements the study of the religious texts of Judaism like books of the Old Testament or the Talmud. The program mentions literary texts that deal with Jewish feasts and traditions (7daY^Q, 4adX]Q^ 2010).

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

Religious plurality in Belarus has a long tradition. The religious situation in Belarus is also dependent on geopolitical conditions: Belarus has been located for centuries between Western and Eastern civilizations. Belarus sees itself as a country that has represented and lived religious tolerance over the centuries. In 2012, Iv’e, a small town in the Grodno region, opened a monument to four religious communities (Judaism, Islam, Catholicism and Orthodoxy) (9^Q^Vg 2013). The two great denominations – Orthodoxy and Catholicism – have existed in this country for many centuries, with changing dominance of either. Historically, religious diversity is one of the defining characteristics of Belarus (5Q^Y\_S 2002, 7; 2VX^o[ 2006, 133; Kalinovskij 1996, 178f.). In a fairly small country, several religions and denominations have lived in each other’s neighborhood for centuries. This plurality was and is also a linguistic one at the same time. Some denominations are not satisfied with the right to religious freedom. The Catholic Church is in some ways discriminated against by Orthodoxy. For one thing, Orthodoxy currently enjoys privileges in terms of the cooperation with the state. On the other hand, the Catholic Church sees some bureaucratic hurdles for its own activity : if a priest from abroad wishes to celebrate a worship service in Belarus, he always needs a special permit. At the same time, the state points out that too few Catholic priests are educated in Belarus themselves and that these usually come to Belarus from Poland. This is often related to the lack of language skills in the national languages of Belarus (Belarusian and Russian) (Pełnomocnik prezydenta ds. religii: na Białorusi tylko katolicy sa˛ niezadowoleni). Intensive engagement with other denominations and religions forms an integral part of some educational opportunities. This includes Institute for Theology, where there is a chair for Religious Studies as well as the corresponding contents to study belong (=Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp aVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm 2013).

84

Yauheniya Danilovich

In the formats of religious education, which have been described so far, it is striking that there is little interaction between religions and denominations. The exception here are topics such as new non-traditional religious movements and sects. It is also noticeable that all formats do not take place in denominational cooperation. Likewise, interfaith learning does not take place, at least not in the most common formats that are practiced in cooperation with the Orthodox Church.

9.

Religion in schools outside of RE

Overall, it can be said that in the context of cooperation between the Orthodox Church and the Ministry of Education different events are held. Although these do not take place directly in school, but often in the church buildings, but schoolchildren participate in these events. This includes for example a children’s festival of Orthodox chants, which takes place in Volozhin. The festival is organized and conducted by the diocese in connection with state educational structures (=_\_UVh^V^b[Qp V`QafYp 2016). Furthermore, project weeks on specific topics such as “Orthodox culture” are carried out in the schools. As part of such a project week, various meetings and competitions are held. In cooperation with the youth work of the Orthodox Church, various diaconal projects are organized with the pupils for example the visits to the orphanages. Various religious-themed competitions are held among children in some schools (art competition on the topic “Easter”, short films contest on ethical topics). The competitions take place in cooperation between the Orthodox Church (several dioceses) and the state schools. The Institute of Theology (Minsk) carries out extensive educational work with young people. In particular, the annual competition of scientific and literary works on the spiritual and moral issues among pupils from schools and vocational schools in the country, was attended by more than 170 young people (;_^[dabl cS_ahVb[Yf \YcVaQcda^lf Y Ybb\VU_SQcV\mb[Yf aQR_c 2018). The Orthodox Church actively cooperates with the libraries. Visits to the library often constitute part to the school program and is organized as part of the lesson. Often, such visits include meetings with Orthodox clergy. Another format is the organization of meetings of the clergy (bishops, priests) with the pupils in the school or participation of priests in the parents’ evenings. There are discussions on different topics (ethical topics, healthy lifestyle). At important feasts, different events are performed, for example a play or a concert by the participants of the Sunday school. The schoolchildren are often invited to such events (7 p^SQap. A_WUVbcS_ 4_b`_UQ 2_TQ Y B`QbQ ^QiVT_ 9YbdbQ FaYbcQ 2016).

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

85

The Catholic Church increasingly cooperates with Polish-speaking schools in Belarus. In these schools, pupils can attend classes in Polish. One of them is in Grodno, which was named after John Paul II in the school year 2017/18 [Polska Szkoła Społeczna im. Jana Pawła II w Grodnie]. In the Polish school in Grodno there is a tradition of starting the school year with the celebration of a fair. The service takes place in a Catholic church near the school building (Powitano nowy rok szkolny w Polskiej Szkole w Grodnie). As far as the Jewish community is concerned, the kindergarten and primary school “Atikva” in Gomel, the private school “Beis-Aharon” in Pinsk and the School nr. 132 in Minsk can be mentioned here. In the everyday life of the schools the importance is attached to the celebration of feasts according to Jewish calender like Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Purim, Pesach and others. There are many Jewish symbols like menorah, the Magen David, Chai an others in classrooms. Boys carry a kippah. The food in the Schools is prepared according to Jewish traditions (4_bdUQabcSV^^_V dhaVWUV^YV _RaQX_SQ^Yp “[…] bQU-i[_\Q No 68 ,1cY[SQ‘”). In the private school “Beis-Aharon” the school week starts on Sunday and Saturday is a day off (9XaQY\mb[Qp bV]mp). At some schools Bar Mitzvah is celebrated together with families, teachers and a rabbin.

10.

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

According to the classification of Starostenko, there are currently 14 religious training places in Belarus. 5 of them (including seminary and theological academy) belong to the Belarussian Orthodox Church during 9 other religious communities (3 of the Roman Catholic Church, 2 the Christians of the Evangelical Faith, 1 the Evangelical Christian Baptists, 1 the Jews, 1 den Adventists of the seventh day and 1 the Christian Pentecostals) (BcQa_bcV^[_ 2015). It was only in the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, that places of theological education were created or reopened. On the initiative of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus and the Belarusian Orthodox Church, the state educational institution “Institute of Theology named Saints Methodius and Cyril” of the Belarusian State University was founded in 2004. This institution was established on the basis of the theological faculty of the European Humanities University, which has been operating since 1993. On the one hand, the institute trains prospective teachers for religious education as well as catechetical work. On the other hand further education for the existing teachers is offered (9^bcYcdc cV_\_TYY). The number of students is around 118 (as of 2014).

86

Yauheniya Danilovich

Today there is a theological academy in Minsk (Minsk), two seminaries (Minsk and Vitebsk) and three theological schools (Minsk, Slonim and Vitebsk). In addition, the master’s program at the Minsk theological academy was opened. It is also possible to study theology in the context of history studies at the State University in Vitebsk. The number of students is five people (as of 2014) (=Yca_`_\Yc =Y^b[YZ Y 8Qb\QSb[YZ @QSV\, @QcaYQaiYZ N[XQaf SbVp 2V\QadbY. O Udf_S^_] _RaQX_SQ^YY S 2V\QadbY). In some state training centers, courses are held on various topics related to religion, such as: “Orthodox Worldview in the Present”, “Orthodox Worldview and Occultism”, “Orthodox Believers of the Belarusian Church” (þQXQa_S). There are also cooperations between the church and the state colleges (universities) that train school teachers. Cooperations are carried out differently like the organization of conferences and meetings, social projects, lectures are given by the clergy and lectures, cooperation in the field of educational work, research projects on religious topics (B_bc_p\_bm `_U`YbQ^YV `a_TaQ]]l b_cadU^YhVbcSQ ]VWUd 4a_U^V^b[Y] T_bdUQabcSV^^_] d^YSVabYcVc_] Y 4a_U^V^b[_Z V`QafYVZ). In addition, regular meetings are held on the issues of Orthodox religious education in cooperation with the state structures. This includes “St. Euphrosyne Pedagogical Readings” [“BSpc_-6Sea_bY^YVSb[YV `VUQT_TYhVb[YV hcV^Yp”]. The aim is to unite the efforts of the state and the church in questions of education of children and adolescents based on the traditional values of Belarus (@aVUbcQSYcV\m 4a_U^V^b[_Z V`QafYY `aY^p\ dhQbcYV S aQR_cV XVI AVb`dR\Y[Q^b[Yf BSpc_6Sea_bY^YVSb[Yf `VUQT_TYhVb[Yf hcV^YZ). The Minsk priest seminar organizes continuing education courses for the teachers, which last a week and involve various theological disciplines (@VUQT_TY T_a_UQ 2_RadZb[Q). Some dioceses (Bobruisk) run special training courses for school teachers, for the teachers who teach elective subject “Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture” and for Sunday school teachers. In Bobruisk diocese such a multi-day training in 2017 was carried out for the first time. Likewise, working groups for history teachers are organized in cooperation with the educational structures of the diocese (Bobruisk). The focus here is on the places in Belarus with special reference to the church (monasteries, famous icons, churches). In many schools extra help is offered after class. This offer is for children with working parents. For the teachers, who participate in these offers after the regular lessons, also advanced training in the individual dioceses is offered. The emphasis of the further education lies on the mental-moral education and value education.

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

11.

87

Empirical research concerning RE

All in all, there is a lack of a religious pedagogic scientific discourse. There is a lack of a comprehensive discussion on religious education in the field of theology as well as in the field of educational sciences on religious education in schools. In the journal “Pedagogical Knowledge and Education” [“@VUQT_TYhVb[Qp ^Qd[Q Y _RaQX_SQ^YV”] there are no articles concerning the topics of religious education in the school (http://adu.by/ru/instytut/nauchnye-publikatsii.html). Issues of Orthodox religious education are only occasionally and sporadically noticed in theological research. There are no locations such as chairs of religious education research in Belarus. The area of religious education at school remains a research desideratum. An exact empirical inventory of the development dynamics of the range is missing so far. After all, there are several investigations on various issues. Thus, in the study of W.W. Poznjakow (2000) questioned 500 pupils in Minsk (Pervomajskij district) (@_X^p[_S) the attitude of the pupils to ideological questions and to religion was at the center of attention. An investigation under the direction of Svetlana Karaseva (2011) in Minsk should be mentioned. The questionnaire survey was conducted by a research group of the Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences of the Belarusian State University (Minsk). Pupils from grade 9 to grade 11 and parents of all grades were interviewed. The focus of the investigation was the question whether the pupils, teachers but also the parents are interested of the introduction of a subject with the object “religions”. According to the findings, this is the case for 79.9 % of pupils and 79 % of parents. According to the results such a subject should be an optional subject and inform about different religions and their influence on the lives of people and society (;QaQbrSQ, I[da_SQ 2015). In 2012, Yauheniya Danilovich conducted an investigation in Sunday Schools of the Belarussian Orthodox Church. 479 children and adolescents aged 12 to 15 were interviewed. This empirical study offers insights into the situation of the children and adolescents visiting Sunday Schools, their preferences and attitudes, including their experiences with worship services (Danilovich 2016). Participants were also interviewed about religious education in schools. Nearly a quarter of respondents (23,6 %) said there is a subject including religious education at their school. 66,4 % of them also attend this subject. 72,8 % of those who do not have such a subject would like to have one (Danilovich 2016, 297f.).

88

12.

Yauheniya Danilovich

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

The situation of religious education in schools in Belarus is currently complex. Admittedly, there are already normative frameworks that fundamentally make it possible to offer religious education at schools. At the same time, the interpretation of religious education and its goals focuses on value education and partially ideological work. The limits of determining the content of religious education are very fluid in the case of Belarus, so that the state essentially influences the goals and content. Thus, the offerings of religious education can be made the places of the ideological work of the state. Religious education is designed in an input-oriented way. The Orthodox Church is considered to have a totalitarian role in the questions of moral and ethical education in some sources at the level of society as a whole. This position is inherently problematic when a denominational perspective on education issues is absolutized (;_c\pa_S 2014). In this case, it may cause the state to interfere in church affairs, just as the church acts as a state ideology in matters of education. In this case, such an ideology would not be representative of the religious situation in Belarus and would be anti-democratic as well as unconstitutional with regard to religious freedom. At the same time, this would be an instrumentalization of the Orthodox Church for state ideology. Overall, one can speak of a continuous cooperation in the field of education. And yet such cooperations often form points of contact with religious topics and questions. A subject that explicitly positions itself as a format for school education does not yet exist in Belarus. In this respect, it is often the initiative of the individual schools or the representatives of the church, whether children and young people have access to religious education. Another area of work in this context is certainly the orientation of religious education processes. So far, all formats focus on upbringing issues and ethical learning. There is no discussion of other denominations and religions, which have a historical significance in Belarus. Although a purely historical perspective is covered by some subjects, it does not yet provide a sufficient picture of the other religions. In some areas, children and adolescents grow up in denominational contexts, where the two major denominations are almost equally represented. The denominational differences are already encountered in childhood. This situation is not represented in the present curricula of religious education at schools. It is emphasized again and again that the normative basis for better ways of realizing religious education in schools is still open for development (=Yca_`_\Yc =Y^b[YZ Y 8Qb\QSb[YZ @QSV\, @QcaYQaiYZ N[XQaf SbVp 2V\QadbY). Karaseva and Schkurova point out that cooperation with the Orthodox Church in religious education is, according to the official documents, focused on upbringing tasks. At the same time, upbringing and education or employment

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

89

with concrete contents are not easily separable. In reality, the activity of the Orthodox Church at schools is not limited to the level of upbringing work, but it conveys religious content of a particular denomination (;QaQbrSQ, I[da_SQ 2015, 50f.). Thus, there is no transparency about the concrete processes of religious education at school. Looking at the European context, there is a lack of subject orientation in the educational processes as well as openness to the ability to criticize. There could be greater emphasis on pluralism in society in relation to various aspects.

13.

Further information

http://www.bobreparhiya.by/umk-dlia-pedagogov-religiovedov/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://www.zdv.by/meropriyatiya (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://exarchate.by/resource/Dir0009/Dir0015/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://churchby.info/rus/33 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Legal foundations (http://www.pravo.by/index.php, last accessed: 23.9.,2019). Ministry of Education and other state educational structures (http://edu.gov.by/ http:// www.adu.by/ru/, last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Statistik Belarus (http://www.belstat.gov.by/, last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

References 7 p^SQap. A_WUVbcS_ 4_b`_UQ 2_TQ Y B`QbQ ^QiVT_ 9YbdbQ FaYbcQ. 2016. In 3VU_]_bcY =Y^b[_Z =Yca_`_\YY 2(120), 23–24. Babosov, E. 1997. The Revival of Religiosity in Belarus. In New Religious Phenomena in Central and Eastern Europe, eds. I. Borowik and G. Babinski, 151–162. Krakow: Nomos. Breskaya, O. 2017. Path of Belarusian Secularism: Public Debate on Religious Education. In Religion, Education and Human Rights, eds. A. Sjöborg and H.-G. Ziebertz, 31–47. Springer International Publishing. Danilovich, Y. 2016. Religiöses Lernen im Jugendalter. Eine internationale vergleichende Studie in der orthodoxen und evangelischen Kirche. Göttingen: V& R unipress. Gruska, U. 2011. Versteckte Botschaften. In Jüdische Allgemeine. https://www.juedischeallgemeine.de/article/view/id/11774 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Kalinovskij, V. 1996. Die religiöse Renaissance in Weißrussland unter den Bedingungen der Multikonfessionalität. In Religion und Gesellschaft im postsowjetischen Raum. Sammlung von Aufsätzen, eds. M. Smirnov and G. Avvakumov, 178–194. Würzburg: Der Christliche Osten. Malerius, S. 2010. Republik Belarus. In Die Bildungssysteme Europas, eds. H. Döbert, W. Hörner, B. von Kopp, L. R. Reuter, 82–101. Baltmannsweiler (Schneider Hohengehren). National educational portal. http://adu.by (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

90

Yauheniya Danilovich

Pełnomocnik prezydenta ds. religii: na Białorusi tylko katolicy sa˛ niezadowoleni. http:// znadniemna.pl/31624/pelnomocnik-prezydenta-ds-religii-bialorusi-katolicy-sa-nieza dowoleni/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). PISA 2018 participants. http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/pisa-2018-participants.htm (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Pollack, D. 1998. Religiöser Wandel in Mittel- und Osteuropa. In Religiöser Wandel in den postkommunistischen Ländern Ost- und Mitteleuropas, eds. D. Pollack, I. Borowik and W. Jagodzinski, 9–52. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag. Powitano nowy rok szkolny w Polskiej Szkole w Grodnie. http://znadniemna.pl/5736/ powitano-nowy-rok-szkolny-polskiej-szkole-grodnie/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Vardomatskii A. and Pankhurst, J.G. 2000. Belarus on the Cusp of Change: The Relationship Between religion and Family in an Newly Open Religious Market. In Family, Religion and Social Societies, eds. Houseknecht, S.K. and J.G. Pankhurst, 149–174. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zulehner P.M., Tomka M. and Naletova, I. 2008. Religionen und Kirche in Ost(Mittel)europa: Entwicklungen nach der Wende. Ostfildern: Schwabenverlag. 2VX^o[, 5.;. 2006. B_bc_p^YV Y b`VgYeY[Q b_SaV]V^^_Z aV\YTY_X^_Z bYcdQgYY S 2V\QadbY. In B_gY_\_TYhVb[YV Ybb\VU_SQ^Yp 2, 128–135. 2V\_adbb[Qp aVb`dR\Y[Q^b[Qp `Y_^Vab[Qp _aTQ^YXQgYp. http://brpo.by/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 2a_Z[_, 1.3., ed. 2002. @aQS_SlV _b^_Sl SXQY]_UVZbcSYp dhaVWUV^YZ _RaQX_SQ^Yp b aV\YTY_X^l]Y _aTQ^YXQgYp]Y S AVb`dR\Y[V 2V\Qadbm. =Y^b[. 3Vb^i[ QUd[Qgli. 2016. nr. 12, 4. 3YcVRb[_V T_a_Ub[_V _cUV\V^YV GV^caQ `aQS_b\QS^_T_ `a_bSVjV^Yp `aV`_U_R^_Z 6Sea_bY^YY @_\_g[_Z. http://vocpp.narod.ru/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 4ibc_alp 2V\Qadbi bQ bcQaQWlc^lf hQb_¡ UQ [Q^gQ XV bc. 6, hQbc[Q 2., eds. O.=. 2_fQ^, B.=. GV]diQ¡. http://e-padruchnik.adu.by/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 4_bdUQabcSV^^_V dhaVWUV^YV _RaQX_SQ^Yp “4_]V\mb[YZ T_a_Ub[_Z ^QgY_^Q\m^lZ dhVR^_`VUQT_TYhVb[YZ [_]`\V[b UVcb[YZ bQU-i[_\Q No 68 ,1cY[SQ‘ http://atikva.by (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 4_bdUQabcSV^^_V dhaVWUV^YV _RaQX_SQ^Yp “BaVU^pp i[_\Q No 132 T. =Y^b[Q”. http://sch132. minsk.edu.by/ru/main.aspx?guid=1701 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 5Q^Y\_S, 1.3. ed. 2002. @_bc[_]]d^YbcYhVb[Qp 2V\Qadbm S `a_gVbbV aV\YTY_X^lf caQ^be_a]QgYZ. BR_a^Y[ bcQcVZ. =Y^b[. 7daY^Q, =.1., 4adX]Q^, 9.3. 2010. 6SaVZb[Qp \YcVaQcdaQ. I–XI [\Qbbl. DhVR^Qp `a_TaQ]]Q U\p [\Qbb_S b YXdhV^YV] pXl[Q ^QgY_^Q\m^_T_ ]V^miY^bcSQ (dhVR^lZ `aVU]Vc «A_U^_Z pXl[ Y \YcVaQcdaQ ^QgY_^Q\m^_T_ ]V^miY^bcSQ»). =Y^b[: þQgY_^Q\m^lZ Y^bcYcdc _RaQX_SQ^Yp. 8Q[_^ AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm _c 17. 12. 1992 No 2054-XII “? bS_R_UV b_SVbcY Y aV\YTY_X^lf _aTQ^YXQgYpf” (aVU. _c 31. 10. 2002). http://zakon2006.by.ru/part28/doc37203.shtm (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 9XaQY\mb[Qp bV]mp. http://isemya.by/school (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 9^Q^Vg, B. 2013. 9b\Q], faYbcYQ^bcS_, YdUQYX] – S ]YaV. AV`_acQW YX 9Smp. https:// news.tut.by/society/341852.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 9^[\oXYS^_V _RaQX_SQ^YV. http://edu.gov.by/sistema-obrazovaniya/spets-obr/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

91

9^bcYcdc cV_\_TYY. http://theology.bsu.by/ru/about (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). ;QaQbrSQ, B.4., I[da_SQ, 6.3. 2015. 8^Q^Yp _ aV\YTYY S i[_\Qf 2V\QadbY: b_bc_p^YV Y `Vab`V[cYSl. =Y^b[: 9XU. gV^ca 24D 2015. ;Qc_SYh, þ.;. 2000. A_\m Y ]Vbc_ aV\YTYY S S_b`YcQ^YY i[_\m^Y[_S. In @aQS_b\QSYV Y i[_\Q ^Q adRVWV clbphV\VcYZ: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. BR_a^Y[ U_[\QU_S VI BSpc_-6ea_bY^mVSb[Yf hcV^YZ, 44–49. =Y^b[. ;_UV[b AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm _R _RaQX_SQ^YY 13 p^SQap 2011 T. No 243-8. http://etalonline.by/

?type=text& regnum=Hk1100243#scrollInto#& Chapter=1 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

;_^[dabl cS_ahVb[Yf \YcVaQcda^lf Y Ybb\VU_SQcV\mb[Yf aQR_c 2018.. http://theology.bsu.

by/ru/about.

;_^bcYcdgYp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm (b YX]V^V^Yp]Y Y U_`_\^V^Yp]Y, `aY^pcl]Y ^Q aVb`dR\Y[Q^b[Yf aVeVaV^Ud]Qf 24 ^_pRap 1996 T. Y 17 _[cpRap 2004 T.). http://pravo.by/

pravovaya-informatsiya/normativnye-dokumenty/konstitutsiya-respubliki-belarus/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). ;_c\pa_S, 9.3. 2014. @aQS_b\QS^_V S_b`YcQ^YV [Q[ `aY_aYcVc^_V ^Q`aQS\V^YV b_SaV]V^^_T_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp: b_gY_\_TYhVb[_V YX]VaV^YV. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 166–172. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”. ;d\QWQ^[Q, ý.P. 2014. Falbgip^b[ip [Qic_¡^Qbgi i Udf_¡^Q-]QaQ\m^QV SlfQSQ^^V ¡ bibcn]V bSVg[QZ QUd[Qgli bdhQb^QZ 2V\Qadbi. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 109–111. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”. =Vc_UYhVb[_V _RkVUY^V^YV dhYcV\VZ RY_\_TYY. http://www.bobreparhiya.by/news/meto dicheskoe-obidenenie-uchitelei-biologii/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp aVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm, ed. 2013. ?RaQX_SQcV\m^lZ bcQ^UQac SlbiVT_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp. B`VgYQ\m^_bcm 1-210101 CV_\_TYp. =Y^b[. http://theology.bsu. by/sites/default/files/obrazovatelnyy_standart_0.pdf. =Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm, ed. 2016. @a_TaQ]]Q ^V`aValS^_T_ S_b`YcQ^Yp UVcVZ Y dhQjVZbp ]_\_UVWY ^Q 2016–2020 TT. http://www.adu.by/images/2016/ 07/Pr-ma-neprer-vosp-det-uch-mol-2016-17.pdf. (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =Y^YbcVabcS_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm, ed. BYbcV]Q _RaQX_SQ^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm S gYeaQf (2016/2017). http://edu.gov.by/statistics/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =Y^b[YZ T_a_Ub[_Z Yb`_\^YcV\m^lZ [_]YcVc `_ _RaQX_SQ^Yo, ed. ?R dhaVWUV^Ypf _RaQX_SQ^Yp ^VT_bdUQabcSV^^_Z e_a]l b_RbcSV^^_bcY S 2017/2018 dhVR^_] T_Ud (U_i[_\m^lV dhaVWUV^Yp, dhaVWUV^Yp _RjVT_ baVU^VT_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp), aQb`_\_WV^^lV ^Q cVaaYc_aYY aQZ_^Q. http://minsk.edu.by/main.aspx?guid=4731 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =Yca_`_\Yc =Y^b[YZ Y 8Qb\QSb[YZ @QSV\, @QcaYQaiYZ N[XQaf SbVp 2V\QadbY. O Udf_S^_] _RaQX_SQ^YY S 2V\QadbY. http://orthoobraz.by/pedagogu/praoslanaya-shkola/duhovnoeobrazovanie-v-belarusi (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =_\_UVWm 2V\QadbY. 9^cVa^Vc-`_acQ\. http://brsm.by/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =_\_UVh^V^b[Qp V`QafYp. 2016. In: 3VU_]_bcY =Y^b[_Z =Yca_`_\YY 2(120), 35–36 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). =dXVZ Ybc_aYY Y [d\mcdal VSaVVS 2V\QadbY. http://museums.by/muzei/muzei-g-minska-iminskoy-oblasti/muzey-istorii-i-kultury-evreev-belarusi/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

92

Yauheniya Danilovich

þQXQa_S, 3. AQXSYcYV Udf_S^_T_ Y aV\YTY_X^_T_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp S =Y^b[V (1988–2013 TT.).

https://minds.by/news/razvitie-duhovnogo-i-religioznogo-obrazovaniya-v-minske1988-2013-gg#.W18J27hCSUl (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). þQgY_^Q\m^lZ bcQcYbcYhVb[YZ [_]YcVc AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm. 2017. 5V]_TaQeYhVb[YZ VWVT_U^Y[ AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm. http://www.belstat.gov.by/ofitsialnaya-statistika/solialnayasfera/demografiya_2/metodologiya-otvetstvennye-za-informatsionnoe-s_2/index_8479/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). þQgY_^Q\m^lZ bcQcYbcYhVb[YZ [_]YcVc AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm. 2018. ?RjYV Yc_TY ]YTaQgYY ^QbV\V^Yp. http://www.belstat.gov.by (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). þ_SY[_SQ, ý.4. 1998. ?b^_S^lV fQaQ[cVaYbcY[Y UY^Q]Y[Y aV\YTY_X^_bcY ^QbV\V^Yp. In B_gY_\_TYhVb[YV Ybb\VU_SQ^Yp 9, 93–98. ?RjVbcS_SVUV^YV. DhVR^_V `_b_RYV U\p 9 [\QbbQ _RjV_RaQX_SQcV\m^lf dhaVWUV^YZ b adbb[Y] pXl[_] _RdhV^Yp. 2009. ed. =.9. 3Yi^VSb[YZ. =Y^b[. ?b^_Sl `aQS_b\QS^_Z [d\mcdal. DhVR^Qp `a_TaQ]]Q eQ[d\mcQcYS^lf XQ^pcYZ U\p I–IV [\Qbb_S dhaVWUV^YZ _RjVT_ baVU^VT_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp. 2015. eds. 1.3. 2a_Z[_, ý.3. EY^m[VSYh, 3.3. HVhVc, 4.1. ýQSaVg[YZ, C.?. þY[_\QVSQ, 1.=. BdfQ^_SQ, 3.9. @YbQaV^[_. Minsk. @VUQT_TY T_a_UQ 2_RadZb[Q `aY^p\Y dhQbcYV S ýVc^V] R_T_b\_Sb[_] Y^bcYcdcV =Y^b[_Z Udf_S^_Z bV]Y^QaYY. http://www.bobreparhiya.by/news/pedagogi-goroda-bobruiska-

priniali-uchastie-v-lbi/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

@VaVhV^m dhaVWUV^YZ _RaQX_SQ^Yp, ^Q RQXV [_c_alf _bdjVbcS\pVcbp n[b`VaY]V^cQ\m^Qp Y Y^^_SQgY_^^Qp UVpcV\m^_bcm S beVaV _RaQX_SQ^Yp S 2017/2018 dhVR^_] T_Ud. http://edu.

gov.by/sistema-obrazovaniya/srenee-obr/eksperimentalnaya-i-innovatsionnaya-deya telnost/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). @aQS_b\QS^Qp GVa[_Sm S b_SaV]V^^_] RV\_adbb[_] _RjVbcSV: B]lb\ _RaQX_SQcV\m^lf Y^YgYQcYS. 3lbcd`\V^YV =Yca_`_\YcQ =Y^b[_T_ Y B\dg[_T_ @QS\Q, @QcaYQaiVT_ N[XQafQ SbVp 2V\QadbY. 2014. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 15–18. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”. @aVUbcQSYcV\m 4a_U^V^b[_Z V`QafYY `aY^p\ dhQbcYV S aQR_cV XVI AVb`dR\Y[Q^b[Yf BSpc_6Sea_bY^YVSb[Yf `VUQT_TYhVb[Yf hcV^YZ. http://orthos.org/news/2017/11/03/predstavi tel-grodnenskoy-eparhii-prinyal-uchastie-rabote-xvi-respublikanskih-svyato (lastaccessed: 23. 9. 2019). AV\YTYp Y [_^eVbbYY S AVb`dR\Y[V 2V\Qadbm. 2011. http://mfa.gov.by/upload/pdf/religion_ rus.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). AVb`dR\Y[Q^b[_V _RjVbcSV^^_V _RkVUY^V^YV “A_UYcV\Y Y dhYcV\p – XQ S_Xa_WUV^YV `aQS_b\QS^_T_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp”. http://orthoobraz.by/about/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). A_TQ\mb[YZ, B.4. 2008. @a_TaQ]]Q eQ[d\mcQcYS^_T_ [dabQ “;d\mcdaQ Y aV\YTYp” U\p 10–11T_ [\QbbQ baVU^VZ i[_\l. http://churchby.info/bel/607 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). A_\p an\wTww ¡ `aQgnbV QUd[Qglw. 3lbcd`\V^^V 1aglRwb[d`Q CQUnSdiQ ;Q^UadbVSwhQ, =wcaQ`Q\wcQ =w^b[Q-=QTw\r¡b[QTQ. 2014. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 18–22. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”.

Religious Education at Schools in Belarus

93

BSpc_-6\YbQSVcY^b[YZ ]_^Qbclam. https://obitel-minsk.ru/shkola-ixvis/ (last accessed:

23. 9. 2019).

B_^TQ\m, =.1. 2014. AV\YTY_X^lZ Qb`V[c \Yh^_bc^_Z YUV^cYh^_bcY S caQ^be_a]YadojV]bp _RjVbcSV. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 92–95. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”. B_bc_p\_bm `_U`YbQ^YV `a_TaQ]]l b_cadU^YhVbcSQ ]VWUd 4a_U^V^b[Y] T_bdUQabcSV^^_] d^YSVabYcVc_] Y 4a_U^V^b[_Z V`QafYVZ. http://orthos.org/news/2018/02/06/sostoyalos-

podpisanie-programmy-sotrudnichestva-mezhdu-grodnenskim-gosudarstvennom (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). BcQa_bcV^[_, 3. 2015. AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S [_^cV[bcV ^QgY_^Q\m^_T_ XQ[_^_UQcV\mbcSQ AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm _ bS_R_UV b_SVbcY. http://forb.by/node/490 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). BcQa_bcV^[_, 3.3. 2009. ?b^_Sl aV\YTY_SVUV^Yp. @a_TaQ]]Q eQ[d\mcQcYS^lf XQ^pcYZ U\p dhQjYfbp 11 [\QbbQ _RjV_RaQX_SQcV\m^lf dhaVWUV^YZ. =Y^b[. D`_\^_]_hV^^lZ `_ UV\Q] aV\YTYZ Y ^QgY_^Q\m^_bcVZ, ed. 9^e_a]QgYp _ [_^eVbbY_ ^Q\m^_Z bYcdQgYY S AVb`dR\Y[V 2V\Qadbm. http://belarus21.by/Articles/1439296790 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). D`_\^_]_hV^^lZ `_ UV\Q] aV\YTYZ Y ^QgY_^Q\m^_bcVZ, ed. þQgY_^Q\m^lZ b_bcQS ^QbV\V^Yp AVb`dR\Y[Y 2V\Qadbm. http://belarus21.by/Articles/1458134839 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Da_[ ^Q cV]d “@QbfQ S `a_YXSVUV^Ypf adbb[Yf `YbQcV\VZ” S i[_\V Nr. 3 JdhY^Q. 2018. In 4a_U^V^b[YV V`QafYQ\m^lV SVU_]_bcY. 5(305), 5. DhVR^Qp `a_TaQ]]Q eQ[d\mcQcYS^lf XQ^pcYZ “?b^_Sl `aQS_b\QS^_Z [d\mcdal” U\p V–IX [\Qbb_S dhaVWUV^YZ _RjVT_ baVU^VT_ _RaQX_SQ^Yp. http://adu.by/ru/uchitelyu/uchebnometodicheskoe-obespechenie-doshkolnogo-obshchego-srednego-i-spetsialnogo-obrazo vaniya/uchebnye-programmy-fakultativnykh-zanyatij-v-xi-klassy-2016-god.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). EVU_bY[, 3.1., 1SUVVS, 9.1. 2007. DhVR^Qp `a_TaQ]]Q eQ[d\mcQcYS^lf XQ^pcYZ “2YR\Yp [Q[ `Q]pc^Y[ Ybc_aYY Y \YcVaQcdal” `_ dhVR^_]d `aVU]Vcd “3bV]Ya^Qp Ybc_aYp”. 6 [\Qbb. =Y^b[. http://adu.by/ru/uchitelyu/uchebno-metodicheskoe-obespechenie-doshkolno go-obshchego-srednego-i-spetsialnogo-obrazovaniya/uchebnye-programmy-fakulta tivnykh-zanyatij-v-xi-klassy-2016-god.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). HQdb_SQ, B. 2015. AQUY[Q\m^lZ Yb\Q] S 2V\QadbY: Ybc_aYp `a_cYS_bc_p^Yp ]Ya^lf cQcQa Y _cUV\m^lf n[bcaV]Ybc_S. https://news.tut.by/society/431390.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Hc_ ^dW^_ X^Qcm _ aQUYQgYY Y _ HVa^_Rl\mb[_Z caQTVUYY? https://news.tut.by/society/ 107818.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). P[_S\VSQ, þ.2. 2014. 5df_S^_-^aQSbcSV^^_V S_b`YcQ^YV dhQjYfbp – _U^_ YX _b^_S^lf ^Q`aQS\V^YZ S_b`YcQcV\m^_Z aQR_cl S b_SaV]V^^_Z i[_\V. In AV\YTYp Y _RaQX_SQ^YV S bSVcb[Yf _RjVbcSQf: _`lc, `a_R\V]l, `Vab`V[cYSl. =QcVaYQ\l ]VWUd^Qa_U^_Z ^Qdh^_Z [_^eVaV^gYY AVb`dR\Y[Q 2V\Qadbm, T. =Y^b[, 27–28 ]Qp 2014 T_UQ, ed 3.4. 4QSaY\V^[_, 104–107. =Y^b[: “@aQS_ Y n[_^_]Y[Q”.

Ketevan Gurchiani

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

Introduction Georgia is a traditionally Christian country, where Orthodox Christianity is perceived as the main marker of national identity. The Georgian Orthodox Church is very popular, so is the Patriarch of the Church. The constitution regards Georgia as a secular country and guarantees the freedom of religion. The state tries to enforce secularism by creating boundaries between the state and the Church. In this spirit, in 2005 the Law on general Education has been approved, which prohibits the use of religious symbols in schools for devotional purposes. The national curriculum envisions an integrated approach in RE and makes religion part of history, arts and civic education. Much of the discussions about RE revolves around human rights issues, proselytism and indoctrination. As Georgia is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country with considerable Muslim minority (10 %) the choice of secular schools is seen as the only way to ensure peaceful co-existence.

1.

Socio-religious background

Georgia is a country located at the Black Sea, bordering with Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia. Its capital is Tbilisi. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km2 and has a population of 3.73 million (as for beginning of 2018). The census data shows that an overwhelming majority of the population is orthodox Christian – 83 %. According to various surveys, the Georgian Orthodox Autocephalous Apostolic Church, GOC in short, enjoys a great popularity and is the number 1 institution in terms of trust among all institutions. The largest religious minority is Muslim – 10 %. Armenian Apostolic Christians make up another considerable religious minority of 3 %. Small numbers of Catholics, Lutherans, and Jews also live in Georgia alongside several other religious denominations and groups, including Jehovah’s witnesses,

96

Ketevan Gurchiani

Figure 1: Level of Trust in Georgian Orthodox church

Pentecostals, Yezidis and make up less than 1 % of the population. Some of these groups have been traditionally living in Georgia (like Jews or Catholics), while others consist of recent converts or immigrants. As there is no official registration of one’s religious affiliation, the data on religious belonging derives from the reported affiliation as collected by National Statistics Office of Georgia and several surveys.1 Religious identity in Georgia is mostly tied to ethnicity. It is assumed that Armenians are apostolic, Azeris are Muslims, Georgians are orthodox Christians, except for Adjarans, ethnic Georgian Muslims (s. below). In the case of the Georgian Muslims, or Georgian Catholics and Protestants, there is often an explanation offered, why they are not Orthodox Christian. Ethnic Georgian Catholics have been traditionally called “French” to mark their peculiarity (“foreignness”) among Georgians. Another characteristic is the geographical distribution of religions: The Armenian minority mostly inhabits the Samtzkhe-Javakethi region of Georgia, bordering on Armenia. There is also a considerable number of Armenians in the capital city Tbilisi. The Azeri also live in compact settlements mostly in regions bordering Azerbaijan.

1 See time-data series in Caucasus Barometer surveys. On the religion among youth see Census data 2014.

97

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

As mentioned above, Muslims make up the largest religious minority living in with a population of 398,700, they constitute the 10,7 % of population. The Muslim minority is diverse in terms of ethnic background, history and religious affiliation. The Muslim religious group combines Georgian, Azeri, Kist, Lek and other Muslims. Ethnic Azeri Muslims make up the biggest Muslim minority, living mostly in Kvemo Kartli region and speaking a Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic minority in Georgia with 233 024 or 6.3 % of general population. They are mostly Shia Muslims, though there also is a certain number of Suni Azeri’s among them. There is also a small number of Salafists living in Georgia. The religious observance of Azeri Muslims is low, despite Islam being a part of their identity. Ethnic Georgian Adjarans are the second largest Muslim minority in Georgia. They are Sunni Muslims, as are most of the Kists living in Georgia. The total population of the Kist community is 5,700 according to the 2014 census. Kists are from the same ethnic background as Chechens from North Caucasus. The migration of the Chechen community to Georgia after the Russia-Chechen wars also brought Salafism to Georgia.2 The Muslim religious groups of different doctrinal directions are unified within one religious organization called “LEPL Supreme Religious Administration of Georgia’s All Muslims” Distribution of number of population of Georgia by religion Religion Total Population Orthodox Christians Muslims Armenian Apostolic Catholics Jehovah’s Witnesses Yazidis Protestants Judaists Other None Refusals Not specified

Total (Thousand Persons) 3713,8 3097,6 398,7 109,0 19,2 12,4 8,6 2,5 1,4 1,4 19,1 9,6 34,3

Percentage

100,0 83,4 10,7 2,9 0,5 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,0 0,5 0,3 0,9

Table 1: Distribution of number of population of Georgia by religion

Migration waves always affected religious diversity in Georgia. German migrants, who arrived here two centuries ago, brought Protestantism to Georgia. Many of the German so called “colonists” left after the fall of the Soviet Union and migrated back to their land of origin. The same happened to the once strong Georgian Jewish community that had a very long history of living here. Many of 2 Census data 2014.

98

Ketevan Gurchiani

the Georgian Jews now live outside of Georgia. Most of the changes happened in 1990 when national sentiments created rather unfavourable conditions for minorities worsened by the general socio-economic insecurity. Recently migration waves have brought migrants from countries affected by conflict to Georgia as is the case with Syria, from where Yezidi refugees joined Yezidi communities here. Another wave of migrants came from Iran. They are mostly involved in circular migration, as are many of the Georgians, moving to and from EU countries as labour migrants.3

1.1

History and the Importance of Christianity

Georgia is one of the oldest Christian countries. The early Christianity of Georgia is one of the most popular eras of historiography. The national identity rests on two pillars: the ancient statehood and ancient Christianity of the Georgian people.4 Georgian mythology sees Georgia as a chosen land of the Holy Virgin, the new Georgian state has St. George depicted on its coat of arms, and national historiography often ascribes the perseverance of the Georgian people during invasions to the Christian faith. The first Christians preached Christianity in the 1st century AD. The Georgian Orthodox Church is called apostolic based on the claim that the apostle Andreas the First Called preached Christianity here. Another important claim to glory is represented by a story preserved in Georgian Hagiography : a Georgian Jew from the old capital Mtskheta named Elias was in Jerusalem at the time of Crucifixion and went to attend the crucifixion of Christ. He then brought Jesus’ robe to Mtskheta. The 11th century Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta still shows the place where the robe is buried. In the first centuries Christianity coexisted with other religions like Zoroastrianism. The first King converted to Christianity in AD 337, when a woman named Nino came from Cappadocia to preach Christianity. The name Nino along with the name Mariam have been the most popular female names in Georgia ever since. The Georgian Orthodox Church was originally subordinated to the Church of Antioch, but became independent or autocephalous in the 8th century AD. The first Georgian patriarch was elevated in the 11th century and from this period onward the Catholicos-Patriarch has been considered the premier hierarch of the Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Church. Independence of the Georgian Church was revoked by the Russian 3 Ethnic Composition of Georgia 1926–2014 (Centre for the studies of ethnicity and multiculturalism October, 2016). 4 The ties with Christian cultures, older ties with the Greco-Roman Antiquity have been stressed as culturally influential and beneficial, proving the continuity from very old times.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

99

Church in 1811. After the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917 the Georgian Orthodox Church declared its independence, which wasn’t recognized by the Russian Church. Only when the Georgian church had lost almost its entire clergy and many of its buildings under the atheist Soviet State in 1943 did the Russian Church in an ironic twist of fate recognize the autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia. Even though the Orthodox Church suffered heavily during the Soviet times, as did any other religious denominations and institutions (By 1923 over 90 % of Georgia’s 2500 Orthodox churches had been closed by the authorities and By 1975 only 40 churches remained in operation (Reddaway 1975; Jones 1989), the Soviet policy of Nativization (especially active in 20–30) helped strengthen a historiography, which stresses the dominant role of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the history and identity of the Georgians. The Church buildings, mostly closed for religious services, became celebrated places of high cultural value. School trips almost exclusively targeted Churches as main destinations. The teaching of Georgian literature has been built around teaching old Georgian hagiography starting from the Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik, as the earliest surviving piece of Georgian literature written between 476 and 483 AD. The literature and history textbooks were even more exclusively Christian in depicting Georgian history than the textbooks are now. It should also be noted that unlike what happened in many other Soviet republics the Georgian language and alphabet remained the official administrative language and script (along with Russian). A telling of history that stresses the continuity, the old statehood and old Christianity of Georgia became main markers of identity. The old roots and continuity of the Church is a source of national pride, it stands witness to the linearity and persistence of the country. Throughout history the invasions of Arabs, Iranians, Turks and Mongols had been perceived as a Muslim threat and the reason of traumatic decline (Halbach 2016; Jawad, Reisner 2015; Suny 1994). Christianity has become one of the main identity markers throughout the centuries and even more conspicuously so during the atheist Soviet times. It became much more powerful in the transition period when most institutions ceased to function (1990ies). The Georgian Orthodox Church as an institution enjoys great popularity and trust among the population. Despite low levels of attendance of Church services (Charles 2010), the time series of surveys shows how important religion is in everyday life among all age groups. The importance of domestic religiosity could be explained as a reaction to Soviet atheism when the sacred space relocated to the domestic realm and was de-institutionalized.

100

Figure 2: How important is religon in your daily life? (%)

Figure 3: Age groups (%)

Ketevan Gurchiani

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

101

2.

Legal Framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

2.a

Constitution

The Constitution of Georgia establishes the basic principles of human rights and freedoms. Article 9 declares the freedom of belief and religion. Article 19 of the Constitution protects freedom of speech, thought, conscience, religion, and belief as long as it does not restrict the freedom of others. Article 24 sees some restriction in the public sphere to ensure democratic principles. Laws and sublegal acts reflect the freedom of religion guaranteed in the constitution (The Constitution of Georgia, 24 August, 1995, Article 9.1, Article 14, Article 19.1 2) e. g. as in the Criminal Code of Georgia, 22 July, 1999, Article 53.31; Labor Code of Georgia, 12 December, 2010, Articles 2.3 and 2.4; Law of Georgia on Eradication of All Forms of Discrimination, 2 May, 2014 (For detailed analysis of Legal Framework see EMC and TDI).5 The constitution also stresses the separation of the state and of the Church, which is the foundational principle for secularism: “The State declares […] the independence of the Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church from the State”. (Art. 9). The constitution when guaranteeing the freedom of religion also stresses the importance of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The Article 9 of the Constitution of Georgia states: “Article 9 1. The State shall declare absolute freedom of belief and religion. At the same time, the State shall recognize the outstanding role of the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia in the history of Georgia and its independence from the State. 2. Relations between the State of Georgia and the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia shall be governed by Constitutional Agreement. Constitutional Agreement shall be in full compliance with the universally recognised principles and norms of international law, specifically in terms of human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

The privileges given to the GOC define Georgia as “endorsed church model”. Still the full freedom of religion is the governing principle, therefore the privileges and the special status granted to the GOC cannot affect other religious communities. 5 A detailed analysis of the problems related to the state secularism can be found in STUDY OF RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION AND CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM IN GEORGIA (2014). For more details about minority rights and practice see Freedom House index country report 2018: International Religious Freedom Report: Georgia 2017.

102 2.b

Ketevan Gurchiani

Constitutional Agreement between State of Georgia and Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church6

The article 1 of the agreement establishes the main principles of the functioning of a church in a secular state where functions of the state and the GOC are separated. It also confirms the following: “Article 1. The State and Church hereby confirm their will to collaborate for the population welfare maintaining principle of mutual independence (1.1.)” Because of its historical presence it has been recognized by the state as a full legal public person that exercises “its activities according to the Ecclesiastical (Canon) Law, the Constitution of Georgia, the present Agreement, and Georgian legislation (1. 3.). The article 1 also states that the “Great ecclesiastic holidays and Sundays shall be declared public holidays and days off as a rule.” (1.6). The article 5 covers the field of education. As stated in the agreement, the State and the Church collaborate in educational programs, mutually recognize diplomas. The same article explains the collaboration and the recognition of education against the background of the law. The state supports GOC involvement in education by various means. “Article V 1. Educational institutions shall teach orthodox religion upon their choice. Curriculums drafting and changing, teachers’ appointment and dismissal shall be subject to Church competence. 2. The State and the Church shall mutually and equally accept diplomas, certificates, and scientific degrees issued by educational institutions according to the rules determined by law. 3. The State and Church shall be authorized to launch joint educational programmes. The State shall support functioning ecclesiastic educational institutions.” (For more about this agreement see the study of TDI and EMC. For implications for other religious entities see Corley, Felix. “Georgia; Catholics Fail to Break Orthodox Monopoly’.” In Forum 18 News Service, vol. 25. 2003.)

2.c

Registration of other religious entities

The rules for registration of religious unions in Georgia and legal status are defined by the Civil Code of Georgia (Article 15091): “1. Religious associations can be registered as legal entities of public law. The first part of this article shall not limit the right of religious unions to register as non-

6 Constitutional Law of Georgia No 826 of 30 March 2001 – LHG I, No 9, 10. 4. 2001, Art. 33.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

103

entrepreneurial (non-commercial) legal entities provided by this Code, as well as engage in activities as unregistered union provided by this Code.”

Three types of legal status are offered for religious organizations with this regulation: Legal entity of public law; Non-entrepreneurial (non-profit) legal entity ; unregistered union. According to the State Agency for Religious Issues several dozen religious associations are officially registered in Georgia. Some of the religious organisations are registered as Legal Entity of Public Law (Total 36 Membership, including the Georgian Orthodox Church), others function as Non-Profit Legal Entities. It is difficult to determine their exact number because religious entities register as religious associations, indistinguishable from religious non-governmental organizations.7

2.d

Financing

The legal framework for financial management of religious associations is not systematically organized. There are also no objective criteria, fundamental principles and volume of state funding of religious entities. Most of the state funding has been allocated to the Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church and its legal entities since 2002. It is governed by the Constitutional Agreement in the case of GOC. On October 14, 2002, the Constitutional Agreement (Article 11), signed between the Georgian Orthodox Church and the State, recognizes the obligation to pay damages to the church in compensation for the era of Communist repression. There is no official membership in the Georgian Orthodox Church and accordingly there are no membership fees, but rather a strong tradition of donating money to the church. Under the Decree N117 of the Government of January 27, 2014, the rule for the implementation of some measures related to partial compensation of the damage caused during the Soviet totalitarian regime in Georgia was approved. According to the Government’s Decree, the damage will be reimbursed to religious entities such as Jewish, Roman, Catholic and Armenian apostolic denominations. These are religious entities, which have been registered in legal form of a legal entity of public law before the decision has been announced in Georgia. The Patriarchy of the GOC receives the largest amount (86 %) from the state’s central budget in the form of an annual transfer. As a study conducted by TDI states: “Data illustrating state funding of religious associations by the municipalities and self-governed cities indicate that the Georgian Patriarchy is enjoying obvious privileges compared to other religious associations. 99.2 % of the total 7 Strategy of the Religious Politics of Georgia 2015.

104

Ketevan Gurchiani

amount amounting to GEL (Georgian Lari) 3.896.139 allocated by the self-governed cities and municipalities was distributed to Orthodox dioceses and churches in 2013. Financial assistance assigned to other religious denominations was equal to GEL 31.268,16 which is 0.8 % of total amount.”8 According to this study 4 % of funding goes to the religious educational activities (Lomtatidze 2014).

3.

Developments in the country’s education policies

The Georgian educational system The main components of the education system in Georgia are: general education; vocational education and higher academic education. The education is regulated by respective laws and legal acts. The system underwent certain changes especially after 2003 Rose Revolution. In 2005, Georgia introduced a new Law on General Education that supported reforms of schools.9 Reforms covered various areas including the management of the schools, making them more decentralized, the second big change has been renewing content and teaching methods and the third introducing quality assurance systems. The main approach to education reform was to create an outcome-based system with the principles of transparency, competitiveness and equality, including openness for diversity and tolerance.10 Reforms covered changes in management: boards of trustees have been established as the main strategic decision-making bodies within schools. Furthermore, to ensure the competence based teaching a quality assurance system has been introduced. The direct state funding of the schools has been replaced by per capita financing of students via a system of vouchers. Despite major changes over the past decade, education in Georgia is still facing many challenges in terms of ever-changing social, economic, demographic and technological advances. According to the different studies carried out by international and local organisations, Georgian students had a lower performance level than the international average. The more liberal initial ap8 From: The Practice of the Funding of Religious Organizations by the Central and Local Government (The review of the condition of 2013 and the beginning of 2014 years and the review of the policy change after transition of the government see Lomtatidze et alia 2014. 9 Education reform is analyzed by several scholars (Janashia 2016, Gorgodze 2016, Chakhaia et al. 2014). 10 One of the developments has been introduction of outcome based approach and linking the outcomes to levels of education. For this purpose National Qualifications Framework for general education, higher education and vocational education (2010) has been introduced. Each subframework describes levels of qualifications based on learning outcomes.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

105

proach has been undermined by different regulations hindering a more needs based and tailored approach in the management of problems and restricting their operational freedom. In Georgia there are state funded and private schools. The total number of schools for general education is 2085, out of which 223 are private schools including Church sponsored schools. The total number of students according to the statistics office is 575.200.11 Compulsory education in all public or private schools in Georgia is regulated by the respective law on General Education and sublegal acts, such as the National Goals for General Education and National Curriculum, offering standards and indicators, as well as the National Qualifications Framework for General Education. The Qualifications Framework systematizes qualifications of general education in terms of skills, abilities and values.

Religious education and Legal Framework a.

Law on General Education

The RE in schools for general education is governed by several legal acts. Apart of the Law on General Education, two other important acts are 1. The Goals of General Education 2. National Curriculum. Several other documents such as code of ethics for students (Ministerial Decree of 30th of August 2010 No 79/n) or code of professional ethics for teachers (Ministerial Decree of 14tth of July 2010 No 57/n) derive from the above mentioned legal acts. The main document regulating teaching of religion in public schools is the Law on general Education. According to the Law on general Education in Georgia the State shall ensure the independence of public schools from religious associations (Article 3), establish the principle of neutrality and non-discrimination and prohibit the use of religious indoctrination, proselytism or compulsory assimilation of public education in public school (art. 13); It also prohibits the presence of religious symbols in public school for non-academic purposes and guarantees the freedom and belief of students, parents and teachers (Article 18). In accordance with Article 18 of the law, the student, parent, and teacher are entitled to freedom of faiths, religion and conscience by the rule established by law, the right to choose and change beliefs voluntarily. It is unacceptable to oblige student, parent or teacher to fulfil duties that are fundamentally contrary to their beliefs, confessions, or conscience if it does not infringe on the rights of others or

11 http://www.geostat.ge/?action=page& p_id=2098& lang=geo (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

106

Ketevan Gurchiani

prevents the achievement of learning outcomes envisaged by the National Curriculum. The law does not prohibit the celebration of holidays and historical dates, nor organizing events aimed at establishing national and universal values. As a matter of fact, out of the 17 official holidays defined in the Labor Code (Article 20), 8 are religious celebrations and all of them are arranged according to the Orthodox Christian Calendar (analysis of calendar see Khatiashvili, Nashville 2017). The announcement of religious holidays has also been agreed upon by the GOC and the state in the Constitutional Agreement. Students have the right to study religion or conduct religious rituals in their free time (lesson-free time) if it serves their education. In cases of violation of the rules established by the Georgian legislation in the general education sphere, the affected person can apply to the self-government of the general education institution to initiate disciplinary proceedings against a particular teacher. In case of inactivity of the disciplinary committee, the interested person can apply to the internal audit of the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia in written form. In order to appeal the decisions, the appellate committee’s presence shall be envisaged by the school charter. In case of absence of the Appeals Committee, an interested person can appeal the decision of the Disciplinary Committee (which he or she considers illegal) to the court.12 b.

The “National Goals of General Education”

The National Goals of General Education is a document that establishes a unified state policy in the field of education and science, upon the recommendation of the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia and has been approved in 2004. The Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia elaborates the legal and sublegal acts in the field of general education in accordance with the “National Goals of General Education”.13 The national curriculum is based on the national goals of general education. This overarching document came with the changes after 2003 Rose Revolution and was part of the modernization project of Georgia. It was intended to create a “homo Europaeus” from “homo Sovieticus”. As such the Georgian citizens had to become more open and tolerant. The document of goals stresses the importance of being tolerant in a diverse environment: “h) be a law abiding and tolerant citizen: In the dynamic, ethnically and culturally diverse world of today, for the purpose of 12 EMC Handbook for Religious Rights (2014). 13 National Goals of General Education was approved with the resolution of government of Georgia ( #84/10/2004).

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

107

functioning of the society, special importance shall be attached to the skills as mutual respect, understanding and cognition. School shall provide an adolescent with the ability to protect human rights and respect for the person that will be used in preserving his/her own and others’ identity. An adolescent shall be able to realize the theoretical knowledge of fundamental rights and to live on the basis of these principles” (Subparagraph “T” of Georgian Government’s Resolution No 84, October 18, 2004 about approval of “the National Goals of the General Education”).

As this document establishes the principles of general education, it is important for the understanding of the stance of the Georgian state towards teaching religion in public schools. The document reiterates the importance of equal rights of students despite their “social, racial, ethnical, religious or political loyalties, physical abilities or other properties” and sees this as one of the main functions of the National Curriculum.

c.

The National Curriculum

The main task of the National Curriculum is to create an educational environment and to mobilize the resources necessary for the achievement of the objectives as outlined in the National Goals of the General Education. It is a rather general document listing envisaged learning outcomes for each level and each subject. Each subject program contains a general description, subject standards and content. The general part of the program determines the objectives of teaching the subject in rather general terms referring to the Goals for General Education. The subject standard determines specific subject competences that the students should master. The specifics of the content changes in different versions in terms of allowing freedom to choose the specific material or to offer compulsory and elective subjects. Textbooks for the compulsory subjects need to be approved by the Ministry. Choice of auxiliary material or textbooks for elective subjects is up to the schools. The ministry developed standards for 27 electives. None of it is RE.14 Since 2004 there have been three successive generations of the National Curricula: the first was adopted in 2004–2005, the amendments followed in 2009–2010, and the third version was approved for 2011–2016 years and is still valid today. Starting in the fall of 2018 a new National Curriculum will be approved. The National Curriculum does not consider teaching religion an obligatory subject, though the schools can offer religion on facultative basis (as an elective) 14 Interview with Mariam Chikobava, Batumelebi, 26. 01. 2018: Who will choose the 28th elective?

108

Ketevan Gurchiani

Subject Programs

General Descrip!on

Objec!ves of Subject teaching, methods of teaching and assessment for each level/class

Subject Standards

Subject specific competences - outcomes and indicators

Content

Liste of Readings compulsory and elec!ves

Figure 4: The National Curriculum

along other subjects if students show interest (Article 12). As there is no specific subject in the National Curriculum for RE, the description of other subjects related to RE, as well overarching statements should be analysed. The National Curriculum offers an integrated approach, when RE is not a separate subject but is taught as part of other subjects. Moreover, the overarching statements create the framework in which the RE should be understood. All versions of the National Curriculum stress the importance of raising tolerant citizens apt to live in a diverse world: “A student should be given information about Georgia’s and the world’s political, social, cultural, religious and ethnic diversity. Based on this information a student should be able to analyse significant historical and geographical events from the past and the present and similarity-differences of different eras and the development of society”.15 (EMC Translation is used)

The current version of the National Curriculum states: “…in order to integrate into civil life, it is necessary to develop such skills and values as constructive cooperation, problem solving, critical and creative thinking, decision-making, tolerance, respect of the rights of others, recognition of democratic principles etc”16. All other sublegal acts such as “The Code of ethics for teachers”, “Code of ethics for school directors” imply the freedom of faith and religion as governing principles. 15 Decree No 841 of the Georgian Minister for Education and Science, 28 September, 2006 about „the approval of the National Curriculum”. 16 Decree No 36/N of Georgian Minister of Education and Science, 11 March, 2011 about „the approval of the National Curriculum”, Article 48, Part 3, sub-paragraph „I”.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

4.

109

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

Out of 223 private schools for general education approximately 40 are religious schools, all of them affiliated with the GOC. The educational centre of the Patriarchate of the GOC oversees the religious education in these schools. In recent years an increase in the amount of money transferred from the government to the religiously sponsored schools is noticeable compared to previous years. For example, in 2012, the Orthodox Church received 969,000 from the Government Reserve Fund, 270,000 GEL in 2013, 1,542,000 GEL in 2014, and 1,590,000 in 2015. In 2014–2015, the Orthodox Church received 3,132,000 GEL Reserve Fund of Georgia, which was used solely for religious educational institutions. Some studies point to the institutional empowerment of religious educational institutions and see it as violation of the principle of the secular state. Some private schools are under the patronage of the patriarchate of the GOC. Schools sponsored by the Patriarchate shape their curriculum in consultation with the educational centre of the patriarchate. There are approximately 45 such schools in Georgia, many of them in Tbilisi or in regions with a predominantly Muslim or Armenian Christian student body.17 Several other schools position themselves as religious schools without formal affiliation to the Patriarchate. In that case they choose the form and the content of their RE. E. g. a private school in Kiketi states: “The existence of RE in the school serves the spiritual, intellectual, creative, healthy development and perfection of students. The main purpose of the spiritual (religious) block is to inform the student about Orthodoxy as well as to plant faith in the student and raise the love of God and neighbour. The school teaches the Divine Law, the history of religion, the Georgian polyphonic chant. Under the guidance of the teacher, the pupil is involved in the liturgical process, which implies: the help of the pastor during the service, the baking of the bread for the sacrament, the preparation of the church candle, the passing of the sacrament”.18 Other religious entities take care of RE rather informally. They operate Sunday Schools, praying houses to carry out RE. Some religious communities hire teachers and send them to the regions where historically either Catholic, Lutheran or Muslim communities are settled.

17 Cultural Educational Entities of The Patriarchate, available at: http://patriarchate.ge/geo/ samsaxurebi/kulturul-saganmanatleblo-dawesebulebani/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 18 The school website: http://www.kiketischool.ge/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

110

5.

Ketevan Gurchiani

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The general education of Georgia as well the attitudes regarding religion are very much shaped by the memory of its militantly atheist past. The militant atheism of Soviet times is stigmatized and seen as a trauma. The Soviet history of Georgia starts with the invasion of the Bolshevik army in independent Georgian in February 1921. On April 15, 1921, the Georgian Revolution Committee passed Decree # 21 on “Distancing the School from the Church and the Church from the State.” The resolution stated that the school system should be separated from the Church, and the teachings of the Divine Laws were prohibited in secular schools. At this time 1450 churches, 25 monasteries operated in Georgia, and the number of clergy amounted to 1600 (Journal “Against Religion”, “religiis cinaaghmdeg” No 4. 1931. P. 5). Some topics related to religion were taught indirectly in Soviet Georgian schools like the circumstances of the Christianization of the country or the role of the Orthodox Christian Church in preserving the national identity and as such part of the glorious history, emphasizing the ancient roots of Georgian culture. Some aspects of religion have also been part of the literature lessons starting from the middle school, when the Georgian literature prior to 13th century, which consists mostly of Christian Hagiography, was taught. In 1988, an optional subject called “History of Christian Religion” was introduced in public schools in Georgia. One of the motifs was to teach about the influence of religion on art and literature. Soon this subject entered the curriculum of schools for general education as an optional subject (the course load was one academic hour per week (Tabatadze 2018; Jajanidze 2015; Papuashvili 2004). The approach to teaching this subject has changed over time. The increase of religiosity in the 90ies coincided with the transition period from the Soviet Union to an independent Georgia. As at that time most of the institutions did not function and the GOC represented a functioning institution with high symbolic power, the Georgian Patriarchate got actively involved in this process. This involvement was granted by the existing legislation. In particular, Article 18.2 of the Law on Education (passed 22 June 1997) stated: “The Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia should cooperate with the Patriarchate of Georgia in preparation of a school plan” (Papuashvili 2008). When education reform started in 2004, the everyday life of public schools, the spaces, the curricula were under strong influence of the GOC, causing concerns about human rights issues. It has been mostly problematic for schools with a diverse student body, as schools increasingly started being used as a platform for the church’s agenda. The changes in the Law of 2005 should be seen against the background of everincreasing influence of the GOC and fears and reported facts of human rights abuse.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

111

The National Curriculum does not envisage teaching religion as a separate subject as part of the system of compulsory education. Still there is compulsory content in different subjects. As mentioned above, the National Curriculum envisions integrated approach of RE. In this approach religion is taught as part of history, arts, literature and Civic Education, as well as in subjects called “Our Georgia” or “Society and Me”. The National Curriculum states: “Teaching History, Geography and Civic Education should help a student realize the diversity of an individual’s experience, the importance of one’s country’s achievements when acquiring humanity.” These subjects help develop competences laid out in the missive called Culture and Religion as part of the Social Studies. The objectives of teaching Culture and Religion are: “to illustrate the diversity of man-made cultural heritage on the earth to a student and help him/her to classify it, help a student identify the essence and importance of religion and diversity of the world’s religious systems” (National Curriculum Georgia).19 The national curriculum sees as its goal the development of competences for better understanding of culture and religion. It involves showing students the diversity of cultures and among other things to help determine the meaning and importance of religion, to represent the diversity of existing religious systems in the world.

6.

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

Despite the fact that RE is not part of the compulsory education in Georgia, nor listed among the separate elective courses, many schools, especially private schools, offer free electives related to religion in general, Christianity more narrowly and even more specifically to Orthodox Christianity.20 There is an important difference between compulsory and elective subjects: The textbooks for all compulsory subjects are approved by the Ministry. The textbooks for electives are not the responsibility of the state, nor is the training of the teachers. The following subjects are typical electives in schools related to RE: Religion, Religion and Culture, Religion and History or History of Religions, Folklore and Mythology and World Cultures are among the most popular subjects chosen as electives and dealing with religion from a broad perspective as seen in 2018. Electives more specifically connected to the Christianity include: The New Testament, The History of the Apostolic Church, The teachings of the Apostles, The Divine Law, The Holy Book of the Old Testament. Another group of subjects 19 This chapter relies on the version of the National Curriculum 2011–2016. 20 There is on one hand an approved list of the electives, on the other hand there is also a free choice of subjects as electives.

112

Ketevan Gurchiani

deals with Georgian Orthodox Christian History or specifics of the liturgy and chant: The History of Georgian Church, the Old Georgian alphabet, Paraklesis – the service of supplication for the wellbeing, Catechism, Psalm-Reader Education. The schools also list meetings with spiritual fathers as part of their elective subjects. In all private schools these are exclusively members of GOC. Other electives also include teaching religion as part of area studies e. g. American Studies, Armenian History, or of broader electives such as World Culture, State and Law, Cultural Monuments, Ethnography of Georgia. A group of electives are shaped to foster tolerance such as the Tolerance Program or State and Citizenship and State and Law.

7.

Observations on alternative subjects: integrated approach

Most RE happens in the integrated way as part of other subjects, mostly of Social Studies. As the National Curriculum emphasizes in the standard of the Social Studies curriculum, the objectives of teaching are to instil the ideas of diversity and tolerance in the students. Students should be aware “of the ethnic, cultural and religious diversity of Georgia and show a positive attitude.”21 RE is mostly part of history, Our Georgia, arts and civic education. The subjects in the following classes which include RE are compulsory : Our Georgia 5–6

History 7–9, 11–12

Civic Education 7–8

Table 2: The National Curriculum

The National Curriculum for History starting from 5–6th grades to 12th grade lists the outcomes of each grade in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities and respective indicators regarding religions. One of the aims of teaching religion as part of history class is to let students ‘discover that they can learn and understand the past from different perspectives … to appreciate an event in history not only by looking through the contemporary lens, but also by taking into account the values and views of the epoch in question’ (National Educational Standard in the History of Georgia 2011). The more specific outcomes relating to RE in history are listed in increasing complexity starting from knowing differences between religions proceeding to being able to analyse the importance of religions for societies and in the historical perspective. The students of high schools should be able to classify religions and be able to analyse main differences, as well the meaning and significance of influences. 21 National Curriculum 2011–2016.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

113

The teaching of Arts is supposed to give insight into religious diversity as expressed in the arts. In the National Curriculum the section for Arts defines one of the teaching objectives as follows: “the student can link the samples of different fields of fine and applied arts with historical, religious and social context”. They should be able to analyse how religious beliefs shape the form and meaning of cultural monuments and traditions. The subject “Me and the Society” also implies the opening of pupils to other religions: In recent years a new subject Civic Education in Georgia has been introduced to increase the knowledge of human rights, citizenship, world religions and cultural differences as outlined in the Goals of general Education and National Curriculum. Integrated teaching as learning approach has been one of the most important markers of the first version of the National Curriculum (For more information see Tabatadze 2018). The first version of the National Curriculum introduced changes that mostly affected the teaching of religion as part of history class. It not only opposed the increasing proselytism, but also tried to counter the progressively narrowing scope of teaching history. The changes introduced teaching of history with geography thus enabling a broader spatial understanding of events in time as well. The problem connected with these changes had been the lack of expertise of teachers to teach history from the perspective of Social Studies. Furthermore, the merging of history with geography has been understood as the abolition of teaching of national history, as an attack on identity. Teachers were not ready and were not willing to teach history from different perspectives, including teaching about different religions. Prior to that the teaching of the Christianization of Georgia had been one of the most important of their duties. The changes imply teaching a broader spectrum of religions. Kitaevich (2014) analyses changes in the state of the art of teaching history based on analysis of textbooks and interviews with different generations of teachers: “The tone in the textbook narrative was revised to sound more neutral and to downplay the ethnic discourse in order to ‘foster comprehensive understanding of the past and of tolerance to the others’. …The most dramatic break from the previous curriculum was a shift from favouring national history over world history to centralizing the importance of the international context by integrating Georgian and world histories into one narrative.” (Kitaevich 2014, 325).

Textbooks and religious, ethnic and cultural diversity Textbooks underwent many changes at the beginning of educational reform. The main idea of the changes has been to make them more inclusive and more suitable for the goals of National Education, aiming to raise a more tolerant new

114

Ketevan Gurchiani

generation. It was also in line with more open idea of citizenship, which tried to embrace all ethnic and religious minorities living in Georgia (George 2009, Wheatley 2009). The changes in curriculum had their impact on the textbooks as well. The history textbooks, which were previously more concentrated on Georgian Christian history, have been transformed to include a broader context and also to portray encounters with different cultures in a more neutral manner. Another change has been a change in the teaching of old Georgian literature, which has been chronologically aligned. The students in middle school would start from a 5th century hagiographical martyrdom. The new curriculum abandoned the chronological principle of teaching and introduced pieces of literature more tailored for different age groups. The initial changes of textbooks starting from 2004 caused some dissatisfaction among several historians, clergy, and partly of the teachers, who perceived the more neutral tone and the merging of history and geography as attacks on national identity. The new textbooks at that time showed considerable openness towards differences and included more information about some historical events, positively picturing the ethnic minorities of Georgia as Georgian citizens. Still several studies conducted on textbooks used for History, Literature and Arts as the main sources for indirect religious education find an uneven picture in matters of religious and intercultural sensitivity : Some textbooks are more open, while others keep to a narrower nationalistic perspective.22 Orthodox Christianity as a proxy for ethnicity is still an idea that is enforced in many textbooks for history and literature as well. Textbooks often refer to the Orthodox Church as the Georgian Church. Studies show that books mostly contain the dichotomy the “Christian orthodox” versus “Muslim world,” depicting Islam as a hostile religion, a cultural other. Entire ethnicities and their religions are assigned a role of the hostile other not the respective states like e. g. the Turks are enemies not the Ottoman Empire. The idea of certain ethnicities being tied to a religion and being traditionally hostile is reinforced by such textbooks, find the authors of the TDI study (Mindiashvili, Gakheladze, Taboridze 2016). In some cases, violence against other religions is justified: the persecution of people with different beliefs. NGO’s working in the field issued recommendations to involve in approving history textbooks members of different religious communities represented in the council of religions and on ethnicities in the office of the Ombudsman. Analysis of the books shows good examples of how they depict and promote religious diversity. Topics covering the capital city Tbilisi offer special insight into religious diversity, as this city is historically proud of its religious diversity and the presence of many religious 22 Transparency and Democracy Institute carried out a rather detailed analysis of the textbooks (Mindiashvili, Gakheladze, Taboridze 2016).

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

115

places in close proximity. Other examples of explaining peaceful religious coexistence is Istanbul with its diversity. Some studies carried out in recent years analysed the practice of teaching in classrooms in Georgian schools using Banks’s scheme of integration of the cultural content into curriculum (Banks 2010). Most notable are Tabatadze (2015) and Maghlakelidze, Malazonia, Chiabrishvili (published online). The studies show the improvements to some extent in teaching a broader picture, but still report resistance of teachers to the development of intercultural sensitivity. While the appreciation for other cultures and for the role of other religions in the history of Georgia has increased, the agenda of remaining guardians of ethnicity and by extension of Orthodoxy is still strong. Kitaevich (2014) also showed differences along generational lines among teachers, with younger teachers being more open. The studies show a diverse approach in the textbooks, good examples of integration of religious and ethnic diversity into textbooks. The lack of supporting materials and of training enabling teachers to teach in a more balanced way leaves teaching RE in the hands of the teachers, who are very diverse.

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

The rights of religious minorities are protected in different documents such as Strategic Vision Project – the National Vision and Action Plan on Civil Integration and Tolerance adopted in 2008 (Strategic Vision Project 2008). The National Goals of General Education state that some of the other goals of education “in Georgia are to educate a tolerant citizen who knows how to effectively communicate with diverse individuals and groups”. The development of this competence should be part of teaching Culture and religion in Social studies. Some schools offer tolerance lessons as electives. In Georgia, there are public primary and secondary schools for minorities, where the Georgian language is taught as the official language. The state is responsible for the publication of textbooks for minorities and to ensure their rights. As Kitajevich states, the changes in general education, primarily in teaching history and consequently also of religion as its part, intended “to reflect the ‘multi-ethnic character of the Georgian nation’ – a buzzword that came to define much of the policy-making during Saakashvili’s term – and strengthen the civil consciousness by developing critical thinking skills” (Kitaevich 2014, 324). Different documents and initiatives support better integration of minorities, still the problem of unequal treatment prevails. Religious education of different religious entities is quite stigmatized and seen as a threat to either national identity or the security of the state.

116

9.

Ketevan Gurchiani

Religion in schools outside of RE

Many schools often choose the symbolic power of GOC for self-representation in the media and in the public space. Directors’ religiosity is the main attribute of their public image. Schools invite priests to bless the buildings or as honorary guests to give talks. School excursions resemble pilgrimages organized in collaboration with local churches. The schools space is another site for demonstrating the difficulty of implementation of the Law on General education restricting display of the religious symbolic in the space for devotional purposes. As the formulation in the Law is rather soft, it allows some manoeuvring, which is creatively used by most of the schools. The icon corners, shrines with orthodox Christian icons and paraphernalia are part of the school space. There are different ways in which schools deal with the legal restrictions. The most common solution is to place the icons or practice some religious rituals like praying mostly outside the classrooms in more neutral places in the school to formally follow the Law. For this purpose, the corridors and entrances are used as showcases for the display of the dominant religious identity. Another widespread practice is to display Churches, Saints and religious paraphernalia in the rooms where History, Georgian Literature or Arts are taught. As the Law allows using religious symbols for didactical purposes, the displays serve two aims: they are there as auxiliary material connected to the subject. At the same time, they invoke the past as an axis around which identity is built. Furthermore, the displays in the classrooms for Georgian Language and Literature are also twofold in meaning, as some of the displayed authors, scholars, and kings have been beatified in different periods of time. Another way to display the dominant religion as the main marker of identity is to emphasize the Christian nature in state symbols, like in the Saint George, which is part of the coat of arms. The display of Saint George is not surprising, as it is part of state symbolism. It is more striking in the case of Georgian Alphabet, which also receives a Christian connotation as displayed in the schools. The Alphabet is displayed as something sacred. The sacred role of the language is emphasized by citing the words of 10th century Christian monk /hymnographer Ioane-Zosime or John Zosimos, who wrote hymns dedicated to the Georgian language. In his work the language is imbued with religious meanings. He further asserts that this will be the language used for the judgement on the Last Judgement. This is mostly the quote used as a decoration in the school buildings be it the literature classrooms or the corridors of the schools. An alternative way to display the religious symbolism is to use them in the arts and history classrooms as examples of religious architecture. Almost exclusively the only examples of architecture displayed are old Georgian Christian Church buildings or medieval fortresses famous for being used against Muslim inva-

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

117

sions. In a spatio-temporality laden with meanings, they also serve the goal of invoking the past in the present. The space of the schools gives also insight into the everyday learning priorities of students. Many schools exhibit Church dioramas, projects about old Georgian writers, about historical battles against Muslim invasions as student-projects defining the space. The decoration of the school space with the Orthodox Christian icons heightens the symbolic value of the school. More about the rather complex representation of Christianity in schools as a creative third space can be found elsewhere (Gurchiani 2017). The paper argues that schools use Christian representation for their own ends and create a hybrid space marked by inbetweenness, where secular merges with religious, modern with traditional and global with local.

10.

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

As there is no separate RE as compulsory subject in Georgia, the training of history teachers is relevant for RE. The training of teachers is an ongoing topic of debate and different ways forward are offered on the state level. The training of teachers who are in charge of electives is mostly in the hands of the GOC. The patriarchate also operates several theological seminaries, professional education institutions and Universities for educating priests and Church personnel. Other denominations such as the Catholic Church or the Lutheran Church in Georgia have their own Sunday Schools, where the Bible is taught. For the education of their teachers they mostly rely on foreign help with exception of the Catholic Church, which has a University in Georgia (Sulkhan Saba Orbeliani University). The Muslim community also takes care of the education of students rather informally. They organize praying schools. In some cases, they also train teachers with the help of neighbouring Muslim countries and send them to villages to involve more children in religious education. Especially the rural population see themselves confronted with strong religious influences coming either from the Georgian Orthodox Church or other religious communities. As rural Georgia particularly suffers from the lack of opportunities for the youth and from the lack of public spaces, the involvement in religious communities is often the only choice left.

118

11.

Ketevan Gurchiani

Empirical research concerning RE

The majority of the studies on RE in Georgia is conducted by NGO’s mostly dealing with human rights issues or minority issues specifically. Three organizations active in this field should be mentioned. The one is the Tolerance and Diversity Institute (TDI), founded in 2013. This NGO focuses on fostering religious freedom and tolerance in Georgia and advances the idea of a secular state. The studies, monitoring reports and policy initiatives of TDI, aim at strengthening capacities of religious minorities, fighting against discrimination and human rights abuse. TDI carried out several important studies relevant for RE in schools, the most relevant for RE being Religious and Ethnic Diversity in School Textbooks of Georgian Literature, History and Civic Education (9th -12th Grades) (Mindiashvili, Gakheladze, Taboridze (2016). Other studies also related to RE include Combating Religious, Ethnic and Racial Discrimination in Georgia, The Assessment of the Needs of Religious Minorities in Georgia, Study of Constitutional Secularism and Religious Discrimination in Georgia , Study of Religion in Textbooks and The Practice of the Funding of the Religious Organizations by the Central and Local government (Chitanava, Chabukiani 2014), a joint project with another established NGO dealing with RE in schools among others, namely the Human Rights Education and Monitoring Center (EMC). EMC focuses on human rights issues and strives to create a free, equal society based on solidarity. One of the goals of the research they carry out is to reveal the structural causes of social and political inequality, oppression. For this reason, the organization conducts critical analysis of existing policies by using human rights instruments and activist fighting methods. One of the main studies available on religion in public schools has been carried out by two scholars associated with the NGO: L. Ghvinianidze and M. Barkaia (2014). The study is available in English too and offers a detailed and comprehensive analysis of the situation: Religion in Public Schools (Ghvinianidze, Barkaia 2014). Another study Critique of Freedom of Religion. Discriminatory and Nonsecular State Policy conducted by T. Mikeladze, M. Begadze and E. Gvritishvili critically analyzes the Freedom of Religion and the current situation in Georgia in 2014–2016 (Mikeladze 2016). Another established organization actively offering expert advice and doing research in the field o2f education in general is the Centre for Civil Integration and Inter Ethnic Relations. The study authored by Tabatadze, Gorgadze, Gabunia, Khomeriki, and Tinikashviili (2013) on Intercultural Education Research in Primary Grades of Georgia gives insight into the practice and attitudes towards teaching religion as part of the history and part of different cultures.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

119

Some of the studies deal with the history of RE in public schools in Georgia starting from the end of 80-ies such as Papuashvili (2004), Via dolorosa of Religious Studies in Georgia and Papuashvili (2008) on State of freedom of religion in Georgia since the adoption of Constitutional Agreement between the Government and the Orthodox Church of Georgia. Kitaevich based her study on empirical research conducted among different generations of history teachers (Kitaevich 2014). Jajanidze (2015) in her article Teaching Religion in Public Schools of Georgia sums up empirical findings and compares the state of art of RE with European experience. Other studies explore the everyday life of schools and displays of religiosity there from an anthropological perspective (Darchiashvili 2018; Gurchiani 2017).

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Teaching religion in schools has been a highly debated topic since introducing restrictions in 2005. The debates are ignited anew when violence happens in schools as was the case at the end of 2017. The Patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church Ilia II in his preaching mentioned that it was not enough to pass on knowledge in schools. According to him the spiritual education of students is of special importance and appealed to the government to give more thought to teaching history of religion and spiritual matters in schools. Following this statement, the prime minister of Georgia Giorgi Kvirikashvili announced it will become a priority of general education to approximate the educational system with the Christian Orthodox Church. The statements of the Patriarch as well of the Prime Minister ignited the debates again. The government responded with an initiative to introduce standard and auxiliary materials for teaching religion as elective. Until now it is in the hands of particular schools and teachers and is not listed as a separate subject in the official list of electives. The Georgian Minister for Education and Sciences, Michael Tchkhenkeli announced: “History of religion as an elective should be part of every school’s curriculum and we are preparing for it.” Experts in education voice rather pessimistic views, declaring the introduction of religion in every school as not feasible because of lack of human resources: the schools are not ready for confessional or non-confessional education right now.23 The existing practice shows that lessons of religion are mostly used for proselytism, for psychological influence to convert students to Orthodox Christianity. The representatives of the Ministry, in charge of curriculum voice their fears of repeating the mistakes of 90-ies when lessons in 23 Reportage about teaching religion in schools. Available at: https://1tv.ge/video/religiebisswavleba-skolebshi/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

120

Ketevan Gurchiani

religion were used for indoctrination and proselytism. In an interview Mariam Chikobava stresses that the position of the Ministry and of all religious communities in Georgia clearly is to maintain teaching of religions and not of one religion, as RE is only for educational purposes (Interview with Mariam Chikobava from the Ministry of Education and Sciences Georgia).24 Debated of RE is accompanied with concerns of human rights abuse on the one hand, and with losing the identity on the other hand. Education specialists, Shalva Tabatadze and Simon Janashia think that the integrated approach is the best choice for Georgia, when RE is part of the history lessons25. The introduction of mandatory electives in schools would require training of certified teachers. There is lack of funding and of required mindset for it now. A study conducted in 2009 by M. Elbakidze shows differences in opinions regarding RE. The main proponents of RE in schools are voicing their opinion in support of teaching Orthodox Christianity as a pillar of national identity. Some of the teachers, who support RE in schools believe that only Orthodox Christianity should be taught. The history of other religions should only be offered as background, the emphasis should be on Orthodoxy. Some of them note that religion should be included in the category of compulsory subjects. This attitude is especially problematic for regions where Georgian Muslims are settled. The teachers see it their duty to convert Muslim Georgians to Christianity. Others express the opinion that schools only should deal with religion from a historical or theological point of view, explain the main dogmas, but not give the space for practicing religion. Some of the teachers note that this kind of general education would help minorities to integrate. Right now, the main challenge facing Georgian educational system regarding RE can be summarized as follows: The high religiosity of the population creates tensions between official state policies and the perceived importance of religion in everyday life. This conflict is visible in the secularizing Law on general education and weak implementation of this Law in real life. Many schools try to avoid imposed law with different means. The state cannot afford the consequent implementation of the Law prohibiting display of religiosity in the spaces and active proselytism. Georgian state chooses to create a balance to the high religiosity of the majority of the population and allow religious minorities a neutral educational space in forms of schools. Still its attitude has been passive. Experts express opinion that better training of teachers, support in developing better textbooks and auxiliary material for improving the integrated teaching of religion across denominations would be a better choice for the future. It could also 24 Interview with Mariam Chikobava (Chikobava 2018). 25 Interviews and opinion pieces in media: Janashia on Religion in public schools (Janashia 2018).

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

121

help to recognize that though the RE is not listed among recommended electives, many schools choose religion as an elective and shape it according to their ideas. In this case some approved textbooks on the history of religions could help in the long-term perspective.26

13.

Further information

In order to understand the issues related to RE and the emphasis on human rights issues and tolerance, one should be aware of the diversity in South Caucasus and in Georgia in particular. The website of European Center for Minority Issues Caucasus as well the Centre for the Studies of Ethnicity and Multiculturalism give detailed analysis and broader picture, including interactive maps and current affairs regarding minority issues in general and on religion in Georgia in particular.27 Reports of different international organizations are also of significance as they give a more distanced view but also as they influence the policies. For example, reports on human rights abuse preceded the introduction of the Law on general education restricting the RE in Georgian schools such as International Religious Freedom Report for 2004 (International Religious Freedom Report, Georgia 2004). The latest International Religious Freedom Report for 2017 of the United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor also emphasizes some shortcomings (International Religious Freedom Report, Georgia 2017). Avery valuable source for current affairs are reports of Ombudsman of Georgia.28 The analyses are also enriched by recommendations and activity reports, all of which is available at the website of public defender (Ombudsmen Reports).There is a council of Religions at Public Defender’s Office, which operates for many years now and is one of the most influential voices for different religious entities. Their website Aims of the website – www.tolerantoba.ge – as they state, provides “information, cognitive-educational and legal support and promotes activities of the agencies under the Public Defender’s Office, namely, Tolerance Centre, Council of Minorities and Council of Religions”. Another valuable source of information is the State Agency for Religious Issues and the website. The agency represents the state.29 26 Discussions in media on RE in printed and online media are very common: interviews with Chikobava, Mariam (2018), Janashia, Simon (2018), Gorgodze, Salome (2018). 27 http://www.ecmicaucasus.org/menu/news_current.html and http://csem.ge/our-mission (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). 28 The latest is available at: http://www.ombudsman.ge/uploads/other/5/5139.pdf. 29 http://religion.geo.gov.ge/eng//religiis-sakitxta-saxelmwifo-saagento-religiis in English.

122

Ketevan Gurchiani

References Agadjanian, A., Jödicke, A. and van der Zweerde, E. 2014. Religion, nation and democracy in the South Caucasus. Vol. 59. Routledge. Banks, J. A. 2010. An introduction to Multicultural Education, 5th ed., Pearson Perspectives, 7th Ed., Wiley. Caucasus Barometer Surveys, available at: http://caucasusbarometer.org/en/cb-ge/REL GION/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Census Data 2014. General Population Census Main Results published by NATIONAL STATISTICS OFFICE OF GEORGIA (GEOSTAT), Main Results, General Information http://census.ge/en/home. http://geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/ Census_release_ENG_2016.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Centre for the studies of ethnicity and multiculturalism October, 2016, Ethnic Composition of Georgia 1926–2014, available at: http://csem.ge/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Info graphics-Ethnic-Composition-of-Georgia-1926-2014.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Chakhaia, L., Andguladze, N. Janelidze, A. and Pruidze, N. “Identities, cultural capital, educational choices and post-communist transition: an ethnographic study of Georgian youth.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 14, no. 2 (2014): 301–318. Charles, R. 2010. “Religiosity and trust in religious institutions: Tales from the South Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia).” Politics and Religion 3, no. 2: 228–261. Chikobava, M. 2018 Interview with Chikobava by Lela Dumbadze, in Newspaper Batumelebi, 26. 01. 2018: Who will choose the 28th elective? available at: http://batumelebi. netgazeti.ge/news/112838/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Chitanava, E. and Chabukiani, N. 2014. Assessment of the Needs of Religious Organizations in Georgia 2014, available in English at: http://www.una.ge/uploads/pub lications/19/needs_assessment_TDI.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Darchiashvili, M. 2018. “Seasonal migration and symbolic power : the case of Muslim Meskhetians from Nasakirali.” Nationalities Papers: 1–16. Elbakidze, M. 2009. Assessment of Education Reform. Tbilisi: Caucasus Institute for Peace, Democracy and development. EMC Handbook for Religious Rights 2014. https://emc.org.ge/ka/products/praktikuli-sa khelmdzghvanelo-sakartveloshi-religiis-tavisuflebit-sargeblobistvis (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Freedom House index country report 2018: Georgia, available at: https://freedomhouse. org/report/freedom-world/2018/Georgia (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). George, Julie A. “The dangers of reform: state building and national minorities in Georgia.” Central Asian Survey 28, no. 2 (2009): 135–154. Ghvinianidze, L. and Barkaia, M. “Religion in public schools.” Tbilisi: Human Rights Education and Monitoring Center (2014), available in English at: https://emc.org.ge/ uploads/products/pdf/Religion_In_Public_Schools.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Gorgodze, S. 2016 “Rise and Fall of Decentralized School Governance – Decision-Making Practices in Georgia.” International Education Studies 9, no. 11: 25. Gorgodze, S. 2018. Four Arguments why Schools are not ready to Teach Religion. Interview with experts and anaylsis published 25. 01. 2018, in newspaper Liberali. Available at: http://liberali.ge/articles/view/33867/ratom-ar-arian-skolebi-mzad-religiis-istoria-ast savlon-otkhi-argumenti, accessed 20. 11. 2018.

Religious Education at Schools in Georgia

123

Gurchiani, K. 2017. “Georgia in-between: religion in public schools.” Nationalities Papers 45, no. 6: 1100–1117. Halbach, U. 2016. “Religion und Nation, Kirche und Staat im Südkaukasus”, p. 35. Berlin: SWP-Studie. International Religious Freedom Report, Georgia 2004. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Available at: https://ifsh.de/file-CORE/documents/yearbook/eng lish/04/OSCEYearbook2004.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). International Religious Freedom Report, Georgia 2017. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Available at: https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/ index.htm?year=2017& dlid=280908#wrapper (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Jajanidze, E. 2015. Teaching religion in public schools of Georgia. International Journal for Multilingual Education 5 (1): 24–41. Janashia, S. 2018. Interview with Simon Janashia, by Lela Dumbadze, in Newspaper Batumelebi 22. 01. 2018 (2018) available at: http://batumelebi.netgazeti.ge/news/111576/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Janashia, S.2016. “The introduction of per-capita education financing in former USSR countries.” PhD diss., Teachers College, Columbia University. Jawad, P. and Reisner, O. 2013. “Die Nationalisierung der Religion in der Orthodoxen Apostolischen Kirche Georgiens – Begünstigung oder Hindernis im Demokratisierungsprozess?” In Religiöse Akteure in Demokratisierungsprozessen, 149–190, Wiesbaden: Springer VS. Jibladze, K. 2004. “Defending the Faith? Religion and Politics in Georgia.” Central AsiaCaucasus Analyst 5: 23. Jödicke, A. 2013 Religious Education in State Schools in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Democratic Politics of Religion and the Plurality of Religious Representations. The Caucasus & Globalization 7, no. 1–2. Khatiashvili, Giorgi. 2017. Public Holidays in Europe and Georgia. Institute for Development of Freedom of Information., available at: https://idfi.ge/en/holidays_in_eu rope_and_georgia (last accessed: 23. 12. 2019). Kitaevich, E. J. 2014. “History that splinters: education reforms and memory politics in the Republic of Georgia.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 14, no. 2: 319–338. Lobzhanidze, S. 2007. “Religious Education in Georgia.”: 75–80. Lomtatidze, E., Tsiklauri, M. and Mindiashvili, B. 2014. STUDY OF RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION AND CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM IN GEORGIA TDI, available at: http://www.tdi.omedialab.com/sites/default/files/study_of_religious_discrimination_ and_constitutional_secularism_tdi.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Malazonia, D., Maglakelidze, S. and Chiabrishvili, N. 2015. “Aspects of Intercultural Education at the Primary Level of Georgian General Education School.” Online Submission. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED555291.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Mikeladze, T., Begadze, M., Gvritishvili, E., Chutlashvili, K., Sukhishvili, N. and Sartania, K. 2016. Freedom of Religion Critique of Discriminatory and Nonsecular State Policy. Tbilisi, EMC; available at https://emc.org.ge/uploads/products/pdf/Freedom-of-Reli gion.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Mindiashvili, B., Gakheladze, G., Taboridze, I. 2016. Religious and Ethnic Diversity in School Textbooks of Georgian Literature, History and Civic Education (9th–12th Grades).

124

Ketevan Gurchiani

Transparency and Democracy Institute, available at: http://www.tdi.ge/sites/default/files/ analysis_of_textbooks_tdi_eng.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). National Curriculum 2011–2016, available at: http://ncp.ge/ge/curriculum/satesto-seqt sia/mimdinare-esg-2011-2016 and http://ncp.ge/ge/sazogadoebrivi-metsnierebebi/sa zogadoebrivi-metsnierebebis-stsavlebis-miznebi-da-amotsanebi (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Ombudsman Reports. Available at: http://www.ombudsman.ge/en/reports in English (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Parunashvili, S. 2013. “Religious Education in Georgia.” Ecumenical Review Sibiu/Revista Ecumenica Sibiu5, no. 2. Strategic Vision Project – the National Vision and Action Plan on Civil Integration and Tolerance (2008), available at: https://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/georgia.php?aid= 424& cid=1180& curl=833 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Strategy of the Religious Politics of Georgia. State Agency of Religious Issues, 2015. Available at: http://religion.geo.gov.ge/geo/document/saqartvelos-saxelmtsifos-religiuri-politikis (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Suny, R. G. 1994. The making of the Georgian nation. Indiana University Press. Tabatadze, S. 2014. Teachers’ approaches to multicultural education in Georgian classrooms https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/JME-07-2014-0031?fullSc=1& journal Code=jme (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Tabatadze, S. 2015.“Teachers’ approaches to multicultural education in Georgian classrooms”, Journal for Multicultural Education, Vol. 9 Issue: 4, 248–262, https://doi.org/ 10.1108/JME-07-2014-0031 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Tabatadze, S. 2017 “Minority Education in Georgia: Is It Delivering What Is Expected?”, Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education 11, no. 1 (2017): 17–30. Tabatadze, S. 2018. Religion in Public Schools. Available at: http://www.tdi.ge/ge/page/ religiis-scavleba-sajaro-skolebshi (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Tabatadze, S. and Gorgadze, N. 2013. “Intercultural Education Research in Primary Grades of Georgia.” Center for civil integration and international relations Online Submission. Wheatley, Jonathan. “Managing ethnic diversity in Georgia: one step forward, two steps back.” Central Asian Survey 28, no. 2 (2009): 119–134.

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

Introduction The Republic of Moldova is a small country in South-Eastern Europe. As a former Communist country it is still in the process of reconstructing its political and economic identity. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Republic of Moldova became an independent country with a Democratic constitution. The Republic of Moldova continuous to be a member of the Community of Independent States, although the country’s goal is to become a member of the European Union. The pro-European course is supported by the majority of the population. Moldova is a relatively homogenous country : the majority of the population is of Moldovan (Romanian) ethnicity ; the largest ethnic minorities are Ukrainians (8,4 %), Russians (5,9 %), Gagauz (4,4 %), Bulgarians (1,9 %) and other ethnicities (1.0 %). The Republic of Moldova is an industrial-agricultural country, with small and medium agricultural companies having the largest share of the economy. Lack of jobs has contributed to a massive workforce emigration. Over the past 10 years, the country lost approximately 25 % of its workforce. The Republic of Moldova is a country with a strong religious tradition: according to the most recent census data (2014), 93 % of the population sees itself as religious. The Orthodox Church is the largest confession (90 %), there are also other 20 recognized confessions. Some studies have shown a growth of religiosity in recent years. According to these studies, in 2016, 94 % of the population declared themselves as being religious, 92,5 % of which are Orthodox Christian (Voicu Ovidiu, Cash Jennifer, Cojocariu Victoria 2017, 11).

126

1.

Nicolae Fus¸tei

The socio-religious background

The Republic of Moldova is situated in the central part of Europe, in the NorthEastern Balkans, having a territory of 33843,5 sq. km. Chisinau is the capital of the country. It borders Ukraine in the North, East and South, and in the West it is separated from Romania by the river Prut. The total length of the national border is 1906 km., which includes 1222 km of border with Ukraine and 684 km of border with Romania. The Republic of Moldova is part of the Black Sea Basin Group. The country maintains tight mutually beneficial commercial connections with the countries of this group and with the Danube states. Moldova’s Southern border stretches almost to the Black Sea, the exit to which opens through the Dniester’s port and through the Danube. Moldova’s climate is continental. The average annual air temperature is 10,5 8C–12,1 8C. The average rainfall decreases in intensity from North-West to South-East from 466 mm. to 382 mm. respectively. The largest amount of precipitations falls in the Codri’s area (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova 2016, 16). The waters of Moldova are part of the Black Sea Basin. Dniester and Prut are the main rivers, both springing from the Carpathians. Republic of Moldova is divided administratively into 32 counties, 6 municipalities and 2 territorial autonomous units) (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova, 2016, 10). Being an integral part of Europe, the Republic of Moldova has a rich history. Situated in a contact zone of various cultural and historical trends – CarpathianBalkan, Central-European and Euro-Asian – the country has harmoniously combined different cultural traditions in the course of its history, such as ProtoIndo-European populations and the most archaic branches of the Indo-Europeans, including Thracians, Slavs, Celts, Goths, Huns. In time, these traditions have acquired specific and unique features. There is a large concentration of historical-archaeological monuments within the territory of the Republic of Moldova (about eight thousand), the cultural-historical value of which fits within the context of the general European values. Moldova’s territory has been populated since ancient times. Numerous archaeological artefacts confirm the fact that humans have populated these places since the Lower Palaeolithic age (circa 500 thousand years ago). Between the 5th and 4th millennium B.C. , in the Neolithic era, one of the most remarkable cultures – Cucuteni-Tripolye emerged, showing incomparable performances in the art of those times. The existence of the Geto-Dacian civilization dates back to the 4th–1st century B.C. It spread throughout all parts of Moldova. From 105 B.C. onward, following the victories of Emperor Trajan over Dacia, the population of this territory was Romanized, taking over the language and the culture of the Roman Empire from

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

127

their conquerors. After the evacuation of the Roman legions from this territory (in 271 A.D., during the reign of Emperor Aurelian), the era of the Great Migration (of the Goths, Huns, Avars, Slavs, to name a few) commenced, ending with the formation of the Moldovan feudal state in 1359, Bogdan I being considered its founder. In 1812, after the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed between the Russian and the Ottoman Empire, the Eastern part of Moldova situated between Prut and Dniester, called Bessarabia was annexed by the Russian Empire, being a Russian gubernia (province) until 1917. On December 2nd 1917 as a result of the collapse of the Russian Empire, the region’s representative body Sfatul T¸a˘rii (the Council of the Country) proclaimed the Moldovan Democratic Republic as an integral part of the future democratic Russia, and on January 24th 1918 the republic proclaimed its independence. On March 27th 1918 Sfatul T ¸a˘rii decided to proclaim the union with Romania, which lasted until 1940, when this territory was annexed by the Soviet Union as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact signed in 1939. Bessarabia, without the districts Hotin, Ismail and Cetatea Alba, and a part of the Moldovan A.S.S.R. were included into the newly established Moldovan S.S.R., on August 2nd 1940, and after that this Republic existed as a territorial unit within the U.S.S.R. until the last decade of the 20th century. After the collapse of the U.S.S.R., the Republic of Moldova proclaimed its independence on August 27th 1991. The population of the Republic of Moldova is predominantly OrthodoxChristian. After the proclamation of the independence small changes in the religious structure of the population could be observed that were a result of the changes that had occurred in the previous years. Between the two censuses, from 2004 and 2014, there was an increase of membership within the Orthodox Church of more than 3 %, from 93,4 % to 96,7 %. Also, three other religious denominations experienced an increase in membership: the Lutheran Church – from 0,04 % to 0,087 %; the Pentecostals – from 0,27 % to 0,38 %; and the Muslim community – from 0,05 % to 0,076 %. At the same time, there was a decrease of the members of the Seventh Day Adventist community from 0,4 % to 0,35 %, Old Rite Christians from 0,15 % to 0,097 %, Roman-Catholics from 0,14 % to 0,1 %, Atheists from 0,38 % to 0,21 %. The biggest decrease can be seen in the category of those without religion – from 0,98 % to 0,016 %. Also, between the two population censuses from the Republic of Moldova, the disappearing of two confessions – Evangelical Synodo-Presbyterian and Reformed church can be noticed. A comparison between the two censuses shows that the number of Baptists didn’t change at all. The number of those who didn’t declare their religious affiliation increased from 2,4 % to 6,88 %.

128

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Population Census 2004 persons %

Population Census 2014 persons %

Republic of Moldova (total population)

3383332

100

2804801

100

Orthodox Christians

3158015

93,34

2528152

96,7

Roman-Catholics

4645

0,14

2745

0,1

Reformed church

1190

0,04

-

-

Evangelical of Augustan Confession (Lutherans)

14291

0,04

2291

0,087

Evangelical synodo-presbyterians

3596

0,11

-

-

Old-Rite Christians

5094

0,15

2535

0,097

Baptists

32754

0,97

25380

0,97

Pentecostals

9179

0,27

10049

0,38

Seventh Day Adventists

13503

0,40

9063

0,35

Evangelical Christians

5075

0,15

4812

0,18

Jehovah’s Witnesses

-

-

17341

0,6

Jews

902

0,028

584

0,022

Muslims

1667

0,05

2009

0,076

Other religions

25527

0,75

856

0,032

Atheists

12724

0,38

5515

0,21

Without religion

33207

0,98

427

0,016

Not stated

75727

2,24

193042

6,88

Table 1: Population according to religious identity – comparison between 2004 and 2014 Censuses1. Age group 0–17

18–64

65+

Total population

585449

1913888

305464

Population that declared religion

532185

1788860

290714

Orthodox Christians

512461

1737496

278195

Roman-Catholics

461

1733

551

Old Rite Christians

369

1676

490

Lutherans

593

1444

254

Baptists

7268

14580

3532

Evangelical Christians

1185

3144

483

1 The table is composed based on the data from Population census, vol. I, 2004, Chis¸ina˘u, Statistica, 2006 and Population census, 2014. http://statbank.statistica.md/pxweb/pxweb/en/ ?rxid=85f81cbd-ba26-4271-9d1e-124f2925a535 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

129

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

(Continued) Age group Seventh day Adventists

1976

5586

1501

Pentecostals

3482

5421

1146

Jehovah’s Witnesses

3203

11106

3032

Jews

71

357

156

Muslims

568

1342

99

Other religious groups

151

568

137

Agnostics

68

315

44

Atheists

329

4092

1094

Not stated

53264

125028

14759

Table 2: Population according to religious identity – age groups, on the data from the 2014 Census2.

It can be seen from Table 2 that the process of religious education has had an impact on people under the age of 17, with a total number of 585 449 persons, according to the 2014 population census. Regarding the possible changes caused by immigration it can be said that the Republic of Moldova did not suffer major changes. In the last years a number of young, well-trained citizens have left the country, for Europe, EU and Russia. Between the two censuses the process of emigration prevailed, 558 531 people have left Moldova. The majority of immigrants come from the CIS and Baltic states – 4885 out of 7820. (in 2004). Most of the immigrants are Moldovans returning to their homeland. Most of the immigrants are Orthodox Christians or Muslims. There has been an insignificant number of Chinese and other Asian immigrants and businessmen from Western countries. Generally speaking there is very little immigration to the Republic of Moldova, which is why this phenomenon hasn’t been studied seriously in any scientific study.

2 The table is composed based on the data from Population census, 2014. http://statbank.sta tistica.md/pxweb/pxweb/en/?rxid=85 f81cbd-ba26-4271-9d1e-124 f2925a535 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

130

2.

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Legal Framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

After 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed and the Nationalist movement was born, its followers pleading for a spiritual rebirth of the people, the foundation for the reintroduction of religious education in schools from the Republic of Moldova was laid. The right to religious education is recognized by the Supreme Law of the Republic of Moldova. Article 35, paragraph (8) of the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova states the freedom of religious education and also the secular character of the state educational system. Thus, the state assures freedom of moral-religious and theological education within religious communities (Legea privind libertatea de cons¸tiint¸a˘ 2007), and also assures the possibility of organizing religious education within state education institutions, under the condition that it be optional. The early beginnings of religious education can be seen within the National Institute of Continuous Training (now the Institute of Sciences of Education), when the chancellor of NICT Stefan Todirascu started a project called “Arta de a deveni om” (“The Art of Becoming Human”) the author of which was Nicolae Bujor. The concept of this project was an eclectic one, its concepts being quite confusing if seen from a faithful person’s perspective. After some consultations with the specialists from the department of Educational Sciences, Mr. N. Bujor was hired as a lecturer on a training course designed for Deputy Directors for Education. In the 1990ies religious education was considered an extracurricular activity. After the National Institute of Continuous Training was reformed, Nicolae Bujor and an initiative group was granted an office by the Chisinau City Hall on Armeneasca street, where the municipal center “Arta de a deveni Om” (“The Art of Becoming Human”) was organized. The concept of “The Art of Becoming Human” center was thoroughly examined by theologians, and within the Orthodox Church a group emerged, whose members stated that the school needs Orthodox-Christian education, that religion was to be brought back into the curriculum. The idea of teaching Religion as a separate subject in schools is actively promoted by “Curierul Ortodox” (“The Orthodox Courier”) founded in 1995. Since then, this periodical has led a consistent struggle for the return to the study of Religion in schools. In November 1995, Metropolitan Vladimir of Chisinau and Moldova, following an initiative of a group that promoted the idea of introducing Religion as a subject in schools, addressed a letter to Mircea Snegur, who was then the country’s President, Petru Lucinschi, the President of the Parliament and to the Prime Minister Andrei Sangheli, requesting an amendment to article 35 para-

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

131

graph 8 of the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova – “The Right to Study”. It was requested that the state would secure the freedom of religious education in primary schools around the country, in compliance with the law (Scrisoarea deschisa˘ a Mitropolitului Chis¸ina˘ului s¸i %ntregii Moldove Vladimir 1995, 1). As a result, on December 20th 1995, at President Mircea Snegur’s initiative, a meeting of the Church and the Ministry of Education representatives was held at the Presidency. Following this discussion, an agreement was reached regarding the creation of a joint Commission that would include representatives of the Church and up the Ministry of Education, its goal being the elaboration of modalities under which Religion would be taught, given the possibilities offered by the relevant legislation (6nt.lnire la Pres¸edint¸ia Republicii Moldova 1996, 2). In this regard the Presidential decree number 451 from December 29th 1995 was issued. The commission consisted of 12 persons: 5 from the Church and 7 from the State. Nicolae Fustei was assigned to the position of co-chairman of the Commission of the Church, and Gheorghe Cojocaru to that of co-chairman of the State (Decretul Pres¸edintelui Republicii Moldova nr. 451 1996, 1–2). On June 28th 1996, the Commission presented its proposals to President M. Snegur. The President in turn presented the proposals to the Parliament in the form of a Presidential initiative. According to legislation, this law should have been examined in plenary. The Agrarian Parliament, through the Parliamentary commission for education and mass media deliberated the adoption of a decision, finally rejecting the proposals of the joint Commission (Declarat¸ia Bisericii Ortodoxe din Moldova 2000, 6). A survey carried out by an NGO in 1996 on a representative national sample of 1487 persons from 26 cities and villages, found that 2/3 (64 %) of the population of the Republic of Moldova were in favour of Religion as a subject in school. 25 % of the interviewed persons were against any changes in the educational process regarding the study of Religion, while 12 % didn’t have an opinion on this matter. Also, the survey found that the largest share in the category of those who were in favour of Religion as a subject in schools were people with higher education (65 %), the elderly (67 %), indigenous population (86 %). The majority of those who would not accept the study of Religion were people aged 30 to 49, with secondary education (27 %) (Doua˘ treimi din populat¸ia Republicii 1996, 2). In 1997 a group dedicated to collecting signatures for the introduction of Religion into the educational system through constitutional regulation was formed. 40 000 signatures out of the 200 000 needed were collected. Curiously, this idea was promoted by some politicians especially during election campaigns.

132

Nicolae Fus¸tei

For example, in 1999, the Parliamentary faction of the People’s Christian Democratic Party from Moldova launched a legislative initiative regarding the teaching of Religion in schools. Thus, on June 25th 1999, during its plenary meeting, the Parliament passed, at first reading, an amendment to the law of Education, according to which Religion was to be studied in schools. Iurie Rosca, who was then Vice-President of the Parliament, stated that “the opportunity of this act derives from the constant process of society’s moral degradation, and the study of Religion could stop the decay of morals”. According to the draft law students who are under the age of 16, could attend Religion classes if their parents or tutors were not against it. After reaching the age of 18 students could decide for themselves whether they wanted to study this subject or not. Some leftist parties opposed the study of Religion in schools, invoking the violation of citizen’s freedom of conscience (Se pare ca˘ religia va fi studiata˘ %n s¸coala˘ 1999, 3). In turn, Gheorghe Duca, President of the Commission for Culture, Science and Education presented a positive report. His proposal was however that Religion should be taught as a compulsory subject only in primary schools and that it should be taught by teachers. Only in this case their activity could be paid from the state budget. Because of some political interests this initiative was unsuccessful, being rejected by deputies from other parties. Although the draft law was not passed, statistical data from that time shows us that in 1999 Religion was taught optionally in 35 schools from around the country, being studied by approximately 8000 students (Se pare ca˘ religia va fi studiata˘ %n s¸coala˘ 1999, 3). It should also be mentioned here that the delays in solving this issue caused protests from the faithful, which led to the Parliament passing a new law in 2000, according to which Moral-Spiritual Education was to be taught in schools from September 1st 2000, as a compulsory subject in grades 1–4, and optionally in grades 5–9. This law was passed in a hurry and the Ministry of Education wasn’t ready for the new changes. Thus, the introduction of this subject into the curriculum was delayed until January 1st 2001 (Declarat¸ia Bisericii Ortodoxe din Moldova 2000, 6). On January 23rd 2001, the Council of the Ministry of Education and Science passed the Decision number 29/ 2 On the Concept and Curriculum of Moral – Spiritual Education for Grades 1–4. According to this decision: – The concept and the curriculum for Moral-Spiritual Education for grades I–IV is approved as a pilot scheme, author : V. Pislaru and others. – The concept of the curriculum for Moral-Spiritual Education for grades I–IV is approved as a pilot scheme, author : N. Bujor and others. Thus, in primary schools two curricula were approved for the compulsory subject Moral- Spiritual Education. V. Pislaru is the author of the first and others contain two topics that are connected to the Christian faith – the traditions

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

133

connected to the feasts of Nativity and the traditions connected to the feast of the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ. Other topics were connected to humansocial issues. In 2005 the discussions regarding teaching Religion in schools returned to the fore. A curriculum and new textbooks were created for grades 1–4. But the Government didn’t want to introduce this subject into secondary education institutions, since only 120 schools accepted Religion as a subject. After 2005, Religion was taught as an optional subject in some schools. The issue of Religion being taught in schools was addressed in 2010. Valeriu Pasat, a Moldovan historian and politician launched an initiative to organize a referendum regarding this issue. The name for the subject suggested then was “The Basics of Orthodoxy”. Thus, an initiative group that would collect signatures in favour of this subject being taught in schools was created. Valeriu Pasat was elected as President of the group. In order to collect the signatures there was a plan to send 3000 personsteachers, scholars and professors to Moldovan villages and cities (A fost constituit grupul de init¸iativa˘ 2010, 3). The authorities opposed Pasat’s initiative. On June 15th 2010, the Court of Appeal annulled the ruling of the Central Electoral Commission by which the initiative group for the collection of signatures for the organization of a referendum for compulsory teaching of Basics of Orthodoxy in schools was created. On July 2nd 2010 the Decision of the Government of the Republic of Moldova number 590 “On teaching Religion in education institutions” was passed. Through this legislative act it is established that starting with the academic year 2010–2011, the subject called “Religion”, which will be optional based on the request of the parents or that of the legal guardians of students, is included in the school curriculum of primary and secondary schools. A study entitled “Church and State in the Republic of Moldova” elaborated at the initiative of Soros Moldova Foundation in 2016 shows that 74 % of respondents would want Religion to be taught in schools. Only 22 % chose the opposite option, which is that Religion should not be taught in schools. The share of those who want Religion to be taught in schools is higher among women (80 %) than among men (67 %). The responses are more balanced among pupils and students: 56 % wanted Religion to be taught in schools, while 44 % of students didn’t. Analyzing the solutions possible for teaching Religion in school, it could be found that the majority of citizens would prefer Religion to be an optional of subject (71 %) and not a compulsory one (24 %). At the same time though, 2/3 all of the respondents (66 %) choose a strongly conservative solution, that students should study only their own religion, half of the respondents (51 %) state that Religion should be taught by priests (A fost constituit grupul de init¸iativa˘ 2010, 3).

134

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Now, the subject Religion is taught to students from grades 1–9. Students attend these classes only if the classes are requested by parents. Classes are formed depending on the number of requests coming from parents. Religion can be taught in a rural school if at least 12 parents wish this to happen, while in urban areas 15 requests are needed. According to the Ministry of Education the course is taught one hour a week by teachers or priests with a BA in Theology and a certificate that demonstrates that they have the right to teach in schools (Cursul opt¸ional de religie va %ncepe %n octombrie 2010, 3). They also have to receive the accreditation of the special Commission which is formed by the Ministry of Education. Statistical data of the Ministry of Education shows that the number of students that study Religion has decreased from 76 000 to 40 000 in recent years. During the 2016–2017 academic year the course was taught at the gymnasium level in 489 schools, and in 26 educational institutions at the high school level. The decrease in the number of students that study Religion is explained not only by the decrease of interest regarding this subject, but also by the decrease of the number of children that attend school. According to the Ministry of Education data, in 2007–2016 the number of students decreased by 27 %. The number of schools decreased in this period of time by 204 units respectively. Although the Republic of Moldova is a country with an Orthodox-Christian majority, this does not mean that only the Orthodox confession is taught in schools. In 2011 two curricula were elaborated for grades 1–9: one for the Orthodox and one for the Roman Catholic confession, and another one for the Evangelical and Seventh Day Adventist confession. Later on, the curriculum for grades 10–12 was adopted. During a session of the National Council for Curriculum of the Ministry of Education, protocol number 9 from June 8th 2016, by Order number 671 from August 1st 2017, of the Ministry of Education, the optional curriculum for high school grades 10–12 was adopted for the OrthodoxChristian confession. Some teachers undertook training in Pedagogy, while other teachers – in Theology. Religious communities that function legally in the Republic of Moldova can participate in the religious education of children, by using one of the two curricula adopted by the Ministry of Education, or by organizing special courses themselves. However, the mechanism by which the community could decide on this matter or the way in which children that are part of religious minorities have the right to manifest their religious confession in a manner similar to that of the religious community of the majority is not regulated. Thus, far from a solution, the issues related to the respect of the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion in the Republic of Moldova in the frame of and in connection with public education system are at an early stage,

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

135

compared to other European states (Cra˘ciunean 2013, 159). This is why after the collapse of the Communist regime we witnessed an entire Revolution regarding the freedom of expression in the public space, manifested in the matter of religious education by attempts to recover the time and the energy lost by the Orthodox Church in the years of the old regime, the introduction of the study of Religion into the curriculum being a memorable point in this matter. The issue of teaching Religion in schools is currently an open one. According to the President of AOCE (Association for Orthodox-Christian Education) Tatiana Doibani, the situation is not good. “The situation regarding the teaching of Religion is characterized by initiatives that are supported neither from the top nor from below, while the public stands aside waiting to see how the experiment will end” (Mos¸in Octavian, 2012, 77). This situation is also confirmed by the study “Church and State in the Republic of Moldova”, which shows that the discussion is still open for three quarters of the population, including 39 % that are “rather conservative”, 14 % that are “undecided”, and 25 % that are “rather progressive”(Voicu Ovidiu, Jenifer Cash, Victoria Cojocaru 2017, 22). All this data refers to the territory of the Republic of Moldova which is under constitutional Chisinau Government’s control. On March 2nd 1992, the districts from the left side of Dniester, supported by the Russian army dislocated in the region, initiated an armed rebellion against the legal authorities, separating from the Republic of Moldova and proclaiming their own republic. The goal of this secessionist entity is to become a part of the Russian Federation, and this is why the local legislation, including that regarding religious education in schools, is harmonized with the Russian one.

3.

Developments in the country’s education policy

Since 1991, the educational system went through major transformations in terms of structure, quality and quantity. The evolution of educational policy in the Republic of Moldova has been influenced by tendencies and evolutions of society at large. Once the Law on Education number 547 – XIII was passed on July 21st 1995, the following Acts of the Soviet legislation regarding the educational system were abrogated: 1. The Law of public education number 324 – IX passed on December 24th 1975 of the Moldovan S.S.R. 2. Art. 3 of the Ukase of Supreme Soviet Presidium of the Moldovan S.S.R. nr. 1788-XI from March 31st 1987 on the operation of certain amendments to some of the Moldovan S.S.R.’s legislative acts (News of the Supreme Soviet and of the Government of the Moldovan S.S.R., 1987, No. 4, Article 50). Other legislative and normative acts regulating the educational system of the Re-

136

Nicolae Fus¸tei

public of Moldova were adopted along the way. According to the Law of Education passed in 1995, education is a national priority. Compulsory education has a total duration of 9 years, starting in grade 1 and going until grade 9 (including the gymnasium and high school levels). The rapid increase in the number of private schools that offer compulsory education will be a complex issue insofar as it will create competition that will decrease the quality of education offered by Public Schools, where only students from low-income families. State education is technically free of charge, but the reality shows that a significant part of Secondary specialized education and higher education State institutions’ students study there on a contractual basis. This is a situation created by insufficient financing of these institutions. The introduction of this act was the start of a transformation in the educational system, changes that reflected Republic of Moldova’s tendencies to integrate into the European framework of education. In this respect the recommendations of the European Union for a common framework in the educational platform were adopted. As a result of the harmonization of the national educational system the educational system of the European community, the Republic of Moldova initiated a number of institutional and organizational measures that will further the alignment of the educational system with the recommendations of the European Union and also the improvement of the educational process’s quality and transparency. The educational system of the European Union is seen as the engine of economic development and the movement towards a society based on knowledge. Once education is modernized the European economy will be among the leading ones, with an enormous competitive capacity. This is the way the reform and modernization objectives of the European educational system, which were adopted not only by EU member states but also by other European countries were formulated. The Republic of Moldova’s integration into the European Union is divided into certain domains. One of the key domains which could be seen as an impulse for the development of the whole of society is the domain of education. The integration process is carried out gradually and requires adjustments for the implementation of European standards. A document which defines the Republic of Moldova’s intention of integration is the Republic of Moldova’s Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union, which was signed in 1995. This agreement has the following objectives: 1. The Assurance of dialogue between the sides; 2. The development of favourable relations; 3. The Assurance of collaboration basis in the legislative, social and cultural domains;

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

137

4. Support of the Republic of Moldova’s efforts for the consolidation of democracy and sustainable economic development; etc. Article 58 of the agreement called “Training and Teaching” states that the collaboration between the Republic of Moldova and European countries has the following goals: 1. The modernization of Moldova’s educational system; 2. Training qualified personnel for the national economy ; 3. Teaching the languages of the European community in Moldovan educational institutions; 4. Promotion of the European studies. Since Moldova joined the Council of Europe on July 13th 1995, the country has signed a number of regulations regarding different domains, including that of the educational system. The main objective of collaboration on different domains, including the above mentioned one is the creation of the premises needed for the integration of the Republic of Moldova into the European Union’s structures. It is absolutely necessary that this objective trigger the development of the whole country (national economy, social and medical insurance, living standards etc.) and not be a merely declarative action. The main document which forms the basis of the Republic of Moldova’s collaboration with and adherence to the European Union’s bodies is the European Union – Republic of Moldova Action Plan. The Action Plan is seen as the first step of the integration process. This plan is a political document which sets the strategic objectives of cooperation that encourage the Republic of Moldova’s integration intention, the goal of this document being the significant advancement in the adjustment of Moldova’s legislation, norms and standards to the European ones. Articles 75 and 76 present the European policy regarding education and youth and the measures that Moldova should implement in order to meet the European standards and the Bologna process’s provisions (Article 75), Moldova should take the following measures: a) The implementation of the legislative reform and other actions in order to join the Bologna process; b) Participation in Tempus III program, in order to examine the human resources and human capital growth possibilities; c) The involvement of civil society representatives and of the social partners in the reformation of professional secondary and secondary education; d) Continuation of the national program for the introduction of information technologies in education implementation.

138

Nicolae Fus¸tei

In terms of cooperation enhancement in the education and youth training domains (Article 76) the following measures had been taken: a) support of academic exchange and study opportunities, especially the participation in Erasmus Mundus Program; b) Enhancement of Moldova’s participation in Tempus III program; c) Preparations for the Tempus III program extension in the professional secondary education and adult training domains; d) Enhancement of academic youth exchange and cooperation in the non-formal youth training domain; e) Increase of intercultural dialog, youth exchange and non-formal educational cooperation promotion through the Youth program. The European Youth Pact is another important document which was proposed by France, Germany, Sweden and Spain on October 2nd 2004. The Youth White Paper elaborated by the European Commission was the basis for this document. The European Youth Pact discusses the aspects concerning the youth, such as: education, labour force, social inclusion, mobility. This Pact is seen as an essential support for meeting the objectives set in Lisbon. In 1997 the Republic of Moldova signed the Lisbon Recognition Convention, which was ratified by the Parliament in 1999. In 2002 the Diploma Appendix was introduced. Several amendments to the Law of Education voted for in 1995 were passed, several acts such as the Strategy of Higher Education, Nomenclature of professional training fields and domains in higher education institutions, the Republic of Moldova’s educational system modernization Program. These were some of the steps that led to Moldova’s joining of the Bologna process together with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Ukraine, on May 19th 2005, during the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education in Bergen. In order to adjust the educational system to European standards some acts were elaborated and adopted, for example: the Nomenclature of training domains in higher education institutions (Act number 1070 – XIV from June 22nd 2000); Government Decision number 902 from August 29th 2001 “On the duration of studies, titles and qualifications in higher education of the Republic of Moldova”; Provisional Framework Plan for Cycle I (Higher Studies, Bachelor degree) no. 202 from July 1, 2005, approved by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports; Provision no. 202 from July 1st, 2005 on concomitant training in two related fields; The concept of initial vocational training standards in higher education and university curriculum, which were approved by the Decision of the College of the Ministry of Education no. 3.1 from March 4th 2004; Decision on the approval of the Regulation on the organization and conduct of PhD and PostDoctorate Studies , Nr. 914 from August 26th 2005; Implementation Guide for the

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

139

National Credit Appraisal System approved by the M. E.Y.S. no. 3.1 from February 23rd 2006, and implemented by Order no. 140 from February 25th 2006; Regulation on the Employment for Teaching Positions in Higher Education Institutions approved by the Government Decision no.1265 from November 16th, 2004; Law on Evaluation and Accreditation of Education Institutions of the Republic of Moldova no. 423-XIV from June 4th 1999; Order no. 07-13-468 of the M.Y.T.S. On the Teacher Training Module from August 17th 2005; Framework plan for higher education (university) approved by the Decision of the College of M. E.Y.S. number. 16 from December 21st 1999 and Order no. 607 of the M. E.Y.S. from October 26th 2000, Education Code of the Republic of Moldova from October 24th 2014. Higher education institutions elaborate internal quality management systems that would manage internal quality assurance processes in compliance with national and European standards. The process of Moldova’s educational system’s integration into the European framework has met hurdles that haven’t been overcome to this day. Moldova’s adherence to the Bologna process and all the steps made for this could be seen as a progress. For this purpose the existent legislation on education was modified, or some new legislative acts and norms were elaborated. But, as mentioned earlier, some legislative acts of major importance, such as the Law on general secondary education, the Law on professional non-university education, the Law of higher education, the Law of Education Quality Assurance haven’t even passed the draft phase, which has been delaying the educational system’s reform. It is also important that education was declared a national priority in terms of legislation and a number of programs and strategies the objective of which is the modernization of education on all levels (pre-school, primary, vocational secondary education, specialized secondary education, university education and postgraduate education) were elaborated. In this context a number of difficulties appeared in the so called orientation towards European education policies. The main impediment in the modernization of the educational system is insufficient funding. Since the economy has a low level of development, education is underfunded, which creates a vicious circle. And vice-versa, the socialeconomic crisis is worsening because the educational system doesn’t have the necessary power to promote the modernization of society. Only by motivation and incentives of all participating parties does European integration of Moldova’s educational system stand a chance of experiencing more than just formal or declarative change. The awareness of the fundamental importance of education established the necessity of a large educational process reform, the commencement of which was the passing of the Code of Education (Codul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova 2014), and the reform of the education system is in the spotlight of public policies

140

Nicolae Fus¸tei

adopted by the state. It has become obvious that the formation of a new system in the field of education field is an undeniable priority of the country’s modernization process. The Government of the Republic of Moldova is engaged in a number of ambitious reforms in the education field, being assisted financially by the World Bank. As a result, the Government elaborated an Action Plan for the implementation of the structural reform in this field in order to (1) assure the student’s access to qualitative education; (2) increase the flexibility of labour relations in the education domain; (3) efficiently use financial allocations by applying them per student on the national level. The Reform of Education in Moldova Project (PRIM) was implemented in April 2013 – August 2018, and supported the Government’s Reform Program by financing the activities that would consolidate the quality of education and would lead to a more efficient education sector. Through this Project the World Bank offers assistance to the Government of the Republic of Moldova for the implementation of reforms in the education sector, namely : 1. Compliance of the number of students in a class to generally accepted international standards; 2. Adjustment of the existent school network and relocation of students to district schools; 3. National implementation of the per student financing formula. A complex project like this one implies a joint investment of financial resources and consolidation of human effort of the public associations and of the state, in order to get the necessary education for the formation of an upright, free personality and his or her training for social life. The core of the new education system should be the fundamental right to education, in compliance with Article 35 of the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova (Constitut¸ia Republicii Moldova 2016), which needs to be multi-dimensionally studied, tightly connected to other fundamental human rights. According to the Code of Education, the educational policy in the Republic of Moldova should assure the formation of national consciousness and identity, the promotion of general human values and the society’s aspirations to the European integration (Codul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova 2014). The fundamental right to education implies the people’s right to access any form of learning possible, this right being correlated to a number of obligations which the state assumes in order to carry out its educational function. In this context, religious education, like all other dimensions of education, (intellectual, moral, ethical, esthetical, physical, technological etc.) has played an important role in the realization of the above mentioned goals. Studying Religion in school corresponds to the local and national community’s need and aspiration

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

141

to preserve its spiritual patrimony, and to pass the perennial national and Christian values to the new generation. The school of the Republic of Moldova proclaims a European destiny, in which the freedom of spirit is the fundamental human virtue, which implies the formation of a child-friendly school culture and environment; educational support of different student categories in order to favour their integration in public school; consolidation of the school-community connection; harmonization of the relations between those who educate and those who are educated: parent and children, teachers and students, all social partners (Cara A., Niculcea T. 2016, 3). Approaching this issue it is impossible not to take into account the cultural argument, which generated the re-introduction of Religion as a subject in schools. The great thinkers of the 20th century supported the idea that the human being is, first of all, a religious being. Thus, Mircea Eliade said that “to be, or rather to become human, means to become religious” (Eliade M. 1981, 9) or that “to live as a human being is, in itself, a religious act” (Eliade M. 1987, 176). Incognizance of the fundaments of the Christian faith, the Bible, Church history, of Christian morals and teaching creates an immense void in the general knowledge. A renowned researcher of Literature History wondered once, who inspired the wonderful figure of speech “Joyful Radiance” used by Anton Pann, Mihai Eminescu, Mihail Sadoveanu and Tudor Arghezi. He was greatly surprised when he was told that all four writers took this expression from the hymn “Joyful Radiance” sang during Vespers. The need to study Religion as a school subject is generated by the current social context, in which religious communities express their concern for the pursuit of moral-religious content as well as the formative-educational valences of this field. We live in an age where moral indicators have lost their mono-directionality, now indicating all possible directions, so that those who need advice are rather confused than guided. This is the age of moral relativism, which states that all moral values are relative, and this has led to moral chaos, the world is searching for the criteria by which one could determine what is good and what is evil. This is how we arrived at general and personal moral confusion. In this context, teaching Religion as a subject in schools is generated by the diversification of the current social state, in which there is a concern for the pursuit of moral-religious content as well as the formative-educational valences of this field, a concern coming from all religious communities. The school subject Religion is included in the optional subjects in the Republic of Moldova, being different from other subjects in the core subjects, the goal of which is to pursue, extend, integrate and innovate the student’s knowledge in one or several fields. The curriculum for the subject Religion was ela-

142

Nicolae Fus¸tei

borated by teachers and other specialists from this domain; it was discussed at the councils of the accredited institutions and approved by the Ministry. The subject’s topicality is determined by the recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union concerning the keycompetences from the perspective of life-long learning inclusively, which shape a “European formation profile” structured by eight fields of key-competences for the alumni3.

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

Until 1940, when Bessarabia was part of the Romanian state, there was educational pluralism. Once the Soviet authorities were in power and the Moldovan S.S.R. was proclaimed in this territory, all private and theological schools were closed. During the war (1941–1944), when the Romanian authorities regained control over this region, private and Theological schools were reopened. After the Soviets were back in power in M.S.S.R. in 1944 and until the collapse of the U.S.S.R. and the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Moldova in 1991, no private or theological schools were active here. The entire educational process was organized according to the Communist Party’s educational and ideological policy. All educational institutions of the Orthodox Church were closed. After the proclamation of independence, Moldovan authorities began collaborating with certain persons and with the administration of the Orthodox Church and other religious entities in public interest areas. Step by step, educational pluralism returned to the fore. Now there are 3 Orthodox Christian confessional schools of high school level: The Orthodox Theological Seminary in Chisinau, Orthodox Theological Seminary in Edinet and Orthodox Theological Seminary in Suruceni. There is also a school for church singers in Tighina. Also, the Orthodox Theological Academy in Chisinau should be mentioned here. There are Sunday schools in many parishes. The Union of Christian Evangelical Baptist Churches from Moldova has its University – “Divita Gratiae”, formerly the Theological-Pedagogical College from Chisinau (re-organized as a University in 2003). There are a number of Biblical schools of different level 3 The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. 2006. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union L 394, EN (30. 12. 2006):10–8. https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ: L:2006:394:0010:0018:en:PDF (last accessed: 23. 9.2019).

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

143

within the Union. There are also Sunday schools within religious communities. There is a Theological Seminary of the Union of Churches of Christians of Evangelical Faith from Moldova with branches in Chisinau and Balti. There is also an Intensive Biblical Training School in Ribnita. We should also mention the “Elimul Nou” (“New Elim”) Gymnasium, known between September 5th 1999 and July 5th 2005 as the “Elimul Nou” Christian School, which started as an institution comprised of a kindergarten group and 2 primary school classes of 15 pupils. There are some regional schools in the above mentioned Union: a Biblical school for training Christian ministers in the Northern Region, in Corjeuti and a Missionary school in the Transnistria Region. The Seventh Day Adventists, the Reform movement have approximately 30 Sabbath schools, 3 Sunday schools. In Sabbath schools the lessons take place every Saturday, while in the regional ones, in the North, South and Center – twice a month. A number of Jewish organizations support confessional Jewish schools in the Republic of Moldova. The Chabad Lubavich Movement supervises one of the two Jewish high schools – Jewish school No 15, a religious school and two kindergartens from Chisinau. The “Agudat Israel” Movement supports the religious school (yeshiva) which is functioning based on a secondary school learning program and where up to 200 boys and girls study separately, according to two different learning programs. There is also Jewish school No 22 in Chisinau, founded in 1991, where more than 300 students are studying. This school was founded by the Israeli governmental organization “Lishkat Hakesher” (the Bureau for Relations), as part of the Maavar (Tsofia) Program. The Jewish school is partially sponsored by the Government of the Republic of Moldova and the Israeli Cultural Center. There are at least eight Sunday schools in Moldova – three in Chisinau and one in the following cities: Tighina, Soroca, Balti, Ribnita and Tiraspol. Of course, the number of pupils that attend these schools is quite small, compared to the number of students that attend state schools.

5.

Conceptions and Tasks of Religious Education

Religious education is currently seen as a complementary dimension to other dimensions of education (intellectual, moral, civic, esthetical and technical). The goal of the subject Religion is to form an integrated personality, with an authentic moral-spiritual consciousness and the awareness of the communion with God and people around as being the purpose of a human being’s life (Curriculum s¸colar. Clasele I–IX. Religia. Cultul ortodox, 2011, 3). The competences that are specific to the subject derive from the educational ideal, transversal key-competences and trans-disciplinary competences for the

144

Nicolae Fus¸tei

primary and secondary education levels with a high degree of generality and are defined as finalities of primary and secondary education. Sub-competences are derived from specific competences and are particularized through connecting them with contents which are delimited for each grade, materializing cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours (Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Religia, 2011, 3). The specific competences and sub-competences that are to be formed in the teaching-learning process of Religion are based on and promote the following values and attitudes: – Defining values for any human being manifested through faith, hope, love, identity, family, education, friends, preferences, relations between people. – Attitudes towards Life, Truth, Holiness, Good, Beauty, Love, Patience, Thoughtfulness, Will, Dignity, Verticality, Purity, Forgiveness, Mercy, oriented towards moral-religious perfection. The contents – as a form of reflection of Christian values – are units of knowledge, an essential resource of learning, the means by which the future competences are to be formed. The contents are selected in concordance with the logical structure of the subject, the Christian teaching found in the Holy Scriptures, according to the child’s age, potential and his/her individual and social interests and needs. Learning/evaluation activities are recommended examples of significant situations, by which, in the process of studying the contents, the projected subcompetences can be mobilized (Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Religia, 2011, 4). Activities carried out during Religion classes are completed by educational activities in school, extracurricular activities, activities involving children’s parents, activities which are carried out in partnership with families and the community. Both the curriculum for Orthodox and Roman-Catholic Religious Education and that for Evangelical and Adventist Religious Education aims towards the acquisition of authentic spiritual sensitivity and the connection to the meaning of the positive actions for the improvement of the quality of life as well as the formation of acceptance, understanding and respect attitudes towards people of other faiths and beliefs. Both curricula for Religious Education are to be supervised both by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Research and by the leaders of religious organizations. This situation can create certain difficulties in cases where two positions will be presented – that of religious organizations and that of the state – on issues like sexual education, sexual orientation or the attitude towards sexual minorities.

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

6.

145

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

When religious education was allowed in primary schools and secondary schools from the Republic of Moldova and “Religion” textbooks were nowhere to be found, the school program for teaching Religion in the 1st grade was published in “Curierul Ortodox”, No 15, 1996. The program planned 32 hours per year, one hour weekly (Materiale pentru ora de religie 1996, 3). Methodical recommendations entitled “How to teach children Religion” written by the famous teacher Anastasia Popescu, called by children “Mama Sica”, were published in No 16 of the above-mentioned periodical. Unlike other subjects, Religious Education is addressed mostly to the heart, and to a lesser extent to thinking. There is no fight between the two, as many teachers educated in the spirit of materialistic thinking believed, rather these two components are harmoniously interweaved in order to form the true human being (Cum sa˘-i %nva˘¸ta˘m pe copii religia 1996, 3). There were no teachers that would teach Religion in the transitional period, when Religious Education became part of the school program, so, priests, although they didn’t have any pedagogical training, came to classrooms. In the beginning, textbooks printed in Romania, where teaching Religion was already taking place, were used. 15 years passed until Religious Education was accepted as an optional subject in state schools. In this regard, curricula and textbooks4 were elaborated in 2011, defining objectives, interpretations, and the content of the subject. Without neglecting religious education which takes place in the family and in the Church, the new Christian training and education formal framework should have had a stronger impact on the student’s personality. The Church should have acted on the line of catechization of the child, while the school should have carried out a methodical education in the perspective of relating to transcendence, avoiding any tentative of imposing anything by force. According to the legislation, Religious Education is offered 1 hour per week (32 hours per year for Orthodox and Roman Catholic curriculum and 34 hours per year for the Evangelical and Adventist curriculum) in primary and secondary schools (I–IX classes), and an hour per week for high school forms (35 hours per year for forms X–XI and 34 hours for the XIIth form). Because of the fact that the representatives of religious organizations that are, from a numerical point of view, a minority, didn’t support the organizing of Religious Education in schools, being afraid that their children would be com4 Abecedar cres¸tin-ortodox. Chis¸ina˘u, 2010; Educat¸ie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘. Manual pentru clasa a II-a. Chis¸ina˘u, 2010; Educat¸ie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘. Explicarea celor zece porunci. Manual cl.a IIIa, Chis¸ina˘u, 2006; Educat¸ie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘. Explicarea Sfintelor Taine. Manual cl. a IV-a. Chis¸ina˘u, 2007; Educat¸ie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘. Ghidul %nva˘¸ta˘torului. Clasele I–IV. Chis¸ina˘u, 2004; Sa˘ ne cunoas¸tem credint¸a. Ghidul profesorului. Clasele V–IX. Chis¸ina˘u, 2010.

146

Nicolae Fus¸tei

pelled to participate at the Religious Education classes that would be organized in compliance with the Orthodox curriculum, it was suggested that Religion class should take place at the end of the day, so that those who don’t attend this class could go home. Because of this, students are tired and cannot listen to the lesson attentively. Religious minorities in fact had the possibility of organizing religion study classes in school. According to the Ministry of Education’s data from 2012, Religion was studied using the Evangelical and Adventist curriculum in 24 out of 502 primary and secondary education institutions were Religion was studied in the Republic of Moldova. This constitutes 4,8 %, while only 1,8 % of the country’s population were adherents of this organizations. School inspectors assigned by the Church are responsible for checkups over the quality and the correctness of Religion lessons. Smaller religious communities that cannot collect the necessary number of petitions for the organization of Religious Education classes (12 petitions in rural localities and 15 in urban localities), have the possibility to carry out religious education within their communities. Students that don’t want to attend Religion classes are studying alternative subjects (Art of Moral Behavior – forms V–IX, Ethics of Family Life – forms X–XII).

7.

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

At the moment there is no alternative for Religious Education in primary schools (forms I to IV) from the Republic of Moldova. A course called “The Art of Moral Behavior” the intention of which is to develop certain human qualities such as self-respect and respect for others, assuming responsibility, self-discipline, civic consciousness, solidarity and loyalty to moral norms and principles etc. in a situation of social values’ crisis and of pseudo-values’ promotion. This is an alternative for secondary schools (forms V–IX) (Curriculum pentru disciplina opt¸ionala˘ “Arta comportamentului moral” 2017, 4). The alternative for high school forms (X–XII) is an optional course called “Ethics of Family Life”, the idea of which is to give a solution to a real need present in society, precisely the education of youth for family life, awareness about the quality of being a good family person and a competent parent, understanding the role which the family has in a person’s life (Curriculum pentru disciplina “Etica viet¸ii de familie” 2017, 4).

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

147

The course called “Intercultural Education”, designed for grades I–IX, offers a new methodology focused on integrating principles like tolerance, equality, complementarity of values, valorization of the specifically local spiritual values and their attachment to the general values of humanity, valorization of the educational framework in the spirit of diversity, human rights, equality of chances, intercultural dialogue, promotion of identity and citizenship (Educat¸ie interculturala˘. Curriculum s¸colar 2012, 3).

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

Confessional Religious Education – Orthodox, Roman-Catholic, Evangelical and Adventist – offers a diversity of religious expression within schools. During the Religious Education classes general human values such as Life, Truth, the Good, Beauty, Sacred, Faith, Love, etc., national values like Country, People, National History, National Culture etc., and European values such as Freedom, Equality, Human Dignity, Democracy etc. are promoted. The respect for people with different religious views, the use of knowledge in matters of religions’ history in the esteem for the importance of respect and dialogue between people and between communities and the role of the ecumenical and interreligious dialogue should also be mentioned here.

9.

Religion in school outside of RE

Religious education takes place not only during Religion classes. There are a number of religious events that take place outside these classes. There is a custom in the Republic of Moldova to start and to finish the school year with a religious service. Many schools celebrate the school’s feast (Hramul S¸colii) or the feast of the saint that is considered to be the protector of the institution. Also, there are various events organized on the most important religious feasts – various events such as theatrical scenes, contests and carol concerts dedicated to the Nativity of Christ; Festivals of Easter Songs – “Hristos a Inviat” (“Christ has Risen”), “Un trandafir, o lum.nare pentru S¸tefan cel Mare” (“A Rose, a Candle for Stephen the Great”) etc. during which children, dressed in traditional costumes sing songs that are connected with the celebrated feast. These events are supervised by Religion teachers and the schools’ administration. The presence of religious symbols and objects (icons, crucifixes, Bible quotes etc.) on the territory of or inside schools also contributes to religious education. Some teachers wear religious signs, there are icons in some classrooms.

148

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Various trips with a religious content to monasteries, churches etc. and religious school theater sessions are organized as extracurricular activities (Costin Grigore 2014, 24). Some schools in the Republic of Moldova have chapels, where students are religiously assisted by priests. Also, on the eve of religious feasts exhibitions are organized where students can sell objects made at home or during Religion classes, the revenues being offered to various charity activities. During summer vacation, camps for children are organized, where a series of events that contribute to children’s religious education are carried out.

10.

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities, issues

Religion teachers for all forms are instructed according to the same standards as the teachers of the other school subjects. Religion teachers have to be trained in Theology and in Pedagogy. The first place where Religion teachers for the Orthodox Christian confession are trained is the Orthodox Theological Academy from Chisinau. Here students attend the following courses: Psychology and Pedagogy (second year), Methodology of Teaching Religion, and they also have a period of Pedagogical Practice (third year) all part of the Psychology-Pedagogy Module. The same Module is part of the Theological Seminaries’ learning program in the Republic of Moldova. Christian Evangelical Baptist Churches from Moldova train Religion teachers at the former Theological-Pedagogical College from Chisinau (re-organized as a University in 2013). The Union of Churches of Christians of Evangelical Faith from Moldova train Religion teachers at the Theological Seminary in Chisinau and its branch in Balti. Improvement instructive-methodical seminars for Religion teachers are organized, being attended by eparchial school inspectors and methodologists from deaneries; instructive-methodical seminars for Religion teachers; republican methodological seminars “The School, the Community and the Church: a Partnership for Education”. There are formation courses for Religion teachers organized periodically at the Chisinau Institute for Sciences of Education. A number of Religion teachers were trained at the “Ion Creanga” State Pedagogical University from Chisinau within the History and Moral-Spiritual Education specialization (2003–2006) and at the Moldova State University within the Philosophy and Moral-Spiritual Education specialization (2003–2005).

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

11.

149

Empirical research concerning RE

Empirical research in the domain of education, especially in that of Religious Education is – honestly speaking – at an incipient phase in the Republic of Moldova. There are a number of reasons for this situation: – First of all, even after 27 years since the declaration of independence, a structural change in education is needed. The Law of Education passed in 1995 was repeatedly modified, until the Code of Education was passed in 2014. Still, this document went through four changes in less than three years, which didn’t do too much for the commencement of major systemic changes. – Secondly, there hasn’t been any research institute as part of the Academy of Sciences that would have elaborated basic research in this domain in the Republic of Moldova. – Thirdly, there is no funding for such research. There is an Institute of Sciences of Education within the Ministry of Culture, Education and Research, which represents the research in the domain of sciences of education and post-graduate education carried out by professors based on major objectives: research, projecting, implementation, and evaluation in the domain of education; complex and continuous development of teachers from secondary education institutions. This institution, however, is more interested in professional formation of teachers and less in empirical research regarding education in general. Research in the domain of religious education in the Republic of Moldova is carried out at Moldova Orthodox Theological Academy, and, partially, in Pedagogical Universities. A number of PhD diploma papers that approach these kinds of topics were elaborated at the “Ion Creanga” Pedagogical State University from Chisinau: “Epistemological components of normatively in the education sciences” (Avram Florentina 2016); “Forming axiological orientations with pre-school children from the perspective of family ethno-pedagogy” (Buzenco Aurica 2017); “Continuous professional training of teachers focusing on the interconnection of personal and institutional needs” (Hunca˘ Mihaela 2016) etc. The researches published by teachers (“A culture of means or a culture of goals in education?” (Doibani Tatiana 2013, 76–78); “Dissemination of the Religion curriculum implementation experience in the Ungheni region” (Prepelit¸a˘ Corneliu 2012, 39–42) are, certainly a contribution to this domain. There is a methodological cabinet within the Metropolis of Moldova which carries out a number of objectives: – Implementation of the results of scientific research in the religious education domain on the institution level;

150

Nicolae Fus¸tei

– Creation of a database regarding the methodological activity and the advanced local and external experience; – Organization and methodical-didactical assurance of teaching religion in compliance with the requirements of modern educational policy ; – Study, generalization and dissemination of the school teachers’ advanced experience (Regulamentul de organizare ¸si funct¸ionare a Cabinetului metodic 2012, 81). Insufficient funding and personnel makes the carrying out of the Cabinet’s tasks difficult.

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Viewed from a broader European context, religious education in the Republic of Moldova is at an incipient stage of its development. Although different confessional concepts, characterized by the catechetical orientation, do not impede academic development of religious education, they are advancing very slowly. Open discussions on religious education in Moldova are lacking now. In an Orthodox-Christian context, a greater opening and availability to engage in a dialogue with Christians of other confessions or with people of other faiths would contribute to finding a consensus on a number of issues that the society faces. A culture of dialogue would have a positive impact, also, on Religious Education in schools. In order to be able to face the enormous organizational challenges from this domain, the development of long-term strategies is necessary. Cooperation between parishes, Churches, Universities and state schools is indispensable on different levels. Religious education and didactics would benefit as a result of a constructive dialogue with national experts in pedagogy and education in general. A better collaboration between Christian Churches and other religious communities would be beneficent for the development of education, and could lead to a better perception of religion and faith both in school and in society. The communication of decisions, from the level of government authorities to the education institutions poses yet another problem. Dialog between all parties that are involved in the modernization of the educational system would be beneficient. This would entail a process of informing, involving and motivating the participants. Any reform can become more effective only when its executors are aware of the benefits of this reform, and it is not simply applied automatically without any motivation. One of the main advantages of the European integration of Republic of Moldova’s educational system should be, first of all, the benefit of

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

151

the country’s economic and social development. European integration is needed for Moldova’s adjustment to the European standards of living, economy and society development and the progress of science and technology. Not the integration in itself, but the advantages of this process should be the final goal. In order to meet these goals, the Republic of Moldova must undertake huge efforts. Social-economic decline has had a negative impact on the educational system for a long period, specifically the under funding, which had especially negative consequences. This is why there is still a lot of work to do in order to correct the situation in the field of education and then to reach the European requirements. For an efficient integration into the European educational system, information and collaboration between all parties involved in the education reform process: the Government and its subdivisions, education institutions, their management and staff, students, parents, economic agents and civil society is required.

13.

Further information (e. g., relevant literature on RE, institutions, websites)

13.1

Journals

Micul pelerin, revista˘ pentru copii, dedicata˘ explora˘rii credint¸ei ¸si a culturii ortodoxe. [A children’s magazine dedicated to the exploration of Orthodox faith and culture] Published from 2009 to 2011, was published by The Missionary Brotherhood “St. Ciprian” in Edinet. Ortodoxia pentru copii, revista˘ pentru copii, pa˘rint¸i ¸si profesori [Magazine for children. parents and teachers] Published from 2004 to 2006, was published as Supplement to the journal “Orthodoxy”. Scara spre cer, publicat¸ie de cultura˘ cres¸tina˘-ortodoxa˘ pentru copii ¸si adolescent¸i. [Christian-Orthodox culture publication for children and adolescents] Published from 2011 to 2018. Universul credint¸ei, publicat¸ie religioasa˘. [Religious publication] Published from 1999 to 2001. Was published by International Center for Culture for Children and Youth “Sergiu Grosu”. Vestea buna˘, pagina˘ pentru copii. [Children’s page] Published from 2000 to 2001. Was published as Supplement to the “Orthodox Courier”. EaVTQc «þQUVWUQ», Wda^Q\ U\p `_Ua_bc[_S. [Magazine for teenagers] Was published by Union of Churches of Evangelical Christians Baptists in Moldova.

152 13.2

Nicolae Fus¸tei

Encyclopaedia, documents, curricula

Codul Educat‚iei al Republicii Moldova nr. 152 din 17. 07. 2014. In Monitorul Oficial, al Republicii Moldova, nr. 319–324/634 din 24. 10. 2014. Constitut‚ia Republicii Moldova, adoptata˘ la 29.07.94. In Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova, nr.78/140 din 29. 03. 2016. Hota˘r.rea Guvernului Republicii Moldova nr. 590 “Cu privire la predarea religiei %n institut¸iile de %nva˘¸ta˘m.nt”. In Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova, nr. 114–116, 2010. Legea privind libertatea de cons¸tiint¸a˘, de g.ndire ¸si de religie nr. 125-XVI din 11. 05. 2007. In Monitorul Oficial nr.127–130/546 din 17. 08. 2007. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Curriculum pentru disciplina „Etica viet¸ii de familie”, , Chis¸ina˘u, 2017. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Curriculum pentru disciplina opt¸ionala˘ “Arta comportamentului moral”, Clasele a V-a – IX-a”. Chis¸ina˘u, 2017. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Educat¸ie interculturala˘. Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Religia, Cultul ortodox. Chis¸ina˘u, 2011. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Religue. Culul Ortodox. Curriculum opt¸ional pentru liceu. Clasele X–XI. Religia, Chis¸ina˘u, 2017. Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Religia, pentru predarea cres¸tinismului de rit evanghelic ¸si adventist de ziua a ¸saptea. Chis¸ina˘u, 2011.

13.3

Further literature

Boldirescu S., Boldirescu Sv., Religie. Ghidul profesorului, Cuv%ntul-ABC, 2013. Callo T., Pedagogia practica˘ a atitudinilor, Editura Litera Educat¸ional, Chis¸ina˘u, 2014. Cerga A., Bisericile Basarabiei. Dict¸ionar enciclopedic, Editura Civitas, Chis¸ina˘u, 2013. Cheit¸e pentru copi. vol.V, Chis¸ina˘u 1997, Misiunea Cres¸tina˘ “Micul Samaritean”. Cret¸u L., Religie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘, Manual pentru clasa a VI-a, Editura Camno-group, Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Cret¸u L., Religie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘, Manual pentru clasa a VII-a, Editura Camno-group, Chis¸ina˘u, 2014. Cret¸u L., Religie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘. Manual pentru clasa a V-a, Editura Camno-group, Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Cucos¸ C., Educat¸ia religioasa˘ : repere teoretice ¸si metodice, Editura Polirom, Ias¸i, 2010. Drumet¸u V., Biblia pentru copii, Chis¸ina˘u 1991. Fus¸tei N., Cres¸tinismul pe %nt¸elesul tuturor, Editura Cuv.ntul-ABC, Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Gut¸u V., Chicu V., Dandara O., Solovei R. et.al., Psihopedagogia centrata˘ pe copil, CEP USM, Chis¸ina˘u, 2008. Had%rca˘ M. (coord.), Formarea personalita˘¸tii elevului %n perspectiva educat¸iei integrale, IS¸E, Chis¸ina˘u, 2013.

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

153

Had%rca˘ M., Ra˘ileanu A. (coord.), Proiectarea ¸si realizarea evalua˘rii autentice. Cadru conceptual ¸si metodologic, IS¸E, Chis¸ina˘u, 2010. M.nd.canu V., Pedagogia cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘, Editura Iulian, Chis¸ina˘u, 2014. Pa˘curariu M., Istoria Bisericii Ortodoxe Rom.ne, Editura S¸tiint¸a, Chis¸ina˘u, 1993. Sa˘ ne cunoas¸tem credint¸a. Ghidul profesorului la disciplina “Educat¸ie cres¸tin-ortodoxa˘”. Clasele V–IX, Chis¸ina˘u, 2010. Schoolland Marian M. Credint¸a Cres¸tina˘ pe %nt¸elesul celor mici, Fundat¸ia Cres¸tina˘ “Micul Samaritean” Chis¸ina˘u, 2000. S¸coala ¸si Biserica: parteneriat pentru educat¸ie, Edit¸ia a II-a, (coord. Pr. dr. O. Mos¸in), Editura Cuv%ntul-ABC, Chis¸ina˘u, 2013. Sienkiewicz H., Quo vadis, Editura Sigma, Chis¸ina˘u, 1992. S¸ipa Moise. Cuv.ntul celor care nu cuv.nta˘, Fundat¸ia Micul Samaritean, Chis¸ina˘u 2000. Solovei R., Eftodii S¸., Valent¸e educative ale parteneriatului S¸coala˘-Biserica˘, %n: Educat¸ie ¸si viat¸a spirituala˘ %n Basarabia. Tradit¸ii ¸si perspective, Chis¸ina˘u, CEP USM, 2015. Tverdovskaia A., Povestiri Biblice, Societatea Biblica˘ din R. Moldova, Chis¸ina˘u, 1996.

13.4

Important websites

www.mecc.gov.md (Ministry for Education, Culture and Research) (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). www.ise.md (Institute of Education Sciences) (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). http://mitropolia.md/cabinetul-metodic-al-departamentului-mitropolitan-studii/ (Methodical Cabinet of the Metropolitan Department “Studies”) (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

References A fost constituit grupul de init¸iativa˘ care va colecta semna˘turi pentru predarea religiei %n ¸scoli. In Curierul ortodox, 2010, nr. 5. Achiri I., Nastas S., Botgros I., Crudu V. 2017. Repere conceptuale privind elaborarea curriculuimului la disciplinele opt¸ionale, Chis¸ina˘u. Avram F. 2016. Repere epistemologice ale normativita˘t‚ii %n s‚ tiint‚ele educat‚iei. Teza˘ de doctor %n s‚ tiint‚e pedagogice, Chis‚ ina˘u. Buzenco A. 2017, Formarea orienta˘rilor axiologice la pres¸colari din perspectiva etnopedagogiei familiei. Teza˘ de doctor in ¸stiint¸e pedagogice. Chis¸ina˘u. Cara A., Niculcea T. 2016. Educat¸ia moral-spirituala˘. Clasele I–IV. Ghidul %nva˘¸ta˘torului. Chis¸ina˘u. Codul Educat‚ iei al Republicii Moldova nr. 152 din 17. 07. 2014. In Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova nr. 319–324/634 din 24. 10. 2014. Constitut‚ia Republicii Moldova, adoptata˘ la 29.07.94. Republicat: Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova nr.78/140 din 29. 03. 2016. Costin G., 2013. Repere psihopedagogie pastorale ale educat¸iei pentru formarea personalita˘¸tii elevului prin prisma parteneriatului educat¸ional. In S¸coala ¸si Biserica: parteneriat pentru educat¸ie. 1700 de ani de la proclamarea Edictului de la Milan – model de

154

Nicolae Fus¸tei

tolerant¸a˘ ¸si de conlucrare %ntre Stat ¸si Biserica˘. Seminar metodologic republican. Edit¸ia a II-a, Chis¸ina˘u. Cra˘ciunean L.-M. 2013. Protect¸ia diversita˘¸tii culturale %n dreptul internat¸ional: modelul “unit¸i %n diversitate”, Bucures¸ti: Hamangiu. Cum sa˘-i %nva˘¸ta˘m pe copii religia. In Curierul Ortodox, nr. 16, 1996. Curriculum pentru disciplina “Etica viet¸ii de familie”, Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei, Chis¸ina˘u, 2017. Curriculum pentru disciplina opt¸ionala˘ “Arta comportamentului moral”, Clasele a V-a – IX-a”, Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei. Chis¸ina˘u, 2017. Curriculum ¸scolar. Clasele I–IX. Religia. Cultul ortodox, Ministerul Educat¸iei al Republicii Moldova. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei, Chis¸ina˘u, 2011. Cursul opt¸ional de religie va %ncepe %n octombrie cu manuale editate %n 2005, In Curierul Ortodox, nr. 8(229), 2010. Declarat¸ia Bisericii Ortodoxe din Moldova vizavi de predarea obligatorie %n ¸scolile de stat a disciplinei “Educat¸ia moral-spirituala˘”. In Steaua Betleemului, Edinet¸, 11 noiembrie 2000. Decretul Pres¸edintelui Republicii Moldova nr. 451, din 29 decembrie 1995 “Cu privire la crearea Comisiei pentru elaborarea propunerilor privind introducerea religiei ca obiect de studiu %n institut¸iile de %nva˘¸ta˘m.nt preuniversitar”, In Curierul Ortodox, nr. 2, 1966. Doibani T. 2013. O cultura˘ a mijloacelor sau o cultura˘ a scopurilor %n educat¸ie? In “S¸coala ¸si Biserica: parteneriat pentru educat¸ie: 1700 de ani de la proclamarea Edictului de la Milan – model de tolerant¸a˘ s¸i de conlucrare %ntre Stat s¸i Biserica˘”, seminar metodologic republican, Chis¸ina˘u. Doua˘ treimi din populat¸ia Republicii opteaza˘ pentru predarea religiei %n ¸scoala˘. Ce motive mai are puterea sa˘ boicoteze voint¸a poporului? In T¸ara, nr. 31, 19. 04. 1996. Educat¸ie interculturala˘. Curriculum ¸scolar. 2012. Clasele I–IX. Institutul de S¸tiint¸e ale Educat¸iei, Chis¸ina˘u. Eliade M. 1981. Istoria credint¸elor ¸si ideilor religioase, vol. I, Bucures¸ti. Eliade M. 1987. L’Epreuve du Labirinthe, Paris. Hunca˘ M. 2016. Forma˘ri profesionale continue ale cadrelor didactice centrate pe interconexiunea nevoilor personale s‚ i institut‚ionale. Teza˘ de doctor in ¸stiint¸e pedagogice, Chis¸ina˘u. 6nt.lnire la Pres¸edint¸ia Republicii Moldova. 1996. In Curierul Ortodox. Legea privind libertatea de cons¸tiint¸a˘, de g.ndire ¸si de religie nr. 125-XVI din 11. 05. 2007. In Monitorul Oficial nr. 127–130/546 din 17. 08. 2007. Materiale pentru ora de religie. In Curierul Ortodox, nr. 15, 1996. Mos¸in O. 2012. Tendint¸e ale implementa˘rii religiei %n %nva˘¸ta˘m.ntul preuniversitar din Republica Moldova. In S¸coala ¸si Biserica: Parteneriat pentru educat¸ie. Materialele Seminarului Metodologic republican din 06 septembrie 2012, Chis¸ina˘u. Population census, vol. I, 2004, Chis¸ina˘u, Statistica, 2006. Prepelit¸a˘ Corneliu. Diseminarea experient¸ei de implementare a curriculumului de Religie %n raionul Ungheni. In S¸coala ¸si Biserica: parteneriat pentru educat¸ie. Materialele Seminarului metodologic republican din 06 septembrie 2012. Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Regulamentul de organizare s¸i funct¸ionare a Cabinetului metodic al Departamentului studii al Mitropoliei Chis¸ina˘ului ¸si a 6ntregii Moldove. In S¸coala ¸si Biserica: parteneriat

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Moldova

155

pentru educat¸ie. Materialele Seminarului metodologic republican din 06 septembrie 2012. Chis¸ina˘u, 2012. Scrisoarea deschisa˘ a Mitropolitului Chis¸ina˘ului ¸si %ntregii Moldove Vladimir ca˘tre Pre¸sedintele Republicii Moldova, dl Mircea Snegur, Pres¸edintele Parlamentului, dl Petru Lucinschi, ¸si prim-ministru, dl Andrei Sangheli. In Moldova Suverana˘, Chis¸ina˘u, 18 noiembrie 1995. Se pare ca˘ religia va fi studiata˘ %n ¸scoala˘. In Curierul ortodox, 1999, nr. 9–14. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova, Biroul Nat¸ional de Statistica˘ al Republicii Moldova, Chis¸ina˘u, 2016. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. 2006. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union L 394, EN (30. 12. 2006): 10–8. http://eur-ex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/ 2006/l_394/l_39420061230 en00100018.pdf. Voicu O., Cash J., Cojocariu V. 2017. Biserica˘ ¸si Stat %n Republica Moldova, Centrul pentru Inovare Publica˘, Chis¸ina˘u.

Igor Metlik

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

1.

The socio-religious background

1.1

Introductory remarks

In order to describe of the socio-religious background of the Russian Federation (RF) and religious education (RE) it is necessary to take into account the changes caused by the collapse of the USSR. As a result of internal political processes, the country was divided into the RF and 14 other countries. The RF consists mainly of the territory of historical Great Russia (great in size). The Ukraine was created as a republic of the USSR by the Communists around the territories of Little Russia and was one of the centers of the Russian people and the state in ancient times. The word little here refers to the initial, indigenous part of Russia, the term was used in the administrative Church division of Russia during the period of the Russian Church’s entry into the Patriarchate of Constantinople. After 1991, the Russian people were divided and consequently the largest remaining religious community was the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC). Its canonical territory now covers the territory of the former USSR. The divisions also affected the Islamic community and a number of Muslim nations. The second point about understanding RE is this: Today in the RF under the law (On education in the RF 2012) RE is fully in the competence of religious organizations (ROs). This includes spiritual training of priests and a “religious component” in private schools.1 At the same time, there is a practice of teaching about religions in the joint competence of the state and the ROs. This involves teaching of religious culture of choice in state and municipal secondary schools and teaching of confessional theology (Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism) in higher 1 In the RF, secondary schools: 1) state – established by the state authority of the Federation or the Subject of the Federation (region), 2) municipal – established by the local self-government (municipality); most of these secondary schools, 3) private – are established by private individuals (physical or legal), including public organizations, including ROs.

158

Igor Metlik

education, including state universities. According to the law, this is not called RE. But here RE will be viewed from the perspective of understanding RE as education about religion with the participation of the respective ROs. In the RF the secular schools are called state and municipal schools. This includes the private schools founded by individuals declaring themselves areligious, except of course for ROs. In such understanding the term “secular school” (bSVcb[Qp i[_\Q) is not a synonym for an atheist school as it was in the USSR. It points to the founder of school, legal form of school or university, and does not treat the content of education about religion. Now RE can take place at secular school of the RF with participation (different) ROs.

1.2

The general dynamics of socio-cultural conditions in RF since the early 1990s in relation to religion can be characterized in the following provisions

1) in the RF, more than in other parts of the former USSR, there are obstacles to the development of RE as a consequence of 70 years of the state sponsored suppression of religion. Here the atheization of the society was the toughest and longest. The Church was forcibly isolated from society and school. As a result, in a large part of society in RF, the understanding of secular school as a school without religion or explicitly atheistic is preserved. It is still considered by many to be a place where religion cannot be studied as it is understood in religious communities, with the participation of the RO. 2) the structure of the attitude to religion in the RF was established by the early 2000s and has not changed significantly since then. 70–80 % of the population consider themselves religious, non-religious 20–25 %, of these 10 % consider themselves Atheist. 80–85 % of religious consider themselves Orthodox Christians, 5–10 % of Muslims. All others – about 5 %; less than 1 % in each separate community. They are followers of traditional religions of the peoples of RF (Buddhism, religions of the peoples of Siberia, the North), national communities (Armenian, Judaism, etc.), Catholicism, Protestantism of various directions, non-traditional groups. This is a weighted average assessment taking into account these authoritative sociological (VCIOM, 2008; Levada Center, 2012; FOM, 2013) and scientific centers (Institute of sociology of RAS, 2017). This is the potential of an educational request for RE based on the self-identification of citizens (the degree of real religiosity is not an essential feature for the implementation of RE, especially in a secular school). 3) regional factor. There are big differences in the preconditions of RE between various regions (85). Some part of them is objective: features of the territory,

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

159

population, relation to religions. The other part is subjective: the personal structure of the regional power, the features of the relation of the authorities in the region to religion, ROC, other ROs. In the RF the state system established in the USSR – “asymmetric federation” remains. 58 “ordinary” regions with mostly Russian population. And 27 “national” regions with the name of “title” non-Russian nationality which have a special status in many domains, including education, including conditions of RE. 4) legal migration to the RF and from the RF hasn’t significantly changed the conditions of RE. An essential portion of (from 1/3 to 1/2) lawful migrants in the RF are Russians. In recent years generally from Ukraine (RBC 2015; =igrant.ru 2017). The majority of illegal migration comes from centers of Islamic culture in Central Asia, but these migrants don’t generally apply for RE in the RF. Legal migration increases the number of carriers of Islamic culture among school students, but they participate in Islamic RE in accordance with general practice with carriers of Islamic culture among the people of the RF.

2.

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Legal guarantees of RE in the RF are regulated by the laws “On Freedom of Conscience and on Religious Associations” (1997) and “On Education in the Russian Federation” (2012). The first law regulates activity of ROs. Its norms concern general spiritual education, the training of clergy (priests, muftis, etc.). In Article 5 of the Law there is a legal norm on the possibility of “teaching religion” in secular schools by representatives of the ROs. But the lessons must take place outside of the school’s educational program and only in the classrooms of the school. Conditions for such studies are stipulated by the order of the Ministry (Order 2003 N 2833). The main condition is a written appeal of parents of children studying at this school. The school controls neither the content of the lessons (usually a type of catechesis) nor the employment of teachers. At the moment such lessons are extremely rare. In the profile law on education didn’t contain any norms on RE until 2012. The emergence of such norms in the new version of the law in 2012 brings with it changes in practice, the introduction of the complex of courses “Foundations of Religious Cultures and Secular Ethics” (ORKSE) in 4 classes of secular schools. ORKSE includes 6 elective subjects (modules): Foundations of Orthodox culture, Foundations of Islamic culture, Foundations of Buddhist culture, Foundations of Judaic culture, Foundations of secular ethics, Foundations of world religious cultures. The law follows the

160

Igor Metlik

“practice”, but doesn’t form it. But in the new law there is no RE definition. In fact, RE has been partially legitimized, so far only for private schools. A RE with the mutual participation of the state and the ROs is not defined in the law as RE. In this regard, even the title of the corresponding article is contradictory : “Article 87. Features of studying of bases of spiritual and moral culture of the people of the Russian Federation. Features of receiving theological and religious education”. The theology at the universities isn’t carried into RE. “Studying of bases of spiritual and moral culture of the people of the Russian Federation” belongs to ORKSE, studying of religious cultures for choice with some participation of ROs. Participation of the ROs in the teaching of religious cultures in secular school in the law is determined “indistinctly”. Examination in the ROs of the content of education on religious cultures is regulated only for approximate basic educational programs, where there is a thematic content of the course (p. 3, art. 87). But there is no such expertise of the Federal State Educational Standards (FGOS), as well as textbooks, which are prepared on the basis of this content. ROs are “involved” in the teaching and methodological provision of teaching (p. 6, art. 87). This is the development of textbooks, programs, including teacher training. But there are no clear rules: who engages them, what their rights are. ROs do not have the right to recommend school teachers on religious culture (this is still in part 10). Teachers can, if desired, undergo attestation in the ROs (p. 12, art. 87). At the same time, teachers of theology at universities are already “recommended by a religious organization” (p. 5, art. 87). Thus, the identity of training a teacher for the requirements of the RO is already guaranteed for teachers of theology in a secular higher school, but is not guaranteed for teachers of religious culture in a secular secondary school. The choice of one of subjects, courses, modules on “bases of spiritual and moral culture” is made by parents (lawful representatives) of school students (p. 2, art. 87). In ensuring this norm with the Ministry the letter with approximate Regulations of the choice at school is sent to regions (Letter 2015 N 08–461). The choice is recommended to be fixed in the written statement of at least one of the parents. The regulations provide for the possibility of participation of representatives from ROs in parent meetings, where they hold speeches about “their” subject. The disadvantage is that the regulations are not adopted as a normative act, the order of the Ministry. Therefore, there are no sanctions for its violation. Because of this, the right to choose in schools is not respected everywhere. For parents, the choice can be made by the teacher or the school administration. In the evaluation surveys, there are still between 1/4 and 1/3 parents who say that it is impossible to make a choice. This number is gradually decreasing. This indicator strongly differs in different regions. Thus, in

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

161

the region of Tatarstan, for example, it is prohibited to choose between the all four religious cultures. When the ORKSE was introduced the decision was made that one pupil is enough to start a class in one of six available subjects. In practice this has proven very difficult. There are not enough teachers and rooms available at most schools if all six subjects are chosen by the pupils of a given class. There are rural schools with a small number of children and teachers. It is more reasonable to determine the minimum number of pupils for whom the group on religious culture is created as it is in Germany for example: 6, 8 or 10 pupils in different states. As a result, it is usually almost impossible to provide freedom of choice for all 6 subjects. In practice the choice in a class (20–30 or more children) is limited to 2–3, or in rare cases to 4 subjects. In private schools RE can be realized in the variable part of the school curriculum (p. 7, art. 87). This part is formed by the “participants in the educational process”. This makes up, for example, 3–4 of the 30 lessons per week, which the school can manage independently. In a private school with a religious component, these hours are usually sent to PE. If the school it is established by the RO, then the religious component must be compulsory (p. 8, art. 87). The contents of RE, textbooks, methods in such schools are in the competence of the corresponding ROs (p. 10, art. 87). Such schools have the right to establish additional conditions of acceptance and expulsion of children, the rights and duties of pupils, “following from internal establishments of the corresponding RO” under whose authority these schools are (p. 11, art. 87) in the interests of implementing the RE. Thus, since 2012, the legislation of the RF has introduced legal norms on RE, on the authority of the ROs in the RE, but not under balanced conditions. While there are no guarantees of RE in a secular school, even in the form of teaching religious culture, full RE is allowed only in private schools, where it has been present since before 2012. The balance of powers of the state and ROs at secular school in teaching religious cultures is tilted to the power of the State. The status of a teacher of religious culture in a secular school is not defined. The teacher’s admission to teach by the RO is not fixed. The teacher has the option of undergoing a certification process in the RO, but it is not obligatory for his admission to teach. Also, the law does not fix the right of citizens to equal conditions for obtaining general education in state, municipal and private schools. The standards for the funding of private schools are set at the level of the region and depend on the attitude of local authorities to such schools. Education in them usually costs a fee. Taking into account the constitutional guarantees of the equality of citizens in the sphere of education, this can be assessed as actual discrimination based on the

162

Igor Metlik

attitude of citizens to religion for parents of children studying in private schools with RE (religious component). Nevertheless, the acceptance of the new edition of the law in 2012, with expelling the article about RE even in its unbalanced form, in a way marks a step in the development of RE in the RF, especially at secular school. For the first time, an examination of the content of education in the ROs (their expert structures) is recorded. The subject of expertise is formulated: correspondence to “dogma, historical and cultural traditions of this organization”. In ROC it is created and such organization works. In 2015 in ROs expertise of the Approximate Basic Educational Program of elementary school (1–4 classes) regarding the obligatory maintenance of subjects on religious cultures within ORKSE has been carried out for the first time. From other new provisions of the law about education in 2012, significant for RE, it is necessary to point out the norm on a family priority in education of children (art. 44). It matters for the right of a family for the choice of RE at school and also for protection against imposing atheistic not religious ideology at schools. Also in the law there was a prohibition to prevent teachers from providing unreliable or biased information about “religious and cultural traditions of peoples” (p. 3, art. 48). It is important that a number of norms of the law included the concept of “family” (art. 2, 12). In the interests of the family (formerly only state and society), education is carried out, the formation of educational programs, including in secular school. At the regional level in the RF there is practically no legal regulation of RE. Except in the regions of Chechnya and Ingushetia, where Islam was introduced in secular schools as a subject not only in 4 classes, but also in other years of study. National-religious communities can establish their own schools (national, ethno-cultural), both private and secular. They can implement the RE. But this opportunity is realized, in fact, only in the Jewish community in the form of about 100 schools and pre-school organizations that provide “Jewish national” education. It is a part of the RE of Judaism, depending on the type of the school. In conclusion, it should be noted that the model of formal equality in the legal sphere (“according to the law”) of all recognized ROs (p. 2, art. 14 of the Constitution of the RF) remains valid in the RF. There are no traditional religions corresponding to the ROs, as in most European countries. The special legal conditions for the interaction of the state with the main historical ROs (preferential model) are not fixed, including in the field of RE education. This model of state-confessional relations does not reflect the real situation, social needs and requires a change: the definition of a special legal status for the ROC and other traditional ROs in the RF, including the sphere of education, the guarantees of RE, especially in the secular school.

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

3.

163

Developments in the country’s education policies

The educational policy of the RF in the realm of RE remains a controversial topic. It can be characterized more in terms of constraining the development of RE than of developing it. This is due to both the specific features of the social and cultural background, as well as the limited possibilities for influencing this policy on the part of the ROs. This manifests itself in very long periods of time in the development of RE, a slow movement, especially for RE in a secular school. Thus, only in 2002 the state and the ROC agreed on the approximate content of education on the subject “Orthodox culture” for secondary schools (Letter 2002 N 14–52–876 Y^/16). This material did not introduce the teaching of Orthodox culture in schools. It is intended for developers of educational materials. But even its acceptance caused strong anti-church criticism. The Coordination Council of the ROC and the Ministry of Education, created during its development, ceased work after a while. After 5 years, in 2007, the ROC and the Ministry agreed on an Approximate Agreement (contract) on cooperation between the state government in the field of education in the region and the local RO (in the ROC-diocese) (Letter 2007 N 03–15844). This agreement included the teaching of religious (Orthodox) culture in secular school. It was just an example for the adoption of such agreements in the regions. It also did not guarantee anything in the teaching of religious culture in a secular school. But it mattered as a recognition by the state at the federal level of cooperation between the state and the ROs in the teaching of religious cultures in secular schools. In many regions at that time such interaction was perceived as impossible in a secular state. It is important to note that in this letter it was indicated that agreements on this form in the regions may be concluded with other ROs, not just the ROC. Also in 2007, after discussion at a special conference with participation of the management of ROC and the Ministry, the “call off” decision (Concept) on inclusion in the program of secular schools was made the group of subjects for choice (Concept 2007). According to the Concept there were 5 subjects: on Orthodox, Islamic, Buddhist, Judaic cultures and on secular ethics (ethics and philosophy). The resolution of 2007 declared the inclusion of these subjects in the curriculum and the introduction of a new Standard of general education. But the implementation of this decision has been delayed for 2 years. And when they returned to it, the Ministry didn’t begin to enter these objects consistently, about 1 or 2 classes and further. The small “experimental course” of ORKSE at the end of 4 and at the beginning of 5 classes has been offered only. Such an experiment took place in 2009–2011 in several regions.2 It was estimated as successful and 2 Information on testing of ORKSE: https://]Y^_Ra^Qd[Y.ae/[_\\VTYp/222/eQZ\/266/12.03.20þYXYV^[_.pdf (last accessed: 06. 11. 2018).

164

Igor Metlik

since 2012 the teaching ORKSE was extended to all regions. All lessons of the course (34) were decided to be taught only in the 4th class. At the same time this experimental format of teaching (2018) remains: 1 lesson a week (only 34 in a year) in the 4th class of 11 classes in secondary school. Earlier in 2006, the Ministry appealed to the Civic Chamber of the RF3 to make offers on teaching the religious cultures by the choice of the public. After the debate the Chamber supported the introduction of teaching religious cultures by choice, on the basis of voluntariness. It was even recommended to the Ministry “To make a legislative proposal on legal fixation in the federal legislation, with necessary extent of specification, an order of studying of religions in the state and municipal education system on a religious world outlook basis with participation of the religious organizations” (Proposals, 2007). That would mean legislatively to regulate the RE conditions in secular school within the frame of federal law. But this recommendation has not been executed by the Ministry. In 2017 ROC and ROs of Muslims and Buddhists have agreed on the offer on expansion of teaching religious cultures and secular ethics for choice on 5–9 classes of school. But so far it is also not accepted by the Ministry in which competence is the solution of this question. Concerning private schools periodically there were claims to them in connection with realization of RE from authorities in education, sometimes even law enforcement agencies (prosecutor’s office). In different occasions their rights for RE were called into question. With adoption of the new law on education (2012), the number of such claims and conflict situations has decreased. In some regions, cooperation between such schools and the authorities, secular schools on the implementation of ORKSE (private schools with RE as resource centers for training teachers on religious cultures) has been developed. At the same time there are indistinctly settled separate aspects of work of private schools with RE. The use of textbooks for RE, qualification of teachers, participation in teaching attendants of religion, etc. When assessing the trends in state policy in the sphere of RE in general we should recognize the existence of positive, but slow changes. In the RF, as well as in other parts of historical Russia (USSR) and also in the former European Socialist countries, the tendency of the society to return to traditional national and religious values remains. Therefore, the demand for RE won’t decrease, as in a number of countries of Western Europe. People who have endured the period of violent atheism and war with religion appreciate the importance of religion 3 The Civic Chamber of the RF is created and functions as representative body of civil society in the RF. She includes representatives of different public associations, the non-profit public organizations in different spheres, professional communities, etc., including the ROs. The composition of public representatives in the Chamber changes periodically. The website of the Chamber : https://www.oprf.ru (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

165

more. Despite formally stronger rupture of society with religion than in the countries which haven’t had such a negative experience. The trend of increasing the importance placed on traditional values has been reflected in some government documents. This is the Strategy for the Development of the Education of Children in the RF and the National Security Strategy of the RF, adopted in 2015. In the first Strategy it is specified that a problem of the state is formation of the personality, “dividing the Russian traditional values”. They aren’t named specifically, but from context one can tell that what is meant are the traditional values of the people of Russia, the Russian religions and the general, Russian civil values and norms (Constitution) which don’t contradict them. The need to update the content of education on the basis of Russian traditional values and participation in this traditional RO is stated. In the second document preservation of these values, their protection are called priorities of state policy in the sphere of safety. Here a conditional change of these values is given. Some of them have or may have a religious context: the priority of the spiritual over the material, the norms of morality, charity and justice. It also points out the need to improve the quality of teaching in history schools, as well as religious cultures and secular ethics for the formation of Russian traditional values among children. Strategies are not laws, they do not give guarantees to RE. But they have significance as declarations of the goals of state policy. If this trend persists, this should lead to measures of public policy to expand the possibilities and legal guarantees of RE. In general, these documents reflect the continuing contradictions in state policy on religion.

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

ROs supervise private schools with RE, at the same time there are features of functioning of schools with different confessional RE. Among all schools (about 40 000) in the RF there are about 500 private schools. 3/4 of them are located in Moscow and St. Petersburg. It is impossible to determine the exact number. Some are closed, others are open. One can have the license for education, but not have accreditation (the right to issue diplomas of general education). There are about 300 schools with RE. Almost all of such schools have fewer students than the average number of students in a secular school. In total, RE at private schools services less than 1 % of school students, it is less than 100 000 of a total of about 14–12 million. It is possible to speak about absence of significant RE at private schools in the RF as available general education so far. This situation has not

166

Igor Metlik

changed since private education was allowed (there were no private schools in the USSR). The main problem is the unequal funding of state, municipal and private schools. The subsidy received after accreditation of private school (fixing of the required quality of education) makes up 1/2 of all expenses on average. The other half is paid for by the parents for the maintenance of school buildings, repairs, utilities, and equipment. And at such schools there are usually more children from large families, with low incomes. The volume of subsidies to schools is defined at the level of the region. A lot of things depend on the relation of the school to the local officials. The sector of private schools with RE remains undeveloped in the RF. ROs cannot support a considerable network of such schools. Under the Constitution RF secondary education is obligatory therefore it is necessary to recognize a situation of discrimination. It is actually admitted on behalf of the state. For example, in 2012: “It is necessary to finally solve one fundamental, systemic issue – to equalize high schools (high school) and secondary schools created with the participation of religious organizations, with state organizations – both in matters of rent, and in access to budgetary funds, and for the salaries of teachers and teachers who teach subjects that are part of the Educational Standard. There should not be discrimination here.” (Transcript, 2012). However, the issue has not yet been resolved.

5.

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The concept of RE in private schools is based on the traditions of RE in the history of Russian education. For Christians, the study of religion in school is a historical norm and a thousand-year tradition of pedagogy and education in Russia. Starting from schools for children under the Kiev grand duke Yaroslav the Wise, almost from the time of the formation of the Russian state. The founder of Russian pedagogy K.D. Ushinsky (1832–1871) wrote about RE (knowledge of the bases of his religion) as a necessary subject in school. During the Soviet Union RE in secondary school was completely eliminated. In our time, the development of the RE for Russian Orthodox Christians in this context is seen as the restoration of the normal state of the Russian school. Before 1917, RE was diverse in Russia. But at the level of individual schools, rather than studying different religions in the school of choice. Thus, Muslims could receive RE in their schools. In all Russian schools (male and female gymnasiums, a real school, commercial school, etc.), the Law of God took from 1–2 to 2.5 lessons per week for years of training, with the participation of the Church (Ryzhakov, M.B., Zhurin A. A. 2012). The goal of the RE was integration into the religious com-

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

167

munity and the moral development of a Christian, a responsible member of society and a citizen of the state. These responsibilities were also taken on by schools for Muslims, with their own characteristics, for example, learning the basics of the Arabic language. In general, these tasks are being addressed in modern religious schools. But because of their small number, weak management on the part of the ROs (the most relevant is the schools with the Orthodox RE), the ideas of the founders, the leadership and the teaching staff also matter. The ROC is working on streamlining the work of schools with the Orthodox RE, building a system of continuous RE of the ROC (Orthodox education). From pre-school level to higher education on the basis of a unified methodology and theory. Of schools that have links with the ROC (established by parishes, dioceses or private individuals), most of the models are implemented by the Russian classical gymnasium until 1917 (extended study of humanitarian subjects, languages). Private schools with Islamic RE are very scarce (up to 10 in the country), there is almost no reliable data about them. The same situation can be witnessed in schools with Buddhist RE, they are practically non-existent. Against this background, the system of schools with RE in Judaism, organized and acting on the basis of unity theory and management in connection with the ROs of Judaism in Russia and the state of Israel. With all the differences in the types of Jewish schools (from ultra-religious to technological and other secular orientation), education of schoolchildren as investigators of Judaism is provided everywhere, taking into account the specifics of religious groups in Judaism. The theory of the teaching of religious cultures by choice in a secular school is not yet established in the RF as a pedagogical system. The aims of this theory are different. According to the practice that has developed after 1991, the teaching of religious culture in a secular school does not include “teaching religion” or the participation of students in divine services. There is no intention of initiating children or their families into the RO. The study of any religious culture can be chosen by the family. A declaration of religious affiliation is not required. It includes the study of the religious tradition as it is understood in the corresponding RO, the community, as well as orientation towards ethical norms and values in this tradition. In the history of Russian pedagogy and school there was no such practice. Teaching knowledge of religion as it is understood in the RO, but without a common prayer. Participating in divine services gives the opportunity to see the different goals of such education. From the simple familiarization of children with religion to becoming familiar with the religious culture under study. The latter position is typical, first of all, for the Orthodox community. The ROC is the main driving force for the development of RE in a secular school. An example of its expression in the speech of Patriarch Kirill is: “I draw your attention to the fact that in school sometimes when teaching the

168

Igor Metlik

course of the Bases of Orthodox culture, the study of Orthodox culture is replaced by a certain general religious course, proceeding from a secular approach to religion. In this case, the main goal is distorted … familiarizing the child with the tradition in which his family lives. We will have to patiently overcome these difficulties.” (Report 2012). It is obvious that the main goal of RE in a secular school for Christians is to reproduce the Christian community, as well as for other religious communities. This purpose doesn’t contradict the formation of responsible, law abiding and morally reliable citizens. It only contradicts the purpose of shaping children into “citizens of the world”, without national and religious identity. Teaching about religious culture of choice (without “religion training”) can be considered a stage in the development of a full-fledged RE in a secular school by supporters of RE development. They hope it will take a form similar to what it was until 1917 and in modern school in a number of European countries today. Criticism of teaching religious cultures by choice is naturally expressed by atheists. This is evaluated as “clericalization” of secular school, “introduction of the Church in secular school”. There is also criticism from the religious part of society. Some criticise the potential profanation of RE in this form, without “teaching religion” as religious practice. In the Islamic community the relation to teaching religious cultures at secular school for choice is changing. In 2009 at the beginning of the introduction of ORKSE almost all Islamic organizations and experts spoke against such a form. The motives were different. It is an uncertainty of the RO in the opportunity to provide adequate participation in education, and the inability to agree with the free choice of the course of RE by parents of school students. In some part – settling on the development of the system of private schools with Islamic RE, like the system of schools with RE of Judaism. In public statements, Islamic leaders talked about the danger of provoking interreligious and interethnic tension if schools by teaching different religious cultures by the choice of the parents. At the present time the relation of Islamic community in this question has become more positive and understanding of this practice as tool for the development Islamic education at secular school of the RF. Some negative assessments of the teaching of religious cultures as a possible cause of “separation” among children and teachers are maintained by representatives of the specialists of Judaism. First of all, the Federation of Jewish religious organizations of Russia (FEOR). As an alternative, the teaching of one subject that includes all religions is offered. At the same time, FEOR oversees the system of Jewish education, built on the principle of “separate national and religious school”. Including secular schools in which other religions are not studied in depth, except Judaism. This position was criticized in the ROC as contradictory (Interfax-religion 19. 02. 2008). Despite this, the FEOR is involved in ORKSE with the subject (module) at the option of the Foundations of Judaic culture. In 2018,

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

169

the representatives of FEOR already positively assessed the experience of the implementation of ORKSE in the 4th class positively, but continued to speak against expansion of teaching on 5–9 classes, expressing the same fears. The opinion that teaching religious cultures of choice can provoke divisions and conflicts in society and school, was raised as the main objection against the introduction of ORKSE. After the realization of ORKSE in 2009–2011 this opinion has been officially recognized as incorrect. The high representative of the Ministry publicly stated that the implementation of ORKSE did not separate pupils and teachers: “We remember how high the level of uneasiness was in society, voices were heard about the introduction of religion to schools, about confessional division of school students and the conflicts, probable on this soil, between them … The facts speak for themselves today. In two years of approbation in which about half a million school students have taken part there was no conflict connected with this programme. 98 % of teachers were positive viewed it favourably. 81 % of school students expressed a strong desire to continue studying the course… We not only haven’t divided school, but have considerably rallied school, family and society” (Report 24. 01. 2012). The representative of the Ministry meant results of monitoring (Parents’ attitudes toward the teaching of ORKSE. Civic Chamber of the RF, 2010; Sociological studies of approbation of ORKSE. RAGS, 2010) of the relation to ORKSE. Despite these results, speculation about “division” still periodically arises in society and the media. In the scientific community of the Russian Federation there is a campaign focusing on “non-confessional RE” without participation of ROs (for example Kozyrev F.N., 2005). This approach to RE is treated as “education about religion” without communication with the respective RO. It can also be understood as atheistic education, like “scientific atheism” in the USSR. The scientific character at the same time is given only to religious philosophy (in the Russian Federation – “religious studies”), to education on the basis of judgment of religion from a non-religious world outlook and methodological approaches (positivism, evolutionism). The education with participation of ROs is considered apologetic and unscientific. Given this understanding of RE no persons or organizations with any relation to religion can be engaged in it. It is also considered unscientific to teach about religious cultures in comprehensive schools, and theology at the higher school. In modern conditions such an approach doesn’t correspond to the trend of restoration of influence of religion and Church in society. According to our opinion, it reflects tendencies in the West (refusal of confessional objects under control or with participation of certain ROs in secular school) which is noncritically transferred to the RF.

170

6.

Igor Metlik

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

There are about 200 private schools currently under control of the ROC with up to 50 thousand school students. The local diocese is most often the founder or the church parish, the monastery, public organization (orthodox fund, etc.) or individual. RE provides participation of school students in church services. Qualification of teachers, textbooks on RE lie within the competence of the ROC. At the accredited schools FGOS of the general education is carried out. The religious component in the form of the subjects RE is implemented in a variable part of the curriculum. There are 3 main subjects: Bases of orthodox belief (an analog of the Law of God until 1917), Church singing and Church Slavonic language. The variable component of the curriculum occupies from 1–2 to 4–5 lessons per week for different years of training. The teaching of each of these subjects is conducted usually no more than 1 lesson in a week. The subject of the Foundations of orthodox belief endures almost by all years of training. The Church singing is usually not as comprehensive. Church Slavonic language lasts for 3–4 years, usually in 5–8 classes. As already indicated, according to the law the ROC conducts the confessional certification of such schools, gives them a confessional representation – a document confirming the implementation of the RE at the school of the ROC in accordance with the dogma, historical and cultural traditions of the ROC. Such certification is carried out by the Synodal Department of Religious Education and Catethetics of the ROC.4 Programs for subjects with a religious component, the Church Standard of education at school with RE ROC are developed (Standard Orthodox component 2011). However, there is no single set of textbooks for children and manuals for teachers to ensure the teaching of the main course of RE. Teaching is conducted using different textbooks, educational materials, including those prepared in the schools themselves. Among secular schools there are several municipal schools (10–20 in the country), where Orthodox culture is taught more than in other schools, both during all the years of schooling and in additional school education. The conditions for studying Orthodoxy in such schools are approaching conditions in private schools with Orthodox RE. The establishment of such schools is usually associated with a request for such a general education from an active group of Orthodox families, parents and support from the municipal authorities. But the number of such schools, as it is said, is very small. Jewish education includes obligatory studying of Judaism. There are preschools, secondary schools, higher education institutions under the control of FEOR and other Jewish ROs in RF. This includes both private and secular 4 https://pravobraz.ru/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

171

schools. In total, there are about 50 such secondary schools in RF. Of these, a few are traditionally ultra-religious (usually private). There are schools of scientific and technological orientation (a network of “Jewish schools ORT”), and other orientations. About 15 thousand children study there. The main subject of Judaism “Tradition” is usually taught in all years of study. Also, the study of humanitarian subjects in such schools (and secular) is carried out in connection with the study of the history and culture of Judaism: History and tradition, Literature and tradition, etc. Accredited schools also comply with the State Educational Standard (FGOS) of general education in the RF. The practice of private schools with Islamic, Buddhist RE as already mentioned is practically nonexistent. Conventionally, schools with Islamic RE include municipal schools in Ingushetia and Chechnya, where the local leadership of Islamic RE has been introduced for different years of study. Here the state provides RE at a regional level. ROs and parents can participate, but their contribution is not essential. Teaching of religious culture at secular schools originally began in the 1990ies at the initiative of teachers and parents of school students at some schools, the cities, regions with assistance of the local religious communities, dioceses. The course of the Foundations of Orthodox culture (?@;) was taught at the expense of class periods in a variable part of the school curriculum. These are several lessons in a week which maintenance is defined by school and which are intended for satisfaction of special interests of “participants of education”, families of school students. This practice gradually spread. In the middle of the 2000s, the teaching of various courses on Orthodox culture began to be introduced in the regions of Central Russia in the regional part of the school curriculum (2 lessons per week), which is administered by the regional authorities. So, in 2006 in the Belgorod region the teaching of Orthodox culture was introduced from the 2nd to the 11th grade (1 lesson per week). In these regions, the centralized and mass training of teachers began with the participation of the ROC. But this development was interrupted in 2007, when by the decision of the federal authorities the regional part of the school curriculum was abolished. The practice of studying religions in secular school of the RF by 2007, including some regions, is presented in detail in the Civic Chamber of the RF on the basis of generalization of information from almost regions of the RF (Preliminary results of monitoring 2007). This material is still the most informative and reliable. Since 2012, ORKSE is being implemented in 4 classes of secular schools. In comparison with the 2007 Concept it takes the changes made under the influence of opponents of RE into account. Instead of 5 elective subjects there were 6. The subject “for all religions” was added. All 6, in essence, different subjects, are combined into a “comprehensive course” with several general lessons at the beginning and end of the course. As a result, 28 lessons remain for the study of

172

Igor Metlik

one’s “own” religious culture (Training program of course ORKSE, 2009). These changes in 2009 reduced the ability of the ROs to influence the content of “their” subjects and the training of teachers. Instead of elective subjects, as was the case in the 2007 Concept, ORKSE uses the term “modules”. The choice of the module (subject) that a child will study in the 4th grade is done by the parents at a meeting, which must take place at the school. Representatives of ROs can participate in it. The choice is fixed in a written statement. About 40 % of parents choose the Basics of secular ethics, 15–20 % of the Basics of world religious cultures, about 40 % – religious subjects (modules). The choice of confessional modules differs approximately by an order of magnitude (in detail in part 11). The choice is different in different regions and schools, especially if the influence of administrations and teachers is strong. The introduction of ORKSE in the form of an experiment in a number of regions since 2009 has been accompanied by problems, but it should be noted that no other innovation since the beginning of the 1990ies has received as much support of society in the Russian school as this project. In 2010, two independent sociological surveys were conducted (A sociological study of the progress of the testing ORKSE. rags, 2010; Parents’ attitudes toward the teaching of ORKSE. Civic Chamber of the RF, 2010), in which the majority of the participants, first of all parents, supported this practice. They stated that it is useful and should be developed. The essential strength of ORKSE is the participation of the ROC organizations in supporting Orthodox cultural instruction in schools. Representatives of the ROC participate in parent meetings. Then, if there is a choice of Orthodox culture, the ROC helps teachers. There are consultations on the content of the course, additional materials, organization of visits to temples, monasteries, to other places of worship and important places. Teaching of Islamic and Buddhist culture is carried out in approximately the same form, mainly in regions of compact settlement of these religious groups. Teaching the Basics of Jewish culture in ORKSE is implemented to a very limited degree. Since the beginning of the experiment in 2009, coordination bodies have been created, including the All-Russian Methodical Association for ORKSE, which includes representatives and specialists of the ROs – ROC, the Council of Muftis of Russia (CMR), the Central Spiritual Board of Buddhists (CSBB), FEOR. They played a big role in the introduction of ORKSE in coordinating the positions of confessions and the state without overlooking certain conflicts between ROs. Currently, the activities of these bodies are actually frozen, because the teaching of ORKSE is not yet expanding to other classes of the school, and the main problems with the teaching of ORKSE in 4 classes have already been solved. In FGOS (Educational Standard) of the main school (5–9 classes) since 2010 includes a mandatory subject area “Foundations of Spiritual and Moral Culture

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

173

of the People of Russia”. Actually – the same as ORKSE. But until a decision is made on the subjects that fill this subject area, it will not be implemented. In 2017 representatives of the ROC, the Islamic and Buddhist ROs have agreed on offers on realization in 5–9 classes of five subjects for choice: Orthodox culture, Islamic culture, Buddhist culture, Judaic culture, Secular ethics. In continuation of ORKSE in elementary school (1–4 classes). In February 2018 the special conference for the discussion of expansion of teaching on 5–9 classes with participation of the Ministry of Education and Interreligious Council of Russia (=BA) took place, but the decision hasn’t been made yet. A place where religious culture can be also present in the school in addition to ORKSE are free lessons (hours) available to the school. According to normative documents from 2015 for schools with a 5-day or 6-day training week it is from 1 to 3 free lessons per week in the 2–4th classes and from 1 to 5 lessons per week for different years of study in the 5–9th classes. The school can use these hours to teach about Orthodox Christianity or other religious cultures. There are textbooks for the teaching of Orthodox culture for all years of training at school and even for classes with children in preschool. There are several educational sets (A.V. Borodina and coauthors, L.L. Shevchenko and coauthors) allowed for use at secular schools. They can be bought using budgetary funds for textbooks in other obligatory subjects. It is estimated that this is an insignificant practice. For example, in Moscow Orthodox culture is taught in classes 5 through 9 at approximately at 20–30 schools out of several thousand. The introduction of this kind of teaching at school, which constitutes a continuation after ORKSE in the 4th class, depends on a complex of conditions in order to succeed. These are: the broad and reliable choice of Foundations of Orthodox culture by parents in the 4th class within ORKSE, the presence of the trained and motivated teachers wishing to teach Orthodox culture in the 5th class further and the support of administration. New textbooks for classes 5, 6, etc. are published in educational publishing houses. This practice can form a basis for the expansion of the elective teaching of religious cultures and secular ethics at all schools when such a decision is made. Such a significant practice of teaching Islamic or Buddhist culture using relevant textbooks is not yet common. There is minimal experience of teaching non-confessional courses in schools about religion, comparative religion and the history of religions. Information about this for 2006 can be found in the above study of the Civic Chamber of the RF (Preliminary results of monitoring 2007). Since then, there have been no significant changes in this practice. The next level of practice, which is also part of the variable part of the school program, are extracurricular activities or additional education. This is a class in the afternoon at the request of children that have chosen different elective subjects. Some of these activities treat religious culture explicitly, others may

174

Igor Metlik

focus on the study of the history and culture of the region, or on such topics as art, literature, etc. The school must implement such additional education. But in practice it all depends on the request from children, parents and the availability of teachers ready to conduct such classes. This practice is broader, but even more unstable than the lessons of the school’s choice. Schools with extracurricular courses about religion are estimated to be several times more common than schools where religious culture is studied in the form of a regular lesson. Usually if the school offers lessons on religious culture in the school part of the curriculum, which means that these lessons are in the form of additional classes.

7.

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

In 2012 the law on education (in p.1, art. 87) for the first time explicitly mentioned subjects, courses and modules that constitute possible “alternatives” to studying of religious cultures (basis of spiritual and moral culture of the people of Russia) at the choice of family of the school student. In ORKSE there are 2 such “modules”: the basics of secular ethics and the basics of world religious cultures. Institutionalization of subjects in secular ethics and in religious studies has been associated with the introduction of ORKSE. Before that, there was minimal experience in teaching morality courses in schools, also fixed by the specified material of the Civic Chamber of the RF (Preliminary results of monitoring 2007). In the author’s educational sets (E.P. Kozlov with employees, A.I. Shemshurina with the employees) courses of ethics were formed generally on the basis of “universal values”. A number of textbooks on religious studies have been developed (A.E. Kulakov, A.N. Sakharov, A.O. Chubaryan, etc.) for the senior classes. All these courses at the school’s choice were implemented in the minimum number of schools. When developing the first school standards after the USSR in 1999, there was an attempt to include the course “Morality” in the curriculum as mandatory (Educational standards of schools of Russia, 1998), but it was unsuccessful. The replacement of Communist morality with a “Humanist”, secular-atheist approach as mandatory for all, did not find enough support. Among them are sectarian courses (the Korean sect “Unification Church” by S. Mun, followers of the occult teachings of the Roerichs “Living Ethics”, etc.). When ORKSE was introduced in 2009, the first textbook on the Basics of secular ethics5 was unsuccessful and was later removed from the Federal list of textbooks. The textbook provided readers with a philosophical and secular take

5 https://studfiles.net/preview/4190569/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

175

on ethics, very much unlike the RF civil ethics course. The courses based on this textbook were intended for children aged 10–11, but included abstract philosophical questions about the sources of morality, the origin of good and evil, which were inaccessible to children of this age and not deemed significantly useful for the formation of civil moral values. In the development of modules, the ORKSE was tasked with providing consistency of values. This is possible if secular ethics is understood as a form of civil education, generally accepted and legalized in the law. First and foremost, in the Constitution: basic rights, freedoms, duties of man and citizen in society. Civil ethics, if formulated as a universal part of people’s traditional culture, including the religions in a given country, does not include an atheistic critique of religion (humanism as a philosophical doctrine, not a moral principle, secularism, liberalism as ideological doctrines, etc.), and then, the civil ethics course need not contradict the morality of religions. This adjustment was reflected in the instructional materials of the Ministry : “The main methodological principle of implementing the ORKSE is a cultural science approach that fosters the formation of initial ideas about Russian secular (civil) ethics based on constitutional rights and freedoms of a person and citizen in the Russian Federation” (Letter 2012 N 08–250). The content of the module Bases of World Religious cultures has been corrected since 2010 to include educational subjects about “ancient religions”, these are the nonconventional religions in the Russian Federation (Hinduism, Shintoism, etc.). This subject is seen as unnecessary in elementary school by many experts and teachers. It is overloaded with information and is of minimal importance for the moral development of students at such a young age. The necessary knowledge about religions in Russia and in the world should be transmitted to students in compulsory courses of Russian history, General history and Social science. These include topics about religion and ROs. Additional knowledge on religions in the RF, especially the teachings on morality, as well as topics on the history of non-religious ethical teachings can be integrated into the subject of Secular ethics in high school (content of the subject in Secular ethics for 5–11 classes yet). In the scientific pedagogical community the development of a basic course of the Russian civil ethics on 5–9 classes is relevant. Without it as an alternative, the expansion of teaching religious cultures is impossible. The maintenance of such a course is being discussed in view of the experience of other countries that have realized a subject of general civil educational orientation. The corresponding developments are offered in this direction (As an example Metlik 2018).

176

8.

Igor Metlik

Dealing with religious diversity

Religious diversity within the framework of ORKSE in the 4th class includes orthodox Christianity, Islam, the Buddhism, Judaism. In the RF there are other communities, larger than the community of Judaism for example, but they do not claim to teach their religious culture in a secular school. The first coordination structures, in which interaction with the ROs in the field of education began, were established in 2009 with the beginning of the ORKSE experiment. Interfaith interaction has to be extended if teaching is expanded, at least on classes 5–9. ROs reach a certain unity, performed with the coordinated positions. First of all, ROC, ROs of Buddhists and Muslims. The Jewish RO is a peculiarity in the terms of RE in a secular school. Specific issues of teaching religious cultures in terms of the content of education, the quality of teaching, textbooks, monitoring of teacher training are discussed by the representatives of the ROs together with other specialists within the framework of the All-Russian Methodological Association for ORKSE. Discussion materials, protocols are available on the profile site of ORKSE (ORKSE. Website). The question of representation of religious diversity in the maintenance of ORKSE modules continues to be relevant. As indicated, ORKSE includes 4 confessional modules. There are offers to add information on other religions even to these modules. There have been and there still are proposals to add information on other religions even to these modules. Then there will be even less time for the study of the core religion being taught about. Generally such offers are put forth by opponents of RE. In ROC they are perceived as the movement towards a uniform “ecumenical” course about religion which actually would make RE with participation of ROs virtually impossible. In the ROC speak about the unacceptability of such changes, “blurring” the identical content of the subject on Orthodox culture. Back in 2008, Patriarch Alexy II spoke about this: “We are offered a common course that would assess all religions from the standpoint of ‘objectivism’, but in fact – secular agnosticism, which is ideologically unacceptable for a believer” (Interfax-religion 24. 04. 2008). Patriarch Kirill spoke about the same in the above quote, the danger of replacing the study of Orthodox culture with a common course, based on a secular approach to religion. However, such attempts continue. Under the condition of not yet having restored Orthodox RE at secular school in pedagogically reasonable volume and quality, with optimum participation of ROC, the question of religious diversity in the maintenance of a school course RE for the ROC and Orthodox community is irrelevant. At the same time, there is an understanding that restoring RE for all years of training at high school in necessary volume (1–2 lessons a week) requires a certain knowledge of other religions and an acquaintance with other religious cultures. A main goal of school

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

177

RE is the formation of a concrete religious and cultural identity for the child with assistance of the family and the corresponding RO, religious community. In the process of introducing ORKSE, problems were identified and solved precisely in connection under the RO’s participation in teacher training (let me remind you, there is no status of a teacher of a particular religion or religious culture in a secular school). Lecturers from the ROs in the preparation of teachers allow criticism of other religions, at least indirectly : our religion is the oldest or the youngest and therefore it is implied to be the only true one, etc. It became clear that in the maintenance of the ORKSE confessional modules and training of teachers it is necessary to exclude comparative information. It always bears the potential of a discussion about “best” or “true” religion. In groups of children and teachers this discussion can easily become an unproductive distraction. Representatives RO should talk to the teachers lectures only “their” own religion. Also it isn’t necessary to include comparative material about other religions in textbooks in order to avoid distortions and the conflicts. Now there is only very little general material in all textbooks on all ORKSE modules that in RF there are traditional religions, their followers with the cultural features. In the context of understanding unity of the society of the RF, mutual respect of religious, cultural features of fellow citizens. Comparative material, perhaps, will be useful in high school, but only in very tactful form. It must be kept in mind that three of four confessional objects in ORKSE are biblical or Abrahamic religions (Abrahamic). And these religions claim ownership of the same historical religious inheritance. They share many of the same characters and events, but these are treated variously and sometimes even antithetically. Beyond the scope of the main situation in the RF in the 1990ies – the beginning of the 2000 years there were attempts of the RE organization with participation of nonconventional faiths, for example schools with studying of Krishnaism (gurkula), but these have been unsuccessful so far.

9.

Religion in schools outside of RE

In private schools with RE, the school’s rituals and habits are linked to religion, the religious community (internal regulations, the design of school premises, the etiquette of relations between teachers and students, optional classes after compulsory lessons and activities outside the school, etc.). In private schools with the Orthodox RE there is a priest who guides the spiritual life of the school. This is one of the requirements of the confessional expertise of the ROC. Teaching of the basic educational subjects, first of all in the humanities is connected with religion. To do this, additional training materials are used. Lessons begin with prayer. School students participate in church services and religious

178

Igor Metlik

actions. The diet at school considers religious holidays and posts. The right to do this was affirmed in the law on education in 2012. At the same time, all general activities of a civil character are carried out at the school. State and regional holidays are celebrated. Similar educational conditions are created in Jewish national-religious schools, including secular ones. But all this applies to 200–300 schools in the country. At secular schools the place of religion outside one lesson a week of ORKSE in the 4th class (if at school it is still chosen and some religious culture within ORKSE is taught), maybe over a wide range, is defined by local conditions at concrete school. In an obligatory part of school education school students gain certain knowledge of religions when studying humanitarian objects, first of all, History and Social sciences (the general social and humanitarian subject on fundamentals of jurisprudence, cultural science, political science, sociology, economy), Literatures and the Arts (Music, Fine arts). But by the tradition remaining since the Soviet period the school course of history is still built on a materialistic conceptual basis. Knowledge of religion, the spiritual life of people and societies are introduced in the last sections of chronological courses. They have “secondary” character in comparison with political history and economy. The course on the History of Russia includes mandatory topics about religion to a limited degree and not throughout the course. Approximately from the 18th century onwards it is not obligatory to study religion or the Church. The topic of religion is presented indirectly, in connection with changes in political life. Therefore so far it is impossible to speak about an opportunity to gain sufficient knowledge of religion, religious culture, ROs when studying the main humanitarian objects in secondary school. This situation is changing slowly, but so far without obvious results. More knowledge of religion can be given at schools of humanitarian orientation, gymnasiums, but this is an exception. Holidays at school, out-of-school actions with children can be related to religion. In the RF Christmas a state holiday. Several other holidays also have religious connotations. The Day of Slavic writing and culture (in memory of the enlighteners of the Slavs, saints Cyril and Methodius, creators of Slavic alphabet), the Day of family, love and fidelity (memory of Saints Pyotr and Fevroniya Muromskikh). The main Christian holiday The Resurrection of Christ (Easter) in RF is not a state one, but can be celebrated at schools in the form of different actions: children’s art representations, performances, exhibitions, etc. At the regional level field trips within the region with religious content can be added. In a number of regions there are Muslim and Buddhist holidays. The scale and content of actions depends on the national and religious list, the relation to religion of teachers and parents. There are no tough standards, including participation in actions of representatives of ROs.

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

179

There are thematic competitions for students and teachers. Since 2006, the All-Russian Olympiad on the Foundations of Orthodox culture has been held. It includes school, municipal, regional and federal stages. It is supervised by the Orthodox St. Tikhon Humanities University. The finals and awarding of winners usually takes place in Moscow. The decision to participate is made at school, usually by teachers. Dioceses are involved in the regional stage. There is an AllRussian competition of children’s drawings with the participation of ROC called “Beauty of God’s World”. There is also an All-Russian competition for teachers and specialists in the field of teaching Orthodox culture and Orthodox education called “For the moral feat of the teacher.” In some regions there are similar regional competitions. The official documents from 2010 indicate the possibility of participation in the educational activities of the secular school of ROs, as an institution of public participation, along with institutions of culture, sports, etc. The Approximate Program of Elementary School has included the provision that the educational institution can interact with traditional ROs. Similar provisions are also included in the subsequent programs for initial and the main (5–9 classes) school (Federal register). Religious ceremonies, service, prayers in secular schools-this are a rare practice. Formally, there are no legal prohibitions on it. The law prohibits the creation and activity of ROs in secular schools, but these rules allow for different interpretations. There are have been attempts by the administration to prohibit a religious official from attending school on the basis of this rule. But these are rare cases. Priests of the ROC and representatives of other religions can enter schools, participate in parent meetings, meet with schoolchildren and parents in the after-hour activities, if there is an invitation and the need for parents, teachers and the administration.

10.

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

For private schools with a religious component under the control of the ROs, teachers are usually selected by the school administration from among persons with pedagogical and theological education. In the ROC there is no centralized system for the training of teachers of religion for such schools (remember there are only 200 in the entire country). The Teachers of religion at such schools are professional teachers who got also an education at spiritual schools (seminary, ROC academy) or Orthodox theological education at theological faculties at the universities. In other case it can be also the priests who got or having secular

180

Igor Metlik

pedagogical education or just university diploma, not obligatory on pedagogics. Requirements to teachers of religion at such schools are admitted to ROC. These requirements are included in structure of requirements for providing confessional certification of ROC to school, delivery of Confessional representation of ROC by it. These requirements provide existence of theological education (at spiritual schools ROC) or secular education according to the state educational standard of the higher education “Theology”. For the quality of teaching religious culture it is important to have pedagogical education. Graduates of theological institutions find it difficult to adapt to teaching children at school and are reluctant to work in schools. The best solution would be to establish a special Church pedagogical Institute in the future. Islamic, Buddhist ROs also do not specifically prepare school teachers, as there are practically no such schools in the RF. In schools with the study of Judaism there is a system of training and qualification of teachers associated with the relevant ROs and system in Israel. Teachers are trained in the regions for religious cultures (mainly Orthodox) in the form of short-term courses conducted by state and municipal organizations for existing teachers. Representatives of ROs can participate in it. The largest number of such courses took place in several regions, where the teaching of Orthodox culture was introduced in 2007 within the regional component of the school curriculum (Belgorod, Smolensk, Tver, etc.). Since 2009, the largest training course for teachers is being conducted to teach ORKSE. However, in this case, this is usually done without dividing the teachers into teachers of a particular religious culture and non-confessional subjects (modules). Thus, while in RF there is no professional status “teacher of religious culture”. The “teachers of ORKSE” are prepared to adopt this title. They have the right to teach all 6 modules of ORKSE. The duration of training is often 70 hours in the form of “increase in professional qualification”. Taking into account the preparation on the general questions (standard, methodical) and on all ORKSE modules on preparation on each religious culture there are only 5–6 hours. It is clear that with such preparation the teacher can’t qualitatively teach concrete religious culture. Monitoring shows that not even all the teachers teaching ORKSE modules receive 70 hours of preparation. Usually elementary school teachers (1–4 classes) teach almost all other objects at elementary school. A smaller part consists of the teachers teaching the main subjects to basic (5–9) and senior (10–11) classes. Also, while the problem remains the teacher’s motivation to teach religious culture, on which can depend the success in teaching and educating children in these lessons. Since teachers are not yet eligible from the RO for teaching, they often take these lessons just to get paid for this school hour, not to give it to another teacher. By experience of training of teachers in regions, teachers are fully ready to teach a course of religious culture if they have prep-

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

181

aration on this religious culture in volume of not less than 400–500 hours. Even for teaching only a short module of only 30 hours. Motivation should be related to the religious affiliation of the teacher, his acceptance of this religious tradition as his or her own. But so far the ROC and other ROs are not allowed to determine which teachers should teach the relevant religious cultures in the ORKSE or in other classes at the choice of school. The law on education (part 12 of Art. 87) contains a legal norm on certification of teachers of religious culture in the RO. But – at the request of the teacher, in the formulation that the teacher “can” pass such certification. A certificate of successful completion of such certification is not required for the teacher to be admitted to teach religious culture at school. Therefore, this rule is not applied in practice. However, since this rule is included in the law, the ROC issued requirements for such certification of teachers, a document on its procedure (Provision 06. 06. 2014). It is obvious that these documents will become “working” when certification in ROs becomes obligatory for teaching by the teacher of religious culture. Including the interest of the ROC, the Orthodox community in the orthodox teacher of Orthodox culture, there is a tendency towards proficiency in the training of teachers. After a general training for 70 hours, teachers who teach the Bases of Orthodox culture can be trained additionally only for Orthodox culture. Such profile courses are developed and implemented in the regions, first of all, where the choice of the Bases of Orthodox culture is the maximum. Similarly, groups of teachers can be formed for specialized training in the Bases of Islamic culture, Bases of Buddhist culture, taking into account the choice in schools in regions and districts. In 2017, the Federal Academy for the advanced training of teachers, with the participation of the All-Russian Methodological Association for ORKSE, prepared an approximate program for the upgrading of teachers’ qualifications to 144 hours. The first half of the program is teacher training on general issues, the second 72 hours is training on one specific module. The ROC expresses interest that the teacher should teach one religious culture close to him or her. Together with it he can teach Foundations of secular ethics and Foundations of world religious cultures. This means that the maintenance of secular ethics is based on general civil values, not on “philosophical atheism”. Similarly on other religious cultures. This position is indirectly recorded in the program stated above for 144 hours. Within ORKSE there are 4 profiles of preparation, on four religious cultures and alternative subjects. Such format of preparation is optimal. According to it, the training of teachers can also be carried out at higher schools, institutes and universities. In 2012 after the experiment with ORKSE the decision on development of the program of a pedagogical bachelor’s degree for 4 years was made. The program is developed on the specified 4 profiles, but so far it hasn’t been implemented. At an academic load of ORKSE of 34 lessons in total there is presently no reason to train

182

Igor Metlik

teachers for 4 years. The situation will change only with teaching expansion to at least classes 5–9. There is a single experience of implementing such a program in the private Orthodox St. Tikhon Humanities University. It is the main university in the RF under control of ROC. Since 2013 the program of a pedagogical bachelor degree for a preparation profile “Religious culture, ethics, cultural and educational and voluntary activity at school” has been implemented here.6 Actually this program matters as the approved program for training of school teachers of Orthodox culture and secular ethics in the future. At the ORKSE expansion it can be delivered at other universities and also serve as a form of development of similar programs for training of teachers of other religious cultures. In the future, teacher training can be carried out both within the framework of the bachelor’s degree and together with the training of teachers in other basic subjects (History, Literature, Art). Students can choose an additional specialization in one of four profiles on different religious cultures according to personal preferences and attitude to religion. Teacher training for the teaching of religious culture can be conducted in private non-governmental institutions, including non-church groups, if they have a license and the right to educational activity. But their diplomas cannot always be taken into account by the educational authorities and schools. Also, we should separately say something about the training of teachers for teaching Islamic culture in the secular schools of Ingushetia and Chechnya, which lie outside the framework of ORKSE. These teachers are supervised by Islamic ROs or are consistent with them. There aren’t only school teachers, but also ministers of religion without a pedagogical education. Such teachers are trained on the basis of state and municipal institutions of professional education and advanced training of teachers.

11.

Empirical research concerning RE

The most reliable data, statistics on RE and techniques of teaching religious cultures in secular school is collected in the Federal Ministry by pulling together data from the regions. The accuracy of information at the regional level depends on the regional authorities. There is no other significant independent and reliable monitoring of the RE situation in RF. Scientific publications mainly contain local information (school, Institute, region). The empirical condition of the system of private RE is characterized above. On ORKSE in 2010 there were two big polls which were mentioned above. The first 6 http://pstgu.ru/sveden/education/index.php#menu1 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

183

was commissioned by the Ministry of Education (A sociological study of the progress of the testing ORKSE 2010), the second – by order of the Public Chamber of the RF (Parents’ attitudes toward the teaching of ORKSE 2010). Both are independent of ROs. In all groups (children, parents, teachers, employees of school administrations) support for the introduction of teaching religious cultures and secular ethics on an elective basis stood between 70 and 90 % and more. 81 % of children said that they would like to continue studying in the following classes. These are the positive responses from parents according to religious status: 71 % of not religious, 78 % of Orthodox Christians, 86 % of Muslims, 95 % of Buddhists. Parents have confirmed that studying of religious cultures on an elective basis does not “separate” children. Also most of parents in 2010 have supported studying of these objects at school for no less than 5 years (52 %), for all years of training (17 %), one year of 0,7 %. However, (2018) teaching is still implemented only in the one 4th class. In the next years such mass surveys of parents weren’t conducted. It is estimated that the attitude of participants towards education has not changed significantly. The federal Academy of professional development of teachers monitors teacher’s training and observance of the right to choose modules of ORKSE by order of the Ministry of Education and mainly summarizes reports from the regions. The choice of subjects (modules) for the 2007/18 academic year follows: Foundations of Orthodox culture of 38,5 %, Foundations of Islamic culture of 4 %, Foundations of Buddhist culture of 0,31 %, Foundations of Judaic culture of 0,06 %, Foundations of secular ethics of 40,6 %, Foundations of world religious cultures of 16,5 %. Since 2017 in Central (55,4 %) and Southern (60,5 %) federal districts the majority is chosen by Foundations of orthodox culture. In the Volga district – approximately equally with Foundations of secular ethics (40,5 % and 39,8 %). In the North Caucasian district – about 40 % of the choice of the Foundations of Islamic culture. In other districts the majority choses by Foundations of secular ethics. Messages in the media on the subject of RE are usually nonprofessional and unsuitable for scientific analysis. As an example, the message under negative heading and with the same lead: “Nearly a third of Russians, or 29 %, consider that Foundations of Orthodox culture (or Islamic / Judaic / Buddhist – at choice) at school don’t need to be studied” (News Agency Amur-info 04. 12. 2017). The negative relation is expressed. It was possible to write that more than two thirds of Russians support this practice. Or to give neutral heading. There is a link to the poll of VBIOM but in the message of the VCIOM a completely different lead: “School of life: time of pragmatists? Three-quarters of Russians believe that children today need to learn the skills of live communication” (VBIOM 02. 11. 2017). Reliable empirical data can be from official documents of authorities, polls of the large sociological companies (VCIOM, FOM, etc.).

184

Igor Metlik

In general, the RE in modern RF is poorly represented in empirical studies. It remains a desideratum in terms of empirical research, mainly due to the poor development of RE especially in a secular school.

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Compared to most European countries, including formerly socialist countries, RE is less developed in the RF. It has been recovering more slowly and under more difficult conditions, as mentioned above. Until now, the authorities in the field of education do not have special, specialized structures, departments for RE, including RE in secular school. Certain experts supervising ORKSE represent the state of the art. For the government, the subject of RE remains “in the background”. Exceptions are made by some regions where the authorities pay closer attention to this topic, interaction with ROC and other confessions is regular and RE is being developed more actively in secular school. The difficulties are complex and concern all participants of RE. The choice of religious cultures within ORKSE over the country is still less than a half (about 42 %). The right to choose a religious culture is not always respected. If it is violated by the school administration, teachers, parents usually are afraid to insist that they do not cause difficulties for their child in school. Somewhere between 1/4 and 1/3 of citizens oppose RE at secular school or consider it unnecessary. This development is the main reason for difficulties with RE. The system of Jewish RE marks an exception regarding confessional systems as mentioned above. This could be seen as a template for the ROC, the Orthodox community and other ROs and communities. The ROC, Islamic and Buddhist ROs are not yet sufficiently involved in the implementation of RE, especially in secular school. The ROC is taking measures for professional participation in the teaching of Orthodox culture. In the Synodal Department of the RE, there is a structure to ensure the participation of the Church in ORKSE. In the regions (dioceses) the situation is different. In about half, participation in ORKSE is not extensive enough, even within the framework of powers that are already in the law. There are not enough material resources, specialists for the interaction with authorities or teachers training centers available as yet (ROC in RF does not receive state funding in the sphere of education). The problems and shortcomings in teacher training were mentioned above. All these difficulties and problems are typical for Islamic and Buddhist ROs. Islamic ROs receive funding for education under a special program. But it is aimed at training the ministers of religion, muftis. Keeping in mind the security threats in the preparation of the servants of Islam in foreign countries, which was a mass phenomenon in the past.

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

185

Nevertheless, despite all these shortcomings and problems, the prospects for the development of the RE in the RF remain decent. Its basis is the importance of religious, traditional values in society, which as a whole is growing.

13.

Further information

The website “ORKSE” on the portal of federal Academy of professional development and retraining of educators. The Academy acts as the federal operator of maintenance of ORKSE (documents, materials, monitoring and other information on ORKSE): http://orkce.apkpro.ru. Here is the page of the All-Russian Methodical Association on ORKSE. Information on activity of ROC on RE at private schools, on ORKSE at secular school and in other forms on the website of Synod Department of religious education and a catechization of ROC. The main Church and other documents in appropriate sections: https://pravobraz.ru/dokumenty/. On the official sites of Islamic, Buddhist ROs there are no significant resources on RE, RE at secular school, ORKSE. There can be only separate information, events. RE Judaism is presented on the sites of Jewish ROs and national Jewish organizations (search for key words “Jewish education”, “Jewish schools”). There are many resources for educators created by both secular and Church founders, institutions, universities, publishers, teacher associations. For example, the Church website “To the truth”, a section on Orthodox culture in a secular school: http://www.k-istine.ru/opk/opk.htm. On the website of the Ministry of Education and Science (about 06.2018 Ministry of Public Education) there is no section on RE. It is convenient to receive documents (orders, letters) of the Ministry (free of charge) on the websites of legal information according to names, the output data. Main such websites: “Consultant” of http://www.consultant.ru, “Guarantor” of http://www.ga rant.ru. Here it is possible to receive both orders, and letters of the Ministry. Letters aren’t legal acts, but are important as methodical, information materials. The most part of documents on RE or the concerning RE is published in letters as materials for regions, heads and educators. Publications, dissertations on PE or related topics, reflecting different aspects: 1. 3. Ageeva, O. V. Bobrova, S. V. Denisenko, S. Yu. Divnogortseva, S. A. Efimenkova, M. V. Zakharchenko, A. V. Kamkin, B. U. Kitinov, A. E. Kulakov, F. N. Kozyrev, A. V. Kolodin, O. V. Lebedeva, C. 1. Legasova, V. M. Menshikov, V. I. Mironov, I. Z. Nafikov, A. G. Nesterova, I. V. Ponkin, N. N. Reutov, O. V. Rosina, P. F. Sirotkin, C. 3. Sklyarova, G. Yu. Khabibullina, K. N. Chernega, M. O. Shakhov and others are available on profile sites: Electronic Scientific Library https://elibrary. ru; Cyberleninka https://cyberleninka.ru; Electronic library of dissertations

186

Igor Metlik

http://www.dissercat.com; Dissertation Library http://www.dslib.net etc. Search keyword “RE”, “teaching religious culture”, etc.

References Concept of inclusion in the new generation of state standards of secondary education of the subject “Orthodox culture”. 2007. http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/358393.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Divnogortseva, S.Yu. 2013. Training of teachers of religious culture and secular ethics in the system of modern domestic pedagogical education. In Vestnik PSTGU. 2 (29), 57–68. Educational standards of schools of Russia. 1998. Moscow: Prometheus. Galitskaya, I. A., Metlik I.V. 2004. The study of religious culture in secular school. In. Tolerance, ed. M.M. Mchedlova, 236–261. Moscow: Republic. Galitskaya, I. A., Metlik I.V. 2008. Religious culture in a secular school. In: Religion in the self-consciousness of the people (religious factor in the identification process), ed. M.P. Mchedlov, 258–277. Moscow: Institute of Sociology RAS. http://www.civisbook.ru/ files/File/Galizkaya.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Institute of sociology of RAS, 2017. Information and analytical report. http://www.isras. ru/rezyume_ross_obschestvo_v_2017. Text (section 10, page 69): http://www.isras.ru/ files/File/publ/rezyume_ross_obschestvo_2017.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Interfax-Religion 19. 02. 2008. In the Moscow Patriarchate, the position of the Jewish community on the teaching of religion in schools is controversial. http://www.interfaxreligion.ru/?act=news& div=22941 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Interfax-religion. 24. 04. 2008. Patriarch Alexy II considers the teaching of religion in schools by a single textbook to be unacceptable. http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act= news& div=24138 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Kozyrev, F.N. 2005. Religious education in a secular school. Theory and international experience in the domestic perspective. St. Petersburg: Apostolic city. Letter of the Ministry of Education of the RF of 22. 10. 2002 N 14-52-876 Y^/16. Approximate content of education on the subject “Orthodox Culture”. http://base.consultant. ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=EXP;n=309247.(last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Letter of the Ministry of Education of the RF of 13. 07. 2007 N 03-1584. Approximate agreement between the educational management body of the region and the diocese of the ROC. http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=EXP;n=403467 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Letter of the Ministry of Education and Science of the RF of 08. 22. 2012 N 08-250. The introduction of the training course ORKSE. http://www.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online. cgi?req=doc& base=EXP& n=544511#06149386544170101 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Letter of the Ministry of Education and Science of the RF of 31. 03. 2015 N 08-461. Regulation of the choice in the educational organization by parents of school students of one of the modules of the integrated training course ORKSE. http://base.consultant.ru/ cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=182384 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

187

Levada Center, 17. 12. 2012. In Russia 74 % Orthodox and 7 % Muslims. http://www.levada. ru/2012/12/17/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnyh-i-7-musulman/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Metlik, I.V. 1990. Religion in schools: the experience of studying the problem. In Soviet pedagogy. 2, 36–42. Metlik, I.V. 2003. The study of religion in the education system. In Pedagogy. 7, 71–78. Metlik, I.V. 2004. Religion and education in secular school. Moscow: Planet-2000. Metlik, I.V. 2004. L’enseignement de la religion dans les 8coles russes. In: Revue internationale d’8ducation SHvres. 36, 135–143 (fr. language). Metlik, I.V. 2006. Discussions on the problem of studying religious culture in the general education school. In: Religion and the media. http://www.religare.ru/2_26766.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Metlik, I.V. 2008. Studying of religions and education of pupils in modern Russian school. In: Pedagogy 9, 71–78. Metlik, I.V. 2010. Orthodoxy in the Russian school: the difficult path of return. In Vestnik PSTGU. 1, 7–31. Metlik, IV, Sklyarova C.V. 2011. Religious education of the Russian Orthodox Church and the problem of its standardization in a comprehensive school. In Vestnik PSTGU. 4 (23), 7–24. Metlik, I.V. 2011. To Preserve spiritual freedom. In Teaching religion at school: a topical discussion in RF and Germany. Proceedings of the international conference organized by the Russian Orthodox Church and the Moscow branch of the Foundation Conrad Adenauer, 128–140. Moscow: DECR MP. Metlik, I.V., Galitskaya IA, Sitnikov A.V. 2012. Spiritual and moral education: issues of theory, methodology and practice in the Russian school. Moscow: PRO-PRESS. Metlik, I.V. 2014. New about the study of religions and education of students in the light of the law “On education in RF”. In Upbringing of school students. 7, 24–35. Metlik, I.V. 2015. Social partnership of the state and denominations in the spiritual and moral education of school children. In Pedagogy. 7, 60–70. Metlik, I.V., Divnogortseva M.Yu., Sklyarova T.V., Stanovskaya T.A, Yanushkyavichene O.L., Makarova E.V., Mumrikova L.I., Desyatov K.A., Desyatova M.M. 2016. Actual problems of teaching methods of Orthodox culture. Moscow: PSTGU. Metlik, I.V. 2017. Organizational and methodical bases of modern spiritual and moral education. For teachers and school leaders. Moscow: September. Metlik, I.V. Galitskaya, I. A. 2017. New religious cults and school: teaching manual. Ed. 3. Moscow: Ethnosphere. Metlik, I.V., Potapovskaya O.M. 2017. Modeling of social partnership in spiritual and moral education of schoolchildren. In Social pedagogy in Russia. 2, 18–29. Metlik, I.V. 2018. Russian secular ethics in the content of education and upbringing of schoolchildren. In Pedagogy. 1, 43–53. =igrant.ru. 20. 04. 2017. In Russia have counted how many Ukrainians in their territory. http://migrant.ru/v-rossii-poschitali-skolko-ukraincev-naxoditsya-na-ix-territorii/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). News Agency Amur-info. 04. 12. 2017. VBIOM: Almost a third of the respondents are against studying world religions, including Orthodoxy in the school. http://www.amur. info/news/2017/12/04/132495 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

188

Igor Metlik

Order of the Ministry of Education of the RF of 01. 07. 2003 N 2833. http://www.consultant. ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=43730#02050861940608617 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). ORKSE Website. Bases of religious cultures and secular ethics. http://orkce.apkpro.ru/255. html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Parents’ attitudes towards the teaching of ORKSE. 2010. Moscow: Civic Chamber of the RF. Preliminary results of monitoring compliance with the principles of freedom of conscience and religion in the study of training courses on the history and culture of religions in state and municipal educational institutions in the Subjects of the RF. 24. 04. 2007. Civic Chamber of the RF https://www.oprf.ru/ru/about/structure/structurenews/newsitem/ 14067 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019) (on the site – incomplete text). Information note for the media: http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=documents& div=627 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Proposals of the Council of the Civic Chamber of the RF on the study of religious culture in the education system. 29. 11. 2006. https://www.oprf.ru/documents/497/1552/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Provision on public accreditation of the pedagogical worker. 06. 06. 2014. https://pravo braz.ru/polozhenie-ob-obshhestvennoj-akkreditacii-pedagogicheskogo-rabotnika/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Provision on the order of conducting examination of approximate main educational programs on subjects, courses, disciplines (modules) aimed at obtaining by students of the RF about the moral principles, about historical and cultural traditions of Orthodox Christianity, ROC. 05. 15. 2015. https://pravobraz.ru/polozhenie-o-poryadke-provede niya-ekspertizy-primernyx-osnovnyx-obrazovatelnyx-programm-v-chasti-uchebnyxpredmetov-kursov-disciplin-modulej-napravlennyx-na-poluchenie-obuchayushhimi sya-znanij-ob/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). RBC. 09. 04. 2015. The number of Ukrainians in RF increased by 1 million people in a year. https://www.rbc.ru/society/09/04/2015/5523d9919a7947ec74afd619 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Report of his Holiness Patriarch Kirill at the XX International Christmas educational readings. 23. 01. 2012. http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/1973781.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Report of the Deputy Minister of Education and Science of the RF. 24. 01. 2012. M.V. Dulinov. https://pravobraz.ru/doklad-zamestitelya-ministra-obrazovaniya-i-nauki-rossijskoj-fed eracii-m-v-dulinova-na-otkrytii-rozhdestvenskix-chtenij/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Resolution of the conference “State educational standards in the context of the formation of moral and spiritual values of students”. 21. 12. 2007. http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/ text/342017.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019) Press-release of the Ministry of Education: http://pandia.ru/text/78/296/86155.php (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Qualification requirements for the professional activity of a teacher in educational organizations with a religious (orthodox) component. 24. 05. 2016. https://pravobraz.ru/ 44039-2/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Sklyarova, C.V. 2010. Religious education in the Orthodox tradition: goals, content and structure. In Vestnik PSTGU. 2 (17), 15–25. Sociological studies of approbation of ORKSE. 2010. Moscow: RAGS Publishing.

Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation

189

PSTGU bachelor degree. http://pstgu.ru/sveden/education/index.php#menu1 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Standard Orthodox component of primary general, secondary general, secondary (complete) general education for educational institutions of the RF. 27. 07. 2011. https:// pravobraz.ru/pravoslavnyj-komponent-osnovnoj-obshheobrazovatelnoj-programmydoshkolnogo-obrazovaniya-dlya-pravoslavnogo-doshkolnogo-obrazovatelnogo-uchr ezhdeniya-na-territorii-rossijskoj-federacii/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Strategy of development of upbringing in the RF for the period until 2025. 2015. http:// www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_180402/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Strategy of national security of the RF. 2015. http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_ doc_LAW_191669/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019) Training program of course ORKSE. Text original. 2009. Moscow. http://pandia.org/text/ 78/170/76930.php (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Transcript of the meeting of Prime Minister Vladimir Putin with his Holiness Patriarch Kirill and leaders of traditional religious communities of Russia. 08. 02. 2012. http:// www.patriarchia.ru/db/print/2005767.html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Federal State Educational Standards of general education. https://]Y^_Ra^Qd[Y.ae/docu ments/543 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Federal list of textbooks. http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_162928/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Federal register of approximate basic education programs. http://fgosreestr.ru/reestr. Materials on ORKSE in the Approximate basic educational program of primary general education. 2015 50–57, 167–169. http://fgosreestr.ru/registry/primernaya-osnovnayaobrazovatelnaya-programma-nachalnogo-obshhego-obrazovaniya-2/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Federal Law “About Freedom of Worship and about Religious Associations”. 1997. N 125FZ. http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_16218/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Federal Law “On Education in the Russian Federation”. 2012. N 273-FZ. http://www.consul tant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_140174/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). FOM, 14. 06. 2013. Values: religiosity. How many Russians believe in God, visit the Church and pray their prayers? http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953. (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). VCIOM, 10. 12. 2008. Religion in the life of Russians. https://wciom.ru/index.php?id= 236& uid=2453 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). VBIOM, 02. 11. 2017. School of life: time of pragmatists? https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236& uid=116549 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Iana Poliakova

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

1.

Socio-religious background

In terms of religious geography the Ukraine lies at the border separating Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Islamic spheres of influence. Traces of the cultural influence of Catholic Lithuania and Poland, of Kyivan and Muscovite Orthodoxy, and of Tatar and Ottoman Islam combine with the Soviet legacy of promoting atheism to shape the various present-day beliefs and worldviews of Ukrainian citizens. In pre-historic times and in the early Middle Ages, the territories of presentday Ukraine were inhabited by different tribes practicing their traditional pagan religions. Byzantine-rite Christianity first became prominent about the turn of the first millennium. In the 10th century the emerging state of Kyivan Rus’ came increasingly under the cultural influence of the Byzantine Empire. The first recorded Rus’ convert to Eastern Orthodoxy, the Princess Saint Olga, visited Constantinople in 945 or 957. In the 980s, according to tradition, Olga’s grandson, Knyaz (Prince) Vladimir had his people baptised in the Dnipro River. This began a long history of the dominance of Eastern Orthodoxy, a religious ascendancy that would later influence both Ukraine and Russia. Domination of “Malorossia (Little Russia)” by Moscow (from the 17th century onwards) and by Saint Petersburg (from 1721) eventually led to the decline of Uniate Catholicism (officially founded in 1596) in the Ukrainian lands under Tsarist control. It should be noted that the term “Malorossia” was used in historiography as the name of some regions in central and eastern Ukraine between the 17th and 18th century. Some researchers consider the term politically incorrect due to its ideologically charged and derogatory connotations. It stands in connection to times discrimination of Russian empire towards the Ukrainian people in central and eastern Ukraine. The term has been associated with an inferiority complex on the part of Ukrainians, particularly in terms of a lack of autonomy on the part of the Ukrainian Kozaks and the dissolution of the Kozak Independet State, the

192

Iana Poliakova

independent use of the Ukrainian language, a desire for more independence and freedom of expression. In the 19th and 20th centuries the politics of the USSR caused many tragedies for Ukrainians such as genocide (Holodomor, 1932–33). There are Catholics in the Ukraine, who are part of the Ukrainian GreekCatholic Church, which has existed since 1596. The incident well known as “Lviv Pseudo-Sobor 1946” did not mark the “decline” of the UGCC, as theological issues played a marginal role and the meeting was held in order to discuss political ideology. Until 1989 during the the UGCC had been forced to operate underground by Soviet repression. Judaism has existed in the Ukrainian lands for approximately 2000 years: Jewish traders first appeared in Greek colonies. After the 7th century Judaism influenced the neighbouring Khazar Khaganate. From the 13th century Ashkenazi Jewish presence in Ukraine increased significantly. In the 18th century a new teaching of Judaism originated and became established in the Ukrainian lands – Hasidism. The Golden Horde (which adopted Islam in 1313) and the Sunni Ottoman Empire (which conquered the Ukrainian littoral in the 1470s) brought Islam to their subject territories in present-day Ukraine. Crimean Tatars accepted Islam as the state religion (1313–1502) of the Golden Horde, and later ruled as vassals of the Ottoman Empire (until the late 18th century). The Protestant churches are widely represented in Ukraine. Protestantism in Ukraine is associated with German immigrants who, at the end of the 18th century, were invited by the tsarist government of Russia to develop the rich lands in the south of Ukraine. They formed settlements spreading Protestant ideas of different kinds – Baptism, Evangelism, Adventism, etc. During the period of Soviet rule (1917–1991) the governing Soviet authorities officially promoted atheism and taught it in schools, while persecuting religious believers and of their organizations at various levels. Only a small fraction of people remained official church-goers in that period, and the number of nonbelievers increased. Significant parts of the Ukrainian territory had become part of the Soviet Union only after World War II. The Western regions of Galicia and Volyn for example were part of the Second Polish Republic up to 1940. (IECS Report, p. 2) Ukraine was under Soviet Rule for almost 70 years which meant that generations of Ukrainians grew up without religion.

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

2.

193

Legal Framework of RE an the relationship between religious communities and the state

The system of religious education in the Ukraine is separate from the secular educational network. The last state is unfortunately that the religious education in Ukraine has no guaranteed place in school, despite the latest educational reform “New School”, which is very progressive. In the west of the Ukraine many schools offer “Christian Ethics”, which is de facto Religious Education. This is not like ethical education in Austria, because catechists teach it. There are many different forms of religious education. Whether the subject is optional or compulsory is decided by each school independently. Well qualified specialists and an officially recognised curriculum are often found lacking. Unfortunately, there is still a lot to do. The Constitution of the Ukraine sets forth the founding principles of the relationship between state and church in Article 35, which goes as follows: Everyone has the right to freedom of beliefs and religion. This right includes the freedom to profess any religion or to profess no religion, to freely practice religious rites and ceremonial rituals, alone or collectively, and to pursue religious activities. This right includes the freedom to profess or not to profess any religion, to perform alone or collectively and without constraint religious rites and ceremonial rituals, and to conduct religious activity. The exercise of this right may be restricted by law only in the interests of protecting public order, the health and morality of the population, or protecting the rights and freedoms of other persons. The Church and religious organizations in Ukraine are separate from the State, and the school from the Church. No religion shall be recognized by the State as mandatory. No one shall be relieved of his or her duties before the State or refuse to perform the laws for reasons of religious beliefs. In cases when the performance of military duty is contrary to the religious beliefs of a citizen, the performance of this duty shall be replaced by alternative (nonmilitary) service. (Constitution) (An English translation of the Constitution of Ukraine is accessible at https:// berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/quotes/constitution-of-ukraine-article-35-free dom-of-religion.) The first Law of Ukraine “On Education” was adopted almost at the same time (May 1991) as the Law of Ukraine “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations” (April 1991). It contained several strict separating provisions. (Law of Ukraine on Education, #1060-XII (13 May 1991 Law of Ukraine “On Education”)

194

Iana Poliakova

Its brief analysis reveals a divergence among possible interpretations of the Constitutional provisions concerning the secular character of education. For example, Article 6 declares among the main principles of education that education does not depend on religious organizations and is secular and sciencebased. Art. 6 states that school is separated from church (religious organizations) and the education system is separate from Church (rel.org.) – followed by – “access to the different levels of education should be given regardless of their attitudes towards religion”. Educational institutions in Ukraine, of whichever forms of property (state or private), are separate from the church and any other religious organizations, they are secular, except for those educational institutions founded by religious organizations (Article 9). Due to Article 8 of the same law, educational process must be free from the influence of any religious organizations; the pupils or students must not be drawn into any religious activities during the educational process. The problem of convergence of secular and religious education is quite controversial in Ukrainian society, because some religious organizations are granted the right to establish schools and to introduce the teaching of religious courses in secular schools). This fact completely contradicts the Law of Ukraine “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations”, which establishes the right of parents to educate their children in accordance with their religious or philosophical convictions and attitude to religion. The new Law of Ukraine “On Amendments to the Laws of Ukraine on ensuring the rights of citizens to freedom of thought and religion in education” (2015) allows religious organizations to establish educational institutions, such as kindergartens, technical schools, after-school facilities, schools and universities, which should be licensed by the state and to provide education of the state standard. This is a very important development in ensuring the freedom of conscience in Ukraine. According to the new legislation, religious schools will take the standard procedure for accreditation and licensing, to adhere to other requirements of the Ministry of Education and Science. The right to establish educational institutions, which is granted to religious organizations, means that the legislative bodies at last changed the situation which is unique in Europe: in the European Union there are no countries that have banned religious organizations from opening public schools and higher education institutions. After a long discussion the Ukrainian Parliament took into consideration the arguments of those parents who have the right to determine what kind of education they would like to give their children. It should be noted that religious organizations have struggled for this right for more than two decades. They, as well as human rights activists and experts in the field of religious freedom, had to prove that the understanding of the Constitutional

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

195

principle of separation of church and state as such, which means a continuous expulsion of the Church from the public sphere, is a misinterpretation of the Constitution.

3.

Developments in the country’s education policies

The Educational system of Ukraine is continuously changing due to the requirements of the period of transition in the countries of the former Soviet Union. During the Soviet period, the Ukraine only had state-supported institutions and none with religious affiliations. During the Soviet period the duration of primary and secondary education was 10 years. After independence the length of primary and secondary education was extended to 11 years. All educational institutions, including pre-school and higher educational institutions were required to be licensed by the Ministry of Education to be eligible to conduct specific activities and award Diplomas, Certificates or other documents upon completion of study. The Ministry of Education remains the only accrediting body of educational institutions in Ukraine, though the accreditation criteria have been recently changed. The public educational system is free and since 2010 includes 11 years of obligatory schooling. Complete general (non-professional) education in Ukraine includes 3 stages: primary school (first to fourth grade) basic secondary school (fifth to ninth grade) upper secondary school (tenth to eleventh grade). Legally, each of the stages can function separately, but, in practice, they all usually coexist under the same roof. Basic nine year education is compulsory. The school year lasts from the 1st of September to the 1st of June and is divided into quarters. The new law ‘On Education’ was approved in 2017. The law lays the groundwork for a comprehensive school reform, including an extension of school education from 11 to 12 years and changes in the overall teaching program. It is presented as an attempt to align Ukraine’s school system more closely with European standards (Law of Ukraine On Education 2017). The key feature of the new law is the 12-year-long education program in Ukrainian schools. The changes will take effect as follows: Primary education – since September 1, 2018; Basic secondary education – September 1, 2022; Upper secondary education – since September 1, 2027 School students will have to pass the state exam when completing primary, basic and upper secondary education in respective classes. The exam may be conducted as the External Independent Evaluation (in the senior school).

196

Iana Poliakova

The minorities language issue became one of the key problems in this regard. Authors of the bill spent a long time, trying to solve the dilemma: on the one hand, members of national minorities should have their rights preserved, that is – learning in their mother language, on the other – children should learn Ukrainian. Finally, MPs agreed that until 2020, the students will continue to learn by the current rules; however, the number of school subjects taught in Ukrainian will gradually grow. All representatives of national minorities in Ukraine that are due to study at secondary school next year will keep their right to study at public schools. They will be studying in separate classes and groups. So, from 2018 onward there will be classes teaching subjects in the languages of national minorities, including Hungarians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Poles and Russians in primary school only. From the fifth grade, the teaching of subjects in the languages of national minorities is canceled. And since 2020, education in the languages of national minorities will be eliminated in the lower grades. The language controversy, however, has sidelined the discussion about the need for education reform more generally. Critics call upon the UN, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe to bring the law in line with international standards. The protection of national minorities is ultimately a sovereignty issue and varies considerably across the EU, despite the fact that the principle is part of the EU conditionality for membership and enshrined in EU law. While Ukrainian law does not contradict EU law per se and is not an exception when compared to EU member state practice, it nevertheless goes against the spirit of the principle of minority protection enshrined in international and European conventions (Venice Commission). The adoption of this law caused an extremely negative reaction not only among representatives of national minorities of Ukraine. Its norms have also been sharply criticized by the governments of Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Moldova, Hungary, Greece and other countries. Hungary even went so far as to announce a stop of cooperation with Ukraine within the framework of the EU and NATO. The need to preserve the rights of minorities to education at the current level is stated in the documents of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and the resolution of the Eastern Partnership Summit of the EU. The necessity to support and develop the state Ukrainian language is beyond doubt. And the Ukrainian authorities argued for the adoption of this law by a low level of knowledge of the state language in some compact ethnic groups – Romanian and Hungarian. There is a high wave of political speculation around this issue in Ukraine today, which is further exacerbated by the high level of radicalism among Ukrainian youth and the war in the Donbas. Another socio-political crisis was created in Ukraine artificially. In this issue, a compromise is quite possible. To this end, the state has the right to improve the quality of

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

197

teaching the state language, the number of hours to study it, without any prohibition on teaching the languages of national minorities. But, unfortunately, the issue is very politicized and the Ukrainian state does not conduct an effective dialogue with national minorities or a specialized expert community. In the establishment of such dialogue and mediation of the problem, the role of international organizations like UN and the international community is very important. It should be noted that controversies about language flare up when it comes to Russian, because this issue was politically instrumentalized under the pretext of having to ”protect Russian speakers in Ukraine” and thus to justify the military invasion of Eastern Ukraine and Crimea by Russia. It is a highly sensitive and delicate issue and cannot be equated with the experience of European countries (such as Switzerland or Finland), due to some researchers’ opinion.

4.

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

The separating approach, embedded in the national legislation, has prevented religious organizations from establishing educational units empowered to provide compulsory or higher education recognized by the state. It has also banned universities from setting up theological departments or providing divinity training. Multiple attempts to equalize religious organizations with other private legal persons in the educational field have failed. It should be noted that the current legislation of Ukraine enables religious organizations and individual citizens to meet the needs of religious education, teaching of religion and religious upbringing. Thus, Article 11 of the Law of Ukraine “On freedom of conscience and religious organizations” states that religious organizations have the right to establish religious educational institutions for training clergy, ministers, and other religious specialties. In addition, pursuant to part four and five of Article 6 of the above-mentioned law they are entitled to create their own internal guidelines for religious education for children and adults, schools and groups and provide training in other forms, using the premise that they owned or provided for use. Citizens can learn religious doctrine and acquire religious education individually or together with other people. Parents or persons substituting them for their mutual consent in Article 3 of this law have the right to educate their children in accordance with their own convictions and attitude to religion, which corresponds to the main ideas of basic international laws, such as the International Bill of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights.

198

Iana Poliakova

There have been almost 200 religious educational institutions registered hitherto. Their students enjoy the same rights and benefits concerning postponement of military service, taxation, inclusion period spent for study into work record under the same terms and conditions with students of state educational establishments. Therefore, the problem consists of the absence of a legal effect of education obtained from a religious educational unit and not in obstacles to obtaining such an education. Sometimes churches circumvent legal barriers and create two-in-one institutions registered both as a spiritual educational establishment and as a private university ; however, such tricks do not get to the root of the problem. Besides professional religious education, ecclesiastical institutions are free to provide religious classes for adults and minors – subject to respect for religious tolerance and parental rights to bring up and educate children in accordance with the parent’s faith and beliefs. All teachers in Ukrainian public schools are appointed and salaried by local authorities regardless of what courses they teach. To gain a license to operate, private schools are required to employ teachers which meet the standards laid down in the law. Yet spiritual educational establishments are completely free in their pedagogical hiring decisions, since as was pointed out above, the Ukrainian state does not recognize religious education and thus does not establish any requirement for it. Both private and religious schools pay teachers from their own resources.

5.

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The system of religious education in the Ukraine is separated from the secular (state-maintained) educational network. We can observe only the implementation of the so-called moral subjects as a selective component of the curriculum. It should also be noted that at the present time we are witnessing the process of integration of religion in a secular educational environment. In particular, higher education institutions started teaching disciplines “Religion/Religious Studies” and “Theology”, at several universities the specialty “Theology” has been recently accredited. These facts undoubtedly promote religious education and a better comprehension of national culture. The new Law “On Higher Education” (2014) also provides the possibility of setting up a theological institution of higher education (Article 28). Such changes can truly be considered a breakthrough in the field of legislative regulation of development of theological education and science in Ukraine, the functioning of religious schools and state recognition of diplomas to their graduates. But it is clear that these amendments need interpretation and detailed

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

199

instructions for their implementation, in the field of the certification and public financing of secondary and higher educational institutions for example. On the other hand, there is still no legal mechanism for the implementation of international instruments guaranteeing the freedom of parents to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions, particularly in religious schools and preschools, whose activities are widespread in democratic countries in Europe.

6.

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

As mentioned earlier, there is no RE as a separate subject in the system of statemaintained education. Elements of it could be observed only in the so called subjects of the spiritual and moral direction.

7.

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

The first and the main step on the way to solving the problems of religious education should be to develop the understanding in the whole of society that every person – every child represented by his / her parents has the right to religious education, and at the same time religious organization and state authorities are obliged to ensure the realization of this right. Thus the urgent duty of the state is to organize religious education in a variety of forms not only due to the realization of common European standards of human rights but in the interest of stability and progress of the young independent state. These arguments made the Ministry of Education and Science undertake some steps towards religious education (Decision of 8 July, 2002, #1–1/607). A special Commission which included educators, teachers, representatives of different religions began its work of developing a new set of educational courses aimed at moral and religious education. The work of the Commission resulted in the publication of a paper entitled conceptual foundations of moral and religious education in general compulsory education. This document defined aims and objectives of new optional subjects, principles of their organization and provisions for the training of teachers. They are three: Ethics, Foundations of Religious Ethics and Foundations of Christian Ethics (Conceptual foundations).

200

Iana Poliakova

“Ethics” is aimed at deepening pupils’ knowledge of the moral values of the Ukrainian people and moral and ethical principles in modern public and private life It also can be considered an attempt to foster tolerance, active citizenship and the development of skills which lead to moral self-improvement. “Foundations of Christian Ethics”. The specific feature of this subject is its emphasis on traditional Ukrainian Christian moral and cultural values, a deep study of the Bible as one of the fundamentals of Christian outlook. The curriculum also includes some information about moral values of other world religions. “Foundations of Religious Ethics” is the subject of educational, cultural and religious orientation, based on the moral foundation of the world religions. It is considered to contain the fundamentals of personal life values in a modern-day world. Its main objectives are to foster tolerance, the ability of young generation to live together in multicultural and multi-faith environment, respect to the freedom of conscience and personal religious views. The specific feature of this subject is its emphasis on the particular (Christian, Muslim, Judaist etc.) moral and cultural values, deep study of their foundations. At the same time this subject should include the information about Christian moral and cultural values. “Foundations of Christian Ethics”, “Biblical History and Christian Ethics”, “Christian Ethics in Ukrainian Culture” are taught in virtually all regions of Ukraine. There is a significant number of original and regional programs. All of them have passed expert evaluation and have received the corresponding permission for implementation from the Ministry, and today a program on Muslim ethics is being developed. The Ministry of Education and Science emphasizes that parents have the right to choose such a course. At their request it could become mandatory subject. To do this, it is necessary that all parents in the class write statements that their children are taught RE. Such cases are not uncommon in the Lviv, Ternopil and Ivano-Frankivsk regions. But if at least one parent refuses, the subject will be taught only on facultative basis (as an optional). But even in these traditionally religious regions, the subject has many opponents among parents. Thus, common efforts of state educational authorities, educational policy makers and teachers should be bent on working out common position as to the contents of the courses and educational materials. The subjects of moral and religious orientation are based on the following provisions: – freedom of conscience and worldview, which means free choice of the subjects, depending on pupils’ and their parents’ beliefs. These subjects are not supposed to teach religions or atheism, they should not include religious ceremonies (for example, collective worship or pray). They should not have the aim to attract pupils to certain religion or confession (denomination), or

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

–

– – –

–

201

impose any religious or atheistic beliefs on the pupils and supposed to provide the fundamentals for conscious choice of moral norms by a pupil; availability, which means taking into consideration age and psychological peculiarities of every pupil and correspondence of teaching and learning materials to the age of pupils; practical orientation, which means that pupils should be encouraged to consciously apply their knowledge, values and moral principles to real life; particular attention to moral development of an individual, cultural compliance and multiculturality, which means knowledge of specific moral and cultural traditions of the Ukrainian people, respect for moral and cultural values and traditions different from one’s own nation, religion, culture; systematic and integrative approach, which includes consistency and continuity, constant complication and diversification of contents and direction of moral development.

So, due to these provisions, the contents of subjects should include local, regional, national components and personal experience of the pupil. All these principles are interconnected and should lay the groundwork for the structure and teaching methods. It should be noted that the above-mentioned subjects are listed within the set of optional (selective) subjects, and it is clear that in terms of direct benefit other contents are deemed more attractive to students. Understanding the importance of moral education of young people, the withdrawal of Ethics from the State Standard of compulsory secondary education in 2012 has come to be seen as great challenge by educators. The decision of the Ministry of Education and Science in fact contradicts the general evaluation of a moral degradation in society. Undoubtedly this decision will have negative consequences for moral education of young people. And besides, it would cause serious challenges for future implementation of moral oriented subjects, aimed at the forming of moral and physically healthy young generation. This decision could be considered rather strange in the current situation, while the problems in the social and political development of the country are having a harmful influence on the youth. Introduction of Christian values into the educational process will be a building block of civil and democratic education. So we can say that legislative and normative conditions for the teaching of subjects pertaining to ethics are necessary and must proceed according to the wishes of parents. Nevertheless, neither schools nor pupils have so far demonstrated sufficient interest. As one of the most important reasons for this fact we should note that religious families do not trust schools to teach accurately about

202

Iana Poliakova

religion as the way religion is treated often reveals outdated and overly critical perspectives on the religious dimension of life. In state-sponsored secondary schools in 2016–2017, subjects of spiritual and moral direction (Christian Ethics in Ukrainian Culture 1–4 grades (primary school), Foundations of Christian Ethics, Bible History and Christian Ethics, 1–11 grades, etc.) were taught in 6,270 educational institutions, which make up 38.16 % of the total number of schools in Ukraine. Teaching covers 603,800 students in different classes. These figures are given by Yuri Reshetnikov, deputy chairman of the Public Council for Cooperation with Churches and Religious Organizations under the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. At this stage further teaching of subjects of moral direction greatly depends both on the position of parents and religious communities, and on the position of local authorities. The current situation is the evidence of the fact that it is necessary to regulate the problems of teaching subjects pertaining to moral direction on a legislative level (as it was done in many countries). It should be taken into consideration in the process of educational reforms in Ukraine.

8.

Dealing with religious diversity

The Ukraine, like most countries of the world, has a multi-ethnic population. According to the data from the All-Ukrainian Census of the population (2001), more than 130 nationalities are represented in the country. In addition to Ukrainians as the most numerous ethnicity, many ethnic minorities live on its territory – Russians, Byelorussians, Bulgarians, Poles, Greeks, Jews, Hungarians, Germans, etc., who adhere to different religious beliefs. There are not only beliefs close to Christianity, but also other, often exotic – African or South-East Asian, or New Age, like the Pastafarian Church or Jedi Knights, communities, groups that differ from the national culture and religious traditions of the Ukrainian people. With the proclamation of independence of the Ukraine, in August 24, 1991, religious life in the state has significantly intensified, and acquired qualitatively new dimensions. According to official statistics, in 2000, religious organizations of 105 faiths, trends, churches were active in the Ukraine. The multi-faith and polyconfessional nature of Ukrainian society demands solutions to the problems caused by growing religious and secular education opposition. Each year new religious buildings are built, new monasteries, institutions of spiritual education, Sunday schools are opened and new periodicals are published.

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

203

For all the diversity of the religious landscape of modern Ukraine, most of the religious communities exist within the various directions of Christianity. Traditionally, the most influential faith in the Ukraine is Orthodoxy. Today Ukrainian Orthodoxy is represented by the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate (UOC-KP) – 2,900 parishes, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC) – 1040 parishes and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP) – 9200 parishes (RISU).

Current Situation On October 11, following a meeting of the Holy Synod, a decision was announced, stating that the Ecumenical Patriarchate proceeds to grant autocephaly to the Church of Ukraine. In addition, the legal binding of the Synod’s letter of 1686 was abolished, thus taking the Kyiv Metropolis from under Moscow’s canonical jurisdiction. Independence for the Ukrainian Orthodox Church has been such a long time coming, it seemed as though it would never actually happen. There have been many attempts to set up such a church – in 1921, 1942, 1990, and 1992 – but none have yet won recognition as ‘canonical’ (officially recognised under Orthodox Church law). There are no fewer than three main Orthodox churches in Ukraine. Why so many? One of these, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC), was set up in 1921 but banned under Stalin in 1930. It survived in the diaspora and returned to Ukraine in 1990. The current trio derives from an unsuccessful attempt in 1992, just after Ukraine’s political independence in 1991, to broker a merger between the UAOC and the existing Orthodox hierarchy in Ukraine. The merger created a new church, dubbed the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kievan Patriarchate (OUC-KP). While most of that compromised hierarchy refused to join the Kievan Patriarchate, for additional reasons of ‘canonicity’, traditionalism, and Russian nationalism. They remained under the Russian church, but relabelled it as the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Moscow Patriarchate (OUC-MP). The Moscow Patriarchate has traditionally been strongest in eastern and southern Ukraine. Two of the Ukraine’s three Orthodox Churches support the idea of establishing the local Orthodox Church. The Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate and Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church have been long negotiating unification. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate took the idea with little enthusiasm. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate considers itself the only canonical Orthodox Church in

204

Iana Poliakova

Ukraine and thus insists that others must join it. “Canonicity” comes as Moscow Patriarchate’s best card in the negotiations. Public opinion in Ukraine looks contradictory. Only 30 percent are in favour of a new autocephalous status, with 20 percent opposed, and half the population indifferent. In a different poll, taken in August 2018, 68.8 percent of Ukrainians said they were Orthodox. (Data from RISU – Religious Information Service of Ukraine) But a high and rising number, 45.2 percent, of Orthodox Christians now identify themselves with the OUC-KP, and only 16.9 percent with the OUCMP. Only 2.1 percent of those polled belonged to the UAOC. Interestingly, however, 33.9 percent called themselves ‘general Orthodox’(Wilson). That means the common people do not really take part in the discussion of church questions and do not see much difference in the church affiliation. At the same time, a political component is obvious here. Despite the constitutional separation of the Church and the state, the Church actively participates in Ukrainian politics. Ukrainian politicians advocate for the need to have a local Orthodox Church by saying that Orthodox believers are longing for unity as well as emphasizing the need for Ukrainians to consolidate. The recent change of political power and the election of the new President V. Zelensky has diminished the issue. For the presidential vote in spring 2019 the former president Poroshenko launched a campaign with television ads and billboards that proclaim, “Army! Language! Faith! We are Ukraine”. Poroshenko, who had run for the presidency in 2014 as a businessman and reformer, wanted to rebrand himself as the father of the nation and employed the super-patriotic triple slogan in his campaign. The new church will be properly pomisna – which means localised and legitimate. Supporters of church independence hope is that it will attract enough believers from the other Orthodox churches and the ‘general Orthodox’ to become Ukraine’s largest Church, institutionally as well as in terms of public sympathy. This is an event of potentially huge historical importance. It will add religion to the language problem. The Ukraine became politically but not culturally independent in 1991. The war in the East of the country that began in 2014 has already driven a wedge between Russia and Ukraine and has been called ‘a war between Russia and Ukraine’ by many Ukrainian politicians and a ‘civil war’ by the people in the East of the Ukraine. Proper autocephaly for Ukraine will now widen the gap. Anyway, from the point of view of the insider living in the zone of conflict in Donbas, it could hardly help in the process of peaceful regulation. Although Ukraine is considered to be a Christian country, many representatives of other world religions and neo-religions live in it.

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

205

One of the components of the confessional map of Ukraine is Islam. Its bearers are the Volga and Crimean Tatars, representatives of the Caucasian-Iberian language group, small diaspora groups of other Turkic-speaking peoples and some ethnic Ukrainians and Russians. The total number of Muslims in Ukraine ranges from 1.2 to 2 million people. Mostly they profess Sunnism of the Hanifite direction. There are almost no Shiites in Ukraine (only one Shiite mosque operates). Ukrainian Muslims are united in 357 registered and about 40 unregistered religious communities in different regions of the country. However, this confession has not received a single organizational structure. During the 90s of the last century and at the beginning of this century, more than 100 cultural Jewish centers and organizations were established in Ukraine, Jewish schools, synagogues, theaters, and Jewish newspapers were opened. The International Solomon University (Kyiv), has been one of the Jewish institutions successfully operating in the country. Having experienced a near total destruction of traditional religiosity at the hands of the powerful Soviet ideological machine and lacking other sources of spirituality, the Ukraine has proved to be fertile ground for the spread of new religions. Their appearance in various areas differs from the spread of traditional dogma. Thus, the most religious western region of Ukraine, where more than half of all religious communities operate, suffered no influence of non-religious movements. They received intensive development in the cities of the South and East and in the capital, Kiev. Therefore, the spread of non-religious currents has but a regional character. The modern palette of unconventional religiosity in the state varies greatly. It represents a wide range of the world’s most famous non-religious trends and organizations. Among them, in spite of the traditional religiosity of the Ukrainian in the last thousand years, there are, of course, widespread neo-Christian movements. The charismatic movement that developed in previous decades and is represented today by 197 registered communities (compared to 31 in 1993) has become commonplace. Neo-religions of the oriental trend in Ukraine are mainly represented by NeoHinduism and different Buddhist currents. Four sociological companies, along with the SOCIS Center for Social and Marketing Research, Sociological Group RATING, Razumkov Center and KIIS, February 1–17, 2015, conducted a large-scale sociological study on the topic of religious preferences of the population that 25 000 Ukrainian citizens (1000 per region) took part in. According to the results of the study, the majority of respondents (74 %) consider themselves Orthodox Christians, 8 % – Greek Catholicism, almost 1 % – Roman Catholicism and Protestant and Evangelical churches.

206

Iana Poliakova

Among those who consider themselves Orthodox, a relative majority (38 %) align themselves with the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate, almost 20 % to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate, 1 % to the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, and 39 % just Orthodox. In the regional context, in all areas, Orthodoxy is the most common, except Ternopil, Ivano-Frankivsk and Lviv regions, where more than half profess Greek Catholicism. Also, almost 20 % of Transcarpathian citizens consider themselves Greek Catholics. Roman Catholicism is more common than in other areas, also in Transcarpathia (7 %). Among the supporters of Orthodoxy, Ivano-Frankivsk (76 %), Lviv (71 %), and Ternopil (63 %) regions more often refer to the UOC-KP (KP). In 7 regions and the city, the level of support for the UOC-MP is 50 %. It is noteworthy that the southern Kherson region showed a high level of support for the UOC (KP) – 54 %, and only 14 % of the UOC (MP). Nevertheless, even in the southern and eastern regions, except for the Donbass and Odessa region, supporters of the Kyiv Patriarchate are more numerous than those of Moscow. At the same time, the further one looks to the South and the East, the more respondents are inclined to consider themselves simply Orthodox and without professing loyalty to one of the Orthodox jurisdictions. In seven regions, the proportion of those who consider themselves simply Orthodox is 50 %, including Kirovograd (64 %), Nikolaev (61 %), Kharkov (60 %), Zaporozhye (54 %), Dnepropetrovsk (Dnepr) (51 %), Sumy (50 %), and Donetsk (50 %). Therefore, the Ukrainian religious landscape might be properly described as diverse and without a predominant institutionalized church, but with the overwhelming majority identifying themselves as ‘Orthodox’. Yet the share of ‘unaffiliated Orthodox Christians’ suggests that a considerable part of believers perceived Orthodoxy as a national tradition and/or some type of spirituality hardly related to what the Orthodox Church could expect from its adherents. (Druzenko, p. 720) In 1996, the All-Ukraine Council of Churches and Religious Organizations was established under the auspice of the then State Committee for Religious Affairs to debate urgent inter-faith and church-state issues and work out the common position of religious organizations. In 2005, the Council liberated itself from the paternalism of the State Committee and became an effective independent body which represents the interests of the overwhelming majority of religious organizations in Ukraine. The Council often publicly expresses its opinion as to current legislation and legislative proposals. It is worth mentioning that the Council prefers to lobby for the common economic interests of its participants, like reduced tariffs for religious organizations, rather than to discuss the subject matter of legislative proposals. Nev-

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

207

ertheless, the Council should be recognized as an effective umbrella organization and the main transparent communication channel between the government and the religious communities of Ukraine beyond the informal and separate relations enjoyed by every large Ukrainian denomination with the government. The All-Ukrainian Council of Religious Unions which was created in 1996 consolidates a number of religious organisations, among which are Religious Administration of Muslims of the Ukraine “Umma”, Apostolic Orthodox Church in Ukraine, National Spiritual Gathering of Bah#’& Faith, Religious Union of Progressive Judaism Communities of Ukraine, Union of the Sons and Daughters of Native Ukrainian National Faith, Ukrainian Centre of Society for Krishna Consciousness, etc. Some observers usually consider this Union as an alternative to the AUCCRO, and today unites such organisations as Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kyiv Patriarchate), Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, Ukrainian Catholic Church, etc. In the AUCCRO, Muslims and Jews are represented by one single community each. Other Muslims and Jewish organisations remain out of its bonds, as the rule of accepting new members demands a unanimous voting, which is unlikely to come about due to interconfessional dissent. So initiating the All-Ukrainian Council of Religious Unions became a very important event in the Ukraine’s religious life.

9.

Religion in schools outside of RE

As the state education system does not recognize RE, here we can mention only religiously sponsored educational establishments, described in paragraph 4. Generally, there are no restrictions in Ukrainian legislation on the placement of religious symbols in public areas. It could be concluded from the declared secular character of the Ukrainian state that religious symbols are not allowed in or on governmental premises. The opening of an Orthodox chapel in the parliamentary building at the beginning of 2008 raised severe criticism from various political forces. The Parliamentary Committee for Rules of Procedure and Parliamentary Ethics found no legal grounds for the transformation of a parliamentary office into a temple; the Committee issued a decision requiring Parliament staff to take measures returning the reconstructed premises to its original condition and prohibiting the establishment of religious areas in the Ukrainian Parliament hereafter. However, the scandal was hushed up and the parliamentary chapel continues in operation at the time of the writing of this report (November 2018). It is a sound illustration of the gap that exists between the written and factual Constitutions outlined above. Ukrainian legislation also contains several provisions which directly ban non-religious organizations to

208

Iana Poliakova

utilize religious symbols. There are no legislative or factual constraints on individuals carrying or wearing religious symbols or traditional religious garments in Ukraine (Druzenko).

10.

Training of teachers of RE

According to the Law of Ukraine “On General Secondary Education” the subjects of moral and religious orientation could be taught by secondary school teachers who have received special instruction in higher educational institutions. Teacher training for the subjects “Foundations of Christian Ethics” has already started in some regional Institutes of postgraduate teacher training. In order to ensure efficient teaching of the subjects of moral and cultural orientation, and to avoid any problems, it is necessary to organize work groups with the local educational authorities, which should also include representatives of local religious organizations. The Ministry of Education and Science coordinates its activities with Public Council for Cooperation with Churches and Religious Organizations, which consists of the representatives of major confessions and religious groups. Some years ago there was founded All-Ukrainian non-governmental Association of teachers of Moral Subjects.

11.

Empirical research concerning RE

Empirical research in the Ukraine is mostly connected with comparative studies. But as mentioned by Friedrich Schweitzer, serious comparative research is impossible without securing the linguistic presuppositions, so the existing research considers mostly RE in the UK, Germany and France. There have been several doctorate and master’s dissertations investigating different aspect of RE in these countries (Schweitzer). The results of these works were published in Essays on Religious Studies: Annual journal of NGO Youth Association for the Study of Religions (Kyiv, Ukraine). The journal is officially registered (State Registration Certificate ;3 No 15424–3996) and has an international ISSN 2221–1535. http://ers.mar.in.ua/. The Essays on Religious Studies stands out as both a clear sign of a significant growth of interest towards religion and religious education in Ukrainian society and a reflection of a much debatable question of the presence of religion in state schools. Kyslyy A. O. Theological education in Ukraine as a factor of public ethics formation. Thesis for obtaining the academic degree of the Candidate of Science

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

209

in Philosophy, specialization 09.00.11 – Science of Religion. – Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University, Kyiv, 2007. Slubska A.J. Civil religion in the Ukrainian realities: philosophic and religious analysis. Thesis submitted for the Candidate Degree in Philosophy (PhD) in speciality 09.00.11. – Religious Studies. – National Pedagogical Dragomanov University. – Kyiv, 2017)

12.

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

The subjects of moral and religious orientation described in this report on the whole correspond to the basic documents of European Council, OSCE and other intergovernmental organizations. However, we should admit that Ukrainian educational policy-makers, not to mention school teachers, who implement state policy in the field of religious education, are not able in full measure to use European documents, achievements and experience in the field of religious education for a number of reasons. To improve the cooperation between secular and religious institutions of education declared by the state in public schools, it is necessary to: – develop curricula for religious education; based on the ground of religious tolerance and not obligatory (optional); with their subsequent implementation in the system of secondary and higher education; – join and coordinate efforts of educators and representatives of religious organizations within the research field; – develop the system of teacher training for religious education through organization of seminars, conferences and publishing of educational materials; – organize the study of European experience in religious education. Religious education in the Ukraine today is in a process of harmonizing mutually exclusive tendencies: revival of classical religious learning in church organizations, which in Soviet time was partly limited; partial returning to pre-Soviet practice of religious education outside church organizations; and the newest tendencies of providing of the newest religious education subject in context of polyconfessional, multicultural, post-secular societies. These tendencies can be examined as working autonomously, when they prove to be driven by a unique internal logic, their own rate of development and own aims. Orthodoxy as the most widespread, traditional for Ukraine and institutionally developed confession must exemplify not only the problem of interrelation of confessional and non-confessional ways of providing of religious education but also to form a base for the creation of public policy in this sphere. Orthodoxy should be basic in this question not from the position of artificial privilege compared with other con-

210

Iana Poliakova

fessions, but by using its social potential, which has both the theoretical and practical aspects.

13.

Further information

In this part we offer relevant literature and web-sites available in English language. Essays on Religious Studies Annual journal of NGO Youth Association for the Study of Religions (Kyiv, Ukraine). Gennadiy Druzenko, Redrafting of the Ukrainian Law on Religious Freedom: Ukrainian Churches vs. Ukraine’s Obligation to the Council of Europe, 2012 BYU L. Rev. 811 (2012). Available at: https ://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2012/iss3/ 5 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). IECS Report 2 Church and Religion in Ukraine The Religious Dimension of the Current Conflict :September 2016, Institute of Eastern Christian Studies, Nijmegen http://www. ru.nl/ivoc (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Jonathan Sutton, Religious education in contemporary Ukraine: Some courses of study analysed Religion, State and Society Vol. 22 , Iss. 2,1994. Krishmarel Victoria, Religious Education in State Schools: European and Ukrainian Context AV\wTwuX^QShw^QaYbY. – 2011. – No 2. – B. 98–106. Religion and the Secular State in Ukraine in J. Martinez-Torron and W. Durham, Jr. (eds), Religion and the Secular State: National Reports (Washington, DC, 2010) – in English. ProshakVitaly, Religion and Education in Post-Soviet UkrainePublished by GRIN Verlag.

Ukrainian and Russian language ;Yb\YZ 1. ?. AV\wTwZ^Q _bSwcQ S D[aQx^w p[ hY^^Y[e_a]dSQ^^pbdb`w\m^_x]_aQ\w. 5YbVacQgwp ^Q XU_Rdccp ^Qd[_S_T_ bcd`V^p [Q^UYUQcQ ew\_b_ebm[Yf ^Qd[ XQ b`VgwQ\m^wbco 09.00.11 – aV\wTwuX^QSbcS_. – ;YxSbm[YZ ^Qgw_^Q\m^YZ d^wSVabYcVc w]V^w CQaQbQ IVShV^[Q, ;YxS,

2007. (Kyslyy A. O. Theological education in Ukraine as a factor of public ethics formation. Thesis for obtaining the academic degree of the Candidate of Science in Philosophy, specialization 09.00.11 – Science of Religion. – Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University, Kyiv, 2007). ;Yb\YZ, 1. ?. AV\wTwZ^Q_bSwcQcQ^Qd[QSD[aQx^w: bdhQb^YZbcQ^wcV^UV^gwxa_XSYc[d [CV[bc] / 1. ?. ;Yb\YZ // Ew\_b_ewp^Qd[Y: caQUYgwxcQw^^_SQgwx: ^Qd[_SYZWda^Q\ / =?þD[aQx^Y, Bd]bm[YZUVaW. `VU. d^-cw]. 1. B. =Q[QaV^[Q ; [aVU[_\.: 3. =. 3Q^UYiVS, =. ?. ;Qhda_Sbm[YZ, 3. 1. ;_bp[cQw^.]. – Bd]Y : Bd]5@Dw]. 1. B. =Q[QaV^[Q, 2011. – No 1 (3). – B. 184–191. ýQT_UYh =. =wbgV cQ a_\m aV\wTwZ^_x _bSwcY d Ta_]QUp^bm[_]d bdb`w\mbcSw // þQd[_SYZ Swb^Y[ HVa^wSVgm[_T_ d^wSVabYcVcd. 8Rwa^Y[ ^Qd[_SYf `aQgm. – HVa^wSgw: 8_\_cw \YcQSaY, 2004. – 3Y`. 203–204. – Ew\_b_ewp. – B. 131–135.

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

211

ýQT_UYh =. @a_R\V]Y SY[\QUQ^^p faYbcYp^bm[_x VcY[Y S XQTQ\m^__bSwc^wf XQ[\QUQf // þQd[_SYZ Swb^Y[ HVa^wSVgm[_T_ d^wSVabYcVcd. 8Rwa^Y[ ^Qd[_SYf `aQgm. – HVa^wSgw: AdcQ, 2003. 3Y`. 163–164. Ew\_b_ewp. – B. 75–79. ýd[’p^V^[_ ?.3. AV\wTwZ^Q cQ aV\wTwuX^QShQ _bSwcQ 3V\Y[_RaYcQ^wx: cV^UV^gwx `_hQc[d FFü bc_\wccp / ?\V[bQ^Ua 3w[c_a_SYh ýd[’p^V^[_ // ?bSwc^w w^^_SQgwx: ew\_b_ewp, `bYf_\_Twp, `VUQT_Tw[Q. =QcVawQ\Y ]wW^Qa_U^_x ^Qd[_S_x [_^eVaV^gwx. – Bd]Y, 2009. http://shron1.

chtyvo.org.ua/Lukianenko_Oleksandr/Relihiina_ta_relihieznavcha_osvita_Velykobrytan ii.pdf. @Q\w^hQ[ =. =. AV\wTwZ^Q_bSwcQSi[_\Qf: SwchYX^p^QcQXQadRwW^Q`aQ[cY[Q / =. =. @Q\w^hQ[ // þQd[_SwXQ`Yb[Y [þQgw_^Q\m^_T_d^wSVabYcVcd“?bca_Xm[QQ[QUV]wp”]. BVa. : übc_aYh^V aV\wTwuX^QSbcS_. – 2011. – 3Y`. 5. – B. 158–168. – AVWY] U_bcd`d: http://nbuv.gov.ua/ UJRN/NznuoairD2009_2011_5_18. @Q^QbV^[_ ?. ?b^_S^w cV^UV^gwx a_XSYc[d aV\wTwZ^_x _bSwcY S D[aQx^w (^Q `aY[\QUw `aQS_b\QS’p) // Ew\_b_ewp _bSwcY. 2012. No 1–2. URL: http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/osnov ni-tendentsiyi-rozvitku-religiynoyi-osviti-v-ukrayini-na-prikladi-pravoslav-ya (UQcQ _RaQjV^Yp: 02. 02. 2018). AV\YTY_X^lV _aTQ^YXQgYY S _RjVbcSV^^_] `a_bcaQ^bcSV 2V\QadbY Y D[aQY^l – E_a]Ya_SQ^YV ]VfQ^YX]_S `Qac^VabcSQ þ. ;dcdX_SQ, ý. EY\Y`_SYh [Y Ua.]. – 3Y\m^ob : 64D, 2014. – 238 b. AV\wTwp w GVa[SQ S d[aQx^bm[_]d bdb`w\mbcSw: [_^eVbwZ^YZ a_X`_Uw\ : AVXd\mcQcY U_b\wUWV^^p, `a_SVUV^^_T_ b_gw_\_Twh^_o b\dWR_o GV^cad AQXd][_SQ X 25 `_ 30 RVaVX^p 2016 a_[d http://razumkov.org.ua/napryamki/sotsiolohichni-doslidzhennia/relihiia-i-tserkva -v-ukrainskomu-suspilstvi-konfesiinyi-rozpodil. B\dRbm[Q 1. P. 4a_]QUp^bm[Q aV\wTwp S d[aQx^bm[Yf aVQ\wpf: ew\_b_ebm[_aV\wTwuX^QShYZ Q^Q\wX. 5YbVacQgwp ^Q XU_Rdccp ^Qd[_S_T_ bcd`V^p [Q^UYUQcQ ew\_b_ebm[Yf ^Qd[ Xw b`VgwQ\m^_bcw 09.00.11 – aV\wTwuX^QSbcS_. – þQgw_^Q\m^YZ `VUQT_Twh^YZ d^wSVabYcVc w]V^w =. @. 5aQT_]Q^_SQ. – ;YxS, 2017. (Slubska A.J. Civil religion in the Ukrainian realities: philosophic and religious analysis. Thesis submitted for the Candidate Degree in Philosophy (PhD) in speciality 09.00.11. – Religious Studies. – National Pedagogical Dragomanov University. – Kyiv, 2017). Fa_]Vg 3. 3lbiVVaV\YTY_X^_V_RaQX_SQ^YVSD[aQY^V: `Vab`V[cYSlaQXSYcYp (Higherreligious educationinUkraine: developmentperspectives) /AV\YTY_X^lV_aTQ^YXQgYYS_RjVbcSV^ ^_]`a_bcaQ^bcSV2V\QadbYYD[aQY^l: e_a]Ya_SQ^YV]VfQ^YX]_S`Qac^VabcSQ. / þ. ;dcdX_SQ, ý. EY\Y`_SYh [Y Ua. ]. – 3Y\m^ob, 2014. – 238 b.

Educational system structure and reforms Ukraine – Preprimary Primary Education – School, Children, Institutions http://educa tion.stateuniversity.com/pages/1597/Ukraine-PREPRIMARY-PRIMARY-EDUCATION .html#ixzz5A1ZaTysY (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). The Educational System of Ukraine NORRIC April 2009 https://norric.org/files/educa tion-systems/Ukraine2009 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). The problems of educational reform in Ukraine https://www.osce.org/ru/odihr/341926 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

212

Iana Poliakova

Sasse Gwendolyn Ukraine’s Poorly Timed Education Law http://carnegieeurope.eu/stra tegiceurope/?fa=73272 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Educational reform in Ukraine: language aspect of influence to minorities and youth https:// uiamp.org.ua/en/educational-reform-ukraine-language-aspect-influence-minorities-an d-youth (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Websites AV\wTwZ^_-w^e_a]QgwZ^Qb\dWRQD[aQx^Y https://risu.org.ua/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). I^e_a]QgwZ^_-Q^Q\wcYh^YZ`_acQ\ Religion.in.ua. https://www.religion.in.ua/partnership.

html (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

D[aQY^b[Qp d^Y_^^Qp [_^eVaV^gYp. GVa[_Sm QUSV^cYbc_S bVUm]_T_ U^p http://uuc.adven

tist.ua/ (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

References Bremer, T. 2016. Religion in Ukraine : Historical Background and the Present Situation. ed. Krawchuk A. , T. Bremer, Churches in the Ukrainian Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Constitution of Ukraine (English translation)/Religion and Law Consortium https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Druzenko, G. 2010. Religion and the Secular State in Ukraine, ed. J. Martinez-Torron, Durham, Jr., W C, Religion and the Secular State: National Reports https://www.iclrs. org/content/blurb/files/Ukraine.1.pdf (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). European Commission for Democracy Through Law (Venice Commissions). Ukraine. Opinion on the provisions of the Law on Education of 5 September 2017, which concern the use of the state language and minority and other languages in education https:// www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2017)030-e (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). LAW of Ukraine “On Education” (Adopted by the Verkhovna Rada on 5 September 2017) https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-REF(2017) 047-e (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Law of Ukraine “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations” (April 1991) http://www.irf.in.ua/eng/index.php?option=com_content& view=article& id=68:1& catid=39:lu& Itemid=66 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Law of Ukraine “On Higher Education” (2014) in Ukrainian language: http://zakon1.rada. gov.ua/laws/show/1556-18 (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Law of Ukraine on Education, #1060-XII (13 may 1991) http://old.mon.gov.ua/files/nor mative/laws/ZU_Pro_osvitu.doc. Russia, Ukraine, and the battle for religion. Commentary Andrew Wilson 11th October, 2018 https://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_orthodox_redox_russia_ukraine_and_ the_battle_for_religion (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019). Schweitzer, F. 2015. Comparing Religious Education in Schools in European Countries : Challenges for International Comparative Research. In : Religious Education

Religious Education at Schools in the Ukraine

213

at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (Wiener Forum für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft 10/1). ;_^gV`cdQ\m^w XQbQUY SYShV^^p S XQTQ\m^__bSwc^wf ^QShQ\m^Yf XQ[\QUQf `aVU]VcwS Udf_S^_]_aQ\m^_T_ b`ap]dSQ^^p [6\V[ca_^^YZ aVbdab] (Conceptual foundations of moral and religious education in general compulsory education). – AVWY] U_bcd`d: https://yuristonline.com/zakoni/002/03/002215.php (last accessed: 23. 9. 2019).

Contributors

Yauheniya Danilovich has a PhD in Theology and is Researcher at the Faculty of Protestant Theology, WWU Münster, Germany. Nicolae Fus¸tei has a PhD in Theology and History and is Associate Professor at the Theological Academy of Chisinau, and a Coordinating Scientific Researcher at the Institute of History of Moldova, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova. Ketevan Gurchiani has a PhD in Classics and is Associate Professor for the Cultural Studies and Religion at Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Hovhannes Hovhannisyan has a PhD in History and is Associate Professor at the Department of the History and Theory of Religion of Yerevan State University, Armenia. Rashad Huseynov has a PhD in Political Science and is Associate Professor for Social Sciences at Khazar University, Azerbaijan. Martin Jäggle has a PhD and was Full Professor for Religious Education and Catechetics at the Faculty of Catholic Theology at the University of Vienna, Austria. Igor Metlik has a Doctor of Pedagogy and is Head of the Laboratory of Upbringing and Socialization of Children, The Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Institute of Study of Childhood, Family and Education of the Russian Academy of Education” and Professor of the St. Tikhon’s Orthodox University of Humanities, Moscow, Russia. Iana Poliakova has a PhD in Education and is Associate Professor at the Donetsk Pedagogical Institute, Ukraine.

216

Contributors

Martin Rothgangel has a PhD in Theology and Philosophy and is Full Professor for Religious Education at the Faculty of Protestant Theology at the University of Vienna, Austria.