Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 6: Southern Europe [1 ed.] 9783737011495, 9783847111498

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Wiener Forum für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft / Vienna Forum for Theology and the Study of Religions

Band 10, 6

Herausgegeben im Auftrag der Evangelisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien und der Katholisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien von Karl Baier und Christian Danz

Die Bände dieser Reihe sind peer-reviewed.

Martin Rothgangel / Dorothea Rechenmacher / Martin Jäggle (eds.)

Religious Education at Schools in Europe Part 6: Southern Europe

In cooperation with Sabine Hermisson and Maximillian Saudino With 2 figures

V& R unipress Vienna University Press

www.rel-edu.eu

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet þber https://dnb.de abrufbar. Verçffentlichungen der Vienna University Press erscheinen bei V& R unipress. Gedruckt mit freundlicher Unterstþtzung des Vereins der Freunde religiçser Bildung (Association of Friends of Religious Education) und des Research Centre „Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society“.  2020, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Theaterstraße 13, D-37073 Gçttingen Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Das Werk und seine Teile sind urheberrechtlich gesch þtzt. Jede Verwertung in anderen als den gesetzlich zugelassenen FÐllen bedarf der vorherigen schriftlichen Einwilligung des Verlages. Umschlagabbildung:  Erich Foltinowsky Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage j www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISSN 2197-0718 ISBN 978-3-7370-1149-5

Contents

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Southern Europe

. . . . . . .

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Flavio Pajer Religious Education at Schools in Southern Europe – a Catholic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Stavros S. Fotiou Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Cyprus . . . . . . . . .

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Vasiliki Mitropoulou Religious Education at Schools in Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Christian Alber / Dorothea Rechenmacher Religious Education at Schools in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Adrian-Mario Gellel Religious Education at Schools in Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Martin Jäggle / Margret Jäger Religious Education at Schools in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Carlos Esteban Garc8s Religious Education at Schools in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Martin Jäggle Religious Education at Schools in Andorra – Monaco – San Marino . . . 193 Contributors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Southern Europe

At a time when educational issues have increasingly come to determine the social and political discourse and major reforms of the education system are being discussed and implemented, and when migration has become a significant phenomenon, contributing to changes in the religious landscape of the European continent, it is highly appropriate to focus our attention on the concrete situation regarding religious education (RE) in Europe. Across the continent there are many different conceptions and organisations involved in shaping the local practice of RE, which includes the 47 member states of the Council of Europe. With few exceptions, RE has been established as a specific subject in publicly funded schools, while, in a few cases, studies of religion represent a dimension of other parts of the curriculum. At the same time, it is a subject area that is undergoing considerable change. (In this series, authors use the term “religious education” in a variety of ways, partly according to the history of their own education systems). Beyond the all-important tasks of taking stock and making international comparisons, the aim of this series of books is to create a foundation for further action in the field of education, especially with regard to interfaith expertise. In stark contrast to a move in the direction of religion being a “private matter” and towards “religion-free schools”, supranational organisations are, for the first time in Europe, addressing issues related to religion and education. While 9/11 may be seen as the triggering event here, there are wider reasons for such a development. The fact that the OSCE (Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe) has addressed the issue of religion and belief in education into its programme “Tolerance and Non-Discrimination” clearly shows that the topic has become a key issue for the future of Europe and for security and cooperation on the continent. In their Toledo Guiding Principles (OSCE 2007), the OSCE considers teaching about religions and beliefs part of a high-quality education system that expands pupils’ horizons, makes the complexity of religions and world views comprehensible for pupils in an interdisciplinary way and provides them with information and skills appropriate to the development of an impartial

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approach, as well as encouraging freedom of religion and belief, as reflected in the human rights codes. The Council of Europe, in several of its documents, has focused on the religious dimension of intercultural dialogue, paying particular attention to the issue of religious diversity in schools. It values religious diversity highly and demands that it be given appropriate space, rejecting any restriction of religion to the private domain as well as rejecting the notion of “religion-free” schools. The Council of Europe’s publication Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: a Reference Book for Schools (Council of Europe 2007) provides a checklist that makes clear the extent to which school as a whole needs to play a part, while the 2008 Recommendation from the Committee of Ministers, the Foreign Ministers of the 47 member states, is a major step towards encouraging policy makers, schools and teacher trainers to prioritise the development of inclusive forms of education about religions and beliefs in their respective countries (Council of Europe 2008). A guidance on implementing the recommendation for policy makers, schools and teacher trainers in the member states, was published in 2014 (Jackson 2014a, discussed in Jackson 2014b). The phenomenon of migration is triggering contentious discussions on suitable responses to the challenges it can create. Irrespective of this issue, it is becoming increasingly clear that education and religion can play an important role in clarifying issues such as identity and belonging, ethnicity and culture. Such clarifications are important both for shaping the future of migrants as well as the attitude towards migration on the part of the host population. Since for many people religion is a crucial element in how they interpret themselves and the world around them, its recognition and appropriate representation is critical for the recognition of the individual. The complex issue of RE in public schools also concerns school in its entirety as well as many of its subjects of instruction and projects. We will focus our attention on the organisational form of RE, i. e. the subject of religion or its alternatives, in which the issue of religion(s) is an integral part. We acknowledge here that we will not deal with the topic exhaustively, even though we are making an important contribution towards an understanding of the issues involved. The project “Religious Education at Schools in Europe” (REL-EDU), which is divided up into six volumes (Central Europe, Northern Europe, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, South-Eastern Europe, South Europe) (cf. www.rel-edu.eu), aims to research the situation with regard to RE in Europe. The chapters in each regional volume begin by outlining the organisational form of RE in the particular countries covered. This will be done along the lines of thirteen key issues, which were agreed upon by the authors from the various countries at two symposia held at the University of Vienna in 2011 and 2012, in order to achieve as much coherence as possible for the publications. The formulation of key issues

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allows specific points of comparison between different countries in Europe, thereby facilitating a comparative approach and further research into specific aspects of the comparison. The publication by Rothgangel and Schröder (2009) preceded this project and was also conducted based on key issues. In addition, earlier internationally oriented predecessor projects may be recommended for further reference. Since a comprehensive discussion of the corresponding literature is undertaken in the methodological contribution by Friedrich Schweitzer (2013) in volume 1, four published projects will be mentioned as examples. The following five-volume work from the mid-1970s was a pioneering publication on the subject of RE: – Schultze, H. / Kirchhoff H. (1975–1977) (ed.), “Christian Education in Europe” (German title: Christliche Erziehung in Europa), Stuttgart, 5 volumes (England, the Netherlands, Sweden, France, Poland). – The fact that research into the area of RE has become more international in recent years and comparative research on the topic is inevitable is shown by the following three publications: – Jackson, R. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religion and Education in Europe. Developments, Contexts and Debates, Münster ; – Kuyk, E. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religious Education in Europe. Situation and current trends in schools, Oslo; – Lähnemann, J. / Schreiner, P. (2009) (eds.), Interreligious and Values Education in Europe. Map and Handbook, Münster. Below, the thirteen key issues mentioned above are presented briefly. The first three key issues examine the frameworks of society, law and politics. Here, historical explanations should be very useful in helping us understand the status quo. 1. Socio-religious background This brief insight into the socio-religious situation deals, in particular, with important changes, such as those that follow in the wake of migration. 2. Legal framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state The relationship between churches, religious groups and the state is regulated differently in each country, with consequences for the different legal frameworks that exist for religious education. 3. Developments in the country’s education policies Across Europe, efforts to reform the education system are being made, which have direct and indirect effects on religious education.

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After outlining this general framework, points four through six present key aspects of religious education: 4. Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships The place of religiously sponsored schools in the educational landscape of each country reveals much about the state and societal recognition of churches and religious groups in the education system, as well as about the commitment to education of the churches and religious groups. 5. Conceptions and tasks of RE The conceptions and tasks of religious education are negotiated by the religious communities, school and young people – as well as within society as a whole. It is in the interrelationship between these different players that the challenge of religious education lies. 6. Practice/reality of RE in different schools Depending on the type of school in question, religious education can present different frameworks, challenges and difficulties. In issues seven to ten important contextual phenomena in religious education at the level of the school are addressed, and a targeted focus is laid on ecumenical and interfaith cooperation and the education of religion teachers. 7. Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc. Consideration of subjects/learning areas offered “parallel” to religious education is important, as their availability or non-availability as well as their relationship to religious education (e. g. as an alternative subject or as an elective subject) has not only an indirect effect on the way in which religious education is provided, it also affects what kind of ethical and religious education those pupils who do not attend religion class receive. 8. Dealing with religious diversity The question of how to deal with diversity and which forms of cooperation the different religious players within society can come up with has become a critical challenge in European countries.

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9. Religion in school outside of RE Does religion have a role to play in school beyond that of a specific subject offered to pupils? The answer to this question reveals to what extent the whole climate of the school is religion-friendly. 10. Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues This point addresses an important structural determinant, which, based on the empirically proven importance of the character of the religion teacher for the religious education of pupils, deserves special attention. Since the aim here is not merely to take stock of the situation but instead to make suggestions for the next steps required in the area of religious education, it was important to formulate concrete desiderata as well as challenges for each country and direct the reader towards further sources of information. 11. Empirical Research concerning RE For a long time empirical research concerning religious education was neglected. In the last ten years, however, there have been more and more empirical studies. The relevant studies in the respective country and the different areas addressed in empirical research are of special interest. 12. Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context Here, the results for each country from the analysis of the key issues mentioned above are examined with a view to finding out which topics or issues may be important for further work in the area of religious education in Europe. 13. Further information The selection of additional sources of information should facilitate further research in the field of religious education in the respective countries. The countries covered in this volume are marked by a strong Christian tradition. This affects their respective societies as well as their politics. Greece and Cyprus are dominated by the Greek Orthodox Church, the other countries by the Roman Catholic Church. Despite their strong legal foundations, the influence of the churches is waning. The countries are members of the Council of Europe, with particular attention being paid to respect for human rights (European Charter of Human Rights) especially for education and religion. All countries – except for the micro-states – are members of the EU, which lends dynamism to the modernization of the education system.

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Almost all countries in southern Europe are particularly affected by the EU refugee crisis because they are potential arrival states. In most countries the different churches are working to give aid to refugees in many ways. Greece, Italy and Portugal, traditional emigration countries, have become immigration countries. In formerly homogeneous Christian countries this promotes religious pluralization with special effects on schools and religious education. Some of the elites in these countries represent a secular model, which also questions the legitimacy of the existing practice of religious education at school. Each volume of the REL-EDU series is opened with a specific principle contribution. In view of the predominantly ”Catholic” countries in this volume, Flavio Pajer was invited to present ”a Catholic Perspective”. The Vatican City State, founded in 1929 with the so-called Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, does not have its own primary and secondary schools, which is why it is not specifically dealt with here. Unfortunately, there have been major delays in finishing this volume. Therefore, the contributions have different completion dates. Flavio Pajer completed his contribution 2014. The contributions on Spain and Italy were completed in 2016, the contributions on Cyprus, Greece, Italy and Malta in 2017. We thank all contributors for their understanding of the issues involved. We would also like to thank Dr. Sabine Hermisson and Maximilian Saudino for preparing and proof-reading the script as well as Karin Sima and Marietta Behnoush for preparing the layout. Vienna, 1/3/2020

Martin Jäggle, Martin Rothgangel and Dorothea Rechenmacher

References Council of Europe, eds. 2007. Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: A Reference Book for Schools. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Council of Europe. 2008. Recommendation CM/ Rec (2008) 12 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the dimension of religions and non-religious convictions within intercultural education. https://wcd.coe.int//ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CM/Rec(2008)12 & Language=lanEnglish& Ver=original& BackColorInternet=DBDCF2& BackColorIn tranet=FDC864& BackColorLogged=FDC864. Jackson, R. 2014a. Signposts – Policy and pracrice for teaching about religions and nonreligious worldviews in intercultural education. Strassbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.

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Jackson, R. 2014b. The Development and Dissemination of Council of Europe Policy on Education about Religions and Non-religious Convictions. Journal of Beliefs and Values: Studies in Religion& Education 35, no. 2: 133–43. OSCE. 2007. The Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religion or Belief in Public Schools. Warsaw: Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Rothgangel, M., and B. Schröder, eds. 2009. Evangelischer Religionsunterricht in den Ländern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Empirische Daten – Kontexte – Entwicklungen. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Schweitzer, F. 2013. Religionsunterricht in europäischen Schulen im Vergleich – Herausforderungen für international-vergleichende Forschung. In Religiöse Bildung an Schulen in Europa. Teil 1: Mitteleuropa, ed. M. Jäggle, M. Rothgangel, and T. Schlag, 13–40. Göttingen: V& R unipress.

Flavio Pajer

Religious Education at Schools in Southern Europe – a Catholic Perspective

Introduction First, a few points are clarified in order to define the terms used in the title more clearly. 1. While it is true that the region of South Europe, also called Mediterranean or Latin Europe, is commonly identified as “Catholic Europe” from a historical and sociological point of view. It is likewise true that the present-day European Union includes quite a number of countries with a population, in which Catholics continue more or less to be a majority, such as Ireland, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Austria, Slovakia and Croatia. Clearly, the general directives regarding religious education issued by the central authorities in Rome, which have normative character which does not respect national frontiers, apply not only to the region of South Europe, but also to the whole gamut of educational systems, whether European or not, of which a Catholic school population is a part. On the other hand, from a geographical point of view, Mediterranean Europe includes countries with an Orthodox majority, such as Greece and Cyprus, where the Catholic presence is completely marginal. And then, the recent factor of immigration should not be forgotten: Italy, Spain and Greece have become frontier territories, exposed more than most to the dynamics of migration and a relative increase in the growth rate of religious diversity. 2. It is a well-known fact that even in traditionally Catholic areas, statistics reveal a progressive decrease, and in some instances, a collapse in practical terms, of Church membership of so many baptised members. For example, today, the number of Christians who attend Sunday Mass in China is higher than in Germany, France, Great Britain, Holland and Belgium put together. The consequence of all this is that the denominational Catholic, and generally speaking, Christian, identity serves less and less as a distinctive marker in the various social areas of civil and professional life, of political and union militancy,

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and of value and ethical choices; and even in the domain of State religious education and teaching (which we shall in fact consider in this brief essay). 3. It is trivial to recall that the term “Catholic country” is not in any way synonymous with “denominational State”, or subordinate to the Church, since the more than twenty concordats currently signed by “Catholic nations” with their respective governments and parliaments, and especially after agreed reviews over the last ten years, ratify a statute of reciprocal autonomy between State and Church. This autonomy does not exclude, but actually calls for bilateral cooperation between political power and religious authority, agreed upon the basis of specific and recognised responsibilities of the two contracting parties. So, it is not a statute of separation, as is the case in France – an exception in Europe – but neither is it a mutually acceptable cohabitation typical of “National State Churches” such as occurs in Orthodox countries, or even occurred in the past in some Protestant countries. 4. Finally, it goes without saying that, as a Catholic writer, I don’t necessarily identify with the reasons behind the political and operational strategies given by the Catholic Church relating to religious teaching in State schools, and issued at the various levels of its central organisation (Holy See, Vatican Congregation for Catholic Education, Council of the Bishops’ Conferences of Europe); its peripheral organisation (National Bishops’ Conferences); and at local level (diocesan structures).

1

Roman Catholicism in the context of Europe

In the last decades, the attention given by Roman Catholicism to religious teaching in schools has been and remains contextual with the much wider issue of the construction of Europe. The focus on this issue is a constant feature in the second half of the 20th century. Contemporary historians (Melloni, 2004; Massignon, 2007) distinguish chronologically various “Catholic” visions of Europe: a westernising vision from Pius XII; a universalist vision in the documents of the Vatican II Council (John XXIII and Paul VI); a pan-European vision during the pontificate of John Paul II, remembered for some famous but largely inconclusive European battles, such as the restoration of the myth of a “Christian Europe”, side-by-side with the dream of the “New Evangelisation”; the metaphor of a Europe “with two lungs” and of Europe as “a shared house”; the battle to insert the “Judaeo-Christian roots” into the text of the European Constitution, etc. More recently, the Ratzinger vision has in part drawn close to the western vision of Pius XII, including a strong return to Hellenistic roots, and in part to the pan-European vision of John Paul II, tending however to favour a certain selfreferential euro-centrism. As a symptom of this, we can mention the well-known

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episode of the lecture at the University of Regensburg, and the speech, given in his capacity as Cardinal Prefect, to the Senate in Rome. (cf. Ratzinger 2004) Pope Francis, on the contrary, adopts emphatically the position of a militant of the “periphery of the Church”, to the point that, in this initial phase of his pontificate, he has not yet shown any “European-centred” preferences, apart from that of begging Europe to return to being a land which welcomes the dramatic influx of migrants from the south shores of the Mediterranean (visit and speech at Lampedusa, July 2013). But apart from all the speeches of the upper echelons on specific occasions, we should not forget the substantial and constant contribution of the Catholic Church to the European and world res publica, in particular, by its promotion of human rights, and specifically, by its prioritised defence of religious freedom and of the right of a religious presence in the public forum (Martini 1990). In this area, Europe also has adopted structures for the cultural and juridical promotion of human rights: the Council of Europe and other satellite bodies (OSCE, ECRI, ICCS, NGO…) have been working in a most praiseworthy manner for decades, on the basis of a principle of laicism and impartiality, for the safeguard of profoundly humanistic values such as the freedom of thought and of philosophical and ethical convictions, the right to ethnic non-discrimination and education, and so on. The contribution which the Catholic Church offers in this general field of humanisation, and in the specific field of education and school education, is characterised by certain key-aspects which I shall only list (Giordano 2012): – The irrevocable link between faith and reason: they constitute an integral whole, without negating nor conditioning each other. Cultivated faith widens the horizons of rationality, critical reason defends against the drift of pseudoreligious fundamentalism. – The dignity of the human person as the root of human rights: the source of the rights does not lie simply in the will of human beings, not even in the institutional reality of the State, nor in other public authorities, but in the inalienable primacy of the person itself as a transcendent subject. The economy, politics and culture are at the service of the person, not vice versa. – The social doctrine of the Church, in the changing evolution of circumstances and historical contexts, illustrates and supports human progress understood as the prioritised service of the person, of the whole person, of all persons, in the framework of a culture of solidarity and in view of a “society of love”, in which love of the neighbour is indissociable from the love of God. – The transcendent vision of the person provides the necessary basis for the fact that the rights are “universal, inviolable, inalienable, indivisible”. This counters at least two risks of our times: that of the fragmentation of human rights, which takes place either by categorising these rights ad infinitum

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(workers, women, children, young people, elderly people, ill people, the Rom, migrants, homosexuals…), or by introducing new rights (the right to have a child, to keep the surnames of both parents…); and the risk of arbitrariness or of a sort of apathy, when rights and duties lack an objective, absolute and universally recognised basis, and are handed over to the anarchy of interpretations conditioned by cultures, ideologies and religions. For example, what plausibility could the Council of Europe and its partners claim if there were no stable and universal values, rights and principles which were identical for all its member countries? – Catholic, and generally speaking, Christian tradition helps to define in practical terms the content of fundamental rights, by contrast with an overly easy, vague and simply rhetorical definition of principles and values. Agreement regarding verbal expressions is easy (for example, regarding the concept of “human dignity”), but much less so on their content, on their epistemological basis, on their practical implementation (Is there more respect for human dignity in carrying out, for example, abortion and euthanasia, or abstaining from interfering medically in the birth or death of a person?). – Catholic, and generally speaking, Christian tradition: a) promotes social justice, but introduces also charity and mercy where human rules impose only justice; b) builds up the city of mankind, but does not forget that its completion will be the city of God; c) it appreciates and stimulates human, social, artistic, scientific and technological progress, but to the extent that, in Gospel terms, this progress aims to serve man, and does not use man as a means; d) it promotes the literacy and cultural formation of young people in schools and university, but at the same time strives to develop a critical conscience, so that the knowledge and skills acquired in school do not remain in thrall to the exploitive reasoning of the neo-liberal, economic, productive system , or to professional success, or solely to the development of technological applications.

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Catholic Church and education

The legitimacy of the involvement of the Catholic Church in the matter of education cannot be called into question. The Council Declaration Gravissimum educationis (1965) and numerous successive documents produced by the Vatican Congregation for Catholic Education – The Catholic School 1997; Lay Catholics in schools: witnesses to faith 1982; The religious Dimension of education in a Catholic School 1988; The Catholic School on the threshold of the third Millennium 1997; Educating together in Catholic Schools: a shared mission between consecrated persons and the lay faithful 2007; Circular Letter on the

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teaching of the religion in the schools 2009; Educating to intercultural Dialogue in Catholic School 2013; Educating today and tomorrow: a renewing passion, 2014 – offer a complete picture, but also one still “in-progress”, of the theological conditions and of the operational strategies for intervening responsibly, as citizens and believers, in the world of the school, university and informal education. In post-secular Europe, there still remains the prejudice that the interest of the Church in schools is an unwanted interference in the sphere of State competence. This is not the case at all, since faith, as understood by Catholic believers, has a public relevance also. As Pope Francis wrote in his Exhortation Evangelii gaudium (2013): “No one can insist we should relegate religion to the secret intimacy of a person, without any influence on social and national life, without concerning ourselves with the health of the institutions of civil society, without expressing our views regarding events which affect everyone. […] An authentic faith always implies a desire to change the world. The Church cannot and must not remain on the fringes of the fight for justice, for development, for education”. On the other hand, the social involvement of the Church, in particular, regarding education, is not new, and is backed up by the long experience of centuries. As we know, the secular educational structures of the states of Modern Europe have their origin in the universities and schools which came into existence as Church institutions in the mediaeval period of the societas christiana. Subsequently, the Roman Church was caught up in the onset of modern history, (stimulated, among other things, by the flourishing arts of Humanism and of the Italian Renaissance) and worried about adopting strategic measures to counter the Lutheran Reformation, it multiplied its efforts to build up a network of Catholic educational institutions1, which subsequently expanded to the so-called “missionary countries” outside of Europe. For several centuries, the basic text of Catholic education could only be the Catholic Catechism, usually called Christian doctrine, or simply and by preference, doctrine, which came to be consid1 To give some examples: Ignatius of Loyola and his Jesuits, with their Ratio studiorum, set up all over Europe their famous Colleges from the end of the 16th century. Joseph Calasanz opened in 1598 in Rome the first free school for the common people. In France, in the 18th century, John Baptist de La Salle sent the Brothers of the Christian Schools to educate the children of the artisans and workers of the poorest classes. In the 19th century, at the height of the Industrial Revolution, the Salesians of Don Bosco, with their vocational schools began to care for the “poor and abandoned young people”. Similar initiatives were naturally undertaken in the field of female education. Today this imposing educational work, born in Europe, continues on a world level. According to the International Handbook of Catholic Education (2007), there are about 190,000 Catholic schools in the world and more than 45 million pupils. Solely in the 20year period of 1980–2000, the number of schools increased by 30.1 %, and the number of pupils by 32 %. Africa is at the head of the list with an increase of 106 % of the number of pupils. Secularised Europe on the other hand, in the same period has registered a fall of over 8 million pupils, equivalent to 7.5 % of the total.

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ered as the fundamental and normative syllabus, for either parish catechetical teaching of adults and young people, or for religious instruction in schools. Sideby-side, but often conflicting with Christian schools, the modern states started developing their own state system of public instruction, which generally did not reject religious and moral instruction, but relegated it to a separate course in order to give priority to the teaching of profane subjects. The marginalisation of religious knowledge by comparison with the teaching of profane subjects was simply a consequence of the dominant Enlightenment of that time. Religion courses ended up in this way by being, up to this day, an appendix, often neglected and of no importance in State school education. But not only in the State system, but also in many continental Catholic schools, and in particular, from the second half of the 20th century, religious courses had to water down their explicit denominational character in order to come to terms with a school population which was increasingly secularised and heterogeneous regarding church membership and ethical/religious practice (Pajer 2012b). In various parts of Europe, including “Catholic” South Europe, the progressive loss of the denominational character of Catholic instruction has led the members of the hierarchy to face up to the dilemma whether it is more effective to continue to manage a network of denominational schools, or to invest their own cultural and pastoral efforts directly in State schools2 without altering, of course, the lay character of the school. As European society becomes more secularised and pluralistic, the question is asked whether Catholic schools should not rather try to respect this pluralism in their curriculum, beginning precisely with their religious courses (Tacconi 2014). In this connection, the recent document from the Vatican Congregation for Catholic Education – Educating to intercultural dialogue in Catholic school, 2013 – proposes basic criteria and gives advice regarding good practices to counter not only the intolerable ideological division between profane learning and religious learning, but also the ancient barriers 2 Corroboration of this tendency was expressed at a meeting of the Council of the Bishops’ Conferences of Europe (CCEE): “We wonder whether the Church should provide itself with its own social institutions (such as schools, hospitals, nursery schools), or whether rather it should take measures so that lay persons, with strong links with the Church and well-trained can work in public institutions. We wonder whether it is better to train many good teachers, or to maintain exclusively private ecclesiastical schools.” (CCEE 1997. Religione: fatto privato e realta pubblica. La Chiesa nella societ/ pluralista, a cura di Aldo Giordano, Bologna: EDB: 43) There are more than a few Catholic authors who have become very sceptical and critical regarding Catholic schools. The French philosopher Guy Coq expresses the views of all: “The problem of denominational schools remained throughout this last century the focus of the difficulties the Church had in becoming integrated in secular society. The responsibility for these schools, the extraordinary energy used to maintain them, to get them recognised , to give then a central position in evangelisation, were a fearful restraint on the construction of a Church for a secular society, for democracy” (La"cit8 et R8publique. Le lien n8cessaire. Paris: Ed. du Felin 1995: 243).

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between learning relating to one’s own denomination (exegesis, theology, ethics, catechesis, as forms of language restricted to the denomination in question), and learning related to other denominations (Christian Ecumenism or Christian Education) and to other religions and other kinds of spirituality (Religious Sciences or Religious Studies). Also, it is commonly believed that the quality of school education does not depend so much on a specific religious course, but rather on the overall value of school as an institution, understood as an organic whole made up of learning, relations, processes, behaviours, and all this even when the school is no longer able to teach in an explicit form the traditional contents of faith and morals (Lombaerts-Pollefeyt 2009). This transition, typical of the post-modern period, is legitimised and confirmed also by the revision of the old concordats between the Holy See and democratic states which has occurred over the last 30 years. One of the res mixtae regulated by the concordats is the teaching of religion in State schools (Bogar&n D&az 2014; Doe 2014). This teaching was clearly denominational in the first concordats signed in “Christian” times, when the Catholic faith could even pride itself on being a “State religion” (as in the case of the concordats with Italy,1929, Austria, 1933, Portugal, 1940, Spain, 1953), or enjoyed at least a sociological pre-eminence, with a role similar to that of a socalled “civil religion”. The concordat revisions which took place during the postconciliar period (Spain, 1978, Italy, 1984, Malta, 1989, Portugal, 2004) redefine the profile and the role of the teaching of religion, setting aside the pedagogical viewpoint and the vocabulary of the traditional denominational “in-house” catechism, and adopting the educational and methodological approach of schools3. This had a dual advantage: that of confirming (at least as a tendency) religious courses in a school setting, which, generally speaking, had grown more autonomous and laical; and that of guaranteeing in the meantime the support of a good number of pupils increasingly intolerant of the doctrinal and persuasive model of preceding generations. Not only that: teaching that is informative and critical about the Catholic religion, as well as education into faith and for the faith, makes possible a less selective access to religious courses. The course does maintain the denominational character of the material contents (what), but is no 3 By way of example, we quote the cases of Italy and Malta (our italics): “The Italian Republic, recognising the value of religious culture, and taking into account that the principles of Catholicism form a part of the historical heritage of the Italian People, will continue to guarantee, within the frame of reference of the finality of the school, the teaching of the Catholic religion in non-university State schools of all kinds and level” (Law 25. 3. 1985 n.121, art. 9,2). “The Republic of Malta guarantees Catholic religious instruction – within the frame of reference of the finality of the school and as an integral part of the activity of the school – in the State schools of all kinds and level” (Agreement between Malta and the Holy See 16. 11. 1989, art.1). The complete texts are published in the Acta Apotolicae Sedis (AAS) 1985: 294–304 and in AAS 1989: 30–41.

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longer strictly denominational in its educational objectives (why). The course does not presume faith, nor does it aim to spread the Catholic faith. In fact, pupils of other faiths and non-believers can sign on for the Catholic course, something which can go towards satisfying the spontaneous curiosity of a school population which is spiritually nomadic, and characterised now by a wide spectrum of denominational, spiritual and belief loyalties.

3

Profile of present-day Catholic religious teaching

If we wish now to outline the present-day profile of Catholic religious teaching, we need to take into account at least two major sources of data: ideal data, set out by the central authorities in normative and exhortatory documents; and real data, coming from empirical and critical observation on the ground, contained in administrative and instructive dossiers. In other words, it is the classic case of the coin with two sides: the profile of the teaching of religion described as it should be (de iure, ex auctoritate), and the practical situation (de facto), which obtains in concrete terms in the multiple contexts of national and regional cultures, of diverse State educational systems, of school legislation almost always being revised. A third source to consult would be an academic one, university research, that is, a mass of interpretive and critical writings which, in the field of both theory and practice, give rise to various theological and non-theological, legal and educational sciences. This academic aspect is borne out by the abundant scientific bibliography, published in various European languages, including the bibliography published in various Romance languages. A South European bibliography which, unfortunately, – if I may say so here, incidentally and without any polemic intentions – is almost always completely ignored by the scientific journals and essays of central north Europe. 1. The first profile, the ideal one, is restricted to numerous Vatican documents and to even more numerous documents produced by national and local episcopates. There is no room here to mention the documents of the various Catholic episcopates of south Europe (for this, I refer the reader to a limited selection of bibliographical sources4, but the major official texts are generally available on the 4 Comisijn episcopal de EnseÇanza y Catequesis. Orientaciones pastorales sobre enseÇanza religiosa escolar. Madrid: PPC 1979; Conferenza episcopale italiana, Insegnare religione cattolica oggi. Pastoral note on the teaching of the Catholic religion in State schools. “Notiziario della Conferenza episcopale italiana” 25 (1991): 77–93; Concordato tra la Santa Sede e la Repubblica Portoghese, 18th May 2004. AAS 97 (2005): 29–50; Javier Salinas ViÇals. La enseÇanza religiosa escolar en el pensamiento actual de la Comisijn episcopal de enseÇanza. “Bordjn- Revista de Pedagog&a” 58 (2006). nn.4–5: 583–596; Conferenza episcopale italiana – Servizio nazionale per l’IRC (ed.). L’insegnamento della religione risorsa per l’Europa. Report

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respective sites of national bishops’ conferences). Restricting myself to a mention of the Vatican position, the most authoritative and recent document is the Circular Letter of the Congregation for Catholic Education, dated May 5th 2009, addressing the presidents of the Bishops’ Conferences of the whole world, in which are reaffirmed the nature and finality of the teaching of the Catholic religion. It seems the letter was born as a reaction to the widespread tendency, very well supported in the Catholic world, to replace denominational teaching by a neutral teaching on the “Faits religieux” (in France), or “Ethics and religious culture” (in Belgium, Qu8bec, several Swiss cantons), or the “History of religions” (projects and experiments in Spain, Italy, in the canton of Ticino), or of bidenominational or cooperative teaching (Germany, Ireland, …). Three fundamental reasons underpin this letter, whose whole purpose is to defend to the bitter end the denominational profile of the teaching of the Catholic religion (Zani 2011). 1.1. Above all, a call to be alert regarding the present-day secularised cultural situation, which threatens to make it acceptable to consider as inevitable the slow process of the marginalisation of denominational teaching in schools; this is equivalent to “assuming an ideological position which can lead into error, or do damage to pupils. Also, this could create confusion, or generate relativism or religious indifferentism, if the teaching of religion were limited to a presentation of the various religions in a comparative or “neutral” manner” (n.12). To reinforce this, a quotation is included from a speech of John Paul II to the Roman Curia (1984), which recalls how “in schools, whether these are Catholic or State, the teaching of religion must satisfy the right of believing families, who must have the guarantee that the schools pose no danger to the faith of their children, but are places where they receive a holistic formation. This principle must be included in the concept of religious freedom and of a truly democratic State which, as such, through respect for its most profound and true nature, puts itself

on the research of the Council of the European Bishops’ Conferences. Torino: Elledici 2008 (in particular the reports: Portugal: 200–206; Spain: 250–262; Italy: 171–179; Greece: 138–140); Consilium Conferentiarum Episcoporum Europae (CCEE): Church and State relations. From historical and theological perspectives. Report of the II Catholic-Orthodox European Forum, Rhodes, Oct. 18–22 2010, Bologna: Edizioni Dehoniane: 246; Isabel Cano Ruiz ed. La enseÇanza de la religijn en la escuela pfflblica. Actas del VI Simposio internacional de Derecho concordatario, Oct. 16–18, 2013. Granada: Ed. Comares 2014: 614 (in particular the models of religious teaching in Spain, Italy, Germany, with relative references to the juridical and ecclesiastic setting: 81–163). For a periodical update of what is happening in Europe, it might be useful to consult the multilingual newsletter EREnews [European Religion Education news], published every 3 months by the undersigned, which provides information about events, documents and publications relating to the study of religion at school and academic level in Europe.

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at the service of its citizens, of all its citizens, through respect for their rights and their religious convictions”. 1.2. The document underlines the educational and cultural nature of Catholic teaching, since “it constitutes a requirement of the anthropological view of the human being open to the transcendental dimension: it is an aspect of the right to education (cf. Code of Canon Law: 799). Without this subject, pupils would be deprived of an essential element of their formation which helps them to achieve a vital harmony between faith and culture. Moral formation and religious education encourage also the development of personal and social responsibility and the other civic virtues, and constitute therefore a notable contribution to the common good of society” (n. 10). 1.3. Then there is the discipline-specificity of this teaching, which must be officially recognised and formulated within the framework of a new school teaching approach. In fact, as the Vatican II Council had affirmed, “The civil power of the State, whose purpose is to bring about the temporal common good, has certainly to recognise the religious life of the citizens, and to favour it; but we must affirm that it would be outside its competence if it presumed to direct or impede religious acts” (Dignitatis humanae 1965, n.3). For these reasons it is for the Church to establish the authentic content of the teaching of the Catholic religion in schools: it guarantees to parents and the pupils themselves the authenticity of the teaching which it transmits as being Catholic (n.13). But the denominational specificity of this teaching does not negate its own status as a school subject: “on the contrary”, it says, quoting the Directorium catechisticum generale 1997, n.73, “the maintenance of this status is a condition of its efficacy. It is necessary for this teaching to be seen as a school subject, with the same need for systematic organisation and rigour as other subjects have. It has to present the message and the Christian Event with the same serious attention and depth shown by other subjects when they present their own content. However, side-byside with these, this religious teaching is not of secondary importance, but is part of a necessary inter-subject dialogue”. Regarding the role Catholic religious teaching can have in an inter-denominational, inter-religious and inter-faith dialogue, significant guidelines were issued by the Council of the Bishops’ Conferences of Europe at the conclusion of a thorough fact-finding investigation of the status of Catholic religious education in thirty or so European countries5. In the document containing the final sum-

5 Data from the European enquiry, promoted by the European Catholic episcopates, sponsored on the operational and financial level by the Italian Bishops’ Conference and its National service for the IRC, was published in Italian in the volume L’Insegnamento della religione, risorsa per l’Europa. Torino: Elledici 2008: 462, but is also available in part on a cd-rom in English and French.

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ming up (432–437), the focus is on future development and the manner of implementation: – the religious teaching which responds best to the expectations of present-day western culture is one “with a denominational content”, in the sense that it creates a dialogue with a religion that is “living” and significant for the lives of everyone; – it is necessary to enhance the role of parents to support this teaching, since it is parents who have the primary right to, and responsibility for education in general and for the religious education of their children; – it is necessary to continue to examine thoroughly the question of the presence of religion in the school-education context, to improve the discipline profile of this teaching, which should be on a par with the teaching of other school subjects where methodology and rigour are concerned, but also to preserve the specific singularity of its content and its epistemology ; – this teaching can be offered as an elective course to pupils, independently of their choice of faith and with respect for their freedom of conscience, and should be implemented on the basis of ecumenical collaboration and of an open-mindedness regarding religious and non-religious beliefs; – constant changes in the European cultural context are a constant reminder that it is necessary to completely rethink the formation of teachers of religion, in order to enhance as the valuable service offered by these teachers to the Church and to society much as possible. 2. If we examine broadly, and on the basis of quality, the learned dossiers which are documented in national reports, annual publications, press reviews or local newsletters, we can pick out the following major points in the complex picture of the teaching of the Catholic religion (Pajer 2006). 2.1. If European society has assumed the characteristics of a multi-ethnic and multicultural society, and if main-stream school pedagogy is experimenting with various kinds of inter-cultural education, it is natural and incumbent on school religious teaching also to adopt the principles, rules and methodologies of an inter-cultural approach to teaching. In fact, in response to pressure from specific directives from the European Union and the Council of Europe, and in line with the widespread acceptance of the inter-cultural approach in the teaching methodology of school subjects, even the teaching of the Catholic religion has multiplied its efforts to introduce inter-cultural learning in many countries. To give just a few examples, (not only in south Europe): from England6 to Spain7, 6 Bishop’s Conference of England and Wales. Religious Educatio. Curriculum Directory for Catholic Schools. London 1996: “The objectives of curriculum RE are: (…) To foster appropriate attitudes, for example: respect for the views of others; awareness of the spiritual, of moral

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from Belgium8 to Italy9, wherever Catholic religion teaching programmes have been revised, what is never missing is an insistence on one of the priority objectives of the new religious pedagogy, that of building up the individual identity of the pupil, enabling him to understand the culture of others (Jackson 2008). The prospect of inter-cultural pedagogy can be considered without the shadow of a doubt as a choice fulfilling the necessary conditions for a religious pedagogy, which intends to educate the European citizen of the future. 2.2. Catholic religious courses contribute to education in the values of life in society, including increasingly more objectives and contents, suggested by the educational policies, either by the ministries of education of various countries, or by the competent European bodies. These bodies have issued with an unusual insistence over the last 20 years, documents relating to the prevention of intolerance, racism, racial discrimination and xenophobia; recommendations regarding education in human rights, in democratic citizenship, the relationship between democracy and religion, between state education and religion. It is clear that these are objectives which do not threaten the centrality of religious education, and still less to replace it. And in any case, it seems that religious education is becoming the best ally of education in these civic and social values, while seeking to maintain its own specific denominational identity10. But this identity is now increasingly less formulated according to the canonical themes and terminology of traditional theology, and prefers to express itself in the language of Christian anthropology, of personal and social ethics, of comparative hermeneutics, and with a conspicuous increase in its attention to the areas

7

8

9

10

responsibility, of the demands of religious commitment in everyday life, and especially the challenge of living in a multi-cultural, multi-faith society” (10). Secretariado de la Comisijn episcopal de EnseÇanza y Catequesis. Curr&culo de Religijn y Moral catjlica. Gu&a general. Madrid 1997: “Adquirir una actitud de respeto, valoracijn y dialogo con las demas personas de diversa cultura, mentalidad y cosmovisijn para lograr una convivencia social en paz y concordia ” (9). Among the educational aims of the new religious curricula for Catholic secondary schools (2001) attention is drawn to that of managing to link religious problems with philosophical questions, to allowing oneself to be questioned by human sciences, to being able to discern the religious dimension in literary and artistic expressions, to being able to analyse the social and ethical implications of political and economic choices (cf. Henri Derroitte. Une nouvelle Introduction au Programme du cours de religion en Belgique francophone. Lecture critique. “Lumen Vitae” 2002/1: 59–78). From the text of Obiettivi specifici di apprendimento propri dell’IRC del secondo ciclo, issued by the Italian Bishops’ Conference by agreement with the Ministry of Education, Oct. 13 2005: “Accogliere, confrontarsi e dialogare con quanti vivono scelte religiose e visioni della vita diverse dalle proprie”. Already 10 years ago, Italian bishops, for example, were writing: “The contribution the Church wishes to make to schools through the teaching of the Catholic religion […] is that it should not be a divisive factor, but a valid element for the building up of life in society in our country and in Europe” (from the document Per la scuola, Rome 1995, n.9).

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treated by the so-called “social doctrine of the Church”. A European glance at the most recent teaching programmes and above all at teaching methodology texts, especially those intended for secondary schools would amply confirm this tendency. 2.3. Teaching the Catholic religion in European schools today means teaching it necessarily in relation to the other denominations (Pajer 2005 and 2012a). If in the past, mono-denominational teaching was compatible with the prevailing tradition in one’s own country or region, this teaching is no longer sufficient today to educate European citizens from the viewpoint of the religious history of Europe. That has become true in fact of all Christian denominations. Catholic religious courses, on their part, are beginning to include in their teaching programmes elements of information and comparative analysis relating to other denominations, but already there have always been references to the religious history of Orthodox and Protestant Europe in school civic history programmes in the past. However, the case of Italy demonstrates that it is unwise to entertain too many illusions regarding the practical efficacy of such teaching, as evidenced by a recent national report on religious illiteracy (Melloni et al. 2014). 2.4. Even in Latin Europe, society has rapidly fragmented into a mosaic of religious faiths and philosophical beliefs, and schools tend necessarily to become places of multi-religious instruction and inter-religious learning. Of course – possibly more so in the south and east than in the north – there remains the solid conviction among the people that the only type of teaching that deserves to be called Catholic is that, which proposes faithfully and coherently the basic elements of the Creed, the sacraments and ethics, presented as interpreted by tradition and the Catholic magisterium. But it is clear that by now, in fact, even Catholic teaching programmes include a necessary comparison with other religions, if only to explain what is the assessment (or theological opinion) of the Catholic Church regarding these religions. In particular, a contextual approach to the monotheistic traditions of Judaism and Islam is now clearly unavoidable in European schools, especially as it is on the reciprocal ability of these three Abrahamic traditions that – according to a fair number of political pundits and theologians – the future of western (and global) society rests. In this respect school programmes and texts draw on the radiant – unfortunately still too often ignored and not implemented – pages of the documents of the Vatican II Council (1962–1965), especially of those dealing with the ecumenical relations of the Roman Church with non-Catholic denominations and non-Christian religions (Unitatis redintegratio, Nostra aetate), and the juridical and theological problem of religious freedom (Dignitatis humanae). 2.5. Apart from the expansion of the actual content of courses on the Catholic religion, another area that needs to be looked at is the finality – the declared finality and, more so, the finality pursued in practice. Here the area covered is

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even vaster, in particular, because the evolution of European society and of its educational systems drags the various models of denominational teaching into an assessment of either the ideological reasons for their being in the school, or of the concrete objectives of their educative stewardship of the person of the pupil. A list, still only selective, of the objectives which Catholic teaching sets itself today to respond better to the kairjs of a Europe in the process of construction, would be very problematic, since every objective would have to be understood in the light of the real conditions of its institutional and pedagogical context, and as we know, contexts cannot be interchangeable. However, simply by way of an inventory, here is an approximate list of the objectives of courses on the Catholic religion that I have managed to extract from information documents, programmes and teaching methodology books in use nowadays, in the various countries of south Europe, and not only : – to know the religious history of Europe, through the history of the various Christian traditions of the East and West; – when studying the main tenets of the Catholic Creed, to know the principal differences (or divergences) between the Catholic position and the Orthodox and Protestant positions; – to be able to communicate one’s own denominational beliefs on such or such a point with a European companion of another denomination; – to identify the various ways of interpreting the Bible in European cultures; – to know and evaluate possible differences in language, rituals, and celebrations found in Catholic communities in other European countries; – to familiarise oneself with the composition and feast-days of the religious calendar of the other faiths present in one’s own country and in European countries; – to know and evaluate, on the basis of Christian anthropology, the signs, causes and the spread of neo-religiosity in the West; – to become able to resist the false absolutes imposed by contemporary European society dominated by the laws of the market; – develop a critical attitude towards the claims of economic imperialism (European policies which work only in the market), of mass communication (the spread of one way of thinking), of bureaucratic mechanisms (fatalism, subordination, the using of persons, anonymity), of sustainable development (ecology, technology); – to identify similarities, differences and incompatibilities between a Christian religion and a “civil religion” in the culture of one’s own country or in the current affairs of European society ; – to encourage inter-denominational meetings – in particular, group charity initiatives, cultural and liturgical events – between young students, even after school hours and off the school premises.

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2.6. In summary, even in the civil societies of south Europe, it is expected that the educational contribution of the teaching of the Catholic religion, in order for it to be plausible and efficacious, should be: – a contribution to the maturation of the personal and cultural identity of the pupil during his period of formation; – a preparation for becoming a part of, and living in a society increasingly intensely pluralistic from the ethical-religious point of view; – promotion of reciprocal tolerance and the ability to engage in dialogue with other persons and groups of people from a different ethnic, ideological, ethical and religious background; – a minimum basic irreducible formation in religious expertise in interpreting multi-form religious phenomena, and in the consequent criteria for personal judgment and decisions when faced with “the religious problem” or the “problem of meaning”; – maturation in the ability to look at the historical-cultural, religious and value heritage of Europe, from the position of the ethos of one’s own country and of one’s own denomination, but in order to be better able to engage in dialogue with the similar heritage of other countries and other believers.

4

Problems and challenges of tomorrow

1. Is religion a unifying or a fragmenting factor in the context of the construction of Europe? Of course, one can argue that religion is a positive factor, or on the contrary, that it is a factor that is slowing down the process of European integration. It is undeniable that the efforts made to reinforce the European Union and to give it a palpable form in institutions such as the Commission in Brussels and the Parliament in Strasbourg, put pressure on religions to draw closer together and contribute their own “building block” to its construction. But it is likewise true that this project of a re-unified Europe brings to the surface ancient inter-religious and inter-denominational tensions. The construction of Europe – as the Alsatian Protestant sociologist Jean Paul Willaime11 affirms – is “ecumenogenous”, in the sense that it is certainly reinforced by the inter-denominational collaboration between the various Christian Churches, but it generates also processes of “re-denominationalism”. As far as institutional or hierarchical Catholicism is concerned, there is no doubt that after the long and combative 11 Cf. J.-P. Willaime. Les formes de coop8ration des organisations et acteurs religieux en Europe entre oecum8nisme et quÞtes identitaires. R8gine Azria et al. Croyances religieuses, morales et 8thiques dans le processus de construction europ8enne. La Documentation franÅaise. Paris 2002: 83–102.

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pontificate of John Paul II and the “aristocratic” magisterium of Pope Benedict XVI, the signals of a combative defence of Catholic identity are only too clear, and the efforts are just as evident to maintain at a high level Vatican representation in all European bodies. However, at the grass-roots level of Catholic communities, positions are much more varied, and at times, conflicting. Restricting ourselves to the field of education, there is not always a unanimous consensus regarding questions such as (Pajer 2013) (a) the identity and autonomy of Catholic schools, which in certain States are considered to be a separate network and in competition with the State school system; (b) the denominational identity of the teaching of religion, which, distinct in principle from parochial catechesis, in practice continues to function in certain cases as a substitute for catechesis, due also because of the general weakening of the educational role of parents; (c) the ecclesial identity of the teacher of religion, who is evolving more or less everywhere into a professional, who carries out his work almost completely in his civil role in the school, and maintains a fleeting and occasional contact with the community of faith and the diocesan authorities12. 2. Religious pluralism that is spreading in Europe has a beneficial effect because it enriches the demand for religion and stimulates attitudes of comparison, living together with others, and moving on from indigenous identity-based concepts; but the same pluralism can also produce negative effects. In addition to a healthy relativism (our denominations and religions are continuous approximations of the Absolute, and therefore are relative), there is also an unhealthy relativism, which takes the form of indifference, scepticism, subjectivism. Sometimes, religion itself becomes an identifying factor, independently of faith or interior acceptance, in order to fight others who profess different faiths or subscribe to humanistic philosophies. This form of relativism has negative effects on morals, especially in State schools, where antireligious or a-religious prejudice is spreading. In their turn, schools cannot and should not ignore religious facts and values, but have to face them in terms of knowledge and critical reflection. This duty incumbent on the school is well codified in many programmes and curricula (Roebben 2012). But very often in practice, teaching 12 Clear signs of this disquiet have emerged a number of times in the last ten years even in the periodical meetings of the European [Catholic] Forum on the teaching of religion. In particular, certain questions surfaced in the form of a dilemma: demand at all costs the denominational character of religious teaching, or move on to an inter-denominational and inter-religious approach? Defend the specific viewpoint of the faith (of a faith) or propose a comparative religious culture involving different religious and non-religious viewpoints? Submit to the bitter end to the concordat-based system currently in force, or listen to the new religious needs of post-Christian young people, consistent with the democratic aims of a pluralistic school? (cf. F. Pajer. Le Forum Europ8en de l’enseignement religieux. Vingt ans de cheminement. Vers oF? “Lumen Vitae” 60. n.2/2005: 231–240; also in Spanish, in “Sinite”, 46. n.2/2005: 315–328).

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does not reflect the over-ambitious declarations of official programmes. And so there is an instinctive (and healthy) diffidence regarding authoritarian regulations, prescriptive instructions and bureaucratic regulation of teaching activities. 3. One of the major handicaps teachers of religion generally encounter in the school context is the lack of spiritual and ethical attitudes they might have thought to be present, but which school culture manifests increasingly vaguely. Among the shortcomings of schools, Catholic literature most often reports the lack of the following (Lombaerts-Pollefeyt 2009): (a) moral education, or teaching pupils how to express value judgments, to discern the intrinsic quality of human actions, to develop an ethical judgment which cannot be reduced to a judgment dictated by economics or aesthetic considerations; but this educational lack reflects a more global lack of a heritage of socially shared common values, something which is increasingly rarely found in the secularised society of the advanced modern world; (b) education in what is really meant by the laity of the school, of learning, of behaviour, of relations; laity which should prevent reciprocal and improper exploitation or subordination between the sacred and the profane, between civic and ecclesial, between mission and profession, between temporal and spiritual: this deficit of laity can be found not only in State schools, but sometimes also in Catholic schools, and is usually accompanied by prejudice, ideology and fundamentalism; (c) an introduction to the question of meaning, which is the premise and support of every culture. The role of school is not to reveal the meaning of life, but to provide the tools to look for this meaning. Religion can possibly offer the answer to the search, but often the answer is to no purpose, because the pupil not only does not ask questions, but does not have the necessary (spiritual, emotive, cognitive, moral, critical and self-critical…) resources to deal with them. 4. A remarkable and increasing interest in religion/religions has been observed on the part of State education authorities and, above all, of education policy experts of the European Union. Many national school reforms and various declarations by European bodies regarding education bear witness to the fact that religion is being mentioned in the school context principally because of its role as a vehicle for civic, ethical and cultural values; religion is seen as a support for education in citizenship; religions are studied in school to forestall intolerance and conflict in multi-religious societies; religion is seen as the key to the understanding of much school learning…These are undeniably precious roles that religious courses can have; roles which even believers of Christian denominations are happy to acknowledge and even encourage. This phenomenon indicates a tendency : on the one hand, the public authorities ask religious organisations to help schools promote values of tolerance and democracy in the name of social consensus; on the other, the Church accepts to be part of this

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arrangement in order to have a greater say in religious courses13. The strategy of reciprocal help in order to pursue one’s own interests can be plausible in some ways, but it is not without some debatable aspects, such as, if one considers religion (or better, Biblical and Christian faith) from the point of view of its prophetic potential, and not only as a practical crutch for the current social and political order. 5. A pedagogical dilemma has beset multi-cultural societies: whether to nurture a religious identity despite pluralism or through pluralism? Should one educate pupils, keeping them in homogeneous groups, segregating them on the basis of their denomination, or should one put pupils of various denominations together from the outset to enable them to compare their own beliefs? Today, one can observe that religious socialisation of children and young people occurs inevitably in situations of religious pluralism. But do schools, when teaching religious courses, have the right to isolate pupils by separating believers from non-believers, and Catholic believers from Protestant or Orthodox believers? This is not a new debate, but the solutions tried out so far are all more or less temporary and likely to evolve. The same justifications and arguments which were believed valid 20 years ago to support the principle of being faithful to denominationalism14, today no long have the same plausibility, not because they are per se weak, but because the facts of the objective situations of young people in school, and in a secularised society, in general prove them to be wrong.

5

Some elements for an overall assessment

Faced with the challenge of religious diversity, schools all over Europe are asking themselves what role they should allocate or re-allocate to the religious factor in the education of the individual. Faced with the same challenge, the Churches are wondering whether there will still be a place for them in the school, with what possible responsibilities and at what cost. As for the Catholic Church, in particular, official statistics show that of the overall total of citizens in the European Union, the majority of baptised faithful are Catholic. Despite this, and the fact 13 In this connection, the case of the RE curricula of Belgium published in 2001 is symptomatic: cf. A. Fossion. Cours de religion en question. D8bat politique et enjeu d8mocratique: “Lumen Vitae” 56. n.2001/2; H. Derroitte. Une nouvelle Introduction au Programme du cours de religion en Belgique francophone. Lecture critique. “Lumen Vitae” 57. n. 2002/1: 59–78. 14 I refer to the position of the German Catholic Church expressed in the document Die bildende Kraft des Religionsunterrichts. Zur Konfessionalität des katholischen Religionsunterricht, 1996, critically assessed also by several Catholic exponents of the Religionspädagogik of the German universities. For an update of the debate on the problem of the concept of denomination and other current issues, cf. Burkhard Porzelt, Nuove pubblicazioni e sviluppi nella Pedagogia religiosa tedesca. “Itinerarium” 12 (2004) n. 26: 67–93.

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that it is endorsed by a long series of old and new concordats15, the Church never tires of taking measures to justify, to an often perplexed public opinion and to political authorities generally free of uneasiness with the idea of sacred authority, an educational function which it risks losing, not, as in the past, because of the extreme hostility of the “enemies of the Church”, but simply because of the pitiless change in numbers: a progressive drop in the number of pupils usually following religion classes; an increase in the number of non-Catholic, nonChristian and non-religious pupils. The challenge is a new one for those who for centuries went into schools with one prescription only : “to teach the faith and prepare for the sacraments”. Of course, as anthropologists and education experts tell us, the best way to transmit a religion is not to consider it as a subject to be taught (Caimi-Vian 2013). But here the issue is not so much (or not first of all) the transmission of faith, but rather the “position of cultural power” that the Church intends to preserve and possibly reinforce in an educational agency as decisive and irreplaceable as the State school. In order not to be marginalised or completely excluded from schools, the Church is transforming its role, rationalising its public profile, and absorbing the juridical, epistemological and didactic consequences (Pajer 2012a). In outline: – It no longer intends to educate the faithful (at least directly), but to form citizens (even through the contribution of religious instruction). – It no longer demands to teach homogeneous classes full of solely Catholic pupils (more or less obliged), but aspires to win over a wider, composite and multicoloured audience, (provided that it is open to religious discussion that is humanly bearable). – It does not intend to send missionary educators into class (even those who, in certain countries, have a missio canonica), but teachers with the appropriate academic qualifications equal to those of colleagues teaching other subjects. – No more encyclopaedic programmes of doctrine and morals (which in any case have disappeared from all the other areas of the curriculum), but workshops and historical, linguistic, and hermeneutic research programmes, possibly crossing discipline boundaries. The truth would seem to be somewhere in the middle of these intentionally divergent proposals, which are too schematic to reflect a phenomenon which is much more complex and constantly evolving in the world of the school. We have here a real change in the paradigm of religious instruction, directed by the 15 But also – it should not be forgotten – a Church with the Dignitatis humanae of Vatican II feels it is justified holding its head high when it defends religious freedom. All people should be immune from any kind of coercion in the matter of religion. No one should be forced to act against his or her conscience. Religious freedom is closely linked to freedom of education and to education in freedom.

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Catholic Church in the public and democratic forum of the school. Here it is useful simply to point out allusively a series of organisational choices of a reformist nature, behind which can be perceived a clear strategy which ecclesiastical authorities have adopted and continue to adopt at a time when schools (and the whole of European society) are pitting themselves against the serious question of religious diversity. These are strategic choices in the field of education and schools, dictated by a whole series of objective factors and cultural processes, well known by students of social phenomena, and which we need simply to list: 1. European States have now for some time been in a fragile and vulnerable condition, in the sense that their very foundations, which had supported their genesis and development throughout the modern period, have now themselves begun a process of decomposition and re-composition, due to a multiplicity of cultural, demographic and political factors; and not least, there is the wavering policy of European unification, which has nourished trans-national projections which have remained up to now at the embryonic stage. In this “limbo” between an enfeebled national cohesion and a European citizenship still entirely to be formed, the State has returned to reliance on religion, even without necessarily considering it merely as an “instrumentum regni” as happened in past ages16. In this kind of context, it is not surprising that public plausibility is accorded to religious teaching which is able to “divert its attention” to formative aims very close to those of education in citizenship, education in human rights and social solidarity. Better still, if in return, the Church finds itself engaging in dialogue with a State committed to guaranteeing the freedom of individual citizens, and the legitimacy of religious and ideological identities. And this is now the case in almost all the States of the Union. We should not forget, however, the warning issued by the critical voice of the theologians: if Churches are invited to become functional in the dynamics of society and the demands of their civic participation, they will be seen as participating in this service in order to pursue their own aims. It is in fact obvious that both Church and State act each with its own distinct and unyielding aims: the Church, for its part, does not want to be reduced to performing a social function, it does not base its own presence on a 16 In this connection, the philosopher Bodei recently affirmed: “Religion can perform a function, which is not marginal, as a substitute for the deficiencies in democratic life and of its own self-justification. Religions and Churches today respond to the needs of the community and of certain rules in society in which inter-personal links have been weakened and in which respect for the rules of the game are rarely observed. Many more citizens take refuge in the welcoming embrace of the Churches than in the days when States and “ethical parties” existed, which were true and proper institutes for promoting values and securities, but which in the meantime have fallen victim to inflation” (R. Bodei. La fragilit/ delle democrazie. “Il Mulino” 58 (2009) 4: 533–534).

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political quid pro quo, but on a transcendent foundation, and on a mandate received from Christ, and as such is “unavailable” for historical negotiations. 2. Religion, understood as a symbolic universe which gives meaning to life, is the object in Europe of a massive and pervasive cultural de-legitimisation17. But understood as a geo-political macro-phenomenon – capable today of moving markets and armies, tribunals and universities, millions of rebels in public squares and millions of pilgrims at shrines – it is evidently the object of increasing interest. It is a phenomenon which must not be allowed to create a stir only in the media as the latest headline, or in artistic productions or escapist entertainment: it deserves to enter with full rights into the educational forum of schools and universities. It was the same thinking that led the originators of modern scholastic culture to introduce Philosophy as a subject among the more formative and humanising disciplines of secondary education. From this point of view, it is not surprising that other more inclusive, or at least, comparative approaches to the phenomenon of religion have got the upper hand over the theological heritage of Catholicism. The fact that Catholic religious teaching accepts the challenge and advantages of this opportunity does not mean it abandons the mission of “incarnation” from which biblical revelation itself draws its inspiration. Above all, it would be an exemplary contribution towards the promotion of a religious culture capable of becoming knowledge and critical conscience, in a society like the present one, which is beginning to substitute the quality of knowledge by the quantity of information. 3. The Europe of school education is still lacking institutional processes and tangible signs of a reconciliation of the memory of various symbolic/ religious and philosophical heritages which grew up and fought one another within its confines. To the historical Christian denominational cultures, and the Jewish and Islamic cultures, have to be added also the centuries-old cultures of the Modern and Post-Modern periods. State schools will be always less satisfied with dealing with these heritages in separate and often conflicting courses. When will there be a common platform of shared criteria and of trans-denominational and transnational contents, as a basis for envisaging a future paideia for European Man, consistent and consecutive with the principles endorsed in European treaties, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000), in the Charta oecumenica of the European Churches (2001), in the Toledo Guiding Principles on teaching about Religions and Beliefs in public schools of the OSCE-ODIHR 17 Or rather, as the sociologist DaniHle Hervieu-L8ger says, religion (particularly, the Catholic religion) has undergone a process of “ex-culturation”, in the sense it is no longer one of the common references of the cultural world of most people. It should be explained all the same that this scholar is referring to French society, and not to Europe as a whole, and in which connection, especially where Italy is concerned, such a judgment would be very much out of place.

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(2007), in the White Book on inter-cultural dialogue Living together with equal dignity of the Council of Europe (2008)? 4. It is clear that schools in the western world are increasingly led to give primacy to productive skills. Even in Europe, “the Master of Humanism”, the transmission of the values of “why live”, has given way to the learning of knowledge about “how to live”, which qualifies pupils solely to exploit, transform, produce and consume. The Humanities resist, but in a marginal and residual position, to the advantage of techno-scientific skills. In many places, the alarm has been raised because of the removal of ethics from education. Without criteria to guide judgment and norms for behaviour, a person is inevitably destined to be irresponsible. It is not a given that religion has the right to step into this educational lacuna in a school to make up for it with religious answers to problems of an ethical nature18, even if it has often happened that the Christian religion has been reduced clumsily to morals, if not actually to moralisation. Rewriting its religion programmes in terms of the critical analysis of the phenomenon of religion (mostly Biblical/Christian), and in terms of the formation of a moral judgment inspired (but not imposed) by Revelation, Catholic authorities present the religion course to education authorities and public opinion and endorse it as a vehicle of ethical values, which deserve to be critically examined without necessarily being accepted on an existential level. Even in this connection, it has been shown that it is an excellent tactic to differentiate school religious instruction from catechetical teaching19. From this there comes the profile of a subject in the curriculum with cultural and educational value on a par with that of other subjects. The recent revision of various Catholic concordats, as was recalled earlier, has both stimulated and likewise confirmed this distinction. 5. The historical juncture of a “Christian-secular-post-secular Europe” has produced a corresponding coincidence (almost a heterogenesis of aims) in the 18 Cf. Walter Tocci. Questione religiosa e politica italiana: “Il Mulino” 57 (2008) 1: 174–184: “Normative claims as a proof of political strength are, in reality, pastoral confusion in the face of secularisation. In the first time in its history, the Church finds itself faced with an intense ethical multiplicity for which it is not prepared. In the past, it experienced the problem of the multiplicity of religions, and reacted at times by means of the Crusades, and at other times by ecumenism, but before the second half of the 20th century, it found itself confronted with a real ethical pluralism among its own faithful” (178). 19 The formalisation of such a distinction, and above all its application in its regulations and in normal teaching procedures, came about in successive years according to the different times at which internal debates matured in Churches and national educational systems. Germany came first (1974), followed by Belgium (1977), Spain (1979), Austria (1981), Italy (1984). In the atypical case of France, the formal introduction of the teaching of the “faits religieux” as a part of the curriculum (from 2002, with the well-known Debray Report), represents the recognition on the part of the secular State that State schools, if they refuse legitimately a catechetical approach, can and are obliged to accept just as legitimately a cultural approach to the religious dimension of subjects on the curriculum.

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paradigm of religious education: on the one hand, in an attempt to reform community-catechesis, the post-conciliar Church undertook a laborious process of rethinking the language and the structures of catechumenal and sacramental initiation, to the point that it had to consider outdated and no longer proposable, catechesis “in the form of a true school” (questions and answers, memorising, etc.) in which the teaching of “Christian doctrine” had remained encapsulated since the time of the reforms of the Council of Trent. On the other hand, in those same years, school religion programmes which, up to the period immediately after the Council, continued to be strongly concerned with catechesis, were forced, above all by very demanding and binding school reforms, to abandon their catechetical structures, incompatible with the school setting, which now instead acquired the status of “a real school subject”. The result is that Catholic education today rests on catechesis which is no longer on the school curriculum, and on religious teaching which has become part of the curriculum but does not include catechesis: the distinction and the complementarity are very clear, at least in principle. In practice, an increasing lack of organic and critical information can be seen regarding the religious factor, due to the simultaneous effect of Christian initiation in widespread crisis (or of a lack of evangelisation), and of school teaching of religion, ambitious in its declared aims, but whose achievements remain too often well below their potential. 6. Also the various geographical and cultural contexts of Europe serve to explain the diversity of certain strategic choices in the management of religious instruction. Contrary to the stereotype of a universal Catholic Church seen as cut off from local circumstances, Churches even in the Catholic world are marked by national and cultural characteristics, each with an understandable specificity of choices and styles of action. For the episcopates of north Europe, for example, where Catholic communities are in a minority and school structures offer welltested levels of democratic functioning, priority is not given so much to denominational education in religious places which are very restricted and isolated from their own communities, but rather to the other co-existent faiths and to education in dialogue with those with different beliefs (Protestant) and with those with none, in whose eyes the Catholic minority must be able to earn itself an honourable status and credibility, on the pain of social marginalisation. In national contexts, as in the south of Poland, where instead the Catholic community is prevalent, religious education retains longer the standardised characteristics of the traditions of the past: tested models are slow to evolve on time; contacts with minorities may be characterised by casual paternalism; the lack of practice meeting people who are different, atrophies the capacity for ecumenical and inter-religious relations. In other words, the effort is missing to define oneself at a profound level in a situation where there is competition with other religions and irreligion. The fact of being a denomination sociologically in the

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majority, in south or north Europe, does not always guarantee the quality and the shrewdness of educational choices. On the contrary, as Toynbee reminds us, the fate of a society depends always on the creative minorities. [translated from Italian to English by Allen Geppert]

6

References

Bogar&n, D.J. 2014. La enseÇanza de la religijn en los Concordatos posteriores al Concilio Vaticano II. I.C. Ruiz ed. La enseÇanza de la religijn en la escuela pfflblica. Granada: Ed. Comares: 43–79. Caimi, L., G. Vian eds. 2013. La religione istruita. Nella scuola e nella societ/ dell’Italia contemporanea. Brescia: Morcelliana. Catterin M. 2013. L’insegnamento della religione nella scuola pubblica in Europa. Analisi e contributi di istituzioni europee. Venezia: Marcianum Press. Doe, N. 2014. The teaching of Religion in state schools. A comparative analysis of European juridical models. I.C. Ruiz ed. La enseÇanza de la religijn en la escuela pfflblica. Granada: Ed. Comares: 375–380. Giordano, A. 2012. Confessioni religiose e Consiglio d’Europa. L. De Gregorio ed. Le confessioni religiose nel diritto dell’Unione Europea, Bologna: Il Mulino. Specialmente: 90–93. Grace, G.R., J. O’Keefe eds. 2007. International Handbook of Catholic Education: Challenges for School Systems in the 21st Century. Dordrecht: Springer. Ib#n I.C. 2010. Europa, diritto, religione, Bologna: Il Mulino. Jackson, R. 2008. Teaching about Religions in the Public Sphere: European Policy Initiatives and Interpretative Approach. “Numen”, 55: 151–182. Lombaerts, H, Pollefeyt D. 2009. Pens8es neuves sur le cours de religion. Bruxelles: Lumen Vitae. Martini, C.M. 1990. L’Europa dei vescovi. “Regno-attualit/”. n. 16, 15 settembre 1990: 457–462. Massignon B. 2007. Des dieux et des fonctionnaires. Religions et la"cit8s face au d8fi de la construction europ8enne, Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes: 27–44. Melloni, A. 2004. Images of Europe and Challenges of Europe for the Church: Catholicism in recent History. “Concilium” 2: 35–47. Melloni, A. et al. 2014. Rapporto sull’analfabetismo religioso in Italia, Bologna: Il Mulino. Pajer, F. 2005. Europa, scuola, religioni. Monoteismi e confessioni cristiane per una nuova cittadinanza europea. Torino: SEI. Pajer, F. 2006. Der Beitrag des Religionsunterrichts zum Aufbau Europas – ein katholischer Standpunkt. P. Schreiner et al. eds. Europa, Bildung, Religion. Demokratische Bildungsverantwortung und die Religionen, Münster : Waxmann: 173–190. Pajer, F. ed. 2012a. Toward a post-secular Europe. Regulating religious diversity in the public educational space, monographs n.4 of “Historia Religionum”. Pisa-Roma State University of Turin: Fabrizio Serra editore; particularly the article L’istruzione reli-

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giosa pubblica in un’Europa multireligiosa. Le politiche educative del Cattolicesimo romano: 23–37. Pajer, F. 2012b. Escuela y religijn en Europa en los fflltimos cincuenta aÇos Madrid: PPC. Pajer, F. 2013. Jeu des probl8matiques europ8ennes: L. CollHs et R. Nouailhat eds.. Croire, savoir : quelles p8dagogies europ8ennes?. Colloque europ8en de l’Universit8 Catholique de Louvain-la-Neuve, 15–18 Avril 2013, Bruxelles: 8d. Lumen Vitae. Ratzinger, J. 2004. Europa. I suoi fondamenti spirituali ieri, oggi e domani: http://www. ratzingerbenedettoxvi.com/fondamenti.htm (17. 06. 2014). Roebben, B. 2012. Religijn, escuela y sociedad: elementos para una necesaria innovacijn en la formacijn de profesores de Religijn en Europa, www.eufres.org (ponencia en el XV Forum europ8o, Madrid, abril 2012) (17. 06. 2014). Tacconi, G. 2014. Possibilit/ e limiti dell’insegnamento scolastico della religione in un’Italia secolarizzata e plurale. “Orientamenti Pedagogici” vol. 61. n. 2: 393–412. Zani, V. 2011. Insegnamento della religione cattolica o insegnamento delle religioni? “Studia Patavina” vol. 58 (2011) 3: 687–698.

[Turin, July 26, 2014]

Stavros S. Fotiou

Religious Education at Schools in the Republic of Cyprus

1

Socio-religious background

Cyprus, situated in the Eastern corner of the Mediterranean, is the third largest island in it (3.572 sq. miles). According to the Statistics Service of the Republic of Cyprus census of 2011, the population in the free area of the Republic (37 % of the land is illegally occupied by Turkish army since 1974) “was 856.960: consisting of 416.834 men and 440.126 women, which means an increase of 21.9 % compared to the census of 2001. It has been estimated, based on research following the census, that 1.93 % of the population has not been registered (they were absent, or not responding etc.). That means the population was estimated at 856.960 in October 2011, while in 2001 it was 703.529.” In addition, “the number of nonCypriot citizens has been increased.” People from other countries who live permanently in Cyprus “were 170.383, 76.606 men (45 %) and 93.777 women 55 %). They constitute 20.3 % of the population registered (170.383), while in 2001 they numbered only 9.4 % (64.811).” Concerning the citizenship of the nonCypriots who live in Cyprus, “they come from Greece (29.321), the United Kingdom (24.046), Romania (23.706), Bulgaria (18.536), the Philippines (9.413), Russia (8.164), Sri-Lanka (7.269), Vietnam (7.028), Syria (3.054) and many other countries.” In terms of national/religious groups “the Population Census showed the following distribution of Cypriots in the state-controlled area: Greek Cypriots 659.115, Armenians 1.831, Maronites 3.656, Latins 208, Turkish Cypriots 1.128. 1,460 persons with Cypriot citizenship didn’t declare national/religious identity. […] The vast majority of the persons recorded were Christian Orthodox with 89.1 %, followed by Roman Catholics with 2.9 %, Protestants with 2.0 %, Muslims with 1.8 %, Buddhists with 1.0 %, Maronites by 0.5 %, Armenians by 0.3 % and Hindus by 0.2 %. 0.5 % declared various other religions, while 0.6 % of the

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population said they were atheists or had no religion. For 1.1 % of the population religion was not declared.”1 It is obvious that the Republic of Cyprus, especially after the EU accession of the island (2004), accepted thousands of people belonging to different religion, language and culture in its territory. For this reason, the authorities of Public Education have developed policies and plans for a peaceful coexistence of all people in the framework of a democratic and well-governed state, where identity and otherness are free to have a genuine dialogue. In “A guide to education in Cyprus,” published by the Ministry of Education and Culture, is says: “The Ministry of Education and Culture, through a series of measures, aims at the creation of a democratically organised school system which will highlight the otherness and the multicultural nature of our society as an element for composition, celebration and creative production as well as an opportunity for mutual understanding and mutual respect. To this effect, it adopts the main purpose of inter-cultural education which is for all students to enrich their knowledge of life and other people’s experiences and values, to explore global values and to reject stereotypes and prejudices.”

2

Legal frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Under Ottoman (starting in 1571) and British rule (starting in 1878) the Orthodox Church of Cyprus showed a considerable interest in education; “the Church considered that education was closely related to religion and the maintenance of the Greek Orthodox character of the island under foreign rule.” (Emilianides 2011: 88) The Republic of Cyprus was declared an independent state in 1960 and according to the Constitution is composed of two communities: a. the Greek community to whom Maronites, Armenians and the Latins of the Island choose to belong, and b. the Turkish community. The bulk majority of the members of the Greek community in Cyprus are members of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus, while the members of the Turkish community are Sunni Muslims. According to the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, “the Armenians, Latins and Maronites of Cyprus are recognized as ‘Religious Groups.’ In a referendum that took place in 1960 all the above religious groups were called to choose to belong either to the Greek–Cypriot or the Turkish-Cypriot community of the island. They had all chosen to be members of the Greek-Cypriot com1 Republic of Cyprus, Statistical Service: http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/popula tioncondition_22main_gr/populationcondition_22main_gr?OpenForm& sub=2& sel=1.

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munity. As a result of this decision, they all enjoy the privileges, rights and benefits enjoyed by the members of the Greek-Cypriot community. These rights include of course the right to elect and be elected or appointed to all public and Governmental offices and positions. In addition, Armenians, Latins and Maronites vote in Parliamentary elections as members of the Greek-Cypriot community and they also elect a member of their community as a Representative in the House of Parliament.” (Hadijyra 2009). The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the United Nations since 1960 and a member state of European Union since 2004. The religious rights of every single citizen are fully secured and respected by the State.2 According to Article 18 of the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus: “1. Every person has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. […] 4. Every person is free and has the right to profess his faith and to manifest his religion and belief, in worship, teaching, practice or observance, either individually or collectively, in private or in public, and to change his religion or belief.”3 The Republic of Cyprus protects religious freedom and respects the right of worship of all its citizens in the free areas controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. This is not the case in the northern territory of the Republic of Cyprus. The Turkish occupation army violently expelled the Greek Cypriots from their ancestral homes and forbids, inter alia, the right of religious practice to the Greek Cypriots. The Republic of Cyprus is the only state entity on the island that is recognized by the United Nations and by all other international organizations. The leaders of the religious communities of Cyprus meet from time to time in an effort to help solve the problems on the island4 The Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Cyprus is responsible for the writing and publishing of textbooks for all lessons (therefore for Religious Education too) as well as for the production of educational and teaching material. All textbooks are offered to pupils free of charge and in most subjects are same as the ones offered in public schools of Greece. The subject of Religious Education is a separate lesson in the curriculum of all classes in Primary and Secondary Education. The lesson is compulsory at both levels for Orthodox students. However, a pupil can be exempted from it according to certain criteria provided by the Ministry of Education and Culture.

2 Some difficulties in achieving the legal requirements document human rights reports such as Amnesty https://www.amnesty.de/jahresbericht/2017/zypern. 3 http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F 0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf ?openelement. 4 https://www.kathimerini.com.cy/gr/kypros/218277/?ctype=ar.

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The “New Program of Studies for the lesson of Religious Education” was composed in 2010. According to it students are supposed to have knowledge not only of their own religion (Orthodox Church) but of other great religions too.

3

Developments in the country’s education policies

In Cyprus, there is a kindergarten system for children between three years and five years and eight months. Participation in kindergarten is compulsory for children between four years and eight months and five years and eight months of age. This is followed by nine-year compulsory schooling, which runs until the age of 15 years. This applies to all children living in Cyprus, regardless of their nationality and denomination. Attendance of public school is free. Primary schools are attended by children aged five years and eight months to eleven years and eight months. The Gymnasium (Lower Secondary) is attended by children between the ages of eleven and eight months and fifteen, the Lyceum (Upper Secondary) is attended by children between the ages of 15 and 18 years old. Vocational schools are available for students who want to learn a technical profession. The Ministry of Education and Culture has the responsibility for the education provided in the schools of the Republic of Cyprus. A major purpose of this education is the cultivation of the cultural identity of Cyprus, resistance to the continuous occupation of the northern part of the island from Turkey, a dialogue with the problems that people face in the modern era. Furthermore, intercultural education, gender issues, lifelong learning, modern pedagogical approaches to teaching, finding a place in education. The main objective is that every pupil must have access to educational benefits without any racial, social, financial or other discrimination. For this reason, improvements and changes often take place in school curricula, textbooks, teaching methods, new technologies etc. The Education and Training Monitor 2016 cites four highlights for current Cyprus’s education policy : – “Cyprus has considerably improved its performance on early school leaving and has maintained a very high rate of tertiary educational attainment. – It has also initiated a strategic reform of the vocational education and training sector, both at upper-secondary and post-secondary levels. This effort aims to achieve a better balance between that sector and mostly private higher education, which strongly predominates at present. – However, the persistence of relatively low levels of basic skills and the continued lack of efficiency of public spending in the education system are still major challenges for the country.

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– Cyprus has established a new Agency of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in higher education.”5

4

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

In the Republic of Cyprus there are a number of private schools: 165 kindergartens, 25 schools for Primary Education and 36 schools for Secondary Education. Many of those are foreign language schools. The private schools are “categorised in three types according to the curriculum offered”6 : – Private Schools of the same type are those schools that strictly follow the existing curriculum of Public Schools. – Private Schools of a similar type are those schools in which two thirds of the major subjects follow those in the Public Schools as to content and duration. – Private Schools of a different type are those schools, which do not belong to any of the above-mentioned categories. Some schools of this type belong to religious groups. The Ministry of Education and Culture “subsidizes the fees of Latin and Maronite pupils attending their national school (private) both Pre-Primary and primary. In addition, the services of public school teachers are offered to Maronite and Armenians schools. For the Armenian Primary School the Armenian Education Authority is subsidized by the state.”7 According to legislation, “it is forbidden to any private school to make use of physical or moral violence in order to force a pupil to change his/her religion or to be hindered to change it, and for this reason compulsory teaching of a religion or a doctrine different from the one that a pupil professes is not allowed.”8 “The right of religious groups to set up and operate their own schools is safeguarded, and such schools are financially assisted by the State.”9 But “other than the five major religions of the island, may set up and operate their own

5 https://ec.europa.eu/cyprus/sites/cyprus/files/monitor2016-cy_en.pdf. 6 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Private Schools: http://www.moec. gov.cy/en/private_education.html. 7 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Private Schools: http://www.moec. gov.cy/en/private_education.html. 8 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Private Schools: http://www.moec. gov.cy/en/private_education.html. 9 See Second Report submitted by Cyprus pursuant to art. 25, p. 1 of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 27 October 2006: 28ff.

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schools if they so wish, but will not be financially assisted by the State.” (Emilianides 2011: 97)

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

According to the “Program of Studies for the lesson of Religious Education” (2010) of the Ministry of Education and Culture, the purpose of Orthodox Religious Education in the schools of the Republic of Cyprus is the following: a. to make pupils familiar with the faith of Orthodox Church; b. to offer knowledge of the doctrines of the great living religions; and c. to understand the religious phenomena. More specifically the students are encouraged to know: a. the view of the Orthodox Church concerning the relationship of human being with God, with themselves, their fellow human, and nature; b. the view of the great living religions concerning the relationship of human being with God, with themselves, their fellow human, and nature; and c. the meaning and the presence of the religious phenomena in human life. Through Religious Education, the pupils are encouraged to know the answers to great existential questions and obtain knowledge of their religion as well as those of others. Pupils are called to open themselves to the transcendental, to cultivate self-awareness, sociability and physical theory. They are also trained how to experience freedom and love, justice and brotherhood, peace and solidarity. Aims of Religious Education in the schools of the Republic of Cyprus, as stated in the New Program of Studies (2010): “The Program of Studies of Religious Education is organized and constructed according to the basic principles of the ‘Curriculum for the Public Schools of the Republic of Cyprus’ and it is based upon three principal axes that refer to: a. A coherent and sufficient body of knowledge. Through the teaching of the lesson, it is aimed that the pupils will come to knowledge of the beliefs of the Christian Church and the main existing religions about God, human being, society and nature, as expressed in their faith, tradition, symbols, texts, monuments etc, in history and in the depiction of their witness in civilization. Pupils are also expected to obtain knowledge of the religious phenomenon as a human effort to illuminate their ontological problem. b. Cultivation of values, adoption of attitudes and behavior that constitute modern democratic citizenship. Through the teaching of the lesson, it is aimed that the pupils will cultivate an ethos of a harmonious relation with God, themselves, their fellow human, and nature. In detail, this includes, among other things, the following: Openness to the tran-

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scendent, reinforcement of self-awareness, fraternal relation to any human being, functional relation to nature. Personal openness towards God, respect for tradition as a fact renovating life, encounter with existential questions. Coexistence in freedom and love, difference and unity, person and society, as the most essential characteristics of life. A positive attitude in the equality of languages, races and nations. Recognition and respect for the right of every person to give different meaning to human life and its various aspects and a fighting spirit against intolerance. Critical thinking about issues regarding religion, religious consciousness and irreligiousness. Development and cultivation of interest and responsibility for what happens in a local and global level. Active participation in the democratic function of the state and the efforts for peaceful coexistence of all human beings. c. Cultivation of qualities, attitudes, skills that are demanded for the twenty first century society – key skills. Through the teaching of the lesson the pupils are supposed to develop and cultivate the ability for an existential experience of the transcendent (given that they adopt such a perspective), empathy and creative self expression, communication and fruitful dialogue with others, cooperation and solidarity, interaction and matching of theory and action, creativity in life, critical thinking, comparison, synthesis, evaluation for further progress in personal and collective level.”10

Especially for the lesson of Religious Education “different ways of teaching, with different approach/participation/work for each student, is the appropriate teaching approach. Focusing on the student, with full use of teaching time, using diverse materials and appropriate technology, learning different ways of learning, the teacher is invited to involve all pupils in the educational procedure. Personalized and collaborative, with the participation of all human psychosomatic dynamism, all the gifts of all pupils are raised and cultivated, within a democratic and pleasant work environment.” Furthermore “the use of Information and Communication Technologies offers a great deal in the overall direction of the course. The use of cyberspace for information gathering, analysis, control and exploitation; digital discs; documentaries; e-mail communication with students from other countries and religions; oversight of relevant issues; creation of learning environments on the internet; creating scripts are some examples of how pupils can build knowledge.” Every year the Ministry of Education and Culture, in co-operation with other organizations, organizes conferences and seminars on the latest developments about Religious Education.

10 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Curriculum: http://www.moec.gov. cy/analytika_programmata/nea-analytika-programmata/thriskeftika.pdf (Accessed May 16, 2016).

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Practice/reality of RE in different schools

In the kindergartens of the Republic of Cyprus, Religious Education is not a special lesson, but is incorporated into the various activities of the daily program. In Primary Education (ages 6–12), Religious Education is one of the basiccompulsory lessons of the Curriculum in all six classes (1st–6th). There is a special textbook for each class and the lesson is taught two teaching periods per week. In Secondary Education (ages 12–18), Religious Studies is also one of the basic-compulsory lessons of the Curriculum in all six classes (1st–3rd of Gymnasium, 1st–3rd of Lyceum). The lesson is taught two teaching periods (a period lasts for forty-five minutes) per week, except in the 2nd class of Lyceum where it is taught for one period. There is a special textbook for each class.

7

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

On the 14th of October 2013 (File Number 7.12.17) the Ministry of Education and Culture issued a Circular to all Headmasters/Headmistresses of the Public Secondary Education, concerning the “Procedure of Application from a Pupil to be excluded from Lesson.” According to the Circular, “any application for the exclusion from the lesson of Religious Education is to be examined independently and on its own reasons. When a pupil who is a member of another religion satisfies the conditions to be exempted from the lesson of Religious Education, then he/she is dispensed and he/she can be out of the classroom during the teaching of the lesson if he/she wishes so. The Headmaster/Headmistress of the school has the responsibility to adjust the program and find a place accordingly to keep the pupil busy.”11 For the time being there is no official alternative for those excluded from the lesson.

8

Dealing with religious diversity

Concerning the attitudes towards believers of other religions, the New Program of Religious Education provides among other things that students are encouraged to know following:

11 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture: http://egkyklioi.moec.gov.cy/Data/ dme6841a.pdf (Accessed May 16, 2016).

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– “Every religion has its own understanding of the relationship between God, human beings, and nature. – Every religion gives a different meaning to the various aspects of human life. – The worldview of every religion is reflected in its texts, symbols, monuments etc. – Every religion possesses its own history and cultural expressions. – The believer of a religion has the right to regard that his/her faith is the true one but he/she must allow this right to any other believer too. – Knowledge of religions leads to an understanding of other people and facilitates communion with them in conditions where human rights are to be respected. – Knowledge of religions results to the overcome of prejudices and intolerance. – Knowledge of religions does not imply sectarianism or syncretism, but on the contrary mutual understanding and respect in a framework of peaceful coexistence. – Knowledge of religions does not mean loss or falsification of one’s personal faith but rather knowledge of different world views and ways of life that each religion proposes before human liberty.”12

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Religion in school outside of RE

Among the vacations of the public schools of the Republic of Cyprus are included the following holidays: 23 December – 6 January ; 30 January : Three Hierarchs: St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory the Theologian, St. John the Chrysostom; 25 March: Annunciation of Virgin Mary (and a National Day); 11 June: Apostle Barnabas, the founder and patron saint of the Church of Cyprus; Green Monday ; Holy Week – Easter Week; Ascension of Christ; Pentecost; the day of the Patron saint of the community where the school is (only for schools up to Primary Education level); and finally the name day of the each time Archbishop of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus.13 In the beginning of every school year there is a sanctification of the schools, after an arrangement between the headmaster/headmistress and the priest of the local community. Also, during the school year some church attendances are organized for the students. Before the Christmas and Easter periods, priests (confessors), following arrangements between them and the headmasters/ headmistresses, can visit the school to perform the mystery of confession for those pupils who wish to confess. The Commissioner for Children’s Rights has expressed her objections against this practice.14 12 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Curriculum: http://www.moec.gov. cy/analytika_programmata/nea-analytika-programmata/thriskeftika.pdf (Accessed May 16, 2016). 13 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, School Holidays: http://www.moec. gov.cy/dde/sxolikes_argies.html (Accessed May 16, 2016). 14 Republic of Cyprus, Commissioner for Children’s Rights, On Religious Education in Public Schools http:///www.childcom.org.cy.

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There is also an everyday morning prayer in the classrooms for Christians, during which pupils professing other religion than Christianity do not participate and in this way both sides show respect for each other. Finally one can see religious symbols of the Orthodox Church in classrooms such as icons of Christ, of Virgin Mary, icons of saints, crosses, pictures of churches etc.

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Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

The lesson of Religious Education is taught in the schools of the Republic of Cyprus by teachers (Kindergarten and primary education teachers and theologians) employed and paid for by the state. In Kindergarten Education the lesson is taught by qualified Kindergarten teachers who graduate from the Department of Education of the University of Cyprus, or the corresponding departments of private Universities, or Greek Universities, as well as other Universities. The studies of these teachers last for four years and when appointed they teach all subjects and activities included in the school Curriculum. In Primary Education, the lesson of Religious Education is taught by teachers who have graduated from the Department of Education of the University of Cyprus, other private Universities of Cyprus, Universities from Greece and other recognized Universities. From their appointment, these teachers are expected to teach all subjects and activities included in the school Curriculum, as well as the lesson of Religious Education. In some Departments of Education candidate teachers enjoy special training in order to be able to teach the lesson of Religious Education, while in some Universities there is no preparation at all for the teaching of this lesson. For example, in the Department of Education of the University of Cyprus teachers for Kindergarten must attend the compulsory subject “Social issues in Kindergarten: Religious Education,” while the teachers for primary education must attend the compulsory subject: “Theology and Religious Education.” All teachers can attend the subject: “Christian Ethics and Modern World.” At a postgraduate level there is a branch of studies called “Religious Education” that leads to M.A or PhD titles. Among the subjects taught in the above postgraduate program are: “School Religious Education,” “Theological Dimensions of Edu-

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cation,” “Learning Approaches of School Religious Education,” “Education for Life. Lifetime Learning.”15 In Secondary Education (Gymnasium and Lyceum, three and three years), the lesson of Religious Education is taught by qualified Theologians, most of whom are graduates from the Theological Schools of the Universities of Greece. The studies of the Theologians last for four years and when appointed they teach Religious Education in all Gymnasium and Lyceum classes. In the two Theological Schools of Greece (Athens and Thessaloniki) candidate theologians are taught all necessary subjects for Religious Education. For example, they are taught subjects such as “Theories of Learning and Instruction of the Lesson of Religious Education,” “Religious Development of Child-Adolescent and Education,” “Theory and Practice of Christian Education,” “Instruction of the Lesson of Religious Education,” “Catechism and Christian Pedagogy” “Pedagogy I: Theology and Educational Technologies,” etc. Both of the Theological Schools of Greece offer postgraduate studies for M.A and PhD titles.16 In recent years in Cyprus, the Department of Postgraduate Theological Studies of the University of Neapolis17 and the Department of Theology of the University of Nicosia18 offer postgraduate degrees in theology. In 2015, the Theological School of the Church of Cyprus began its operation.19 In all of these Departments of Theology courses on Religious Education are taught. In the Republic of Cyprus there is a School Seminar for Priests (“Apostle Barnabas”, 1950), which is under the control of the Church of Cyprus. Future priests of the Orthodox Church have their training in this School, which is recognized by the state. The School has two levels, a lower and a higher one. The headmaster as well as the teaching staff are appointed and paid by the Church of Cyprus who covers all expenses for the function of the School.20

15 University of Cyprus, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Department of Education https://www.ucy.ac.cy/edu/en. 16 Hellenic Republic, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Theological School: http://www.theol.uoa.gr/fileadmin/theol.uoa.gr/uploads/2016-17/PPS-ECTS-Ptychio-PE _2016-17_TTHL_EK-PA.pdf (Accessed May 9, 2017). 17 University of Neapolis, Paphos, Master of Arts in Theological Studies: http://www.nup.ac.cy/ gr/courses/master-in-theological-studies/ (Accessed May 9, 2017). 18 University of Nicosia, Cyprus, Department of Theology https://www.unic.ac.cy/school-ofhumanities-and-social-sciences/department-of-theology/. 19 Church of Cyprus, Theological School: http://theo.ac.cy/ (Accessed May 9, 2017). 20 Church of Cyprus, “St Barnabas” Ecclesiastical School: http://ieratiki.cy.net/index.htm (Accessed May 9, 2017).

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Empirical Research concerning RE

During the last twenty years, following the establishment and function of Universities in Cyprus, there has been a remarkable progress in scientific research related to Religious Education in the country. Research is sponsored by the state, universities, the Church of Cyprus and other actors. Meanwhile remarkable research is carried out by postgraduate students. The issues that are examined include the attitudes of the teachers for various aspects of the Religious Education (Fotiou 2005), The theological dimensions of religious textbooks (Fotiou 2002), The attitudes of pupils concerning Religious Education (Chatziioannou 2005), The attitudes of the Greek-Cypriots towards people living in Cyprus and professing different religion (Republic of Cyprus 2007), The attitude of primary education teachers in Cyprus toward Religious Education course (Tsialidi 2008), The teachers of Cyprus on the teaching of Religious Education (Ntouris 2014).

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Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

In the “New Program of Studies for the Religious Studies Lesson” are mentioned among others the following: “The purpose of the lesson of the Religious Education in Public Education of the Republic of Cyprus is that the pupils will obtain knowledge of the Church, of the great world religions of the modern era and the religious phenomenon. Religious Education transcends catechism, […] as well as the phenomenological or typological approach of religion. It is a lesson that promotes openness to the other and the others, the cultivation of personhood and society, critical thinking, sensitivity to any creative work. The lesson, through its educational values, respects the freedom of the pupils, illuminates their choices and prospects and promotes universal brotherhood. Any lesson of Religious Education begins with what is familiar to pupils and then moves to what is not familiar. Knowledge of the other presupposes knowledge of what is familiar. Consequently, Religious Education in Cyprus, aiming to spread knowledge of what the Orthodox Church is, the current religions and the religious phenomena, refer more to Orthodox Christianity, which is the religious environment of the country. That does not mean or imply ignorance or underestimation of the others’ religion and that is why meeting what is different is included in the content of the curriculum of every school year. The religious phenomena is everlasting, has deep cultural content and constitutes a factor that affects local and world history as it becomes obvious in monuments, texts, symbols and in many aspects of the human life and civi-

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lization. Therefore, the knowledge of the religious phenomenon is a necessary presupposition to understand world and society. No one can be regarded as an educated person if he/she does not know, among other things, the interpreting key of religion.”21 The Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus underlines the distinction between Church’s catechism and Religious Education. For this reason the Holy Synod emphasizes the following in a relevant text: “The Church distinguishes the lesson of Religious Education from Catechism. The purpose of the lesson, on the one hand is to offer knowledge of the familiar belief and on the other hand to offer knowledge of the world wide and everlasting phenomenon of religion.” (Bishop Georgios of Arsinoe 2005: 265) Therefore, the lesson of Religious Education is meant to offer sufficient and essential knowledge of theological issues. The purpose of the lesson is to promote free communion with God, understanding of the inner world, to create genuine bonds with fellow human, to help pupils experience the beauty of creation. Other targets of Religious Education include personal responsibility for the needy, struggle for liberty and fraternity, reconciliation of people and nations, respect of the others and their identity, fighting of fanaticism, disapproval of stereotypes, cooperation of all people and nations. In conclusion, all the above and the cultivation of European citizenship make the lesson of Religious Education all too important for the whole life of the whole person. The lesson does not simply cover the cultivation of values that European Union is looking for but it can also teach every European citizen, every human being to face the greatest and utmost issues of life.

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Further information

Institutions Church of Cyprus: http://www.churchofcyprus.org.cy. Church of Cyprus, “St. Barnabas” School Seminar for Priests: http://ieratiki.cy.net/index. htm. Church of Cyprus, Theological School: http://theo.ac.cy/. Republic of Cyprus, Commissioner for Children’s Rights: http://www.childcom.org.cy/ ccr/ccr.nsf/DMLindex_gr/DMLindex_gr?OpenDocument. Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture: http://www.moec.gov.cy.

21 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Education and Culture, Curriculum: http://www.moec.gov. cy/analytika_programmata/nea-analytika-programmata/thriskeftika.pdf (Accessed May 16, 2016).

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Republic of Cyprus, Press and Information Office, Religious Groups: http://www.about cyprus.org.cy/gr/religious-groups. Republic of Cyprus, Religious groups: http://www.pio.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/All/70E38B 1090835BA4C2257C83003DC715/$file/THE%20ARLENIANS%20OF%20CYPRUS% 20GREEK.pdf. Republic of Cyprus, Statistical Service: http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/ index_gr/index_gr?OpenDocument. University of Athens, Faculty of Theology : http://www.uoa.gr/sxoles-kai-tmimata/8eolo giki.html. University of Cyprus, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Department of Education: http://www.ucy.ac.cy/edu/en/. University of Neapolis, Paphos, Master of Arts in Theological Studies: http://www.nup.ac. cy/gr/courses/master-in-theological-studies/. University of Nicosia, Cyprus, Department of Theology : https://www.unic.ac.cy. University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Theology : http://www.auth.gr/theosch.

References Bishop Georgios of Arsinoe (now Metropolitan of Paphos) 2005. The Church of Cyprus on the proposed educational reform. Apostolos Varnavas 66: 265. Chatziioannou, E. 2005. Students’ attitudes towards religious education. Empirical research (in Greek): http://phdtheses.ekt.gr/eadd/handle/10442/28165. Emilianides, A.C. 2011. Religion in Public Education in Cyprus. Robbers, G. ed. Religion in Public Education/La Religion dans l’Pducation publique. European Consortium for Church and State Research: 87–98. Fotiou, St. S. 2001. “Difference and unity : the goal of Christian Education”. Journal of Christian Education 44/2: 7–15. Fotiou, St. S. 2002. “With Christ.” The textbooks of Religious Education in Elementary Schools, Larnaka (in Greek). Fotiou, St. S. 2005. The teachers of Cyprus on the social dimensions of Religious Education. Ekklisiastikos Kirikas 11: 196–224 (in Greek). Fotiou, St. S. 2006. The teachers of Cyprus on the multicultural dimension of Religious Education. Ekklisiastikos Kirikas 12: 170–189 (in Greek). Fotiou, St. S. 2008. The knowledge of religions in the textbooks of the lesson of Religious Education in the public schools of the Republic of Cyprus. Michaela Moravcikova Ed. State-Church relations in Europe, Bratislava: Institute for State-Church Relations: 245–248. Fotiou, St. S. 2012. Co-operational peace: the catholic dimension of Christian Education. Orthodoxes Forumes 26/1: 65–74. Fotiou, Stavros S. (2013), “The teachers of Cyprus on the aim of Religious Education,” Ekklisiastikos Kirikas 19: 165–207 (in Greek). Fotiou, St. S. 2014. The teachers of Cyprus on the Curricula of Religious Education. Ekklisiastikos Kirikas 20: 150–209 (in Greek).

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Fotiou, St. S. 2015: Cyprus and Christian Education. George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport Eds. Encyclopedia of Christian Education. Volume one. New York: Rowman and Littlefield: 370. Hadijlyra, A.-M. 2009. The Armenians of Cyprus. Larnaca: Kalaydjian Foundation https:// www.academia.edu/578323/The_Armenians_of_Cyprus?auto=download. Ntouris, P. 2014. The teachers of Cyprus on the teaching of Religious Education. Nicosia (in Greek). Republic of Cyprus, The Constitution: http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presi dency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf ?o penelement. Republic of Cyprus. The Office of the Commissioner for Administration 2007. The views and perceptions of Greek Cypriots against people of different faiths living in Cyprus: http ://www.nodiscrimination.ombudsman.gov.cy/sites/default/files/ereyna-sxetika -me-diaforetikes-thriskeytikes-pepoithiseis.pdf. Tsialidi, E. 2008. The attitude of primary education teachers in Cyprus toward religion education course (in Greek): http://invenio.lib.auth.gr/record/107974.

Vasiliki Mitropoulou

Religious Education at Schools in Greece

In recent years, the arrival of a large number of refugees in Greece including families and unescorted children has resulted in significant changes to the composition of the school population in the Greek schools. This has created the need for more experienced teachers and new educational planning and goals. Today school has to manage ethno cultural diversity, to integrate foreigners and repatriated Greek students by providing them with the prerequisites for successful educational practice and smooth social integration. Religious Education (RE) refers to the transfer of knowledge that is directly related to the historical consciousness and the existential identity as Christians. Its purpose is to educate a person as a whole so as to see religion as part of life and as a way of life. Additionally, RE aims at personal understanding, conviction and commitment of a person and helps the pupils reflect upon religion, enabling them to feel their responsibility to the society and play their role in it, fight prejudice and encourage an attitude of tolerance and respect towards others. RE is also meant to help them develop qualities and attitudes such as self-awareness, empathy, solidarity, a sense of justice, concern for the world as whole. In this sense RE is deeply human and includes everything people do as human beings.

1

Socio-religious background

For years Greece was considered a country of emigration (to Northern Europe, America, Australia). However, after the fall of the dictatorship (in 1974) and becoming one of the member states of the EU Greece entered a period of economic growth. This economic growth coincided with the socio-economic changes that took place in Eastern Europe countries (e. g. the breakup of the former Soviet Union and the Balkans) and the economic globalization which was facilitated by the easy transportation of both goods and people and initiated the mass migration especially from the war suffering countries in Asia and Africa. Furthermore, the geographical position of Greece at the south-eastern corner of

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Europe and the long coast line with thousands of islands (difficult to be coastguarded) facilitates the illegal entrance of immigrants and refugees, thus rendering Greece a portal for the entrance of immigrants from these continents. (Papageorgiou 2011: 58–59. 73–79) The first immigrants came to Greece between 1991 and 2001. Those can be divided into three categories: the repatriates of Greek origin (coming from former Soviet Union, Albania and other Eastern Europe countries), the legal immigrants (coming from non-EU countries) and citizens from Eastern Europe, Asian and African countries, most of whom were illegal. This mass immigration, according to the census of 2001, raised the immigrants population in Greece from a previous 1,6 % to 7,3 % of the total Greek population. (Papageorgiou 2011: 83–85) The total population in Greece, as registered in the census of 2011, was 10.815.197 inhabitants who obtained the Greek citizenship. Of these, 93 % were Greeks and 7 % other (foreign citizens). (The World Factbook 2013)1 Today, the number of immigrants living in Greece, according to The World Factbook for Greece, in June 2017 (est.) is estimated at up to 10 % of the total population (10,773,253 inhabitants (July 2016 est.), that is, circa 1.200.000.(The World Factbook 2016)2 The census of 2011, recorded the nationalities of the immigrants who lived in Greece (total number 911.929) as follows: 52,7 % Albanians, 8,3 % Bulgarians, 5,1 % Romanians, 3,7 %Pakistanis and 3,0 % Georgians.3 The problem is that more than half of the immigrants and refugees are not legal Greek citizens and the numbers keep changing due to the unstable situation in the migration countries, which affects the migration rates. Today, according to The World Factbook 2016, the refugees’ countries of origin are mainly Syria (14,200 refugees) and Afghanistan (11,440 refugees) and the stateless refugees are 198 persons. The number of refugee and migrant arrivals in Greece from January 2015 to June 2017 is estimated at 1.043.436 persons.4 (The World Factbook 2016) 1 According to the World Factbook in July 2013 (est.) the population was 10,772,967 inhabitants. 2 The net migration rate (the difference between the number of persons entering and leaving a country during the year) in Greece is 2.3 migrants per 1,000 population (2016 est.). The net migration rate indicates the contribution of migration to the overall level of population change. 3 Announcement of demographic and social characteristics of the permanent population of the country according to the census of 2011: 199,101 persons declared citizens of other countries of EU, 708,003 persons declared citizens of other countries, while 4.825 persons did not declare identity. 4 The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that from 31/Dec/2016 to 1/June/2017 851,319 migrants and asylumseekers (coming mostly from Muslim countries arrived in Greece. Their vast majority did not want to stay in Greece but to proceed fastly to central, western and northern European countries.

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The fact that the census of 2011 did not record data on declaration of religion is an issue because it was considered personal data. Therefore, there are no official statistical data kept by the government on the percentage of the religious minorities in Greece. The percentages of the religious minorities are drawn from the International Religious Freedom Report for Greece 2015 (updated on 01/ June/2017): Greek Orthodox (official) 98 %, (as declared by the citizens themselves), Muslim 1,3 %, other 0,7 % (Old Calendarist Orthodox, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Roman Catholics, Protestants, Adventists, Jews, Baha’is, Hare Krishnas, Scientologists, Sikhs, and followers of polytheistic Hellenic religions). Atheists were not estimated (neither officially nor unofficially)5. Muslims in Greece are mainly those who live in Thrace. The number of them is estimated to be at about 100,000–120,000 individuals6 while Muslim immigrants or refugees, who represent the majority, are estimated at approximately 300,000 individuals. (International Religions Freedom Report. Greece 2015)

2

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

The Constitution of Greece starts with the phrase “In the name of the Holy and Consubstantial and Indivisible Trinity”. The relations between the Church and the State are regulated in Article 3, where, in paragraph 1, is stated: “The prevailing religion in Greece is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ.” (Constitution of Greece 1975) However the term “prevailing religion” refers rather to the official religion in Greece to which belong approximately 98 % of the Greek citizens, that is the vast majority. The Greek state has accepted and signed to respect the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom principles of the immigrants, following the instructions in the texts of EU and the International Organizations. Specifically, in Article 2, par. 1 in the Constitution of 1975 is stated that “the respect and protection of the human value consist the primary obligation of the State”. The Individual and Social Rights of the Greek citizens are referred to in art. 4, p. 1, stating that: “all Greeks are equal before the law” and p. 2 which clarifies that the word ‘Greeks’ means both “Greek men and women”, who “have equal rights and equal obligations”. This is further clarified in article 5 par. 2 of the Con5 According to a research conducted by a private greek research agency 81.4 % of the greeks identify themselves as Greek Orthodox and 14.7 % as atheist. (International Religious Freedom Report, Greece, 2015). 6 These muslims origin from the officially recognized Muslim minority that was established by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne after the exchange of populations between Turkey and Greece.

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stitution where it is stated that “everyone who lives in Greece enjoys full protection of their life, honour and freedom, without any discrimination due to their nationality, race, language and religious or political beliefs”. (Constitution of Greece, 1975) Issues of Religious Freedom and Tolerance are recognized in Art. 13, pp. 1–5, in the Constitution of Greece, 1975 with the title “Individual and Social Rights”, but also in the reformed ones of 1986, 2001 and 2008: 1. “Freedom of religious conscience is inviolable. The contemplation of civil rights and liberties does not depend on the individual’s religious beliefs. 2. All known religions shall be free and their rites of worship shall be performed unhindered and under the protection of the law. The practice of rites of worship is not allowed to offend public order or the good usages. Proselytism is prohibited. 3. The ministers of all known religions shall be subject to the same supervision by the State and to the same obligations toward it as those of the prevailing religion. 4. No person shall be exempt from discharging his obligations to the State or may refuse to comply with the laws by reason of his religious convictions. 5. No oath shall be imposed or administered except as specified by law and in the form determined by law.”

Religious Freedom includes not only the Greek citizens, but also religious minorities. That means that all those who live in Greece and belong to religious minorities, are free to worship and perform their religious rights, rituals and cults belonging to their religion (on the grounds that it is an officially recognized one). (Papageorgiou 2011: 134)7 However, there are limits in the freedom to practice one’s religion because it must not offend the public order of public morals or the religion of the others. Religious minorities have the right to construct their own religious buildings, so as to practice their faith at a certain place. Also Law 3386/2005 clearly states the “avoidance of any kind of discrimination” and the respect of the fundamental rights of the legal immigrants and “the protection of their cultural and religious difference”. Art. 14 of the Constitution, regulates the Freedom of Speech and states that among the cases for the “seizure by order of the public prosecutor shall be allowed exceptionally after circulation and in case of an offence against the Christian or any other known religion”.8

7 The religious communities recognized officially in Greece are: Roman Catholics, Jews, Protestants, Adventists, Old Catholic Church (1877), Islam (1912), United Methodist Church (1951), Mormonism (1955), Armenian Apostolic Church (1972), New Apostolic Church (1975), Buddhism (1983), Syriac Orthodox Church (1987), Coptic Orthodox Church (2003), Jehovah’s Witnesses (2009). 8 The term “known religion” is met also at other parts of the Constitution, without stating clearly what is specified by the term “known religion”.

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Article 16 of the Constitution clarifies that education aims to the religious consciousness of the students, which can be achieved through RE, thus revealing the important role its teaching holds in schools. Now it was sought to reform fundamentally its character. The idea was a transformation from “confessional” to “religious studies” including subjects such as History, Sociology and Dogma of all religions. The proposed regulation did not seek to abolish the religious orientation of the course contemplated under Article 16, par. 2 of the Constitution, while its content was determined on the basis of Art. 13 of the Constitution (religious freedom) and not according to Art. 3 (prevailing religion). Art. 7 sought to “privatise” the existing institutions of Ecclesiastical Education at all levels but not before the final definition of the legal status of educational institutions of all religions and doctrines (Magghioros 2011: 206–207). Religious minorities despite any problems they might face regarding issues concerning their religious rights, have not raised any manifestations of religious fanaticism. On the contrary, at the celebrations of great Christian holidays at schools (e. g. Christmas or Easter) the students participate following the Greek Christian customs and traditions. (Papageorgiou 2011: 141–42) A very important issue related to religious freedom is the freedom of education. The children of the immigrants have the right to attend the Greek schools, together with all the other Greek children. In Article 16, par.2 of the Constitution it is stated that in Greek public schools “Education aims at the moral, intellectual, professional and physical training of the Greeks, the development (among others) of national and the religious conscience and their formation as free and responsible citizens”. According to Law 1566/1985, as stated in article 1, par. 1 one of the goals for Primary and Secondary Education is to “have faith to the […] genuine elements of the orthodox Christian tradition” and in article 6, par. 1 “to realize the meaning of the orthodox Christian ethos”. In Greece RE is taught in schools by public sector teachers, who receive their salaries from the state. In schools of Primary Education RE is taught by the schoolteachers who have to obtain a bachelor’s degree from a School of Pedagogy for Primary Education (as established by Law 1268/1982, art. 13, par. 2). Admission into these Schools of Pedagogy is only possible by passing the procedure of Panhellenic University Entrance examinations. (N. 1566/1985 Government Gazette 167 v.A) In order for a University graduate to be considered qualified to occupy a position in a public school for Primary Education he/she must hold a bachelor’s degree from a University School of Pedagogy for Primary Education. Upon graduation they are considered qualified to teach all courses in the curricula for Primary Education (except for the English language and Physical Education, for which subject there are separate teachers).

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As concerns one’s religious beliefs, then, according to the Law 1268/1982, art.13, par.2, “1. […] primary school candidate teachers belonging to religions other than Orthodox Christianity can be appointed to public primary schools […] if they have the necessary qualifications. 2. The teachers appointed according to the above paragraph will not teach religion to pupils other than the ones who belong to the same religion as their own. 3. The appointment of teachers of other dogmas and religions can take place in one-seated public schools when pupils belonging to the same dogma or religion are educated there”. (Sotirelis 1998: 180–98) As concerns Secondary Education (Lower Secondary Education level High School: 13–15 years; Upper Secondary Education level General Lykeion or Vocational Lykeion: 16–18 years) RE is taught only by teachers, who have followed Theological Studies (four-year studies) in a School of Theology or Pastoral Theology, or the School of Theology in Chalki, or a Faculty of Theology (Schools of Theology and Pastoral Theology) or teacher academy ‘Vellas’ of Ioannina or Higher Ecclesiastic School of Thessaloniki or obtain an equivalent degree from abroad and a Teaching Certificate from their institution. In order to be qualified to teach RE in High School or Lykeion they must hold both (a) a bachelor’s degree in Theology from either a University Faculty or School or other institution (Law 1566/1985 Government Gazette, 167, art. 14, par. 8 and 9) and (b) a Teaching Certificate obtained from their School. (Government Gazette, 273, 3007-2014, p.26013) To obtain a Teaching Certificate the students must attend and pass eight courses related to Pedagogical and Instructional issues during their studies, such as an Introduction to Pedagogy, Teaching of RE, Sociology of Education, Educational Psychology, Learning Theories, Special Instruction for RE I and II, Practice (Teacher Training). Since RE is one of the courses taught in the schools at both levels the textbooks for the pupils and the teachers are printed annually by the state and provided free to all the students enrolled and attending public schools. The teachers of RE receive their salaries from the state like any other teachers. The same is also valid for Tertiary Education. The universities are public, therefore state funded and so the salaries of the professors and the books, including the Faculties of Theology and Ecclesiastical Academies, are funded by the state, too. The course of Religion is compulsory in both Primary and Secondary education, with the possibility of exemption in certain cases. However, the exemptions regulations are not always clear, due to the contradictory circulars edited annually by the Ministry of Education and Religions. Exemptions from RE were provided with the Law 4397/1929 Government Gazette 307/1929t. A’, art. 5, par. 2 where it says that the students belonging to another religion or denomination were exempted from RE. Again in the Law 144483/13-01-1956 was stated

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that the Protestant students were considered heterodox and thus, had the right to be exempted from RE (also according to Law 4862/1931, art. 6 “about foreign schools”). The procedure for exemption involves a declaration (signed by the parents) addressed to the Director of the School within five days after the beginning of the lessons in September, so as not to create problems with the student’s evaluation by the teacher. (Circular C2/12907/08-02-2005 Ministry of Education, Research and Religions) The declaration has to state the reason for the request for exemption of RE or the religion that the student belongs to. It must only be stated that the student is not an Orthodox Christian. (Circular C2/61723/13-06-2002 Ministry of Education, Research and Religions) Since (or if) the students are underage, the request for exemption is signed and deposited by the parent who is the students’ legal custodian. The same is also valid for exemptions from the morning praying and church attendance (Circular C2/61723/13-06-2002 Ministry of Education, Research and Religions, Law 161 v. A’, 13-07-1998) and stands also for the private schools of Primary and Secondary Education. The circulars comply with the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. The students who are exempted from RE have to attend another school course of the same grade (e. g. Mathematics, Greek language). If this is not possible, then it is the responsibility of the Director and the teachers to keep them engaged according to their specific needs, but in no case are they allowed to leave school. (Circular V12/977/109744/26-08-2008 Ministry of Education, Research and Religions)

3

Developments in the country’s education policies

Issues of Education in Greece are regulated in art. 16, especially in par. 2, 3 and 4 where it is stated that: 2. “Education constitutes a fundamental mission for the State and aims to the moral, intellectual, professional and physical training of Greeks, the development of national and religious consciousness and their formation as free and responsible citizens. 3. The number of years of compulsory education shall be no less than nine. 4. All Greeks are entitled to free education at all levels in State educational institutions. The State shall provide financial assistance to those who distinguish themselves, as well as to students in need of assistance or special protection, in accordance with their abilities. […] 8. The conditions and terms for granting a license for the establishment and operation of schools not owned by the State, the supervision of such schools and the professional

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status of their teaching personnel will be specified by law. The establishment of university level institutions by private persons is prohibited”.9

All issues concerning the operation of schools and curricula are regulated by the Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs10.The administration of primary and secondary education is conducted at the central, regional and local level respectively by the Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs, the Regional Education Directorates, the Directorates of Education (Prefecture) and the School Units. Education in Greece is free and therefore all public schools of Primary and Secondary Education (Lower/High School and Upper/Lykeion) are funded by the Ministry of Education and Religions. Compulsory education in Greece lasts for 9 years, which include Primary and Lower Secondary Education (High School). Further studies to Upper Secondary Education (Lykeion) and Tertiary Education are optional. However education at all levels is free at public schools, totally funded by the state. An important issue is that it is clearly stated that it is not permitted to establish private universities in Greece. Any change of this status would need to be declared in the Constitution (in a future reform). The total number of students attending Greek schools in the school year 2016/17 was estimated at 1.366.939. (http://www.ipaideia.gr/paideia/o-sinolikos -arithmos-mathiton-se-protovathmia-kai-deuterovathmia-ekpaideusi-statistika (24/05/2017): a) In Primary Education the total number of pupils was estimated 649.936. b) In Secondary Education at Lower Secondary Education level [High School] the total number of students was 310.457. At Upper Secondary Education level [Lykeion] the total number of students was 219.524 and at the Vocational Technical Lykeion the total number of students was estimated at 87.692. Furthermore, since 2000, all holders of bachelor’s degrees must participate successfully in an examination held by the Supreme Council for Civil Personnel Selection (ASEP) in order to occupy a place and work as teachers in a public school of Primary or Secondary Education in Greece. 9 The Institute of Educational Policy (IEP) was established in 2011 with Law 3966 (Government Gazette A 118/24-05-2011). It is a Private Legal Entity supervised by the Minister of Education and Religious Affairs. IEP operates for the benefit of public interest as an executive scientific body which supports the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, with main aim the scientific research and study of the issues related to primary and secondary education, as well as the transition from secondary to tertiary education, as well as the on-going scientific and technical support for the design and implementation of educational policy issues. 10 The designation of the Ministry of Education and its additional responsibilities changed again and again.

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In 2010 the Ministry of Education, Research and Religions initiated a new project for the Primary and Secondary education in Greece with title “New School: a school without […] walls!”. The whole idea was based on the adaptation of the Greek school to the needs of modern society and provide to all students equal access to knowledge and opportunities without any kind of discriminations: social, economic, educational, religious, cultural. The aim was for the Greek educational system to become competitive within the framework of the EU and respond to the evaluation of PISA and the aims of EU regarding Education and Training (ET 2010) as well as promote the use of ICT in the Greek schools. Another aim was to enhance the Greek identity and conscience on the basis of cooperation, solidarity, respect of the “other” and promote lifelong learning. Thus, among other things, new curricula were designed implementing modern teaching methods and integrating digital educational media. The curricula took the needs of the multicultural society into consideration and integrated them in the goals of the school subjects. Furthermore, one of their innovations is that they are open, permitting the teachers to have the freedom to choose among the contents and the activities provided as a draft in the curricula and plan their own lessons, adjusting them to the specific needs and interests of their students. Methodologically, the new curricula emphasize teaching methods that promote active cooperation among pupils (e. g. project, teaching groups, team-teaching) and the participation of the pupils in empirical actions (drama, production, seeking sources on the internet etc.). One activity of the “New School” project was called “Digital School” which the Greek Ministry of Education, Religions and Culture developed from 2011 to 2015. (http://www.minedu.gov.gr/neo-sxoleio-main.html?showall=& start=2) The “Digital School” project included actions aiming at the integration of ICT in the teaching practice in schools, including administration and the development of digital material which would facilitate this integration. Within this action all the schoolbooks for all courses taught in the Greek primary and secondary education (Lower and Upper) were digitized (into .pdf and .html formats). The integration of ICT in teaching and learning procedures is included in the expected outcomes aiming to the cultivation of the pupils’ ability for critical approach of ICT (aiming to the holistic integration model). The course of RE was one of the courses that was digitized and enriched with interactive digital activities. (http://ebooks.edu.gr/2013/allcourses.php) The digital material developed included: interactive applets (exercises, crosswords, puzzles, etc.), interactive maps, timeline maps, photo galleries, videos, presentations, links to webpages and educational software. All the digital material is uploaded as individual learning objects on the platform National Learning Objects Repository “Photodentro” (http://photodentro.edu.gr/lor) thus, creating a rich database

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with free access to be used not only by teachers and students but by anyone interested.

4

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

In Greece all public schools are funded by the state, including the Ecclesiastical public schools. There are private schools of Primary and Secondary Education, owned by various churches, however the students have to pay tuition fees. These schools must obtain a license by the state in order to function. One such private school is owned by the Holy Metropolis of Pereus (http:// www.ekpaideutiria-imp.gr/). It runs a Primary school and Lower Secondary School (High school) where the students are taught the same courses as in other public Greek schools. There are 29 private schools in Greece which are owned and directed by minority communities. The list of these schools was updated under the Law 4186/2013, article 35, for the education of foreigners in Greece (based on Law 4862/1931, art. 1, par. 1 “On foreign schools” (A’ 156). Their students have to pay tuition fees. Some of them follow the Greek state curricula like the Greek public schools, while others follow the curricula of their respective country of origin. Their students are taught RE, like in the other public schools, but depending on the whether they are owned or directed by a certain denomination or religion, the RE they teach follows that religion or denomination.11 Two examples of such schools are: (a) The Lycee franco-hellenique, Eugene Delacroix (www.lfh.gr) for the children of the French speakers who live in Athens. The Director of the school is French and the school is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France. Greek and French students co-exist in the school environment. (b) Leontion Lykeion, N. Smyrni Athens (www.leonteios.gr). It belongs to the Roman Catholic Church and is directed by the community of Marian Sisters, 11 The full list of foreign schools in Greece are: 1. German School of Thessaloniki, 2. Lycee franco-hellenique, Eugene Delacroix, 3. Italian School of Athens, 4. American College Anatolia, 5. American College of Greece, 6. Greek-French School St Paul, 7. Greek-French School JEANNE D’ARC, 8. Greek-French School Kalamari Thessaloniki, 9. Greek-Frence College De la Salle of Thessaloniki, 10. Leontion Lykeion N. Smyrni Athens, 11. Greek-French School of St Joseph, 12. Greek-French School of Ursulines, 13. Leontion Lykeion of Patisia, 14. American Community Schools of Athens, 15. Elementary School of Mission Laique Francais, 16. Lycee of Thessaloniki (High School@Lykeion), 17. International Community School of Larisa, 18. Katipunan Phillipines Cultural Academy, 19. Byron College, 20. Pinewood School of Thessaloniki, 21. Polish School Zygmunt Mineyko, 22. St. Catherine’s British School, 23. St. Lawrence College, 24. International School of Athens, 25. Champion School, 26. Iranian School of Athens, 27. Libyan School of 17th February, 28. Canadian Lykeion of Greece.

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monks and teachers. It was established in 1838 and follows a classic “Cartesian” system of education.

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The curricula of 2003 for Primary School and High School (nine years) took into consideration that Greece as member of EU “should promote the mutual understanding and cooperation with other people in the EU, yet reinforcing its cultural and linguistic identity, with the development of national, cultural, linguistic and religious education”. (Government Gazette, 313/13-03-2003 3735) Thus, the curricula applied the guidelines of EU in the aims and goals of RE in schools. A great reform and innovation was the introduction of teaching about other denominations and religions in the sixth grade of the Primary School. The curricula of 2003 (Government Gazette, 313/13-03-2003 3734) were based on the principle of interdisciplinary followed the recommendations of EU and is considered the first attempt for reform in RE. Among the aims mentioned in the curricula are “preservation of democracy, freedom, religious tolerance, solidarity, justice”. The compliance of the curricula of 2003 with the recommendations of EU envisaged that the students realize that the issues taught in RE are related with other subjects such as history, geography, art, biology, chemistry and civil education and, eventually, they will be able to form their attitude on everyday life issues, social problems and their view for the world they will live in. The new curricula published on 19 June 2017 (last version) take into consideration the demands about RE in EU. Such a RE course promotes the notion that religions contribute to the harmonious coexistence of multicultural societies. It should, though, be taken into consideration, that each EU country implements RE in a way that is closely related with its historic and cultural context. Therefore such a RE course should offer knowledge and understanding for religious “beliefs” and experiences, turn the students’ interests to the approaches and views in religious experiences and encourage them to become sensitive towards religion and its expressions in life. The religious literacy of the students’ is considered of special importance with a view to promoting their capacity for critical thought in an exploratory approach. Such a RE course retains its cognitive and pedagogic character and examines the contribution of each religious tradition in the history and culture of every country with a critical and dialectical approach. In Greece the course starts with the religious tradition of our country, which is the tradition of Orthodox Christian Church as imprinted on our cultural monuments. (Government Gazette, 2104/19-06-2017 pp. 21047–21049)

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The curricula for Upper Secondary Education level (Lykeion) had not change since 1998 up to today. The new curriculum published on 19 June 2017 (last version) takes into consideration contemporary learning theories and instructional methodology in relation to the pedagogical characteristics of the children and teenagers, their previous experiences and knowledge, their aspirations. It is connected to the local religious tradition and the religious and cultural context but it expands also to the European and ecumenical levels. Additionally, it complies with the evaluation examination system in Lykeion. (Government Gazette, 2104/19-06-2017 pp. 21155–21156) All in all the new curricula promote a Religion course in schools (at all levels) that addresses all students, without any discrimination and independent of their religious commitment. (Government Gazette, 2104/19-06-2017, p. 21047) The preparation of the new curricula including those for RE initially started with Primary and Lower Secondary School Level Education (Elementary School and High School) and later with Upper Secondary Level Education (Lykeion). After being published for the first time in 2011 and implemented in pilot schools they were, finally, implemented to all schools in Greece and their final version was published in the Government Gazette in 19 June 2017. More specifically, concerning the way the subject of Religious Education should be taught in the Greek schools of Primary and Secondary Education it states that “the content of Religion cannot be ‘offered’ as simple information, it is necessary that the teaching method start from the children’s life experiences, create opportunities for activation and reflection, not present ready answers and views, but offer them chances for investigation and discovery by the pupils themselves”. Among the teaching activities, suggested in the curricula, and closely related to the subject of Religion, is the “use of visual material and Internet access”. (Government Gazette, 303/13-03-2003 v. A’, 3871) Thus, it is considered necessary that the religious education teacher should be able to use visual media and digital material. Aims of RE in Primary Education (from 3rd to 6th grade) and High School (3 grades) as stated in the new curricula are: (Government Gazette, 2104, 19/Jun/ 2017, v. B’, 21049) – To build an educational context for understanding Christianity and Orthodoxy as spiritual and cultural tradition of Greece and Europe and source for inspiration for mankind and the world. – To provide to the students (independently of their religion) knowledge about the role of the religious phenomenon (including other religions) as a source of faith, culture and ethical way of life. – To offer the students chances to develop skills and attitudes in religious literacy.

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– To contribute to critical understanding, respect and dialogue among people with different views on religious and ethical issues. – To contribute to the forming of self-identity by the students and their holistic development (religious, cognitive, spiritual, social, ethical, psychological, aesthetic, creative). Aims of RE in Upper Secondary Education (Lykeion and Vocational Lykeion, 3 grades) as stated in the new curricula are: (Government Gazette, 2105, 19/Jun/ 2017, v. B’, 21155-6) – The development of self-identity by the students (independently of their religion or religiosity) and is related with their ethical and social formation. – The cultivation of humanistic and Greek education that are related with the orthodox tradition and culture. – The development of religious literacy the students will help them understand religiously the environment they live in and contribute to it. – The cultivation of holistic intelligence in education which contributes to the forming of students with desire for justice, democracy and respect for the others and the whole world. – To promote the meeting and communication with the “other”, a valuable skill for the multicultural society the students live in. – To promote the students’ socializing as a procedure of relation between personality forming and social inclusion, achieved with the religious knowledge acquired. – To develop a community of learning through the common experiences related with the faith and tradition in Greece and is expected to contribute to the cultivation and implementation of principles and values, such as, freedom, love, hope, democracy, equality, respect, solidarity, justice etc. The goals mentioned above will be achieved when the students become sensitive towards the contemporary human and social problems and with critical view take over their responsibilities in life, envisioning a better world, in which they will live.

6

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

The course of RE as stated in art. 16, par. 2 of the Constitution of Greece, 1975 is obligatory and is taught to all schools of Primary and Secondary Education. It follows the state curricula and implements the general aims of education (see also circulars C2/104071/04-08-2008 and 133099/C2/19-09-2013).

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RE in Primary Education (6 years)

In the Pre-primary education (Eurypedia, European Encyclopedia on National Educational Systems) and the two first grades of Elementary School (which has 6 grades), there are no separate student’s books for RE. The RE course is included within the course “Environment Studies” is taught in the framework of an interdisciplinary approach, and it mainly concerns religious and annual festivities. The two courses are related as the aims of Environmental Studies refer to the development of personality, cultivation of ecumenical and human values and development of Greek identity and conscience on the basis of our cultural heritage, while RE includes issues related to the development of religious conscience of the child. From 3rd grade up to the 6th RE is an autonomous course with 2 hours per week and its own textbooks, one for each grade.

6.2

RE in Secondary Education (6 years)

a) Lower Secondary Education (High School or Gymnasion) Lower Secondary Education lasts three years and together with the Primary Education constitutes the nine-year compulsory education in Greece. RE is a compulsory course and is taught 2 hours per week in all three grades. Each grade has its own textbook. There is also the Evening High School that implements the same curricula, including RE. b) Upper Secondary Education (Lykeion) It includes two kinds of schools: general (General Lykeion) and vocational secondary education (Vocational Lyceum). The general secondary education lasts for three years and it is not a part of compulsory education. To this day RE is taught for all three grades, 2 hours per week in the 1st and 2nd grade and 1 hour per week at the 3rd. In Vocational Lyceum, Religion is taught only 1 hour per week. There are also the Evening General Lykeion and the Evening Vocational Lykeion. (http://orth-istoxoroi.boxhost.me/ekkl-sxoles.html)

7

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

The students who belong to another denomination or other religion or declared atheists are exempted from RE. According to circular C2/8904/29-11-1995 of the Ministry of Education and Religions they do not attend the Religion course, but, alternatively, they have to be engaged in another activity or course. Thus, the

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pupils attend another course in another classroom of the same grade. In case there is none, the teachers of the school decide and define the course that these students have to follow (according to their specific needs). E. g. in the case of foreigners/immigrants the course of New Greek Language. (circular 12/977/ 109744/C1/26-08-2008)

8

Dealing with religious diversity

Children from religious minorities attend public schools and follow the same curricula as the other students (Law. 3194/2003 Government Gazette 267 t. A’). The Roman Catholics who live at the islands of Syros and Tinos, due to their large number have the possibility to attend a separate confessional course of RE, according to Law 1566/85, art. 14, par. 17 and Law 1771/1988. Special care has been taken for the religious minority of the Muslims of Western Thrace, who fall under the regulations of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). There are 194 minority schools which are funded by the state and follow the same curriculum as the public Greek schools. However the courses are bilingual, meaning that they are taught in both the Greek and Turkish languages by specially trained teaching staff who have graduated from the Special Pedagogical Academy of Thessaloniki, for the teaching needs of the minority schools of Thrace. The Circular 149251/1957 issued by the Ministry of Education and Religions states that RE in these schools has a catechetical character and is based on the study of the Koran. (Magghioros 2013:134) As mentioned in article 9 par. 20 of the Law 2817/2000 Government Gazette 78 v. A’, the teaching staff, hired to teach in the minority schools of secondary education of Western Thrace the courses of Turkish language, Muslim religion, painting and visual arts, must hold a bachelor’s degree from a University Faculty either from Greece or abroad. (Law 2817/2000 Government Gazette 78 v. A’) The students of secondary education taking the Panhellenic University Entrance Examinations are granted 0,05 % places of the total number of places offered annually by the State. Since 1977 a special programme has been implemented in the minority schools of Primary Education of the Muslim of Western Thrace called “Education of Muslim Children”, aiming at the harmonious integration of Muslim pupils in education and in society. The project provided 55 textbooks with accompanying supplementary material, an electronic method of learning Greek language teaching and a trilingual digital online dictionary (Greek-EnglishTurkish) for High School. (Magghioros 2013: 134) Special regulations are in place concerning Jewish schools, according to article 6 of Law 2456/1920 Article 24 (Government Gazette, v. A’, 173/2-8-1920). The Jewish communities in Greece, operate two private schools of Primary

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Education: one in Athens and one in Thessaloniki. The schools follow the curricula of the Greek public schools but RE is provided by the Jewish community (the students are taught about Judaism by Jewish teachers). Additionally, the students are taught Hebrew language and history. (Jewish Community of Thessaloniki)

9

Religion in school outside of RE

When religion is taught in a school environment it can help the students, who are living in a multicultural, multireligious environment, to become aware of and gain knowledge about the existence of other religions as well as their fundamental characteristics, to compare religions and to exchange religious experiences. In this way they will be able to better understand and develop an attitude of respect and tolerance towards the religion of the ‘other’. (Arvaniti 2003: 377) Religion holds an important place in societies, because it constitutes part of the cultural tradition of people from various nationalities. The transfer only of images, representations of human activities and achievements, could only enhance the stereotype concept of “exotic”, “strange”, “mysterious”, “primitive” and lead to the forming of a “touristic” attitude towards the civilizations of the ‘others’. (Kanakidou, Papagianni 1998: 67–68) In Greece school holidays include both Religious and national Holidays, which are also official public holidays in Greece. The religious School holidays as stated in Presidential Decree 2000–01 and published in Government Gazette 161/ 13-07-1998), are: 24/12-07/01 (Christmas Holidays including: 25th December : Nativity of Jesus Christ, 26th December : synaxis of Theotokos, 6th January : Baptism of Jesus Christ (Theophany), 7th January : St John the Baptist), 30th January (celebration of the Three Hierarchs and Holy Fathers: St Vasileios the Great, St Gregory the Theologian, St John Chrysostomos. Students attend Divine Liturgy (Service, Mass) in church followed by celebrations at their schools), 25th March (national holiday and Annunciation), Clear Monday (the beginning of the Lent), from Great Monday to Friday after Easter (Easter holidays), Monday of Holy Spirit. There are no lessons on Saturdays and Sundays. The religious minority students have extra holidays: – Roman Catholics may be absent on 19 March, (feast of St Joseph), on Corpus Christi12 Feast and from Friday of the Latin Easter to the day after.

12 Corpus Christi is a moveable feast, celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday or, in countries where it is not a Holy Day of Obligation, on the following Sunday. The Sunday celebrations occur three days later.

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– Jewish students can be absent on the eve and the first day of the year (Rosh Hashanah), the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) and Passover (Pesach). – Muslim students have no classes during the evening and the day of Seker Bayaram and Kurban Bayaram. (Maghioros 2013: 130–139) Another issue dealing with religion in schools but outside RE is the obligatory morning prayer of the students. The circular C2/131757/22-11-2004 of the Ministry of Education and Religions, par. 3 states that “as concerns the morning prayer, according to V200.21/16/139240/26-11-77, the morning prayer must be performed, with devoutness, daily before the start of the lessons, in the school yard at a joint gathering of both students and teachers”. (Circulars: V200.21/16/ 139240/26-11-1977; C/6251/22-10-1979; C/2875/30-04-1981; Presidential Decree 201/1998) The morningprayer is considered very important for the gathering of the whole school community and their communication before their common education and school life for half the day. Thus, circular V35/5259/C/891/15.2.82 of the Ministry of Education and Religions states that the daily gathering of the students consists one of the teachers’ duties. During the morningprayer one student (or all of them) recites the prayer “Our Father …”. The students of other denominations or religions have the right to remain absent from the morning prayer, but, at the same time, they have to respect the right of the others to participate at it. (C2/8904/29-11-1995) Another issue is ‘church attendance’ by the students so as to participate in the Holy Liturgy (Service). The Ministry of Education and religions has issued circulars on this issue (V200/21/16/139240/26-11-1977, C/6251/22-10-1979, C/ 2875/30-04-1981). In all of them it says that church attendance is one of the main duties of the school headmaster, taking place at least once a week or once a fortnight or, in the case of the big cities e. g. Athens, Thessaloniki once a month (maximum). The students are expected to participate in the Divine Liturgy (Service, Mass) at least once a month. The justification as stated in the circular V200/21/16/139240/26-11-1977 is that school shouldn’t focus only on the cognitive part of the students but also on the development of their religious and national consciousness in accordance with the principles of Democracy. Thus, it is considered necessary as clearly stated in the Law 309/76, article 26 par. 1 and article 29 par.1. Special care was taken for the confession of the Orthodox students in their schools. A priest would visit the school to facilitate confession for the students who wished it. However in September of 2006 a directive of the Ministry of Education and Religions (C2/76992/27-07-2006) prohibited the presence of priests in schools for the students’ confession. The circular declared that confession is not part of the cognitive process of RE, but serves spiritual needs of each individual student. Confession is a sacrament and requires a place of peace

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and privacy. Since at schools there no such place, confession cannot take place within the schools. However, the headmaster of the school must be informed by the priest of the parish when the confession for the school students will take place in the parish and announce it at school. One of the duties of the directors should be to facilitate the visits of metropolitans or bishops to schools, however the visit must not disturb the school programme. At the beginning of each school year, on the first day of the lessons, benedictions take place at every school in Greece. These are not institutionalized but represent a common practice. When it comes to the religious symbols in schools (e. g. crosses or icons in school classes, scarf) no issue has been raised on this matter in Greece. (Papageorgiou 2011: 141) There is no regulation about religious symbols in public schools. In the school classrooms there are usually icons with Jesus Christ or Virgin Mary. Religion includes an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems and life attitudes that regulate human behaviour. As a course RE can contribute to the cultivation and development of an ethos in the students, that forms their life attitudes towards various moral dilemmas and behaviours that help in the coexistence with the others within a society (according to what is mentioned in the aims and outcomes of the curricula of 2003 and 2017). Moreover, RE, as concerns the development of moral conscience, can help students, feel the responsibility to assist their fellow human beings (solidarity) and the world (ecological conscience) to live the moral attitude as a free choice (beyond obligations and freedom without boundaries), to accept the ‘other’ in a brotherly manner, to aim in the forming of ecumenical conscience, to respect the needs of the others-that are different to oneself, to distinguish right from wrong, to feel the values of life (love, compassion, peace, bravery, change), to become conscious of the power of choice (free will/aytexousio), to recognize and correct their mistakes.13 (Papageorgiou, 2011, 37–63)

13 While religion is difficult to define, one standard model of religion, used in religious studies courses, was proposed by Clifford Geertz, who simply called it a “cultural system” (Clifford Geertz, Religion as a Cultural System, 1973). A critique of Geertz’s model by Talal Asad categorized religion as “an anthropological category.” (Talal Asad, The Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category, 1982).

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Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

RE in Primary Education is taught by the teachers who teach also all the other courses e. g. Greek Language, History, Geography etc. (Law 1566/1985 Government Gazette 167 v. A’ article 13, par. 2). They must be obtain a bachelor’s degree by the Schools of Primary Education (as established by the Law 1268/1982), or Higher Ecclesiastic School of Thessaloniki or equivalent bachelor’s degree from abroad. However as stated at the same article “primary school candidate teachers belonging to religions other than Orthodox Christianity will not teach Religion course to the pupils except for those who belong to the same religion as their own”. The courses of Secondary Education (both High Schools and Lykeia) are taught only by teachers who hold a bachelor’s degree related to the subject they teach. Their studies last four years. Additionally, they have to obtain a Teaching Certificate issued by their School. Thus, RE teachers in Secondary Education must obtain a bachelor’s degree from a School of Theology either from Greece or abroad or the Theological School of Chalki (N.1566/1985 Government Gazette 167) and a Teaching Certificate. Both Primary School Teachers and Secondary Education teachers in order to obtain a position in a public school they must complete an examination held by the Supreme Council for Civil Personnel Selection (ASEP). There are eight Schools of Pedagogy for Primary Education (in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Kapodistrian University of Athens, University of Ioannina, University of Western Macedonia, Democritus University of Thrace, Aegean University, University of Crete, University of Patras, University of Thessaly). There are two Faculties of Theology, one in Athens EKPA and one in Thessaloniki (AUTh) and each Faculty has two Schools. The Faculty of Theology of Kapodistrian University of Athens included into the School of Theology and the School of Social Theology.The Faculty of Theology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki includes the School of Theology and the School of Pastoral and Social Theology. The courses taught in the four Schools are quite similar.14 (www.theol.uoa.gr, http://www.soctheol.uoa.gr, www.theo.auth.gr, www.past. auth.gr)

14 1. Faculty of Theology of National Kapodistrian University of Athens (www.theol.uoa.gr), 2. School of Social Theology in Kapodistrian University of Athens (http://www.soctheol.uoa. gr/), 3. Faculty of Theology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (www.theo.auth.gr), 4. School of Pastoral and Social Theology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (www.past.auth.gr).

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People from any denomination or religion can study at the faculties as the entry is achieved only through the Panhellenic University Entrance examinations and the forms that the candidates fill in and state the University Schools of their preference, there is no declaration of their religion. Furthermore, the study programmes of the Faculties include courses such as Islam and ancient religions. Priests can be public sector teachers, both in Primary and Secondary Education, provided they hold a bachelor’s degree from either a School of Pedagogy or Faculty of Theology and a Teaching Certificate. However they should not mix one duty (teacher) with the other (priesthood). (http://www.global-ethic-now) According to the Law 3432/2006, Ecclesiastical Education is provided in Ecclesiastical Secondary Schools, (Lower /High Schools, and Upper/Lykeion), in Higher Ecclesiastical Academies, and in Clerical Schools of Second Chance. These educational units are schools of the Orthodox Church in Greece, but they are supervised by the Ministry of Education and Religions (Art. 1 par.2) and state funded. The aim of Ecclesiastical Education is the elevation of the educational level and Christian morals of the staff, clergy and laypersons of the Church in Greece. Secondary Ecclesiastical Education lists ten Ecclesiastical Gymnasia (High Schools), seventeen General Ecclesiastical Lykeia, three Second Chance Seminary Schools and one EIEK at Rizarios Ecclesiastic School and eleven Departments/Sections of ecclesiastic training offered at the state Institutes of Vocational Training (IEK). However they do not have a missionary character, they follow the curricula and timetable of the other public schools of Secondary Education level and are supervised by the Department of Ecclesiastical and RE of the Ministry of Education, Research and Religions, under the Law (FEK 147/1976 GG56 A’). Additionally, the new curricula include specific courses, such as Old and New Testament, Byzantine music and liturgy. (http://lyk-ekkl-athon.chal.sch.gr/Isto selides/) The qualifications for the teachers that teach RE at the Ecclesiastic Secondary Education are the same as for the teachers of public secondary education schools. Higher Ecclesiastical Academies grant degrees equivalent to those of public Higher Education. They started operating in the academic year of 2007/08 (Art. 3, par. 1) and aimed to provide to the students with the following: 1. knowledge of the Orthodox Faith and Christianity, 2. suitable education through theoretical and practical training, 3. historical sources of the Orthodox faith and tradition, and the treasures of cultural heritage of the Church of Greece and Orthodoxy in general, 4. a spirit of unity, love and collaboration (Art. 3).

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Entry to Higher Ecclesiastical Academies is achieved through the Panhellenic University Entrance Examinations. At the programme of clerical studies, only male candidates are admitted. The qualifications for the academic staff for the Higher Ecclesiastic Academies are the same as those required for the academic staff for the Faculties of Theology. Attendance in the courses is obligatory. There are no distance learning courses at Tertiary level education granting Bachelors that qualify their holders to teach in Schools of Secondary Education.15

11

Empirical Research concerning RE

Systematic Research on RE in Greece has not been developed much. Thus, research is circumstantial and not conducted by a team of experts. Systematic research would provide results that have a bearing on the teaching of RE. (Perselis 1998) The research we noticed in various places concerned both teachers and students. Research concerning the Primary Education teachers was conducted from 1993 to 94. During the research project 150 teachers from all over Greece answered a questionnaire. Aim of the research was to investigate the attitudes of the teachers towards RE as a course in Elementary Schools. Among others, the results showed that 90,6 % (43,8 % men, 46,8 % women) have a positive attitude towards the teaching of RE and 9,4 % (3,4 % men, 6,0 % women) have a negative attitude. (Kogoulis 1997: 105–106) Mpaltatzis, Tsoukanaridis and Mpaltatzi conducted a research from November 2009 till February 2010 to examine the views of the 262 teachers in 71 schools of Primary Education on the following questions: “How much can RE contribute to the cultivation of social, cultural, intercultural and ecumenical conscience?” and “How can RE contribute to the development of democratic attitudes (respect, participation etc.) to the student, future citizen?” (Mpaltatzis, Tsoukanaridis, Mpaltatzi 2010: 600–612) The research aimed at making the teachers realize the importance of RE in the cultivation and development of the pupils’ personality and its psychological and instructional dimension. The results showed that it is possible that the support of intercultural dimensions in schools may change the negative situation for RE and positively influence the attitudes of both teachers and pupils. (Mpaltatzis, Kakarounta, Mpaltatzi 2010: 613–624) 15 The degrees granted by the Hellenic Open University do not qualify their holders to occupy positions of teachers in public schools.

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Another research project, conducted by the Ministry of Education, Research and Religions, funded by a sample of 2000 people and EU funds, in February 2011, investigated opinions prevalent within society on whether the teaching of RE in the New Lykeion should be compulsory amongst other things. According to the results 62,4 % of those asked had the opinion that RE should ‘definitively’ and ‘rather’ be an “elective course”. Only 37 % prefers RE to be “definitively” and “rather” a compulsory course. (http://www.look4studies.com/ekpaideusi-teleutaia-nea-e reuna-koinis-gnwmis-gia-to-neo-lukeio.html) Another research project on the same question was conducted by a TV channel in 2009 came to a totally different conclusion. The answers of the people to the question “Do you believe that RE should be a compulsory course?” were 67,4 % ‘yes’, 31,4 % ‘no’ and 1,2 % ‘not answer’. (http://thriskeftika.blogspot.gr/ 2011/03/blog-post_3331.html) Similarly another research survey conducted by the research company RASS, in March 2010 showed that 82,3 % do not want the religious symbols to be removed from the classrooms and the schools. (http://i-n-ag-nektariou-patron. blogspot.gr/2010/11/blog-post_19.html) A survey conducted among the teachers of RE in Secondary Education revealed that 8 out of 10 consider themselves as “spiritual leaders” of their students. A much less percentage (29 %) considered themselves as a catechetical leader and an even smaller (16 %) as leader of knowledge. (Stavropoulou and Koumaropoulou 1998: 16)

12

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Until the ’90s RE was ethically orientated in Greece and concerned the teaching of Orthodoxy. Yet, it was not linked, empirically, with the sacramental spiritual life of Orthodox Christianity. Its aim was to help develop Orthodox Christian Greek citizens. (Komninou 2012: 354) One of the guidelines of EU concerns the acceptance and preservation of national identities. There are many references to the European dimension of Greek education which are evident in RE: cultivation of religious conscience and its contribution to the formation of Greek identity, to the development of a spirit of mutual understanding and collaboration among peoples. These reveal the special value of RE to the education of the children. The guidelines that influence the EU dimensions in education can be noticed in the respect for the human rights and the implementation of Article 1 of the International Convention of the Rights of the Children in the curricula of 2003: “respect to the other, insurance of human dignity, freedom of thought and expression, no discriminations, participation and collaboration”. Furthermore, is

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stressed the necessity of development of religious consciousness so that the pupils can “approach with respect and without prejudices, stereotypes and fanaticism, the religious beliefs and traditions of their own and of the ‘others’”. (Government Gazette 303/13-03-2003 p. 3576) A closer look at the aims of RE in the Greek curricula of both 2003 and 2017 reveal their compliance to the European guidelines. First RE is recognized as a course that promotes the ethical and spiritual development of the school students. The curricula of 2003 projected and promoted values such as freedom, religious tolerance, solidarity, justice, which are the same with the aims of educational systems of the other EU state-members. Among the aims (also European aims) is the cultivation of the awareness of being European citizens in the pupils. (Government Gazette 303/13-3-2003 p. 3734) According to the aims of the curricula 2017 the teaching of RE in schools includes: (Government Gazette 2104/19-06-2017 pp. 21047–48) – Development of religious conscience – Understanding of Christian faith as a means of giving sense to the world and life – Providing of chances for questioning and thinking – Critical elaboration of religious beliefs and values – Clarification of the role of Christianity in history and the civilization of Greece and Europe – Understanding of religion as a factor of development of the civilization – Knowledge of the existence of different expressions of religiosity – Facing the modern social issues – Development of independent thought and free expression – Evaluation of Christianity as a factor for the improvement of human life The first aim of RE is connected with the forming of individual and collective identities and in others with the intercultural conscience. However even though the promotion of European guidelines for RE is not evident in the general aims in the school books, there are many efforts to enhance the consciousness of being European citizens and of commonly accepted values, (Komninou, 2012: 359) such as love, respect, tolerance, solidarity, freedom, equality, justice, peace, understanding, the teaching of other denominations and religions promotes the understanding and acceptance of the ‘other’. An important aim in the new curricula 2017 is the formation of self-identity and socializing attitudes which are expected to promote the understanding of national cultural identity (fundamental for the understanding of the ecumenical), and the development of respect towards diversity and intercultural conscience. (Government Gazette 303/13-03-2003)

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The above aims comply with the guidelines of EU as written in the Toledo Guiding Principles, that educational aims should be in accordance with human rights, including freedom of religion or belief, and freedom of speech. Education can lead to the “full and harmonious development of the human personality.”16 And “teaching about religions and beliefs should be based on human rights principles relating to freedom of religion or belief. This implies that considerations relating to the freedom of religion or belief should pervade any curricula developed for teaching about religions and beliefs.” (OSCE/ODIHR 2007: 39–40) The above aims of the Greek curricula comply with the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief, Art. 5(3) which states: “The child shall be protected from any form of discrimination on the ground of religion or belief. He shall be brought up in a spirit of understanding, tolerance, friendship universal brotherhood, respect for freedom of religion or belief of others” (Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief 1981). “Finally, they comply with guidelines that teaching about religions and beliefs can also be the focus of cross-curricular lessons, activities, and projects, e. g. connected to human rights education and education about mutual respect and understanding.” (OSCE/ ODIHR 2007: 44)

The Learning outcomes from the teaching of RE as mentioned in the new curricula of 2017, have an extra section for the outcomes of each grade which refer to six sections: A. knowledge and understanding the world and Religions, B. understanding the cultural extend of the religious phenomenon, C. the personal growth and cultivation of values and attitudes, C. Development of moral conscience, D. Cultivation of democratic conscience and practice, E. participation to the teaching practice.17 16 See also Jacques Delors, Learning: the Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO on the International Commission on Education in the Twenty-First Century (UNESCO Publishing, 1996), http:// www.unesco.org/delors/. The Delors Report is also the starting point for the UNESCO Guidelines on Intercultural Education. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e. pdf. 17 For instance, in the circles of Primary Education the outcomes state that the pupils are expected to:(a) understand the character of the biblical texts their historical context, make correlations with the life of other holy persons from other religions, describe similarities among religions, recognize the role of religion in people’s lives,(b) notice and understand the influences of Bible in the Greek and European civilization as well as of other holy books in other different civilizations, trace Judaic and Islamic elements integrated in the Greek and European civilization, recognize the religion on monuments, realize the religious foundation of folk traditions and customs,(c) start to form a sense of personal value and identity (selfesteem), develop empathy to the persons of biblical and other religious stories and evaluate

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The outcomes of the new curricula of 2017 comply with the learning outcomes (as in OSCE/ODIHR 2017: 49) that are associated with teaching about religion and beliefs and include the development of knowledge, attitudes, and competences. According to Toledo guidelines one should expect the following outcomes:18 – attitudes of tolerance and respect for the right of individuals to believe (or not believe) to a particular religion or belief system. – a fundamental knowledge about different religions and belief systems – an understanding of the importance of religious or philosophical beliefs in a person’s life; – awareness of similarities and differences between different religions and beliefs; – recognize and question existing negative stereotypes about religious communities and their members.

afterwards their attitudes and choices. While, in the circles of Secondary Education the outcomes state that the students are expected to:(a) recognize, describe and evaluate fundamental teachings of the great world religions, understand and evaluate the Christian answers on faith, and the meaning of human life, recognize the humanistic dimension of Orthodoxy, Christianity and other religions, express problematisms around man and his limits, his relation with God and the “other”, evaluate the offer of important persons in all religions, notice common values in all religions, evaluate the existential and spiritual truth that the Orthodox tradition gave to the greek society,(b) understand the cultural and humanistic dimension of Orthodoxy, Christianity and of other religions, trace & recognize the presence and the dimensions of “holy” on the monuments of European civilization, define the influences of religion on the daily lives of the believers, recognize the diversity of expressive means of religions, analyze and evaluate the meeting Christianity-Hellenism, investigate/ notice religious dimensions in artistic creations (literature, theater, cinema, music etc), investigate the relation of Orthodoxy with the various expressions of the greek traditions, evaluate the presence and interactions of Judaism and islam to the European civilization,(c) notice in Christian tradition, Holy Bible and the holy texts of religions answers on the meaning of life and relations (with God, fellowman and nature), develop a critical attitude towards their religious identity, cultivate an attitude of respect and dialogue with Christianity and other religions, feel the importance of acceptance and respect the otherness for the modern society and they take position, recognize the theological foundation of the ethical dilemmas, sense the consequences of religious fanaticism and conflicts, develop personal interests around religious issues, Notice, control and evaluate and fix the personal stereotypes and prejudices related to religious beliefs. 18 “A competence is defined as the ability to successfully meet complex demands in a particular context through the mobilisation of psychological prerequisites (including both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects)’. In turn, skills represent only one component of competence in a given area of activity, limited to specialized abilities’ (e. g. ability to work in groups with a particular skill within the overall competence ‘ability to co-operate’).”

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Further information

Laws and decrees Constitution of Greece 1975/1986/2001/2008. https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/en/Vouliton-Ellinon/To-Politevma/Syntagma/. Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief, adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly Resolution 36/55 on 25 November 1981, GA Res., UN GAOR, 36th Sess.http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/ b/d_intole.htm. Law 4186/2013/Government Gazette 193 A/17-9-2013. Law 3386/2005. Law 3194/2003 Government Gazette 267 t. A’. Law 2817/2000 Government Gazette 78 v. A’ article 14, par. 9. Law 161 v. A’, 13-07-1998. Law 2341/1995 Government Gazette 208 v. A’.art.1–2. Law 2158/1993 Government Gazette 109 v. A’.art. 8, par.10. Law 1566/1985 Government Gazette, 167.art. 14, par. 8–9. Law 144483/13-01-1956. Law 4862/1931. art. 1.par. 1 “On foreign schools” (A’ 156). Law 4397/1929 Government Gazette 307/1929 t. A’. Law 2456/1920 art. 24. Government Gazette, v. A’, 173/2-8-1920. Ministry of Education and Religions 2013. Circular 133099/C2/19-09-2013. Ministry of Education and Religions 2008. CircularV12/977/109744/C1/26-08-2008. Ministry of Education and Religions 2008. CircularC2/104071/04-08-2008. Ministry of Education and Religions 2006. Circular C2/76992/27-07-2006. Ministry of Education and Religions 2005. Circular C2/12907/08-02-2005. Ministry of Education and Religions 2002. CircularC2/61723/13-06-2002. Ministry of Education and Religions 1995. CircularC2/8904/29-11-1995. Ministry of Education and Religions 1981. CircularC/2875/30-04-1981. Ministry of Education and Religions 1979. Circular C/6251/22-10-1979. Ministry of Education and Religions 1977. Circular V200/21/16/139240/26-11-1977. Presidential Decree 201/1998.

Statistics Greek Statistical Authority http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/ General/nws_SAM01_GR.PDF (24/08/2013). Ipaideia http://www.ipaideia.gr/paideia/o-sinolikos-arithmos-mathiton-se-protovathmia -kai-deuterovathmia-ekpaideusi-statistika (24/05/2017). The World Factbook 2013 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/download/download2013/index.html (28/06/2017). The World Factbook 2017 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ geos/gr.html (28/06/2017).

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Institutions and schools Antonias Eklesiastiki Akadimia http://lyk-ekkl-athon.chal.sch.gr/Istoselides/. Leontion Lykeion, N. Smyrni Athens www.leonteios.gr. Lycee franco-hellenique, Eugene Delacroix (www.lfh.gr). School Jewish Community of Athens http://www.jewishmuseum.gr/gr/information/jews_ greece/jewish_sites/school.html. School Jewish Community of Thessaloniki http://www.jct.gr/school.php. School Holy Metropolis of Pereus http://www.ekpaideutiria-imp.gr/. School of Theology of National Kapodistrian University of Athens www.theol.uoa.gr. School of Social Theology of National Kapodistrian University of Athens http://www.soc theol.uoa.gr/. School of Theology of Thessaloniki www.theo.auth.gr. School of Pastoral & Social Theology www.past.auth.gr.

References Arvaniti, I., 2003. The revealing of the historical monuments of the religious “other” in inter-religious education. Proceedings from the 5th International Conference of the Centre of Inter-Cultural Education of the Faculty of Pedagogy for Primary Education, University of Patras with title: “Inter-cultural education: Greek as a second of foreign language”. Patras: 372–391. Kanakidou, E., Papagianni, V. 1998. Inter-cultural Education. 3rd edition. Athens: Hellenic Letters. Keast, J. ed. 2007. Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: a Reference Book for Schools. Strasbourg: CoE Publishing. Kogoulis, I. 1997. The teacher and Orthodox Christian education of the pupils of Elementary schools. Theoretical and empirical approach. Thessaloniki: Kyrikides Brothers. Komninou, I. 2012. European Dimension of RE course. Its contribution to the formation of European Identity. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Athens. Maghioros, N. 2013. Religious education in Greece. The Routledge International Handbook of Religious Education (eds. D. E. Davis & E. Miroshnikova): 130–139. Maghioros, N. 2011. Religion in Public Education – Report on Greece. G. Robbers ed. Religion in Public Education/La Religion dans l’Pducation publique. European Consortium for Church and State Research: 195–216. Ministry of Education and Religions 2001. Guidelines for the teaching of the courses in High School and Lyceum. Athens: Schoolbooks Publishing Organization. Mpaltatzis, D., P. Kakarounta, E. Mpaltatzi 2010. The contribution of Christian education in the extinction of racism. P. Georgogiannis, V. Mparos eds. Intercultural Education – Immigration – Conflict – Management and Pedagogy of Democracy. Patras: selfe-edition: 613–624. Mpaltatzis, D., D. Tsoukanaridis, E. Mpaltatzi 2010. The creation of intercultural environment in schools through the teaching of Religious Education. P. Georgogiannis, V.

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Mparos eds. Intercultural Education – Immigration – Conflicts – Management and Pedagogy of Democracy.Patras: selfe-edition: 600–612. Naos AgiouNektariouPatras 2010. http://i-n-ag-nektariou-patron.blogspot.gr/2010/11/blog -post_19.html. OSCE/ODIHR 2007: Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religion and Beliefs in Public Schools. Warsaw: OSCE/ODHIR. http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154. Papageorgiou, N. 2011. Religion and Migration. The Sikh community in Greece. Thessaloniki: Sfakianakis Publ. Papastathis, Ch. 2005.Church and State in Greece. G. Robbers ed. Church and State in European Union. Second Edition. Baden-Baden: Nomos: 195–216. Perselis, E. 1998. School Religious Education. Athens: Gregoris Meletimata. Sotirelis, G. 1998. Religion and Education. Athens: Komotini. Stavropoulou, A., St. Koumaropoulou 1998. The task of the theologian teacher and the course of RE in Secondary Education. Research Projects of University of Athens. Athens. US Department of State 2016. Greece. International Religious Freedom Report 2015. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256407.pdf (28/Jun/2017).

Christian Alber / Dorothea Rechenmacher

Religious Education at Schools in Italy

1

Socio-religious background1

1.1

Italy – a Catholic country?

Nearly 60 million citizens live in Italy, on an area of more than 300 000 km2 ; among them 7.5 % (4,500,000) have a background of migration. Immigration is also the main driver of population growth in Italy, which lies at an average annual rate of about 0.5 %. Christianity is the most widespread religion in Italy. The Catholic Church is the majority denomination, its adherents constituting almost 88 % of the population. 2 out of 100 Italians declare their belonging to another denomination or religion (Eurispes 2006, Table 52). While this data suggests a consistent presence of the Catholic Church in society, the religious reality of Italy, however, is more complex. A closer look reveals that the percentage of Catholics actively involved in the life of the Church constitute about 10 % of the population. 26–28 % of Catholics attend Sunday Mass and another 30 % consider themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church. These people have a certain trust in the Catholic Church, although they do not share the Church’s teaching, especially its moral principles regarding contraception, divorce, abortion and biotechnologies. The remaining percentage of Catholics view Catholicism a cultural heritage, which manifests itself mainly in the celebration of the sacraments [baptism, first communion, wedding (although the percentage of religiously performed weddings is decreasing: according to the Yearbook ISTAT, in the year 2012, the percentage of church weddings was 60.2 %, while, in the northern regions of Italy, civil weddings already predominate – 51.7 %)] and in religious funerals (Cipriani 1988; Garelli 2011). 80 % of Italians choose to give “eight per thousand” from the annual income tax to the Catholic Church. 1 This section is to a great extent based on the contribution of Enzo Pace, Professor of Sociology of Religion in Padua.

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In summary, it can be said that for the majority of the population in Italy the Catholic religion today may carry a wide array of meanings. However, in terms of religious belief and practices, it seems to have a minor presence. 73 % of Italians think that one can be a good Catholic without adhering to the rules of sexual morality ; 72 % think that the Church has too much power and too great an influence on politics (Garelli 2013, 109); and 17.1 % of practicing Catholics even believe in reincarnation (Lanzetti 2011, Table 2).

1.2

A comparison between the generations

At first glance, the socio-religious situation in Italy has not changed much: there are no significant differences between the results of recent empirical studies and the results received in the past (Marzano 2012; Cesareo 1995 Garelli / Guizzardi / Pace 2003). However, an in-depth analysis shows that the changes occurring during this period have affected the younger generation greatly. According to Marzano (2012), Catholicism is slowly becoming a religious minority. Within this minority religion, young people constitute another minority. This is illustrated by figures on regular Sunday Mass attendance: a third of Italians regularly participates in Sunday Mass, but among young people this percentage is twice as small. For example, in the Veneto region, where the Catholic tradition has particularly strong roots, only 13.4 % of young people aged 18 to 29 regular attend Sunday Mass (Castegnaro 2012). 18–29 years old 13.4 %

45–59 years old 27,3 %

Prays every day

17.7 %

41.1 %

Believes without doubt in God

34.6 %

57.0 %

Believes in Jesus as Son of God

34.5 %

53.9 %

6.6 %

18.3 %

Feels himself/herself as being a part of a parish

42.7 %

18.3 %

Has a negative attitude towards the Church as an institution

61.0 %

40.5 %

Goes every Sunday to Mass

Feels himself/herself as being a part of the Church

Table 1: Religiosity : a comparison between the generations (Northeast of Italy ; in %; 2.100 respondents). Source: Castegnaro 2012

The data on relations between generations and genders is especially worth mentioning. Regarding religious attitudes and practices as well as the feeling of belonging to the Church, women and girls behave similarly to men and boys of same age. Thus, the tendency, established by sociological studies at the early

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seventies and confirmed up to the beginning the 21st century – namely, that women and girls are generally more religious than men and boys – could not be supported by empirical data for the first time. A social and cultural revolution is slowly emerging as the behavior of men and women is becoming increasingly similar. It was also clearly shown by a representative study of partnership, marriage and family among the population of the Northeast of Italy (Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino) that the difference between the generations is much greater than the difference between genders (Demos, Osservatorio sul Nord Est, 2009).

1.3

A religious map in transition

It is difficult to outline the current socio-religious situation in Italy because no sociological data are available on the number of members of religious communities throughout the country. In fact, the religious map of Italy is changing. The image of Italian Catholicism as a religion visibly present in Italy throughout the national territory has begun to fade (Neri 2012, 153). The traditional religious minorities in Italy include a Jewish community (the oldest Jewish community in Western Europe is located in Rome, and it was uninterruptedly present there for more than 2000 years), various Protestant churches (Waldensian, Methodist, Baptist and Lutheran Church), Adventists and, since the end 19th century, several free churches and Jehovah’s Witnesses. Muslims, Sikhs, Orthodox, Buddhists, Hindus and followers of Pentecostal movements from Africa, Latin America and Asia recently emerged in Italy due to migration. An overview of the membership and distribution of religious communities throughout the country can be received from the migration counseling centers of Caritas, which have compiled a list of places of worship of religious communities in Italy and an estimated number of members. Religious communities Islam Orthodox Church New African Pentecostals Sikhs Buddhists Hindus

Number of religious communities

Membership (estimated by Caritas) 655 1.645.000 355

1.405.000

859 (estimated)

150.000

37

120.000

126

80.000

2

1.500

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(Continued) Religious communities Total

Number of religious communities

Membership (estimated by Caritas) 2.025

3.265.000

Table 2: Places of worship and membership of new religious communities in Italy in 2012. Source: Pace 2013

In the modern world, which is becoming more and more interconnected, people of different cultures and religions live much closer to each other than was the case in the past. This causes changes in religions, both the local religions and those of migrants. This development is taking place now in Italy. Compared to Western countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium) that have been confronted with the problems and challenges caused by these changes for a longer time, the Italian society began to deal with them only recently (Naso / Salvarani 2009, 2012). But Italy is experiencing these problems and challenges in their entire complexity : during a period of only twenty years (less than one generation) the socio-religious map of the country has changed dramatically. From being a predominantly Catholic country, Italy became a country of significant religious diversity. As such, Italy faces a completely new social situation, which is comparable to that of Britain, where Christians live together closely with Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus and descendants of immigrants from Asia and Africa with different religious orientations but with strong roots in British society. It is difficult to draw a new religious map of Italy, because, on the one hand, there are no reliable quantitative data and, on the other hand, the information on religious traditions and practices of migrants is insufficient. We know, however, that immigrants living in Italy represent 189 different nationalities. And this fact has various impacts on the life of the country : on its housing market, hospitals, prisons, schools, social services, etc. It is clear that the future of religion in Italy will be characterized not by the specific features of Italian Catholicism, but by growing diversity.

2

Legal framework of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

2.1

State-recognized religious communities

Article 8 of the Italian Constitution states that all religions are equally free before the law. The legal form of relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian state is governed by a Concordat. The relationships of other religious

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confessions to the state are regulated on the basis of agreements (intese) with the appropriate agencies, which, through the laws, are taken into the national legislation. A total of 12 religious communities are currently recognized by the state. In addition to the Roman Catholic Church these are: Waldensian Church of the Living God, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Association of Jewish Communities in Italy, Confederation of Christian Evangelical Baptists in Italy, Evangelical Lutheran Church, Orthodox Christians in Italy, Mormons, New Apostolic Church, the Buddhist Association and Association of Hindus. The agreement with the Jehovah’s Witnesses has been signed but not yet enshrined in law (http://www.governo.it/Presidenza/USRI/confessioni/intese_indice.html). Italy does not have any church tax, but there is a possibility to give “eight per thousand” from the annual income tax to a chosen religious community for a specific purpose. It is also possible to assign further “five per thousand” to social and religious organizations. Although the Italian state grants the right to conduct their own religious educational educations to recognized religious communities (http://www.gov erno.it/Presidenza/USRI/ufficio_studi/scuola.html), some communities have not yet claimed it. The Roman Catholic Church The Concordat between the Catholic Church and the state is based essentially on the Lateran Treaty of February 11, 1929. The Concordat was revised in 1984 and adapted to the present situation. The Church as a community of faith is aware of its fundamentally changed position in society and in relation to the state, and it draws corresponding conclusions. The principle, established by the Lateran Pacts, namely that the Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church is the only religion of the state, was dropped, and the Italian state was recognized as an ideologically neutral state. This altered position of the Church also affects religious education. According to the Article 9, Paragraph 2, of the aforementioned revision of the Concordat, the state, “recognizing the value of religious culture and having in mind that the principles of Catholicism as a part of the historical heritage of the Italian people, shall continue to assure, within the framework of the purpose of schools, the teaching of the Catholic religion in state schools of every order and grade, excepting universities”. But, out of respect for freedom of conscience, parents and guardians are given the right to decide, whether their children need religious education or not. The concrete regulations of religious education in public schools are presented in the Agreement (Intesa) between the Italian state and the Italian Bishops’ Conference on December 14, 1985, which was last revised on June 28, 2012 as an

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adjustment to the changed environment. Especially the requirements regarding access to religious education have been adjusted to the increased demands. Taking this into account, the current legal situation of the Catholic religious education can be summarized as follows: a. Catholic religious education in public schools is a standard subject and is to be offered by schools “within the framework of the purpose of schools”. b. All students are free to attend lessons of the Catholic religious education; these lessons are to be offered to all enrolled students who specifically requested such education. For those students who decided to participate in religious education, these lessons are mandatory. c. The manner in which religious education lessons are placed within the schedule of the school’s curriculum is decided by the school. Religious lessons should not be placed on the margins of the schedule, i. e. pushed to the first or last hours, but are to be offered as part of the normal schedule. d. Teachers of religious education take part in the collegial bodies of the school with full voting rights. They are full faculty members with all corresponding rights and obligations. e. Only those students who attend religious education lessons are to participate in the periodic examinations conducted to evaluate their knowledge of the subject. If in the final evaluation of a student, who attended religious education lessons, the opinion of a religious education teacher is crucial, this opinion is to be presented in writing and recorded in the protocol. f. The curricula are determined by an agreement between the state and Italian Bishops’ Conference. They are based on Catholicism and on the important role played by the Catholic Church in shaping Italian culture and society in the past and the present. Here, an accurate distinction is to be drawn between religious education lessons held in schools and parish catechesis in terms of their objectives and structural foundations. g. The textbooks used for religious education shall be approved as school textbooks by the Italian Bishops’ Conference.2 h. A special certificate is issued as a result of the assessment of students learning achievements, which is signed by the religious education teacher and bears a stamp of the school. This certificate is attached to each student’s evaluation sheet but does not affect the overall assessment. The learning outcomes in the subject of Catholic religion are, therefore, not taken into account in transferring the students from grade to grade. Neither are they reflected in the state final exams after the 8th or 13th grade. 2 A list of approved teaching materials can be downloaded from this website: http://www. chiesadimilano.it/polopoly_fs/1.42631.1352466977!/menu/standard/file/Libri%20Testo%20c on%20Nulla%20Osta%20CEI.pdf.

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i. Religious education lessons in kindergartens are offered for up to 60 hours per school year. In primary schools (from 1th to 5th grades) – two hours per week and in the secondary school of primary level (from 6th to 8th grades) and upper level (from 9th to 13th grades) – one hour per week.

3

Developments in the country’s education policy

Italy is experiencing a social and economic crisis. The impact of the crisis on the country has been devastating, and the unemployment level has reached a very high level, the national average unemployment rate being 11.5 %. Young people are particularly affected: the unemployment rate among the youth is 39.3 %. Politicians have reacted to the crisis with cuts in public services and benefits. This has particularly affected the education system: its financial resources, already limited, were reduced even further. This generally difficult situation for Italian schools was exacerbated by the country’s political instability and frequent change of the Head of the Ministry of Education. Since 2000, seven ministers of different political orientations have taken this office. As a consequence, the Italian education policy is characterized by numerous, often contradictory, reforms and measures3 that cannot be outlined in detail here. For the purpose of this study, we will draw attention to the following issues: a. Orientation towards a competence-based education: The curricula in Italy have been replaced in recent years by the so-called framework directives oriented towards competence-based learning. On the one hand, the framework directives define a set of orientations aimed at enabling schools to reach their educational and competency goals, and, on the other hand, they allow schools to freely design their educational programs to fulfil the respective goals. The orientation on a competence-based education is aimed at ensuring that all children and young people acquire, based on the principle of equal opportunities, the basic skills needed to become successful and responsible individuals in an increasingly complex world and to fully participate in the social and cultural life of their country. However, the implementation of this reform was carried out only to some extent and the new culture of learning is only slowly becoming implemented in practice. Furthermore, the guidelines for the evaluation and final examination are not yet adapted to the new 3 More information on reforms of education and their impact on the confessional religious education can be found at: Malizia, Guglielmo/Cicatelli, Sergio. Le riforme della scuola e l’IRC, In: Zelindo, Trenti/ Pastore, Corrado (2013), Insegnamento della religione: competenza e professionalit/. Prontuario dell’insegnante di religione. Leumann (TO): Elledici, 19–35.

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competency-based education system, which hinders its successful implementation. Teacher training: There is a great need for teacher training courses. The requirements for learning the profession of a teacher are changing repeatedly at short intervals: after transitional arrangements were made, these were changed again after a few months. Teaching qualification courses have to be developed by universities within a few months, and central entrance examinations are to be conducted. This results in protests and appeals, and in widespread frustration among teachers. The latter, probably, is the most negative outcome. Autonomous schools: Another challenge for schools in Italy is the development of their autonomy. Since 2000, schools in Italy have been granted autonomy in the areas of teaching, organization, administration and finance. And yet, they are not independent when it comes to hiring, therefore, the creation of school profiles and school development can be realized only to a limited extent. Having greater autonomy would enable schools to take more responsibility for providing education and reaching their educational goals as well as being more accountable both internally and externally. An external evaluation of schools in Italy is still a work in progress and accompanied by uncertainty and reservations. This may be partially due to the fact that, simultaneously with the external evaluation, an assessment of teachers’ professionalism should be conducted. External evaluation is thus less an instrument of school development (incidentally, this expression that does not exist in Italian language), but is rather perceived as a control instrument. Development of a professional education system: In Italy, professional education is integrated in the public school system. After finishing middle school, young people can also opt for a professional qualification in secondary school containing a small portion of practical training. High unemployment among young people motivated the Italian Government in 2013 to reform the education system and to establish professional schools and dual vocational training throughout the whole country. School dropout rate. 15 % of students in Italy leave school or vocational training at an early stage. Although the rate is declining (23 % in 2004), Italy is still far from reaching the Lisbon objectives of having less than 10 % of students leaving school early (INDIRE, 167) In summary it can be stated that Italy needs a common understanding of schooling and a vision of school education as was the case following the introduction of the unified middle school, inclusion of all students in the regular school system and democratization of school in the 20th century. Without a common understanding of school, the Italian educational system will face many difficulties.

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Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships4

According to the law5, the national education system includes public schools and equivalent (i. e. given legal recognition by the state) private schools or schools organized in the manner of clubs or associations. 88.4 % of students attend public schools, 11.6 % (= 1,036,312) attend equivalent schools. 75 % of equivalent schools are small kindergartens; equivalent secondary schools only in exceptional cases have dimensions that are similar to that of public schools (MIUR 2013). Among equivalent schools (total number – 13,847), most schools are run by religious organizations (9120), largely (65.4 %) by the Catholic Church (among those 66.9 % are kindergartens). The importance of religious education in equivalent Catholic schools can be presented through the following three aspects: religious upbringing and education, religious interpretation of the world and Catholic religious education. a. Religious upbringing and education in Catholic schools is oriented towards education in faith. Therefore, the teaching process is conducted in these schools according to the standard curricula provided by the Ministry for all schools and school types and is complemented by religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer, liturgical celebrations and spiritual rites. However, the Law 62/2000 stipulates, that extra-curricular activities presupposing a particular religion or belief are not to be mandatory. And yet, the same law states that the educational concept of an equivalent school may have a confessional orientation and students, enrolled in such school, may accept this concept. An empirical study conducted during the school year 2010/11 confirmed that a prayer at the beginning of lessons is performed in 99 % of kindergartens and in 100 % of primary schools and primary secondary schools, as well as in 80 % of upper secondary schools. Celebration of the Eucharist is rare; it is limited primarily to the important events of the liturgical year, as well as retreats and spiritual exercises, which are generally offered for older students. The majority of teachers participate in these activities (about 75 %, according Cicatelli and Malizia). Parents are also involved. As experience shows, parents are most actively involved in kindergartens. However, they are not very involved in activities related to religious and theological education. b. Catechetical offers are currently limited to the preparation for the sacraments of students who do not have such possibility otherwise. In the past, some 4 This section is based on a contribution of Sergio Cicatelli, Professor of school laws and Head of the Department of Catholic Schools in Italy. 5 Legge 10-3-2000, n. 62: “Norme per la parit# scolastica e disposizioni sul diritto allo studio e all’istruzione”.

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“competition” took place between parish catechesis and catechesis, offered at Catholic schools. Today, efforts are made to attract children and youth to participate in activities at their parishes. The Christian interpretation of the world is without doubt the most complex and difficult aspect of religious education offered by Catholic schools. Because no cultural content is neutral, it is important to develop an educational approach that respects science and, at the same time, is committed to the message of the gospel of Jesus Christ. The religious dimension of reality is to be developed in school programs in dialogue with other worldviews. In recent years, Catholic schools in Italy have tried to meet this requirement in a way that corresponds to the character of these schools. The implementation of this concept, however, is not easy, because the schools have difficulties finding teachers truly committed to this vision of education.6 For a long time, the Italian Bishops’ Conference thought to promote possibilities of cultural education in the light of a Christian worldview through the project “Progetto culturale orientato in senso Cristiano”. However, a serious dialogue with secular Italian culture is still missing. c. In the school year 2010–2011, the Department of Catholic Schools conducted the aforementioned empirical study aimed at improving the quality of education in Catholic schools, focusing on the improvement of both, the quality of Catholic schools as schools and the quality of Catholic schools as religious schools. The results that were received through this study confirmed that parents and students are highly satisfied with the education offered at Catholic schools. The study also showed that families choose Catholic schools primarily because of the quality of education and not so much because of specific religious and social values nurtured there. d. Catholic religious education has a visible presence in religious education at schools in Italy. The most important legal basis for religious education was created through the Framework Concordat of 1984, which also applies to the Catholic schools. However, this fact leads to some contradictions. For example, a student of a Catholic school can refuse to attend Catholic religious lessons, although he/she has previously decided to attend religious education offered by this school. In reality, this happens rarely, and such cases are limited to situations where a Catholic kindergarten, for instance, is the only kindergarten existing in the local area and, as a consequences, it accepts children of other religious backgrounds. e. Since religious lessons are of particular importance in Catholic schools, the National Union of Catholic Schools encourages an increase in the hours 6 Originally, teaching personnal of these schools coinsisted largerly of monks and nuns, today at 80–90 % it consists of laypeople. Therefore, personnel costs increased tremendously.

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allocated for religious lessons in the amount of two hours per week in all schools of any kind, but this practice is not very common.

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

After the unification of Italy in 1861, the state adopted the principle of the Albertine Statute from 1848, which declared Catholicism to be the state religion. Consequentially, Catholic religious education became – with interruptions7 -an ordinary school subject that was mandatory to all students who did not explicitly and justifiably decline to take it. All other religions and denominations became recognized by the state as religious cults. These principles were eventually enshrined in the Lateran Treaty in 1929, which laid out the foundation for confessional religious education in Italy that remains relevant to this day. The basic principle and culmination of public education was Catechesis, religious education aimed at the development of Christian faith. The organization and supervision of teaching were vested in the ecclesiastical authority, and the development of faith through Catechesis was deeply embedded within the confessional milieu – this attitude towards religious education even today characterizes the thinking of many people, especially within the Church. By the mid-sixties, however, a growing unease and uncertainty regarding this approach to religious education began to grow both in authoritative circles and among the general public. They receive support from the Church: in 1970, it was declared: “Il Rinnovamento della Catechesi” – the catechesis in school shall be based on the goals and methods of the modern school. The focus was placed on a holistic education of a person and a citizen, which would enable him or her to fully enter modern cultural life. Religious education as the formation of religious conscience was defined as, on the one hand, the right and duty of a human being striving for full freedom of conscience and, on the other hand, as a service provided by society (No.154–156). From this perspective, the aim of religious education lessons was to familiarize a person with religion and to teach him or her to view religion critically. The aim of such education was the formation of a mature Christian. Religious education then was no longer a privilege of the Catholic Church, but a service offered to all people for critical reflection about religions. The key underlying assumptions of religious education that emerged were significant for the further positioning of religious education in Italy :

7 From 1877 to 1923 this subject was only possible in part and on request and outside of the regular timetable or did not take place.

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– Catholicism as a key to understand Italian (European, Western) culture – Religious dimension as a valuable aspect of a holistic development of the personality of a student – The Catholic Christian worldview as a contribution to dealing with basic questions of human existence. This approach to religious education respects the autonomy of religious education as a part of school education and as clearly different from catechesis in a community. But there are opportunities for cooperation between school and parish in their work with children and youth. With this in view, a revision of the Concordat took place in 1984 (the Law of March 25, 1985) in which the Church recognized the ideologically-religiously neutral nature of the Italian state: that the state does not represent any religion. As a result, the changes in the relation of church and state greatly influenced the self-image and role of religious education in Italy. Following the revision of the Concordat, the main focus of the Catholic religious education was on the issue of importance of Christianity for the formation of self-understanding of each individual European, and thus each individual Italian, in cultural, historical and moral contexts. Confessional religious education in Italy began to be understood as a means of teaching of religious culture and was viewed as a key for understanding European culture. Contrary to Germany or Austria, the confessional character of Catholic religious education in Italy was not embedded within the triad (teacher, teaching, and student): religious education belonged to the school curriculum and contributed to other subjects to fulfil the school’s educational objectives. The Catholic character of religious education was closely connected with the content of subjects, taught at schools, and to the teachers. Being voluntary and non-denominational, the Catholic religious education was open to all students, regardless of their respective religious and philosophical beliefs. This may also be one of the reasons, why there is only Catholic religious education in public schools in Italy, although the legislation allows for a religious education of other denominations or religions. In a Pastoral Letter on religious education from 1991, Italian bishops defined religious education as the following: a. Religious education is primarily a service to students’ education which meets the objectives of the school which should not (and cannot) exclude a valuebased education. b. Religious education is open to all students, even those who have no faith or do not practice their faith. c. Religious education is open to all who are willing to think about the great problems of humanity and culture and are willing to recognize the role that religion plays there. Thus, it fits into the overall goal of the school, when it

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comes to thinking about and practicing tolerance, dialogue, and democratic coexistence. It puts forward values that underlie the holistic development of a person. d. Religious education is a cultural education (insegnamento culturale). e. It does not restrict the freedom of religion and conscience of students who can sign on and sign off from the religious education lessons, and can practice or not practice their faith. In the Communications of the Presidium of the Italian Bishops’ Conference (Conferenza Episcopale Italiana – CEI) of 2012 and 2013 promoting participation in religious education, an emphasis was placed on the education of persons who are searching for meaning. The Additional Protocol, which is an integral part of the Concordat of 1984, specified the areas controlled by specific agreements between the Italian Bishops’ Conference and the Italian state, such as the curriculum for religious education, modalities of the implementation of religious education, criteria for the selection of textbooks and teaching materials and conditions for entering the profession of a teacher of Catholic religious education. With regard to the content of Catholic religious education, the educational policies that have been adopted by the Ministry of Education in cooperation with the Italian Bishops’ Conference and periodically adjusted to the changing school regulations are applied to all schools. Since the school year 2012–2013, new curricula have been available to all schools of any type and at any stage. They replace the existing curricula and define the technical guidelines for learning in kindergartens and at the primary, middle and high schools in Italy. They form a binding framework for the creation of a curriculum for the Catholic religious education. The guidelines are in line with European and international developments and adjusted to competence-based learning. Children are placed at the centre of all educational activities while specific features of their age and relations with other people and with the world around them are taken into consideration. The principles of individualization and personalization of the learning process play an important role there. The guidelines provide schools with an orientation framework, which, on the one hand, allows the schools to reach their educational goals and, on the other hand, leaves sufficient space for schools to design their educational processes in a way most suitable for their needs. This is to ensure that all children and young people acquire, based on the principle of equal opportunities, the basic skills that they need to become successful and responsible individuals in an increasingly complex world and to fully participate in the social, cultural and religious life.

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Practice / reality of RE in different schools

In Italy there is only Catholic religious education, which, according to the Concordat, constitutes a part of the educational mission of school and is a standard subject in all public schools of every type and level, except universities. It is managed jointly by the state departments of education in regions and provinces and by the diocesan offices responsible for Catholic religious education, and it is conducted in accordance with the principles of the Catholic Church. It addresses all students, irrespective of their religious and philosophical beliefs, and opens learning opportunities and spaces for sharing experience to those who do not have any pronounced religious background or feel distant or in opposition to any form of religion. The decision about participation in the Catholic religious education is made by parents or guardians in the lower grades (Grades 1 to 8), and in high school (Grades 9 to 13) students themselves decide upon their enrolment at the beginning of each school year. If the decision is not changed at the beginning of a new school year, it is considered valid for the entire school year. A waiver in the course of the school year is possible only in serious cases, for example in the case of joining another religious community (Legge 18-6-1986, n. 281). In kindergarten and in primary school, religious education is often taught by an educational expert or a class teacher who has a corresponding additional qualification. In secondary schools, religion is taught by a specialized teacher who teaches only the subject of religious education. The teaching commitment of 18 hours per week means that a religious education teacher teaches up to 18 classes with up to 450 students. Since religious education in Italy has the status of an elective subject, it plays a special role within the school curriculum. For example, the evaluation of learning achievements in this subject does not take the form of numerical marks, as in all other subjects, but is presented in the form of a separate written message to the parents attached to the students’ evaluation sheets and describing the student’s interest in the subject and his or her learning success. In spite of this, religious education teachers are full members in the collegial bodies of the school with all corresponding rights and obligations. At the meetings of class councils, they contribute to the evaluation of learning achievements of those students who attend religious education lessons. Nevertheless, the subject of religious education is at a structural disadvantage when it comes to testing and evaluation. Therefore, to make religious education an important subject at school, a balance should be kept between relational and factual levels of education and religious education teachers should be well integrated in their school community and school life.

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Despite its optional status, 87.8 % of all students in Italy (school year 2014–2015) attend Catholic religious education, with a clear north-south divide across the country : the percentage of participants in the south is 97.7 %, in central parts of Italy – 87.8 % and in the northern regions – far below the national average (82.2 %). Participation in religious education also decreases with increasing levels of education. The nationwide Participation level is at 91.6 % in primary schools, and it decreases to 81.6 % in secondary schools. In northern Italy, the number of high school students willing to withdraw from religious education rises to a remarkably high level – 26.9 % (Annuario 2015)

20 17,5 15 12,5 10 7,5 5 2,5 0

Northern Italy Central Italy

2014/15

2013/14

2011/12

Southern Italy 2009/10

2007/08

2005/06

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Italy

Figure 1: Rate of withdrawals from religious education by region. Source: Insegnamento della Religione Cattolica nelle scuole statali Italiane, in: G. Battistella Antonio Olivieri Dario, Chilese Monica (ed.), Annuario IRC 2015 Vicenza 2015 9.

Teachers of religious education must be commissioned by the Church. In many dioceses, the ecclesiastical commission is awarded as a result of a written selection procedure. Some dioceses also require a psychological evaluation of candidates. The allocation of teachers at one or more schools is carried out by the Church’s Department of Education. To receive a permanent contract for teaching religious education, the candidate must have a teaching certificate. Selection of candidates takes place through a public competition. Requirements for participation in the competition include the possession of a valid teaching certificate and ecclesiastical commission by the diocesan ordinary. Unlike teachers of other subjects, which are assigned to specific school districts, religious education teachers can be annually reassigned to a school by the diocesan Department of Catholic Religious Education. The head of a school is responsible for direct supervision of religious education. The content of religious education is supervised by the persons assigned by the Church.

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Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas, like ethics, philosophy, etc.

The law of March 25, 1985, No. 121 on the ratification and implementation of the February 18, 1984 Agreement between the Republic of Italy and the Holy See grants the students or their parents the right to decide whether they participate in Catholic religious education or not. Because of religious education is not a compulsory subject in Italy, there are no a mandatory replacement subject for those students who decided not attend religious lessons. The problem concerning activities for those students who do not participate in religious education classes arises. Therefore, students who do not participate in religious education are to declare in writing, by filling out a special school form, which activities they intend to pursue during the time of these classes. They have the possibility to choose from the following offers: a. Attend an alternative class b. Independent activities under supervision of a teacher c. Independent activities without supervision of a teacher (only for high school students) d. Leaving the school building during the religious education classes SCHOOL YEAR 2014/15 51,4 45,5

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Italy

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Middle school

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High school

Attend an alternative class Independet ac!vi!es under supervision Independent ac!vi!es without supervision Leaving the school building

Figure 2: Alternative to religious education activities according to grade and regions; Source: Insegnamento della Religione Cattolica nelle scuole statali italiane, in: Battistella G. Antonio, Olivieri Dario, Chilese Monica (Hg.), Annuario IRC 2015, Vicenza 2015, 13.

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Experience has shown that, at the primary school level, many parents chose the alternative class, while, at the level of secondary education, the decision to leave the school building predominates. According to the recent surveys conducted in the school year 2014–2015, 37.7 % of students of lower secondary education, who do not attend religious education, decide to attend an alternative class, and 20.2 % – to leave the school building, whereas at the upper secondary level only 8.6 % of students decide to take an alternative class and 55 % to leave the school building (Annuario 2015). Which alternative class can be offered is determined by the teaching staff of the school, while there are also guidelines on this issue from the Ministry of Education. The thematic focus of the alternative classes in primary and secondary school is placed in the area of value-based education and civic competence (citizenship education). In the upper level, the classes on social and political philosophy are added. It is also possible to create multi-class learning groups. The content of alternative classes shows interesting developments. For instance, the students of a technical institute in Vimercati in Milan had a class on the history of eroticism from the 18th century to the present and in another lyceum they were offered a class on the history of magic.

8

Dealing with religious diversity

8.1

Introduction

The “monopoly” of Catholic religious education in Italy does not offer opportunities and possibilities for ecumenical and interreligious cooperation within the school. In spite of this, dealing with students of other denominations and religions constitutes a major challenge for the school as such and for the teachers of religious education in particular. Participation of students of other faiths in Catholic religious education is frequently experienced by teachers and classmates as enrichment, because religious issues become more relevant and concrete.

8.2

Dealing with minorities

The autonomous province of Bolzano has a special legal status in Italy. This is manifested through (1) the language orientation of schools: In South Tyrol, there are schools where German is the language of instruction in addition to schools in which teaching is conducted in Italian. In the Ladin valleys, the school subjects

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are taught in equal parts in German and Italian; in religion classes all three national languages must be considered. This applies to (2) religious education: The Additional Protocol to the Concordat revision clearly states that this agreement does not apply to the border regions, which are governed by special provisions. The latter is applied to South Tyrol, where religious education is regulated by the Decree of the President of the Republic of 10. 02. 1983, No.89, Articles 35–37.The Article 35 states: “In the province of Bolzano, religious education, following the time-honoured tradition, is conducted in accordance with the province’s school education plan both in primary and secondary schools by suitable teachers, priests or laypeople recognized as suitable by the diocesan Bishop and appointed by the competent education authority in consultation with the diocesan Bishop. In accordance with the preceding paragraph, the classes are to be conducted – by taking into account the principle of freedom of conscience according to which students, not willing to take religious education, declare their withdrawal from this subject – during the number of hours, as prescribed by the school rules, and, in any case, not less than one hour a week; in compulsory education, this can be for up to two hours weekly.” Furthermore, it is specified in the Article 37 that religious education is to be evaluated by inspectors specially assigned for this task. The appointment is to be made in consultation with the diocesan ordinary. This means that religious education in South Tyrol is offered to all students, unless they withdraw from the religion classes. With regard to religious education in kindergartens, in South Tyrol, it is carried out, in contrast to the rest of the country, not by teachers of religious education, but by the kindergarten’s personnel as part of the educational goals. Religious education in primary schools, unlike in the rest of the country, is carried out not by class teachers with an additional theological training, but by teachers of religious education. With the Legislative Decree of July 24, 1996, No. 434, some competences that were previously reserved for the state, were transferred to the region of South Tyrol, including those related to the school organization. This allows the Autonomous Province of Bolzano to independently define the scheme for staff appointment for teaching Catholic religious education. Thus, already for many years, in contrast to the rest of the country, it is required in South Tyrol that all religious education teachers have to provide evidence of five-year-long pedagogic studies. In addition to that, there are differences concerning the legal situation of religious education teachers. The law no. 12 of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano, accepted on December 14, 1998, awarded to religious education teachers the same rights and obligations as to teachers of other subjects. In Italy this took place only in 2003. Furthermore, in South Tyrol, there are special curricula that have been developed by the local school authorities in consultation with the diocesan ordinary. Also, with regard to textbooks and

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teaching materials, the agreement of the diocesan ordinary is sufficient. However, these books and materials may be used only in South Tyrol. Furthermore, in South Tyrol, rules that apply to the assessment of learning achievements of students in elementary, middle, upper and vocational schools in the subject Catholic religion are the same that also apply to the assessment of students in other subjects. The periodic assessments and the annual reviews of the learning processes and achievements in the subject of religious education take place in the form of number marks, according to a numerical scale of 10. However, a positive evaluation is not required for transferring to the next grade and for admission to the final examination in the middle and high schools as well as vocational and technical schools both, in the country and in South Tyrol. On October 2, 2015, the Governor Arno Kompatscher and the diocesan Bishop Ivo Muser signed the agreement (Intesa) between the Autonomous Province of Bolzano and the Diocese of Bolzano-Bressanone on religious education in kindergartens and Catholic religious education in public schools of every kind and at every level and in vocational and technical schools in the country. This was a long expected event, the history of which goes back to 1994. The agreement regulates all essential aspects of religious education in kindergartens and of Catholic religious education in public schools and vocational and technical schools in the country. For the first time, there is an agreement that creates a sound basis for a partnership between the Autonomous Province of Bolzano and the Diocese of Bolzano-Bressanone in the matters of religious education / religious education.

8.3

Cross

The rule that a cross should be hung in all classrooms represents a conflict area between home (parents) and school. This rule goes back to a Royal decree of 1924, after which a crucifix had to be placed in all public buildings. Thus, for example, in 2009 an Italian citizen sued the Italian government before the European Court on Human Rights. The Court’s decision was initially in favour of the Italian citizen, but, in the last instance, it decided otherwise, namely that crucifixes may hang in Italian schools and do not have to be removed because of non-Christian students or their parents.

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Religion in school outside of RE

The implementation of and participation in liturgical celebrations and festivals are not regulated in Italy by any specific legal provisions. Therefore, the situation can be assessed in the light of the principles of the Constitution and on the basis of a number of specific laws and court decisions. The Ministry’s circular of 13. 02. 1992 clearly provides for a possibility for students to participate in liturgical celebrations and ceremonies during school time. But decisions regarding these activities are to be taken by the competent education institutions. In any case, the participation of students and teachers in religious activities is to be optional. Students, who do not attend religious ceremonies, are however obliged to spend time in the school, because this time is considered school time. School supervision is to be provided to these students, and it has to be ensured by the school management. The following points are worth noting with regard to the planning and implementation of liturgical celebrations and ceremonies that students are invited to attend in the context of school8 : a. Liturgical celebrations and ceremonies are considered school events, and certain teaching time is allocated for participation in these events. Consequentially, a number of legal consequences are associated with the implementation of and participation in these events (such as the duty of supervision, insurance, sphere of competences, and others). b. Liturgical celebrations and ceremonies in the form of school events (such as church services for students at the beginning and end of the school year, Christmas and Easter holidays, celebrations devoted to patron saints, schoolfree days, pilgrimages, and other events) can be planned and carried out as long they properly correspond to the pedagogical and didactic planning of the school and are approved by the relevant school committees (teaching staff, school board). c. Liturgical celebrations and ceremonies of the parish are to be planned and designed as not to overlap with teaching time (for example, church services for students). d. While holding a school prayer, the freedom of conscience of students is to be strictly respected and the religious feelings of students of different faiths are to be taken into consideration. Participation in school prayer is optional to students. e. Liturgical celebrations and ceremonies outside school hours (for example, morning meditation before class) can be carried out in compliance with the Policy governing the use of school buildings, facilities and equipment. 8 http://www.bologna.chiesacattolica.it/irc/insegnamento/irc/atti_culto_scuola.php.

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f. For insurance reasons, however, it is advisable to authorize religious events by the relevant school committees (teaching staff, school council). g. Liturgical celebrations and ceremonies taking place outside school buildings and outside of school hours can be carried out at any time. The council may decide to inform students about the time and location of these events. h. Visits of a parish priest to a religious education lesson can take place at any time in compliance with the established school procedures regulating visits of external experts. i. The most important Catholic celebrations are also public holidays and, therefore, they take place during the school-free days. Exemption from school on religious grounds for students of other recognized religious communities and churches is specially regulated, so that the students could properly celebrate these holidays being free from schoolwork.

10

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, and priorities issues

One of the most important aspects of the revision of Concordat in 1984 was the provision stating that teachers of religious education must have received a theological education. Up to that point the assignment of the Church commission (Missio) was the only proof of professional competence for teaching religious education, which was requested by the school board. As a result of the Decree of the President of the Republic of December 16, 1985, No. 751, for the first time, a proof of theological studies, in addition to Church assignment, was requested as a prerequisite for teaching religious education. On June 28, 2012, the Minister of Education, Francesco Profumo, and the Chairman of the Italian Bishops’ Conference, Cardinal Angelo Bagnasco, signed an agreement in which the admission requirements for teaching the subject of Catholic religious education were determined in adjustments to the requirements applied to all other teachers. The new definition of these requirements was connected with the reform of the Higher Institute for Theological Education (ISSR) by the Congregation for Education on 28. 06. 2008, which adjusted the system of education to the Bologna requirements (3 + 2). The first three years are to be devoted to the basic theological training and the following two years – to the development of pedagogical and didactical competencies. Thus, a five-year religious-pedagogical study for religious education teachers was introduced in Italy for the first time. A transitional provision stipulated that both, the certificates required by the agreement of 1985 and the certificates required by the new agreement of 2012, will be valid until August 31, 2017.

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Correspondingly, teachers who teach at different school levels (from kindergarten to high school) are required to be specialized exclusively in the field of Catholic religious education and complete a five-year study (at the Higher National Institutes of Theological Education). However, class teachers, who already have a degree of Masters in Education and are willing to teach religion in primary school, have to complete additional two-year training for professional qualification as a teacher of religious education. The Church is no longer authorized to commission persons, who do not meet the aforementioned requirements. Only in the absence of qualified personnel may the Missio also be awarded to persons who do not have a valid academic title. However, service provided without a corresponding degree is neither financially compensated, nor considered part of a professional career. Another important issue that should be mentioned in this regard concerns the state recognition of theological degrees in Italy. As part of the unification of Italy and the emerging anti-clericalism in the second half of the 19th century, all theological faculties, which until then represented independent fields of study at the state universities, were expelled from state universities. Since then, only ecclesiastical universities and colleges in Italy award academic degrees in ecclesiastical disciplines. The Concordat’s revision of 1984 brought some changes in this issue. As a result of this agreement, the Baccalaureate, which is awarded by the faculties approved by the Holy See, is recognized as a university degree and as a licentiate as Diploma di laurea. Theological certificates, except for the Doctorate, are recognized only as university diplomas, but not as academic degrees. In Italy, there are numerous papal and ecclesiastical colleges and universities. Also, in 155 dioceses of Italy, there are Higher Institutes for Theological Education (ISSR) that award various educational titles. This may be one of the reasons, why theological studies are still not recognized by the state as proper university degrees. The unification of various ecclesiastical titles awarded by individual universities is necessary. Training of religious education teachers usually takes place at the diocesan Departments of Catholic Religious Education. The focus of this training is usually placed on the professional field, but didactic issues are also addressed more and more often. The Department of Religious Education at the Italian Bishops’ Conference annually holds a several-days-long Congress devoted to current issues of religious education with the participation of persons responsible for religious education in the dioceses. In addition, seminars and workshops are offered and various books and teaching materials are published by various publishers after their approval by the Bishops’ Conference.

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Empirical Research concerning RE

Only little empirical research has been done recently on religious education: Malizia, Guglielmo e Zelindo Trenti. Ed. 1991. Una disciplina in cammino. Rapporto sull’insegnamento della religione cattolica nell’Italia degli anni ’90. Torino: SEI. Malizia, Guglielmo e Zelindo Trenti. Ed. 1996. Una disciplina al bivio. Ricerca sull’insegnamento della religione cattolica negli anni ’90. Torino: SEI. Malizia Guglielmo, Zelindo Trenti e Sergio Cicatelli. Ed. 2005. Una disciplina in evoluzione. Terza indagine nazionale sull’insegnante di Religione Cattolica nella Scuola della riforma. Leumann (TO): Elledici. Cicatelli Sergio, Malizia Guglielmo, Ed., 2017. Una disciplina alla prova. Quarta indagine nazionale sull’insegnamento della religione cattolica in Italia a trent’anni dalla revisione del Concordato. Leumann (TO): Elledici.

12

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

12.1

Training / education

In the past, training of religious education teachers was focused mostly on theological qualification of students, so religious-pedagogical issues received little attention. The new agreement of June 28, 2012 evaluates the didactic area as necessary for the professional development of teachers. Nevertheless, in practice, this new emphasis has not been implemented to a sufficient extent. The Philosophical-Theological Academy Brixen is an exception, which aligns its curriculum to the Study of Religious Education, which is well-known in Austria.

12.2

Alternative subjects

The existing legal provisions still insufficiently consider the fact that, in recent decades, Italy has developed into a multi-religious and multicultural society. The current policy regarding students who do not attend confessional religious education is therefore unsatisfactory. Since the religious-ethical dimension is an important key to learning about the world, there must be an education policy aimed at the development of meaningful alternative educational options available to students who do not participate in religious education. This applies especially to students of secondary education, where 80 % of students not attending religious education, either leave the school building or choose activities that are not supervised by the school. This means that currently there is no real alternative provided for students who do not attend religious education classes.

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Dealing with religious and ideological plurality

Another challenge is related to the fact that a considerable number of students come from an environment in which a critical examination of various theological disciplines is less demanded than the safeguarding of certainty in a world that is becoming increasingly uncertain. Questioning of theological positions and confrontation with opposing views are perceived as an imposition or are rejected as attempts to undermine one’s faith. In order to deal with believers and with persons who are searching or doubting faith and to adequately respond to those who reject religious beliefs, a high tolerance and capacity to conduct dialogue are required. How to develop new opportunities and approaches is one of the questions that has to be asked in the field of religious education. Similarly, the development of interreligious and religious-pedagogical competences of (future) teachers for building a successful co-existence of different religions is increasingly important.

13

Further information

Journals Monthly appearing journal: “L’ora di religione” (Strumento di lavoro per l’insegnamento della Religione Cattolica nella Scuola dell’Infanzia e Primaria). Bimonthly appearing journal: “Insegnare religione” (Strumento di lavoro per l’insegnamento della Religione Cattolica nella Secondaria di primo e secondo grado). http://rivistadipedagogiareligiosa.it/?cat=84.

The following websites are worth to be noted http://www.bologna.chiesacattolica.it/irc/insegnamento/irc/. http://www.chiesacattolica.it/irc/siti_di_uffici_e_servizi/servizio_nazionale_per_l_inseg namento_della_religione_cattolica/00000236_Servizio_Nazionale_per_l_insegnamen to_della_religione_cattolica.html. http://www.chiesacattolica.it/irc/siti_di_uffici_e_servizi/servizio_nazionale_per_l_in segnamento_della_religione_cattolica/00017565_Annuario_IRC_2013.html. http://www.chiesacattolica.it/cci_new/documenti_cei/2012-11/13-1047/Nota_pastorale_ IRC_1991.pdf. http://www.chiesacattolica.it/irc/siti_di_uffici_e_servizi/servizio_nazionale_per_l_in segnamento_della_religione_cattolica/00003983_Messaggi_della_Presidenza_Cei_ per_l_Irc.html.

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http://www.chiesadimilano.it/polopoly_fs/1.42631.1352466977!/menu/standard/file/Li bri%20Testo%20con%20Nulla%20Osta%20C-EI.pdf. http://www.demos.it/2010/pdf/149320101109famiglia.pdf. http://www.educat.it/documenti/download/Il%20Rinnovamento%20della%20Catechesi_ sito.pdf. http://www.governo.it/Presidenza/USRI/confessioni/intese_indice.html. http://www.istruzione.it/. http://www.istruzione.it/allegati/avvio_anno_scolastico2013_2014_10.pdf. http://www.romaebraica.it/. http://www.snadir.it/. http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istituto_superiore_di_scienze_religiose#Elenco_degli_Istitu ti_in_Italia.

Curriculum / framework directives Italy Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 11 febbraio 2010 – Approvazione di traguardi per lo sviluppo delle competenze e gli obiettivi di apprendimento dell’IRC per la scuola dell’infanzia e per il primo ciclo di istruzione. Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 20 agosto 2012, n.176 – Esecuzione dell’intesa sulle indicazioni didattiche per l’insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole del secondo ciclo di istruzione e nei percorsi di istruzione e formazione professionale fermata il 28 giugno 2012 tra il Ministro dell’istruzione, dell’universit/ e della ricerca e il Presidente della Conferenza episcopale italiana.

South Tirol Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 3. November 2008, Nr. 3990 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die deutschsprachigen Kindergärten. Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 19. Jänner 2009, Nr. 81 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die Festlegung der Curricula für die Grundschule und die Mittelschule an den autonomen deutschsprachigen Schulen in Südtirol. Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 13. Dezember 2010, Nr. 20140 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die Festlegung der Curricula in den deutschsprachigen Gymnasien und Fachoberschulen in Südtirol. Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 3. November 2008, Nr. 3990 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die deutschsprachigen Kindergärten. Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 19. Jänner 2009, Nr. 81 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die Festlegung der Curricula für die Grundschule und die Mittelschule an den autonomen deutschsprachigen Schulen in Südtirol. Beschluss der Landesregierung vom 13. Dezember 2010, Nr. 20140 – Rahmenrichtlinien des Landes für die Festlegung der Curricula in den deutschsprachigen Gymnasien und Fachoberschulen in Südtirol.

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Documenti della Chiesa italiana Conferenza Episcopale Italiana, La scuola cattolica, oggi, in Italia, 25 agosto 1983. Conferenza Episcopale Italiana, Insegnare religione cattolica oggi, 19 maggio 1991. Consiglio Nazionale della Scuola Cattolica, Scuola cattolica e Irc. Sussidio pastorale, 1 luglio 2004. Consiglio Nazionale della Scuola Cattolica, La corresponsabilit/ educativa dei genitori nella scuola cattolica. Orientamenti operativi, 28 febbraio 2007. Consiglio Nazionale della Scuola Cattolica, Essere insegnanti di scuola cattolica. Orientamenti operativi, 28 gennaio 2008.

Legal basis Legge 27 maggio 1929, n. 810 – Concordato dell’11 febbraio 1929 tra l’Italia e la Santa Sede. Legge 25 marzo 1985, n. 121 – Accordi di revisione del Concordato Lateranense fra Italia e Santa Sede dell’11-2-1929. Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 16 dicembre 1985, n. 751/Dpr 23 giugno 1990, n. 202 – Intesa tra il Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione e la Conferenza Episcopale Italiana circa l’insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole pubbliche italiane (testo integrato dalla revisione dell’Intesa medesima). ALLEGATO A – Elenco delle discipline ecclesiastiche in relazione alle quali il possesso di un titolo accademico costituisce qualificazione ai sensi del punto 4.3, lettera a), del Dpr 16 dicembre 1985, n. 751. Decreto ministeriale 15 luglio 1987 – Esecuzione dell’Intesa tra l’autorit/ scolastica italiana e la Conferenza episcopale italiana. Titoli di qualificazione professionale per l’lrc: elenco delle discipline ecclesiastiche e degli istituti abilitati al rilascio dei titoli. Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 20 Agosto 2012 n. 175 – Esecuzione dell’intesa tra il Ministro dell’istruzione, dell’universit/ e della ricerca e il Presidente della Conferenza episcopale italiana per l’insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole pubbliche, firmata il 28 giugno 2012.

Literature Castegnaro, Alessandro, Ed. 2009. Apprendere la religione: l’alfabetizzazione religiosa degli studenti che si avvalgono dell’insegnamento della religione cattolica. Bologna: Dehoniane. Cicatelli, Sergio. Ed. 2015. Prontuario giuridico IRC. Raccolta commentata delle norme che regolano l’insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole di ogni ordine e grado. Brescia: Queriniana. Conferenza Episcopale Italiana. Ed. 2008. L’insegnamento della religione risorsa per l’Europa: Atti della ricerca del Consiglio delle Conferenze Episcopali d’Europa. Leumann (TO): Elledici.

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Conferenza Episcopale Italiana. 2010. “Io non mi vergogno del Vangelo” (Rm 1,16). IRC per una cultura al servizio dell’uomo. Meeting Idr 2009. Bologna: EDB. Damiano, Elio e Ruggero Morandi. Ed. 2000. Cultura Religione Scuola: l’insegnamento della religione nella trasformazione culturale e nell’innovazione scolastica, in prospettiva europea. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Genre, Ermanno e Flavio Pajer. 2005. L’ Unione Europea e la sfida delle religioni. Verso una nuova presenza della religione nella scuola. Torino: Claudiana. Genre Ermanno. 2007. Con quale autorit/? Ripensare la catechesi nella postmodernit# (Piccola biblioteca teologica). Torino: Claudiana. Introvigne, Massimo e PierLuigi Zoccatelli, ed. 2013. Enciclopedia delle religioni in Italia Leumann (TO): Elledici. Manganotti, Renato e Nicola Incampo. 2013. Insegnante di religione. Guida pratica. Brescia: La Scuola. Melloni, Alberto, Ed. 2014. Rapporto sull’analfabetismo religioso in Italia. Bologna: Il Mulino. Pajer, Flavio. 2006. Der Beitrag des Religionsunterrichts zum Aufbau Europas – ein katholischer Standpunkt. In Europa – Bildung – Religion. Demokratische Bildungsverantwortung und die Religionen, ed. Peter Schreiner, Volker Elsenbast und Friedrich Schweitzer, Münster : Waxmann. Rezzaghi, Roberto. 2012. Manuale di Didattica della religione. Brescia: La Scuola. Sarnataro, Ciro e Filippo Toriello. Ed. 2002. Un mondo nuovo – diversi ma uguali. Dialoghi “oltre il chiostro” 9. Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. Sarnataro, Ciro e Domenico Esposito. Ed. 2004. L’insegnante di religione nella scuola materna, elementare e secondaria: ordinamenti scolastici; orientamenti didatticopedagogici; elementi essenziali di legislazione scolastica; manuale completo per la preparazione. Napoli: Simone. Servizio nazionale per l’insegnamento della religione cattolica. 2006. Insegnamento della religione cattolica: Il nuovo profilo. Brescia. Editrice La Scuola. Trenti, Zelindo, Ed. 2004. Manuale dell’insegnante di religione. Competenza e professionalit#. Leumann (TO): Elledici. Trenti, Zelindo e Corrado Pastore, ed. 2013. Insegnamento della religione: competenza e professionalit/. Prontuario dell’insegnante di religione. Leumann (TO): Elledici. Zuccari, Giuseppina. 2003. L’insegnamento della religione cattolica. Aspetti psicopedagogici e strategie metodologico-didattiche. Manuale per la formazione degli IdR. Leumann (TO): Elledici.

References Battistella, G. Antonio, Dario Olivieri e Monica Chilese. 2013. Insegnamento della religione cattolica nelle scuole statali italiane. Bordignon, B. 2012. Il progetto personale di apprendimento, Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino. Castegnaro, Alessandro et al. 2010. C’H campo? Giovani, spiritualit/, religione. Venezia: Marcianum Press.

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Castegnaro, Alessandro 2012. Una prospettiva individuale. Il Regno, n. 4 (1117): 127–136. Castegnaro, Alessandro con Giovanni Dal Piaz ed Enzo Biemmi. 2013. Fuori dal recinto. Giovani, fede, chiesa: uno sguardo diverso. Milano: Ancora. Cesareo, Vincenzo et al. 1995. La religiosit/ in Italia. Milano: Mondadori. Centro Studi per la Scuola Cattolica. 2005. Educazione religiosa. Scuola Cattolica in Italia. Settimo Rapporto. Brescia: La scuola. Cicatelli, Sergio. 2015.Guida all’insegnamento della religione cattolica. Secondo le nuove Indicazioni. Brescia: La Scuola. Cicatelli, Sergio e Malizia, Gulielmo. Ed. 2012. Monitoraggio della qualit/ della scuola cattolica. Anno scolastico 2010-11. Roma: Istituto salesiano Pio XI. Cipriani, Roberto. 1988. La religione diffusa: teoria e prassi. Roma: Borla. Eurispes, 2006. Rapporto Italia 2006. http://eurispes.eu/content/rapporto-italia-2006. Garelli, Franco, Gustavo Guizzardi ed Enzo Pace, ed. 2003. Un singolare pluralismo. Bologna: Il Mulino. Garelli, Franco, 2011. Religione all’italiana. L’anima del paese messa a nudo. Bologna: Il Mulino. INDIRE. 2016. La lotta all’abbandono precoce dei percorsi di istruzione e formazione in Europa. Strategie, politiche e misure. http://www.indire.it/lucabas/lkmw_img/eurydic e/Q_Eurydice_31.pdf. Lanzetti, Clemente. 2011. La religiosit/ in Italia: ascesa o declino? In Uscire dalle crisi. I valori degli italiani alla prova, ed. Giancarlo Rovati: 181–229. Milano: Vita e Pensiero. Manganotti, Renato e Incampo Nicola. 2014. Insegnante di religione. Guida pratica. Brescia: La Scuola. Marzano, Marco. 2012. Quel che resta dei cattolici. Milano: Feltrinelli. Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’ Universit# e della Ricerca. 2013. Sedi, alunni, classi e dotazioni organiche del personale docente della scuola statale. A.S. 2013–14, Roma. MIUR. 2013. Focus “La dispersione scolastica”. http://www.minori.it/sites/default/files/ dati_miur_dispersione_scolastica.pdf. Neri, Marcello. 2012. Solange der Vorrat reicht. Wo steht der italienische Katholizismus, In Herder Korrespondenz, 66. Herder: 150–153. Naso, Paolo e Brunetto Salvarani, ed. 2009. Il muro di vetro. Bologna: EMI. Naso, Paolo, e Brunetto Salvarani, ed. 2012. Un cantiere senza progetto. Bologna: EMI. Pace, Enzo, ed. 2013. Le religioni nell’Italia che cambia. Roma: Carocci. Porcarelli, Andrea. 2014. La religione e la sfida delle competenze, SEI. Rezzaghi, Roberto. 2014. Manuale di didattica della religione. Brescia: La Scuola.

Adrian-Mario Gellel

Religious Education at Schools in Malta

Introduction Approaching issues related to Religious Education (RE) has become particularly tricky. The terrain upon which it rests may be classified as a region of high seismic risks in the world of education, where the tectonic plates of the individual, society, politics, religion and of academia often collide. Change is the order of the day and a continuous assessment of the area and of the underlying forces that bring about change is necessary in order to better meet the requirements of individuals and their communities. This continuous change and reassessment could be remarkably stressful for both scholars and practitioners who might feel the rug being continuously pulled out from under their feet or who have to keep in touch with new trends in a myriad of subjects ranging from educational theories, to sociology, to psychology. Yet it offers the possibility of approaching knowledge, and life, through a different lens. If Religious Educators adopt the latter perspective, they would need to be constantly aware of change, hopeful that their work with students may make a difference. In the current global scenario, no context is free from the rapid changes that are influencing individuals and community life. Even though the most recent data indicate that 89.4 % of the Maltese claim that religion is either very important (65.4 %) or quite important (24 %) in their lives and 70.6 % assert that God is very important in their lives, (European Values Survey Foundation/ Tilburg University 2010), RE in Malta is not outside the seismic region. In order to understand why and how this is occurring, one needs to have a clearer picture of the contextual scenario.

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Socio-religious background

With a population of 429,344 persons (National Statistics Office 2016), the Maltese Islands lie at the extreme south of the European Union and at the centre of the Mediterranean basin. Its geographic location, as well as its small size (316 km2), have had considerable influence in the shaping of its identity, culture and society. Arab, Jewish, Greek, Italian, French and English family names present on the island, just to mention just a few, are witness to the many peoples who have visited and settled on these islands. While it is true that different cultures have left their imprint, they have to a certain extent fused together to form a distinctive Mediterranean Catholic society. Thus, paradoxically, until recently, it could be stated that the different peoples and cultures choosing Malta as their abode have practically merged together to form a somewhat homogeneous society. The very close-knitted community and, to some extent, the policies adopted by the different foreign rulers of these islands over these past four hundred years have reinforced a strong Catholic culture and identity. It should be noted however, that due to a change in policies, for the past five years this pattern of a cohering society seems to be changing. Up until very recently, there were various internal and external forces that were at work to ascertain general homogeneity. However, that which up until a few years ago was considered to be a homogeneous society now appears to be heading fast towards becoming plural and fragmented. First and foremost, in a nine year span the percentage of non-Maltese citizens living on the islands has soared from 3.3 % in 2007 to 7.1 % in 2016. It should be noted that of the latter percentage almost half of non-Maltese citizens (49.5 %) are non-EU citizens (Eurostat 2017). Furthermore, the last two national election campaigns, as well as local media, reveal a society composed of different sub-communities, with individuals often being members of more than one group, all demanding recognition and specific rights. There are also indications that the role and place of religion in both private and public space is changing. At face value, there is very little evidence of a secular worldview among the Maltese population. The responses to items related to Church and religion tend to remain positive especially when compared to other European countries. Yet, the main changes in the way the Maltese relate to religion are particularly evident in the perceived relevance of the Church’s teachings and ministry. As table 1 shows, over a twenty-five year period there was a considerable decline in the perceived adequacy of the Church to provide answers to social problems, morality, family life, and even spiritual needs. As from the latest survey, it transpires that the majority of the Maltese feel that the Church is not providing adequate answers to social issues. Given the trends over these past few years, it is reasonable to

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assume that this will also be the fate of the perceived adequacy of the Church to give answers to moral and family life problems. Morality

EVS wave in % Spiritual needs Family life problems

Social Problems

1984

83.5

95.8

89.1

-

1991

85.8

91.2

89.6

77.5

1999

62.2

81.5

71.9

52.5

2008

53.3

69.9

54.9

43.6

Table 1. Agree that, in Malta, the Church provides adequate answers to…

A further insight into the changes in the religious life of the population comes from recent surveys conducted among young people. The results of a survey conducted among 13 to 30 year old youths published by the Government Youth Agency (Ag˙enzija Z˙gh ¯ az˙agh ¯ 2012) show that while 78.3 % claim to be Catholic, 17.8 % of participants state that they do not belong to any religion. The latter figure was confirmed by another research conducted among tertiary education students, 17.4 % of whom also asserted that they do not belong to any religion (10.4 %) or that they are spiritual but not religious (7 %) (Mifsud 2012). The results of the two studies are particularly striking when one takes into consideration two other separate studies conducted in 2008 among 13–16 year olds and 18–30 year olds respectively. In these two surveys it was reported that the percentage of those who declared that they do not pertain to any religion stood at only 1.6 % and 4.4 % respectively (De Bono Curmi 2008; Xuereb 2009). This means that in just four years the percentage of those who stated that they belong no religion rose by 400 %. A further investigation about who young people trust is revealing. While on a scale of 1–10 (10 being the most trusted), Church Schools scored 9 and the Church scored 7, the Archbishop’s Curia, just like the institution of Parliament, scored 5 (Ag˙enzija Z˙gh ¯ az˙agh ¯ 2012). The result seems to point to a general illfeeling towards institutions, including the institutional aspect of the Church but not with the Church in general. Indeed, in the same survey, priests rank among the second most trusted category of professionals. The results seem to indicate that with regard to religion, personal relationships with active members of the Catholic community are still regarded highly. The Ag˙enzija Z˙gh ¯ az˙agh ¯ survey is particularly significant as it was conducted just a few weeks after the Divorce referendum, which eventually introduced Divorce Legislation, in 2011. The Divorce issue was particularly lived as a clash between religious and secular ideologies. As Fenech (2012) and Pace (2012) noted, the debates prior to the referendum, and especially the result, marked a turning point in the way society and the Church relate to each other. As Fenech

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(2012) noted, the Divorce referendum served as a testing ground to assess the social and political strength of the Church. The Divorce issue, which was won with a comfortable margin of 6.4 %, gave a clear signal to politicians and secularists that the populations’ value system is shifting and that the Catholic Church does not have the last word on social and moral issues. This surely encouraged the newly elected Labour government to present legislation that would have been considered unthinkable just a few years previously. In fact, in the first six months of the new legislature, it presented a Bill to amend the Civil Code Act (Malta, House of Representatives 2013a) in order to recognise the new gender of persons who undergo a sex change and a Bill “to regulate Civil Unions and to provide for matters connected therewith or ancillary thereto” including the possibility of same-sex partners to adopt children (Malta, House of Representatives 2013b). Likewise it is symbolic that after being elected for the second time in 2017, the reelected prime minister stated that the first law to be approved by parliament to legislate same-sex marriages (Borg 2017). The Catholic Church reacted to this changing context by insisting on the need for internal change. In a pastoral letter, the Maltese bishops wrote on the need to rethink teachings, pastoral projects, attitudes and religious traditions (Maltese Catholic Bishops’ Conference 2011). They called for deeper discernment, claiming that the seeds of the Second Vatican Council were not fully received by the local Church and that consequently the Church needs to renew itself. Yet, six years after this strongly worded pastoral letter, there are barely any signs of how it is being put into practice.

2

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Religious Education is the only scholastic discipline that is guaranteed and regulated by the Constitution of the Republic of Malta (Malta, House of the Representatives 1964), by the Education Act (Malta, House of the Representatives 1988) and as well as by an international Agreement (Republic of Malta and Holy See 1989).

2.1

The Maltese Constitution

The current Constitution specifies: “The religion of Malta is the Roman Catholic Apostolic Religion.” (Malta, House of the Representatives 1964 art 2 (1)). Both the constitutionalist Ian Refalo (2012) and the Ecclesiastical Law scholar, Andrea

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Bettetini (2010) agree that this assertion underlines the character of Maltese cultural identity. Refalo (2012) is of the opinion that article 2 is a statement that acknowledges a symbol system that fosters common identity and a sense of cohesion. He equates the teaching of Catholic Religion to the symbols of the flag and the Maltese language. He then specifies that this symbol system of beliefs is counter checked in the same Constitution by other articles guaranteeing freedom of worship and association in order not to create divisiveness. Likewise, Bettini (2010) claims that the confessional character of the Maltese Constitution is to be understood as acknowledging that the vast majority to the Maltese adhere to the Catholic Religion. He corroborates his argument by pointing to Articles 32, 40 and 45 that guarantee equity and non-discrimination among citizens and communities holding different beliefs. Article 2 (2) of the Constitution specifies that the State is to provide in its own schools for the teaching of Catholic Religion during the period of compulsory education. This article is a consequence of the article preceding it, establishing the Catholic religion as the religion of Malta, and may be interpreted as a means of understanding and affirming national culture and identity. Indeed, this seems to be how the agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta justifies the provision of Catholic Religious Education (CRE) in state schools (Republic of Malta and Holy See 1989). However, precisely because the assertion that the Catholic Religion is the religion of the State does not go beyond the element of an assertion of identity, the Maltese Constitution specifies that no person is required to receive instruction in RE (art. 40 (2)). Thus, while the Constitution requires the government to provide CRE in State schools during compulsory schooling, it does not compel children to receive instruction in the subject. The Constitution specifies that parents or legal guardians may object that children who fall under their responsibility receive any form of RE (art. 40 (2)). Likewise, the way the Constitution is worded does not prevent the State from providing other forms of RE including multi-faith or other denominational forms. The Constitution also makes provision for those teaching CRE. In defining discrimination, the basic law specifies that it is not discriminatory to require that Catholic Religious Educators profess the Catholic faith (art. 45 (9)). The Constitution also specifies the obvious when it states that those who wish to teach Religion need to follow courses on Religion (art. 40 (2)). It does this statement in order to clarify that such a requirement does not go against one’s freedom of conscience and beliefs.

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The Education Act

The Education Act reiterates that the Minister responsible for education has the duty to provide CRE in state schools (Malta, House of the Representatives 1988, art. 47 (3)). The same article further specifies that the curriculum of CRE is to be established according to the directions given by the Catholic Bishops of Malta and Gozo. This requirement is included in order to satisfy the agreement between the Holy See and Malta, whereby it is clearly stated that the teaching of Catholic Religion in state schools needs to conform with the programmes and methods approved by the Maltese Bishop’s Conference (Republic of Malta and Holy See 1989, art. 2). Furthermore, by making provision for allowing parents or legal guardians who do not wish their children to follow RE to opt out from the programme of studies (Malta, House of the Representatives 1988, art 47 (5)), the Education Act reiterates the principle of freedom of beliefs already stated in the Constitution. In June 216, the Ministry for Education and Employment published three whitepapers set to reform the country’s legislation on education. While retaining the principle that the State “shall make provision for the education and teaching of the catholic religion in State school”, (Ministry for Education and Employment 2016, art. 30 (1)) the wording of the article seems to indicate that the system to be adopted will no longer be of automatic enrolment in the subject and to request opt-out if one does not wish to receive CRE but for parents indicate their choice. The draft law then moves on to introduce the “provision for the education and teaching of philosophy of life and ethics for those students whose parents have chosen not to instruct their children in the catholic religion” (Ministry for Education and Employment 2016, art. 30 (2)). It seems that the way this draft law is worded does not provide the possibility for parents/legal guardians to withdraw their children from C.R.E or Ethics class. It could be thus argued that if approved by parliament, such provision may go against parental rights as established by Constitution of Malta and by international declarations such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations 1989, art. 29; United Nations 2001) which recognise freedom of conscious as well as the right of parents to choose their child’s education, including an upbringing that is in line with parents’/guardians’ worldviews.

2.3

The Agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta

In 1989, the Holy See and the Republic of Malta recognised the contribution and place of the Catholic faith in the life of the Maltese community. Both parties also acknowledged the value of RE in the holistic formation of the individual. On the

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basis of these two basic principles, the two States signed a short document which comprises seven articles of which five are directly related to CRE, while the last two articles are legal principles that regulate the entry into force and the interpretation of the agreement. Table 2 outlines the nature and content of the first five articles. Article Main principles that the two States agree on 1 – The guarantee of CRE in States schools at all levels except at tertiary level – No one should be compelled to follow CRE – That CRE moves along the objectives of the school 2

– CRE programmes and methods are approved by the Maltese Episcopal Conference that is also responsible to develop or to choose textbooks – CRE teachers need a Certificate of Suitability issued by the Bishop – CRE is to be recognised as a principle scholastic subject

3

– Religious Counsellors are responsible for the religious animation and moral accompaniment of students – Religious Counsellors are appointed by and respond to the Maltese Episcopal Conference

4

– The Education Officer for Religion is a government official approved by the Maltese Episcopal Conference

5

– The agreement is explicated and regulated by the accompanying document Modes of Regulation on Catholic Religious Instruction and Education in State Schools

Table 2. Principles agreed upon by the Holy See and the Republic of Malta (Republic of Malta and Holy See 1989)

The Modes of Regulation on Catholic Religious Instruction and Education in State Schools (hereafter referred to as The Modes) is a long appendix to the Agreement on Catholic Religious Instruction (Republic of Malta and Holy See 1989) which aims to regulate CRE in Maltese state schools. The Modes provide further explications on articles 2 to 4. They specify i. how and on what grounds the Certificate of Suitability is granted to teachers and when it can be revoked, ii. that Catholic Religion lessons in state schools are given at least two and a half hours a week during the six years of primary and at least one and a half hours a week during the five years of secondary education, iii. the role and work of Religious Councillors, and iv. the role and duties of the Education Officer responsible for RE within the State’s Department of Education (currently the Directorate for Quality and Services in Education). While the first three points will be further discussed in other sections of this paper, the last point on the role of the Education Officer for RE merits some

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comment. In Malta, the State employs Education Officers for each scholastic subject. Their main role is to ensure the implementation of educational policies and the National Curriculum Framework, to ensure the quality of teaching, to support teachers of the subject in schools, and to develop educational materials (Ministry of Education Youth and Employment 2007). The Agreement between the State and the Holy See specifies that while the Education Officer for RE is a government employee and has the same rights and duties of the other Education Officers, s/he has to implement the policies and carry out the directives of the Bishops. In this sense the appointed Officer acts as a bridge between the State and the church on matters related to CRE.

2.4

Legal developments

It should be pointed out that the present government has already made it known that it intends to change the Constitution and the Education Act. At the end of January 2014, the Minster for Education initiated a consultation process which led to the publication of white paper (Ministry for Education and Employment 2016) in order to support a national educational strategy that aims at improving the quality and effectiveness of our country’s education, ensuring a fairer, more inclusive and more democratic educational system, increasing the level of student achievement across all levels, and improving the transition from early childhood to primary, secondary, vocational and tertiary education (Ministry for Education and Employment 2014).

It should be noted that during the past four years of the legislature, the Labour Government did not initiate any process to conduct substantial constitutional amendments nor did it pass the new Educational Law. However given that the Labour party has just received it second electoral mandate, it is highly probable that the Education Act will be approved in the next two years and that a Constitutional Convention will be setup. Although reference to the Catholic Religion of Malta may remain, it is not unlikely that references to CRE in the Constitution will be removed. In this context it is particularly interesting to note that during the Labour Party’s General Conference, the youth section suggested that the agreement between the Church and the State on CRE should be revised. In particular, during a workshop entitled “Toward a Secular State”, the youth section advocated for a new agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta. They argued that in this new agreement the requirement of a certificate of suitability by teachers of Religion and the number of Religion lessons should be revised. (Times of Malta 2014).

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Developments in the country’s education policies

Apart from the aforementioned legal documents, Malta’s educational policies are shaped by the National Curriculum Framework. Furthermore, the present changes that are occurring in CRE are also being shaped by a draft inter-diocesan Policy document on RE.

3.1

The National Curriculum Framework

The State has the right to establish the minimum requirements for education in all schools through a National Curriculum Framework which is established by the Minister of Education after consultation with the different sectors involved in the development of the country. This framework should not however limit the ethos or identity of any school, be it State, Catholic or Independent (Malta, House of the Representatives 1988, art. 7 and 47). The current National Curriculum Framework (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012) replaces the National Minimum Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1999) which had been in force for more than a decade. The previous National Minimum Curriculum acknowledged that knowledge of Religion is essential for the moral and spiritual development of a society and for social conviviality and understanding. This strong assertion was placed at the very introduction of the Curriculum document in the section on the core values of society and education. According to Borg (2006) the original draft did not mention RE and proffered a more multicultural orientation to scholastic education. The statement on the centrality of religion and on the inclusion of RE as part of the core curriculum was inserted into the Curriculum text by the then government on the basis that the majority of the Maltese are practising Catholics and there are constitutional and contractual obligations on the government to respect Malta’s Catholic identity. Anyone who wants to know Malta’s identity must also understand that the Catholic faith is an essential component of this identity (National Curriculum revision announced in parliament (1999) as cited in Borg 2006, p. 63).

The process of defining the National Curriculum as described by Borg as well his own paper are symptomatic of what is currently lived as two opposing worldviews: the Catholic and the secular. While there are clear examples of the coexistence of secular and religious worldviews in contemporary western society (Ostwalt 2003), and while there is an emerging advocacy for a post-secular ideology (see for instance Habermas 2006; Habermas and Ratzinger 2006) this does not seem to be the case in Malta. The relationship between the religious

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worldview and the emerging secular worldview is very much lived in terms of secularism as defined by Casanova (2009). The collusion between Church and State for the past four hundred years and, especially, the increase in institutional power of the Catholic Church in Malta during the British period has little by little nourished a secularist desire especially among the intellectual class. As a result of the last two political-religious conflicts which involved the working class, there has been a growth of secularism lived as an antipathy towards a clerical and institutional Church. Unfortunately, the local Catholic Church is extremely slow to move from a hierarchical-institutional model to a model where more emphasis is placed on a sense of community and on the importance of dialogue. It is in such a context that the more vociferous intellectual class interprets any action of the Catholic Church as an intrusion in personal lives. Currently, advocacy for secularism is seen by these persons as the only possible way for a victory of reason, freedom and progress. The implications for education in general, and RE in particular, are far reaching. The school and the curriculum are understood as the means of influencing minds and where worldviews are influenced or constructed. Although the current National Curriculum Framework does not make a similar statement at the beginning of the document as in the previous National Minimum Curriculum document, it still considers “the teaching of religion in schools […] as an important element in the integral formation of the person” (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012: 35). For this reason, RE, together with Ethics, is understood to be one of the eight learning areas of the Maltese curriculum. However, one cannot help but notice the difference in the definition of national values. While the previous curriculum considered love, family, respect, inclusion, social justice, solidarity, democracy, commitment and responsibility, all framed within a Catholic understanding, as fundamental values for the Maltese population (Ministry of Education 1999), the current National Minimum Curriculum only makes reference to “social justice and solidarity as the key values in the development of Maltese society” (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012). It is interesting to note that reference to values is made in the context of the National Curriculum Framework’s stated intention to be “a response to the changing demands of individuals and society… shift of traditional values and new paradigms” (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012). It is thus revealing that references to RE or to religion in the first pages of the document are made in relation to diversity or to justify the need for an alternative subject to CRE rather than on the value of RE per se. Nonetheless, the Learning Area of RE and Ethics are understood as

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a process of self-discovery, developing the moral and spiritual dimensions and contributing towards children’s capacity to value, appreciate, perceive and interpret the world they live in. Learning in Religious Education seeks to educate young people regarding the dignity of the human being and the responsibility of each individual towards others for the building of a better society and a better world. Learning in this area nurtures and enhances a sense of spiritual self. Children and young people develop their own identity and understand better their cultural identity. The spiritual dimension of the self should be supported by promoting values that include justice, personal responsibility, respect, reflection and active engagement in moral issues (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012: 35).

The definition of this learning area widens the general understanding of values initially given by the curriculum document and demands that RE and Ethics take into consideration various dimensions of the human person. Indeed, it presents a continuum ranging from the individual to society, and from personal identity to cultural identity. These two continua guide and frame the education of the values of human dignity, responsibility, justice, respect and active engagement. The definition also points to the importance of spiritual and moral nurture. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recommends that the new CRE curriculum should be developed over four learning strands that help learners to [i] to read, understand, interpret and communicate the Religious Language; [ii] connect to, respond to, and express their Spiritual Dimension; [iii] comprehend, analyse, and evaluate the Word of God as it finds expression in the Sacred Scriptures and in the Sacred Tradition of the Roman Catholic Church; and [iv] engage with and form a Personal Catholic Worldview that enables them to analyse and evaluate personal, local and global issues and apply the Christian message to different situations (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012: 36).

3.2

Diocesan draft Policy Document on CRE

In 2006, the Secretariat for Catechises, the Church entity responsible for the curriculum development of CRE, approached me, in my capacity as RE specialist at the University of Malta, to chair and co-ordinate a committee with the intent of analysing the current situation of RE in Malta and to prepare a policy document to be approved by the Maltese Catholic Bishops’ conference. A draft Policy Document open for public consultation was published in 2008 (Gellel et al. 2008). Given that in Malta the great majority of primary school children follow CRE in school and also attend parish Catechises twice a week in the evening, one of the major issues that the Policy document sought to clarify was the distinction between RE and Catechises. The document argued that while

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Catechesis aims at educating the faith of the person within a faith community, RE aims at helping the student to clarify the basic human religious and spiritual questions and needs, and at equipping the student to live the transcendental dimension in the context of the learning community (Gellel et al. 2008: 28).

The document insists on the principle that the target population and the setting where education takes place determine the aims and the nuances of the content presented. RE is understood as a contribution towards the student’s attempts to find meaning. The draft policy document suggests that CRE should provide students with the language and skills necessary to access, comprehend, express and evaluate their religious, moral and spiritual dimensions. The document understands the later three dimensions as intrinsically inter-related. It recommends that RE should be mainly understood in terms of the Church’s diaconia (service) rather than principally a function of the Church’s ministry of the word. As part of its service to society, the Church needs to contribute towards the understanding and development of those tools that have sustained and contributed to the development of different generations of Maltese individuals and communities. Similarly, the Maltese Catholic Community is duty bound to help individual students access, understand and take advantage of the wisdom that different generations of believers have put together in the quest to live the good life and develop a healthy relationship with Self, Others, Creation and God (Gellel et al. 2008: 29).

The policy document establishes the main goals of RE, which will be further explained later on in the paper, and discusses a number of practical suggestions on how to implement the vision for RE in Malta, including the ongoing formation of teachers, the inclusion of other religions in the curriculum as well as the general principles that should guide each cycle of compulsory education. The document argues that RE is intrinsically part of the holistic education of the child. In doing so it echoes the teachings of the Catholic Church that RE should be marked by the aims and structure of the school (see for instance Congregation for Education 2009). This is mainly done by showing how RE should contribute to the four main aims of education as discussed by the UNESCO document on Education in the new Millennium (Delors 1998), particularly in the process of self-discovery and in learning how to live with others. Likewise the document argues on how RE should contribute to the three main goals of Education as identified by the European Union (2001) which emphasize the development of the individual, society and the economy. Unfortunately, despite having the informal approval of the Maltese Catholic Bishops’ Conference, the draft Policy Paper has never been formally endorsed.

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Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

In Malta there are three main school providers, namely the State, the Catholic Church and the Private Sector. Compulsory schooling is free for those attending State and Church schools, while parents sending their children to independent schools may avail themselves of a tax relief that covers part of the education expenses of their children. State schools are open to all applicants, while admission to Catholic schools is through a ballot system. Most Catholic schools require a baptismal certificate. In private schools, which include a Muslim independent school, the main criteria for admission is the parent’s ability to pay the fees. Furthermore, the Muslim school requires children to be Muslim. Schooling offered by Church schools is free of charge following an agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta (1993). The agreement settled a quasi two decade long struggle between the government and Catholic schools (Scerri 2000). Through the 1993 agreement the Catholic Church agreed to open its schools to all following an agreed equitable policy and to follow the educational standards set by the state. On the other hand, the government agreed to pay the salary of teaching staff and to contribute in part to the running expenses of the schools. Church schools are allowed to ask parents to freely contribute to the running costs of the schools as well as other educational services they offer. The fact that parents have to buy textbooks, unlike in state schools where textbooks are loaned to students for free, pay for school transport that is also provided for free in state schools, and also contribute to a teaching resources fund makes it somewhat more difficult for families from lower income groups to send their children to church schools. The most recent published data on education shows that during the scholastic year 2007–2008, the state catered for 60.7 % of the student population attending compulsory education, while the Catholic Church provided schools for 29.1 % of the student population. The remaining 10.2 % of the students attended private schools (National Statistics Office 2011). However, with recent educational reforms that promote a smoother transition between primary and secondary education, four new primary Church schools were or are in the process of being constructed and consequently the Church school population is expected to increase over the next few years. For these past two decades, the demand for Church schools has always been high, with schools receiving more applications than there were places available. Already ten years ago, (Scerri 2004) noted that the local Church authorities were aware of the pressures and challenges facing Catholic schools aiming to maintain a culture and education imbued by the values inspired by the Gospel. Seven years

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ago the Maltese Bishop’s Conference together with the Council of Religious Superiors commissioned a report on the restructuring of the administration of Church schools and on the strengthening of a Catholic identity. Although the paper has been submitted to the Bishops and the Religious Superiors, at the time of writing this chapter the document has not as yet been endorsed.

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

There are currently two general conceptions for RE in schools. The first one was developed during the eighties and nineties and is slowly being replaced by the syllabi and textbooks which purportedly follow the reconsiderations of the draft policy document (Gellel et al. 2008) and the new National Curriculum Framework (Ministry for Education and Employment 2012). Mgr. George Deguara, the Archbishop’s delegate who was responsible for drawing the syllabi and designing the textbooks for RE during the nineties, argued that the subject aims at empowering the students in their quest for transcendence and ultimate reason of being. He therefore defined the aims of R.E. as to transmit, evoke or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, skills and sensibilities according to the mind, values and sensibilities of Jesus Christ; it is to help human maturity reach its fullness in Christian maturity ; it is at the service of the art of life in the Christian dimension (Deguara 1991: 103).

The programme has been frequently criticised as being too cerebral and theologically oriented especially in the last two years of compulsory education. Furthermore, the textbooks and syllabus are often criticised for being out of touch with students’ reality. Unfortunately these two textbooks which were prepared more than twenty-five years ago are still used in schools. It is clear that the authors of the textbooks took the religious background and upbringing of pupils for granted. As from 2011, the Secretariat for Catechises started replacing the old textbooks with new ones. Although as yet there is no formal approval of the vision set by the Policy Document on RE (Gellel et al. 2008), the textbooks and syllabi seem to follow in principle along the lines set by the document. The draft Policy Document suggests that the goals of CRE in the Maltese context should be i. to educate the spiritual and religious dimensions of students, and ii. to encourage the development of a healthy relationship with Self, Others, Creation and God through Christ (Gellel et al. 2008: 33–34).

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Following the impetus of the draft Policy paper on CRE, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recommends that the new CRE curriculum should be developed over four learning strands, namely i. Religious Language ii. Spiritual Dimension iii. Beliefs, (which in the document are referred to as the Word of God), and iv. the formation of a Personal Catholic Worldview. While the NCF does not go into further detail about the learning outcomes and the contents within the four identified strands, the Diocesan Office of RE continued to work on refining the scope and objectives of the these strands. The documents that were produced thereafter, but remain unpublished, posit that the four strands should not be understood as being independent of each other. Indeed, each constitutes an integral part of the others. They are conceptualized in such a way as to provide a balance between the cognitive, affective and spiritual dimensions of knowledge, thus empowering students and facilitating transformative knowledge. The Religious Language strand should provide the necessary background to help students to read and interpret symbols and religious language, as well as to help them acquire information and to encourage them to be challenged by other religions. The Spiritual Dimension strand aims to foster students’ awareness, their ability to formulate, express, and possibly answer fundamental existential questions, and their sense of connectedness with oneself, others, all creation and God (Office of Religious Education 2010). The Spiritual Dimension strand should be further sustained through the narratives, beliefs, rituals and attitudes developed in the Beliefs and the Personal Catholic Worldviews strands. The Beliefs strand should provide a concrete language of how to access and express the spiritual. This should be primarily done by presenting the beliefs of the Catholic community through the life experiences of individuals and communities of the Christian Bible and of various Christians in different cultures throughout the ages. At the same time, the Personal Catholic Worldview strand should foster the development of virtues and values, as well as higher order thinking skills that enable students to evaluate and synthesize what they would have learnt and to apply it critically for their own life. In 2014, the Ministry for Education initiated a process whereby the eight Learning Outcome areas as defined by the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) had to be further developed and the Learning Outcomes of the single curricular subjects had to be explicated. Religious and Ethics Education was identified by the NCF as a single learning area. The area is to incorporate the curricular subject of Catholic Religious Education and the teaching of Ethics. In

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practice this implies that both subjects need to share a common basis in such a way that they become alternatives for each other. In designing this Learning Area it was agreed that the spiritual, ethical (moral) and religious (understood in a wide sense) dimensions are fundamental aspects of every human being, including non-believers. Religious and Ethics Education have to serve the very same purpose that is at the heart of education, that is, to help students connect with their very human nature in order to be (Delors et al. 1997). They also need to empower the students to access and construct meaning of symbols, traditions, beliefs and fundamental questions raised and shaped throughout the millennia and that are still very central in all areas of human life including the political, social, aesthetic, moral, economical and community life. In developing the curricular area and the Learning Outcomes of Catholic Religious Education (Directorate for Quality Standards in Education 2015a) the curriculum designers retained the principles and direction established by the draft policy document (Gellel et al. 2008) by making sure that the new learning outcomes also reflect the outcomes identified for the Learning Area of Religious and Ethics Education.

6

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

With the exception of just two independent schools which provide Muslim or multifaith RE, there are practically no differences between state, church and independent schools in the adoption of the Catholic Religious Education (CRE) syllabus, or in the way these lessons are inserted in the curriculum. Most schools, irrespective of whether they are State, Church or private schools, follow the syllabus and textbooks published by the Catholic Secretariat for Catechises. In these past five years there has been strong collaboration between the state Education Officers for RE and the Secretariat. At the primary school level, all teachers in State and Catholic schools are required to teach CRE irrespective of their own personal beliefs or practices. This leads to frequent ambivalent practices such as either the RE requirement being fulfilled by simply reading the textbooks or the amount of time allotted to RE being reduced.

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Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

As from September 2014, State schools started to offer an Ethics programme for those students who opt out from the CRE Lessons. The government announced its intention to offer this course through the National Curriculum Framework (2012). Unfortunately, the document only declared the intention to offer this programme without defining its philosophy or aims. The NCF did however state, without explaining why, that an Ethics programme is preferred to a Comparative RE programme. In an information seminar on the new Ethics programme organised by the Ministry of Education in January 2014, the Education department revealed that there are currently 1419 students not following CRE lessons in States schools. This amounts to some 4 % or 5 % of the state school student population. The coordinators entrusted with the project explained that the syllabus will use a ‘philosophy for children’ approach in order to create a community of inquiry. During the same seminar, the Muslim community requested that the four hundred Muslim students present in state schools should receive Muslim RE rather than Ethics Education. It is not yet clear how and to what extent this request will be acceded to. It seems that there is an informal agreement of allowing Muslim students receive Muslim RE after school hours. The Directorate for Quality Standards in Education (2015b) published the Learning Outcomes for Ethics education. The document emphasizes that the subject does not present a specific code of conduct. “The aim of the ethics course, being non-denominational, is not to teach a moral doctrine or truth but to develop a mature, individual, moral outlook and sensibility based on values that are uncontroversial in principle but contested and controversial in practical situations” (p. 28). In this sense the LOF document insists that the subject should aim to instill qualities of character. These values can be regarded as virtues understood as qualities of character. Parallel to the developments occurring in the state school sector, the Independent schools have also developed their own general framework for an alternative programme to Catholic Religious Education. Due to their language policies, these schools attract many foreigners and consequently display a greater plurality of beliefs in their school communities. In 2013 different independent schools have come together to develop an Ethics and Virtues Education programme. The focus of this programme is more concerned with the nurture of a virtuous character. More specifically the framework aims to:

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– support the personal search of students for truth, goodness and meaning in life through the process of becoming virtuous; – help students develop a healthy understanding and connectedness with themselves, others, nature and ultimate reality ; – help students formulate and engage with the fundamental question of who they should become and how they should live; – make students aware of the relevance of religions and different belief systems in response to the existential and moral issues facing humanity ; – enable students to critically read the concepts and metaphors that the human community uses in order to give meaning and transform reality ; – give students the opportunity to examine their immediate and life-long decisions more deeply by understanding and appreciating critically other responses; – help students to collaborate in the construction of a communal vision of life and support them to face the challenges of life; – help students discover their role in their families, society and the World. The programme mainly uses stories to initiate discussions and to spur students to think and engage with reality and fundamental issues. The programme, which is currently in the pilot study phase, has been developed by the schools in collaboration with the Faculties of Theology and Education of the University of Malta.

8

Dealing with religious diversity

To date there is no official precise data about the religious or non-religious adherence of the population residing in the Maltese islands. Estimates are normally either based on self-identification surveys, on immigrants’ country of origin or on the United States Department of State report on Religious Freedom. According to the International Religious Freedom Report for 2015 (United States, Department of State 2016) 91 % are Catholics while the second largest religion is Islam with an estimated 10,000 adherents, most of whom are foreigners. With the rapid advance of secularisation and with the increased influx of migrants (from 3.3 % in 2007 to 7.1 % in 2016, Eurostat 2017) the diversity of worldviews present on the island is more evident than ever. Besides Catholic, Muslims and non-religious, there are also Jews, a number of Orthodox and Oriental Churches, Protestant and Evangelical Churches, Jehovah’s Witnesses, members of the Unification Church, Zen Buddhists, Bahais, Wiccans and adherents of indigenous African forms of worship.

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The European Values Survey, which has been administered four times over the past three decades, reveals that in 2008 96.6 % declared themselves to be Catholics while Christians assembling in a variety of other Christian Churches formed 1.5 % of the population. It is interesting to note that it is only since 2008 that the number of adherents of other non-Christian religions became large enough to start being included in the data set (European Values Survey Foundation/Tilburg University 2010). EVS wave 1984

99.6 %

0%

Other Muslim Christians 0% 0%

1991

97.0 %

0%

0%

1999

97.7 %

0%

1.0 %

2008

96.6 %

0.025 %

Catholics Orthodox

0.4 %

No Total Religion 0 % 100 %

0%

0.5 %

2.5 % 100 %

0%

0%

1.3 % 100 %

1.125 % 0.025 % 0.125 %

2.1 % 100 %

Other

Table 3. Religious Adherence

Up until the publication of the National Curriculum Framework (2012), the Maltese State argued that although it agreed with the principle of educating all children in conformity with their religious and moral beliefs, it was particularly difficult for the country to put this principle into practice due to its limited resources and due to the very small and diverse faith communities present on the islands (United Nations, Economic and Social Council 2003; United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2004, United Nations 2011). With the declared intention to introduce an Ethical Education Programme, the Maltese State is reconsidering its position and is willing to provide an alternative to CRE. At the basis of this change in policy there is primarily the principle of entitlement.

9

Religion in school outside of RE

For historical and cultural reasons most schools in Malta are de facto Catholicinspired schools. Besides providing CRE, schools display Catholic symbols and provide religious activities during Christmas, Lent and Easter. Furthermore, most schools have the services of an ordained religious counsellor (spiritual director) who celebrates sacraments on specific occasions and offers moral and spiritual guidance when required to do so by staff or pupils. The role of Religious Councillors is determined by the agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta (1998).

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Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

The vast majority of teachers receive their training through the Faculty of Education at the University of Malta. Up till recently, the Faculty offered two teacher induction courses, namely a four year bachelor degree in education (B.Ed (Hons)) and a one year post graduate certificate of education (PGCE). All primary school student teachers followed a number of study-units (equivalent to 4 % of the course content) in the pedagogy of RE while secondary school RE teachers followed study-units in Catholic Theology (a minimum of 20 % of course content) and in the pedagogy of RE (a minimum of 8 % of course content). As of 2016, those wishing to become teachers first have to obtain an undergraduate degree and then follow that up with a two-year Master in Teaching and Learning course. This has drastically reduced the number of RE pedagogy courses from 10 ECTS (70 hours of teaching) to 5 ECTS (35 hours of teaching) in the early childhood and primary teaching area while those wishing to teach in the secondary have a more solid base in theological content (an increase from 48 ECTS to a minimum of 70 ECTS) and the same amount of pedagogical training in RE. Before applying for a teaching post in RE in secondary schools, teachers are required to obtain a certificate of suitability from the local bishop, attesting that they have the necessary training, and live a life in conformity with the values and teachings of the Catholic Church. On the other hand, employers assume that the Bishops do not have an objection to individual primary school teachers to teach Religion. It is only when the Bishops raise specific objections about a teacher that an employer will have to find alternative means of providing RE to children. It should however be noted that no such case has ever occurred in the past two decades.

11

Empirical Research concerning RE

Owing to the small size of Malta there is very little research on RE. The country only has one institution of higher education that caters for the formation of teachers who teach RE. There are currently three full-time academics specialising in R.E. in Schools, Catechises in the parishes and Youth Ministry and only one doctoral candidate researching in the area. Over the past decade there have been only three empirical studies on the pedagogy of the subject.

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The first study was conducted in the context of the author’s own doctoral research (Gellel 2005). The study sought to develop a pedagogical method that meets individual differences in the RE classroom. After studying the Christian understanding of God’s pedagogy and after delving in the main individual differences that influence learning, the study developed the Adaptive Religious Education method that seeks to foster learning in all students and to reduce the achievement gap between high achievers and low achievers. The study involved 1219 13-year-old students attending 12 schools and 14 teachers over a sevenweek period. A second empirical research project was conducted amongst RE teachers and Catechists in the context of a wider European study, TRES (Teaching Religion in a multicultural European Society). The study sought to understand the educational and theological concepts of participants as well as the didactic methods employed by both categories (Gellel 2009). A third study was conducted by Prof. Darmanin in the context of an EU funded project REMC (R.E. in a Multicultural Society). The study sought to understand religious socialisation of primary school children in a multicultural setting. The study explored the perspectives of teachers and parents as well as those of young children (Smyth, E., Lyons, M., & Darmody, M. 2013). For these past five years, other area-related studies mainly focused on pedagogical issues in RE, children’s spirituality and spiritual education, values education and faith-based schooling.

12

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

Although Malta is a nation with a population of just a medium sized European city, it nonetheless experiences the same complexities present in other European States. Yet, precisely because of its size, it lacks the human and financial resources to invest as much as it should in research and in curriculum and resource production. Although research should be high on the agenda, given that this research is not directly related to the economy, science or technology, it is extremely hard to access funds and to get more academic and research personnel employed. As things stand, academics are mainly focused on teaching and on preparing future teachers and ministers. Very little time is left for research. Furthermore, due to the size of the population, there are currently only a handful of qualified persons able to conduct academic studies in the area. Most of the current work that is being conducted is done on a voluntary basis. Although the Maltese language enhances the process of Religious Education in that it provides the possibility to view reality from a Semitic and Romance point

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of view, it also imposes further limitations. Both research and texts need to be produced locally. Importing or translating non-Maltese texts falls very short of presenting good quality material that meets the requirements of students. This is particularly due to the context and especially to the worldview accessed through language, which is very different from that of where the original is produced. Furthermore, even though translations and adaptations are to some extent possible, they nonetheless require finances and resources that are usually nonexistent. With the rapid changes that are occurring in society, policy makers and educators need clear data and tools that help them reflect on the models of secularisation that may be most beneficial in the local context and on how to deal with plurality brought about by globalisation. In a country where religion is so tied to tradition and to an institutional notion of being Church, people’s relation to religion is most of the time governed by irrational emotions. This makes discourse on Religious Education extremely sensitive and forces it to oscillate between two extremes, that of retaining the status quo or that of radically changing it or removing it from schools. Change presents both a major challenge and an opportunity for Religious Education. Yet the neoliberal educational models, the inadequate way the local Catholic Church relates and responds to the needs of the population, as well as the diminution of the perceived importance of religion in the holistic growth of the individual and the community is unfortunately leading to a situation of missed opportunities and an inability to respond to challenges.

13

Further information

Ministry for Education and Employment of Malta: http://education.gov.mt/en/. Ministry for Education and Employment: Learning Outcomes Framework. Religion: http://www.schoolslearningoutcomes.edu.mt/en/subjects/religion. Ethics: http://www.schoolslearningoutcomes.edu.mt/en/subjects/ethics. Religious Education Teacher training: https://www.um.edu.mt/study. Catholic Church Schools: https://church.mt/archdiocese/church-schools/.

References Ag˙enzija Z˙gh ¯ az˙agh ¯ 2012. Mirrors and Windows: Maltese young people’s perceptions of themselves, their families, communities and societies. Malta: Ag˙enzija Z˙gh ¯ az˙agh ¯. Bettetini, A. 2010. Religion and the Secular State in Malta. Religion and the Secular State (La religion et l’Ptat la"que): Interim National Reports (Rapports Nationaux Inter-

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m8diaires) ed. J. Mart&nez-Torrjn and W. Cole Durham. Provo, Utah: The International Center for Law and Religion Studies, Brigham Young University : 493–503. Borg, B. 2017. Blog: Muscat sworn in as Prime Minister Updates from Castille, the counting hall and beyond. Times of Malta June, 05 https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/2 0170605/local/live-blog-muscat-to-be-sworn-in-as-pl-supporters-celebrate-victory.65 0018. Borg, C. 2006. Catholic Hegemony in Malta: State schools as sites of Cultural reproduction. Rethinking hegemony, ed. T. Clayton. Australia: James Nicholas Publishers: 59–78. Casanova, J. 2009. The secular and secularisms. Social research 76. no. 4: 1049–1066. Congregation of Catholic Education 2009. Circular Letter to the Presidents’ of Bishop’s Conferences on R.E. in Schools. http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20090505_circ-insegn-relig_en.html. De Bono Curmi, M. 2008. Youth in Malta. Understanding their practical theology. Unpublished dissertation, Valetta: University of Malta. Delors, J. et al. 1998. Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century. Paris: UNESCO. Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education 2015a. Educator’s Guide for Pedagogy and Assessment using a Learning Outcomes Approach: Religious Education. Floriana, Malta: Directorate for Quality and standards in Education. Directorate for Quality and Standards in Education 2015b. Educator’s Guide for Pedagogy and Assessment using a Learning Outcomes Approach: Ethics. Floriana, Malta: Directorate for Quality and standards in Education. European Union, Education Council 2001. Report from the Education Council to the European Council. On the concrete future objectives of education and training systems. http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/rep_fut_obj_en.pdf. European Values Survey Foundation/Tilburg University 2010. European Values Study 2008. 4th wave. Integrated Dataset. GESIS Cologne, Germany, ZA4800 Dataset Version 1.0.0. Eurostat 2017. Population on 1 January by age group, sex and citizenship. v3.4.1-201704075840-PROD_EUROBASE DATA-EXPLORER_PRODmanaged13. Last updated 26. 05. 2017. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database#. Fenech, D. 2012. Divorced from Political Reality : The New Limits of Ecclesiastical Power in Malta. The Round Table 101. no. 3: 221–234. Gellel, A. 2009. Malta: Accentuated similarities between catechists and religious educators. How teachers in Europe teach religion. An international empirical study, ed. H. Ziebertz and U. Riegel. Berlin: Lit Verlag: 125–135. Gellel, A. 2005. Adapting R.E. to individual requirements. A means of being faithful to the pedagogy of God in the classroom. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Rom: Universita Pontificia Salesiana. Gellel, A., Chircop, L., Debono Curmi, M., Deguara, G., Gatt, S., Magro, E., Sultana, C.M. 2008. R.E. in Malta: Reflections by the Catholic Community. Malta: Archdiocese of Malta, Secretariat for Catechesis. Habermas, J. 2006. Religion in the Public Sphere. European Journal of Philosophy 14: 1–25. Habermas, J. and Ratzinger J. 2006. The Dialectics of Secularisation: On Reason and Religion. San Francisco: Ignatius Press.

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Malta, House of Representatives. 2013a. Act No. VII of 201. An Act to amend the Civil Code, Cap. 16. http://www.parlament.mt/file.aspx?f=33697. Malta, House of Representatives. 2013b. A Draft Bill entitled an Act to regulate civil unions and to provide for matters connected therewith or ancillary thereto. http://www.parla ment.mt/file.aspx?f=44181. Maltese Catholic Bishops’ Conference 2011. Il-Kurag˙g˙ li Nig˙g˙eddu. A Pastoral Letter for Advent 2011. http://maltadiocese.org/posts/detail/pastoral-letter-for-advent-the-cour age-to-renew-oneselfittra-pastorali-ghall-avvent-il-kuragg-li-niggeddu. Mifsud, A. 2012. The Net Generation. Cyberspace and Spirituality. Unpublished dissertation. Valetta: University of Malta. Ministry for Education and Employment. 2014. Consultation document on reforms to the Education Act. http://education.gov.mt/en/Documents/Consultation%20document%2 0on%20reforms%20to%20the%20Education%20Act.pdf. Ministry of Education 1999. Creating the Future Together, National Minimum Curriculum. Malta: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education and Employment 2012. A Curriculum Framework for All. Malta: Author. Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment 2007. Agreement between the Government and the Malta Union of Teachers. http://schoolnet.gov.mt/sanfrangisktassisi/library/ Documents/20GOV_MUT_Agreeemt.pdf. National Statistics Office 2016. Demographic Review 2014. Malta: National Statistics Office. National Statistics Office 2011. Education Statistics 2006–2007/2007–2008. Malta: National Statistics Office. Office of Religious Education 2010. Sillabu tal-Ewwel Sena (Sekondarja): L-Avventura ta’ AAajti. Malta: Office of Religious Education, Secretariat for Catechesis. H Ostwalt, C. 2003. Secular steeples: Popular culture and the religious imagination. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. Pace, R. 2012. Growing Secularisation in a Catholic Society : The Divorce Referendum of 28 May 2011 in Malta. South European Society and Politics 17, no. 4: 573–589. Pope John Paul II. 1981. Discorso del Santo Padre Giovanni Paolo II ai sacerdoti della Diocesi di Roma. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/1981/march/doc uments/hf_jp-ii_spe_19810305_sacerdoti-diocesi-roma_it.html. Refalo, I. 2012. Constitutional Change in Malta. An essay prepared for the President’s Forum on Constitutional Change. http://president.gov.mt/file.aspx?f=21. Republic of Malta and Holy See 1998. Accordo tra la Repubblica di Malta e la Santa Sede per meglio ordinare l’istruzione e l’educazione Religiosa Cattolica nelle Scuole statali (1989). Acta Apostolicae Sedis 90, no.1:30–41. Republic of Malta and Holy See 1993. Agreement between the Holy See and the Republic of Malta on Church Schools. Acta Apostolicae Sedis 85, no.7:558–568. Scerri, D. 2000. The saga of the Church Schools in Malta (1970–1986). A history portrayal of events. Malta: MUT Publications. Smyth, E., Lyons, M. and Darmody, M. eds., 2013. Religious education in a multicultural Europe: Children, parents and schools. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Times of Malta. 2014. FZL proposes the reopening of the agreement with Church on teaching Religion. Times of Malta February, 06. http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/

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20140206/local/fzl-proposes-reopening-of-agreement-with-church-on-teaching-of-re ligion.505768. United Nations 2001. Convention on the Rights of the Child. Appendix General Comment 1 (2001): The Aims of Education. http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/CRC.GC. 2001.1.En?OpenDocument. United Nations 1989. Convention on the Rights of the Child, Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25of 20 November 1989. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/k2crc.htm. United Nations 2011. Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 80. http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDe tails.aspx?chapter=4& lang=en& mtdsg_no=IV-3& src=TREATY. United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2004. Summary Record (partial) of the 33rd Meeting held at the Palais Wilson, Geneve, on Tuesday 9 November 2004) E/C.12.2004/SR.33. http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/ c57a78b0f7e39878c1256f4f0048d9a7?Opendocument. United Nations, Economic and Social Council 2003. Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Initial reports submitted by States parties under articles 16 and 17 of the Covenant Addendum. Malta. http://www.unhcr. org/refworld/publisher,CESCR,STATEPARTIESREP,MLT,45377faa0,0.html. United States, State Department 2016. Malta 2015 International Religious Freedom Report. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256429.pdf. Xuereb, D. 2008. Emerging Trends amongst Maltese adolescents: A qualitative Study into Taylor’s Culture of Authenticity. Unpublished Dissertation. Valetta: University of Malta.

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Religious Education at Schools in Portugal1

1

Socio-religious background

Portugal covers an area of 92,212 km2 (including the islands of the Azores and Madeira) and had a population of 10,291,027 inhabitants in 20182. The population has decreased slightly in recent years, because the number of births has been lower than that of deaths and immigration has not compensated for this trend. Portugal’s birth rate (1.32 per woman) is one of the lowest in the world. The proportion of persons under the age of 15 is falling considerably and accounted for only 14 % of the population in 2017. The proportion of those over the age of 65 is rising strongly and already amounted to 21.1 % in the same year. Portugal has always been a country from which people have emigrated for economic reasons. Currently around 2.3 million Portuguese live abroad, a figure which would almost account for 22 percent of the total population. Paris is thus the third-largest ‘Portuguese’ city. Emigration has been a predominantly male phenomenon. The proportion of the population accounted for by women in Portugal is the highest in the EU apart from the Baltic States. The current government wants to encourage 100,000 emigrants to return in order to counteract the brain drain and the ageing of the population. In April 1974, a peaceful military coup ended the dictatorship of the Estado Novo, which was closely linked to Antjnio de Oliveira Salazar, and led to the establishment of a democratic republic. The changes brought about by the socalled Carnation Revolution included the independence from Portugal of its former African colonies (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and S¼o Tom8 e Pr&ncipe). Many people from these countries moved to Portugal, which for the first time became a destination for emigrants. Since the late 1990s 1 Paulo Jorge Marques da Costa Mal&cia, Sheila Nunes da Silva and Mariana Vital have written manuscripts for this chapter. They have enabled the creation of the article, for which the authors are indebted to them. 2 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table& init=1& language=en& pcode=tps0 0001& plugin=1.

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however, an increasing number of immigrants from Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Romania) have arrived. Only 8.5 % of the population was not born in Portugal, while 3.9 % are foreign citizens, of whom 20.4 % are from Brazil and 9.2 % from the Cape Verde islands.3 The proportion of migrants in the working population is twice as high as in the total population. The migration balance of 2017 revealed the following figures: a total of 31,753 persons emigrated compared to 36,639 immigrants. From a linguistic, cultural and religious perspective, the population is very homogeneous, which is slowly being changed by immigration. Around 81 % of Portuguese are Roman Catholic (census of 2011). Even though only 19 % of Catholics regularly attend Sunday mass (Teixeira 2012), the Catholic tradition continues to play a dominant cultural and religious role. Other Christian 3.3 % (Evangelicals, Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, Presbyterians, the Lusitanian Evangelical Church, the Church of Scotland, etc.), other Religion 0.6 % (includes Jewish, Muslim, Baha’i Spiritual Assembly and other). There are 3,000 Jews and 20,000 Muslims. 615.000 people, 6.8 % of the country’s population, are either atheist or irreligious people. 8.3 % did not give any information. Only 5 % of the population belong to ethnic minorities, including Africans from Cape Verde, the oldest Portuguese colony. 0.5 % of the population are Roma. The only recognised minority language is Mirand8s, which is spoken by around 15,000 people in the north-east of Portugal on the border to Spain. It was approved for regional use by the law 7/99 of 29 January 1999.4 The Catholic cultural foundations of the country are the result of an eventful history of the influence of different religious tendencies. In the thousand years B.C. Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts and Lusitanians came to Portugal and were subsequently followed by Romans and Jews. In the first centuries A.D., Christian communities developed, and in the 8th century Islam arrived with the Moors. At the beginning of the second millennium, the Reconquista began, which was to last several centuries. In 1492 over 50,000 Jews from Spain fled to Portugal. However, their respite was temporary, as in 1496 Jews were also expelled from Portugal unless they agreed to be christened. Only a few years later there were severe pogroms against these new Christians. Today the country presents a scene of identification with Catholicism and the presence of religious minorities. Some of these groups have Christian roots, while other are rooted in spiritualism, Gnosticism and in the Afro-Brazilian religions. The region now occupied by the state of Portugal was in constant 3 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Im_Ausland_gebore ne_Bev%C3%B6lkerung_nach_Geburtsland,_1_Januar_2017_FP18-DE.png. 4 http://www.eurel.info/spip.php?mot54& lang=en.

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contact with other visions of the world, which partly viewed each other as enemies. The following religious communities are currently recognised by the state: various Protestant groupings, Seven Day Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Orthodox Church (Russian and Greek), Jehovah’s Witnesses, Hinduism, Islam, the Baha’i, Buddhism, communities with AfroBrazilian roots, spiritualists, Sikhs, Taoists, etc. (Pinto ed. 2016). The challenge is posed by dialogue in a social space in which everyone actively takes part, whether they are Portuguese citizens or not: they are individuals who share the same space in society ; the national space. In this space, insistence, resistance and self-affirmation are the major issues; between the sacred and the social, between the ‘I’ (self-affirmation) and the others.

1.1

Religion among the younger population (according to Duque 2014)

According to the data of the European Values Survey (2008 in comparison to 1990)5, Portuguese youth between the ages of 18 and 29 increasingly perceive themselves as religious: from 51.8 % in 1990 to 69.4 % in 2008. At the same time the proportion of atheists rose from 8.7 % in 1990 to 10.8 % in 2008. Six out of ten young Portuguese described themselves as Catholic in 1990, and 20 years later this position had consolidated itself further : in 2008 the figure was 7 out of 10 young people. In 2008, two out of ten persons described themselves as not having a religion, while in 1990 the figure was still four out of ten. From a gender perspective, in 2008 more young men than women described themselves as Catholic (51.1 % of men and 48.9 % of women). The same tendency can be identified among those who describe themselves as not being members of a religion (64.3 % and 35.7 %). Those who consider themselves Catholics have mostly completed primary and/or secondary school (40.1 % and 40.9 % respectively). A smaller proportion has an university degree. The religious commitment of young people tends to be of a relaxed nature. The majority had some form of connection to the church in 1990 as well as in 2008. Seven out of ten persons reported some form of religious practice (regular or occasional). In 1990, 23.9 % indicated regular practice, 47.1 % occasional and 28.9 % stated that they did not practice. 20 years later in 2008, the proportion of those practising regularly had fallen to 19.7 %. The number those who do not practise had risen to 34 %. Another tendency which can be observed in the past 20 years is that young people have intensified their connection to religion and that the frequency of 5 https://europeanvaluesstudy.eu/ In the meantime data from the EVS survey of 2017 is available, in which Portugal, however, did not participate.

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those who pray has increased: in 1990, 9.5 % stated that they prayed regularly, 59.6 % sometimes and 30.8 % never, while in 2008 a total of 34.9 % prayed regularly, 33.3 % sometimes and 31.7 % never. In 1990, 39.9 % of young people stated that God was of considerable or great significance in their lives, while by 2008 this figure had risen to 48.8 %. Nevertheless, in 2008 the majority (51.1 %) still indicated that the importance of God in their lives was average or low. In spite of this, these figures show that the significance of God in the lives of young people is growing. In both 1990 and 2008, for the majority of young people the supernatural was connected to the presence of a personal God. This has increased in the past twenty years (from 48.2 % in 1990 to 57.4 % in 2008). The number of those who do not believe in God is low (12.6 % in 1990 and 7.4 % in 2008). Whereas in 1990 a total of 38.6 % of young people declared that religion was important or very important to them, this proportion had risen to 49.3 % in 2008. On the basis of these figures, Eduardo Duque (2014) developed an index of religiousness with a scale from 1 (low religiousness) to 5 (high degree of religiousness). According to this scale, the religiousness of young people rose from 3.2 to 3.4 between 1990 and 2008. In spite of all the changes in the modern world, young people have not ceased to be religious; or put differently. The freedom they have acquired has not distanced them from religion, and nor has their increasing disconnection with institutionalised religion and intensive religious practice, or the rising number of those who do not practise.

2

Legal Frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

In the era of the monarchy, the Catholic Church was the official church of the Portuguese state. The constitution of 21 August 1911 after the establishment of the first republic in 1910 legitimated the secularism of the state, guaranteed religious freedom and freedom of conscience, and led to the separation of the church and the state. At that time the state attempted to monitor the Catholic Church and attacked it in various ways. Religious education in schools was banned. The constitution of the Estado Novo (1933) of the 2nd republic “maintains the division of Church and state, but declares the Catholic identity and moral values of the Portuguese nation, affecting minority religious groups (Spiritualists and Jehovah Witnesses are persecuted).” (Calazans, Melancia and Pinto 2016). In this way the Catholic Church acquired a decisive role without its legal position changing. This was also reflected in the Concordat of 1940, which led to the

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reintroduction of religious education as an obligatory subject and to the declaration of the Catholic faith as the “religion of the Portuguese nation” (Gouvaia 2012: 276). In the 3rd republic with the constitution of 1976 (Constituiżo da Repfflblica Portuguesa), the separation of church and state was continued. Art. 41 “affirms the neutrality of the state in matters of religion, and establishes religious freedom at both the individual and collective level.” (Calazans, Melancia and Pinto 2016). Nobody may be “persecuted or deprived of their rights” due to their beliefs, and at the same time nobody is freed “from their obligations as a citizen due to their religion or the exercise of their religion”. The constitution guarantees every religious community the right (among other things) to “offer religious education”. “Thus, there is no official religion and all religious faiths must be treated equally ; as a result, in various fields, such as the state-held media, the state-run education sector or taxation, religion must be respected in a context of cooperation and not of persecution.”(Gouvaia 2012: 283) Since then, all legal provisions are of “a character which no longer privileges the traditional, prestigious religion of the country,” and which target all religions with their goals and rules “without leaving a sign of that which used to be considered the traditional religion” (Pinto 2005: 37). The Religious Freedom Act (no. 16/2001) regulates the relationship with religious communities and lays down in Article 45 that the state can conclude agreements with churches and other religious communities in Portugal. The “new Concordat with the Holy See (18 May 2004) met the constitutional design of religious freedom for all” (Folque 2011: 210). In accordance with Art. 52 of the Religious Freedom Act, in 2003 the law no. 308/2003 established the Comiss¼o da Liberdade Religiosa (Commission for Religious Freedom; CLR) as an advisory body of the Assembly of the Republic and the government. It is responsible for monitoring the application of the Religious Freedom Act in Portugal. This includes the official recognition of a religious community. The regulations on recognition (Art. 37 of the Religious Freedom Act) require that between the establishment of a community and its organised social presence in Portugal more than 30 years must have passed, or that a church or religious community abroad must have been founded more than 60 years ago. Religious diversity has become more complex in recent years. According to the Commission for Religious Freedom, there are 572 religious organisations in Portugal. Of these, 245 are based in Lisbon, 84 in Porto, 68 in Setubal and 30 in Leiria. Most of them only appeared after the 1990s. According to the current case law, religious minorities and the Catholic Church are both permitted to carry out religious marriages which are effective in civil law. Although no church or religious community in Portugal receives financial support from the state, the latter can participate in the construction of

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churches – and occasionally also in that of non-Catholic places of prayer – and in social and charity projects. In certain cases, religious communities can benefit from tax relief. “In fact, today in we have in Portugal a legal framework for religious freedom. More, we have a good relationship between religions and the state, with many dialogue activities, among religions and between them and the state.” (Pinto 2016)

During the “period (1976–2004) the very few issues that exercised the Constitutional Court concerned religious and moral education” (Folque 2011: 410). There is a political controversy surrounding denominational religious education at public schools in Portugal, in which the Constitutional Court ruled in favour of confessional religious education in 1987 and 1993 (here with a majority decision of 7:6). “It judged religious education in school and not by the school to be in line with the constitution, and at the same time emphasised the positive dimension of religious freedom.” The following thus applies: “Religious education as a standard element of the curriculum, taught by civil servants who are paid by the state and appointed on the basis of proposals by the church, and using teaching materials and books which are chosen by the church and approved by the state.” (Stark 2003: 490) In Portugal, the tendency towards laical schools like in France was not able to assert itself. The right to religious education in schools is realised via the subject called Moral and Religious Education (Educażo Moral e Religiosa), which forms part of the curriculum from the 1st to the 12th year of public and private schools. Religious and Moral Education is treated in different acts (Folque 2011: 410–412): Article 24 of the Religious Freedom Act authorizes all recognized religious communities to teach their own religious principles and doctrines in public schools. Two specific legal rights emerge: 1. “the individual right of pupils and their parents as believers in having religious education in public schools; and 2. the collective right of religious communities in organizing their programs of religious education in public schools, including the choice of subjects and teachers.” (Gouvaia 2012: 278) The subject of Moral and Religious Education is denominational in Portugal. Each religious community develops its own programme of contents, selects the teachers and provides the manuals and teaching materials, all of which conform to the applicable legislation. Due to the principle of equality, the state is obliged to guarantee the equal treatment of all religious groups. Four of these have a curriculum approved by the Ministry of Education and are authorised to teach the subject: the Catholic Church, the Protestant Alliance of Portugal (a grouping of Protestant churches), the Baha’i Community of Por-

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tugal, and the Buddhist Union of Portugal. In practice, however, currently only two denominations (Catholic and Protestant) guarantee religious education at schools. According to the denomination, the subject is called either Catholic Moral and Religious Education (Educażo Moral e Religiosa Catjlica = EMRC) or Protestant Moral and Religious Education (Educażo Moral e Religiosa Evangelica = EMRE). The subject of Moral and Religious Education is optional. When a pupil starts school, the parents or guardians or the pupils themselves (if they are aged 16 or older) decide whether they want to attend these lessons and which denomination they prefer (Catholic, Protestant or other). The teachers are paid by the state, which in this way fulfils its constitutional obligation (Article 16, Section 2 c) to support parents in the education of their children. As the Portuguese state has entered into an obligation regarding religious freedom, and has to cooperate with parents in the education of their children, it is responsible for guaranteeing lessons (in EMRC, for example) without discrimination of any kind. EMRC is also supported by the Concordat. Responsibility for the nomination, the selection or deselection of teachers and the contents to be taught is held by the church authorities. For EMRC there is special legislation based on law no. 329/98 of 2 November 1998. There are significant differences between the legislation on teaching qualifications, on the deployment of teachers in public schools, and in the status of the teachers, which cannot be dealt with in detail here. These differences are the result of the strong implementation of EMRC in comparison to the other religious communities, but it also creates problems which according to Malicia discredit religious education in schools. Catarino and Junqueira (2015) show that a range of factors had an influence on the inclusion of the subject in the curriculum as one with obligatory attendance when chosen as an option by the pupil: “The status of the subject of EMRC as well as all other subjects; the rights of families and pupils to participation in the subject of EMRC; the obligation of schools and the recognition of this right by the provision of the subject under the legal conditions which have been established; the status of teachers, similar to that of other teachers; the academic and pedagogic qualifications required for teaching; and the conditions of access to employment, to professionalism and career development.” (ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa, 2006: 8) Folque diagnoses “some significant defects in this system: a) Confessional classes, according to the Religious Freedom Act (art. 24, par. 2), do not constitute an alternative to other classes or subjects. Thus, the choice is between some free time in the playground or one more class in the timetable. b) Religious Education is the poor relation among subjects: classes are scheduled for lunchtime or late afternoon.

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c) A minimum of 10 students in each school, as stated on Decree-Law No. 329/ 98 of 2 November (art. 6, par. 1) does give few opportunities to many nonCatholic groups. Protestants, Jews and Muslims are not particularly concentrated in certain areas of cities. Only classes of students from various schools would achieve the minimum number required by law.” (Folque 2011: 412)

3

Developments in the country’s education policies

1974, the year of the military coup called the Carnation Revolution, brought an end to the dictatorship of the Estado Novo. Until then the education system had been extremely neglected, and access to higher education was only available to children from the privileged upper classes. In this way, 30 % of the population were illiterate in 1970, and in 2011 this figure was still 5.2 %. The Portuguese Constitution (1976) “ensures freedom of learning and teaching (art. 43, par. 1) as well as the right to open private and social (cooperative) schools (par. 4). On the other hand, on public policies and cultural rights, art. 74 proclaims equality in educational opportunities for all, which includes the public task of providing a basic compulsory education which is free and for everybody (par. 2, a) and, moreover, the Government must ‘create a network of public schools to meet the needs of the whole population’ (art. 75, par. 1), although it also recognizes and supervises private and social education (par. 2).” (Folque 2015: 400) “Before the revolution of 1974 was the primary education reform of 1964 which extended the previous four years of compulsory education to six years.” (Sousa, Fino 2015: 648) Now compulsory schooling was extended step by step, and with law no. 85/2009 of 27 August 2009 it was raised to twelve years. From the age of six onwards, general compulsory schooling lasts twelve years, which ends at the age of 18. Attending public schools is free, but books and other materials largely have to be financed by parents. For families with low incomes, there is support in the form of grants for school books, for lunch (schools are normally so-called all-day schools), and for travel costs. Primary school (ensino basico) is divided into three cycles: the four-year Primeiro C&clo (1st–4th years), the two-year Segundo C&clo (5th to 6th school years, and the three-year Terceiro C&clo (7th–9th years). This is followed by the threeyear secondary stage (10th–12th years), in which it is possible to choose between three options: the scientific/humanities branch, the specialised artistic branch, and the technical/occupational branch. Public schooling is inclusive of children with special needs.

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The Directorate General for Education of the Ministry of Education (http:// www.dge.mec.pt) draws up the state’s guidelines for the education system and is responsible for adherence to it. In view of the backward public school system at the beginning of the 3rd republic, Portugal has successfully made great efforts since then to develop this system and to increase its quality. In order to do so, individual schools were granted significantly more autonomy with regard to the curriculum and organisation, including the selection of the head teacher by the teachers. Law no. 55/2018 of 6 July 2018 extended autonomy with regard to the curriculum and flexibility to all Portuguese schools (Governo de Portugal, 2018). Key skills were formulated6 for individual school years and every subject. The Education and Training Monitor 2018 cites the following highlights (among others) for Portugal’s education policy : – “Spending on education remains stable. Funding is not sufficiently linked to performance and is not flexible in response to challenges. – Portugal is implementing a national strategy for citizenship education in all schools. – Despite considerable improvement, Portugal still faces high levels of early school leaving and grade repetition. An ageing teacher population is a major challenge for the future.” (European Commission 2018: 4)

Citizenship education received priority in the EU. It “covers several areas such as human rights, gender equality, intercultural capacity, sustainable development, institutions and democratic participation, consumer education, animal welfare and volunteering.” The new school subject “Citizenship and Development” in Portugal is compulsorily “in grades 5 to 9 of primary and lower-secondary education. The principles, values and areas of competence covered aim to support the education and development of active citizens. Schools are guided by a local coordinator who teaches citizenship and equality and develops training activities on these subjects”. (European Commission 2018: 4)

4

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

In a secular state, a public school may not be confessional – this status is only available to private schools. “The constitution (art. 43, par. 4) assures freedom for private schools on all levels, but no public grants are provided”. There are state-recognised private schools run by different organisations, including for6 http://site.aveazeitao.pt/index.php/2-uncategorised/75-aprendizagens-essenciais-1-5-e-7anos.

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eign private schools. Private schools have a long tradition in Portugal, particularly Catholic private schools. The state needed private schools for the extension of the school system, particularly in rural areas. It financed them on condition that they did not charge school fees. Since then, however, the number of births has fallen dramatically, and as a consequence of 2008 the state finances have been in a critical condition. This also led to cuts in the funding of private schools in 2016. The current position is as follows: The private school system is financed by parents and receives no subsidies from the state. This also applies to Catholic schools, which 4 % of pupils attend. There are, however, three forms of state financing: – The state supports low-income families via a simple contract. The level of support depends on the size of the family and its income, but this state support is much lower than the school fees that parents have to pay. – With the Association Agreement, the state assumes all costs for pupils and classes in regions not suitably covered by public schools. This applies to years 5–12 of school. – In a sponsoring agreement, the state guarantees funding of courses in the secondary stage (10th-12th years) which are drawn up and approved by the respective school as long as these are not sufficiently available in the entire country or in the public school system. Melo concludes in his analysis of “Relations Between Catholic Schools Funded by the State and the National Educational Inspectorate in Portugal”: “In a highly regulated educational system, we found the distinctive character of these schools to be self-constrained and that state funding does not add specific burdens on the schools.” (Melo 2013: 312) According to the statistics of the Department of Catholic Schools of EDUCRIS, there were 144 Catholic schools in the school year 2016/17 in Portugal servicing a total of 61,522 pupils. This corresponds to around 4 % of all pupils in Portugal.7 As there can be several types of school at one location, according to school types there are around 200 Catholic schools, which “are much sought after by families as they are prestigious institutions. Every year, national figures for student marks to enter universities are compared. Many Catholic schools are at the top of the rankings.” (Folque 2011: 404) At private Catholic schools, the subject of EMRC is obligatory. According to the Portuguese Bishops’ Conference, the task of Catholic moral and religious education in Catholic private schools is “of great significance in view of the close relationship to its goals and its essential contribution to the realisation of its 7 http://www.educris.com/v2/centrorecursos/departamento-das-escolas-catolicas/estatisticasdas-escolas-catolicas/2395-estatisticas-das-escolas-catolicas-20162017.

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educational project, as it is inspired by the gospel and orientates itself in two directions: (1) To provide young people with the cognitive instruments which are indispensable in today’s society und which almost exclusively favour technical and scientific knowledge; (2) and above all to provide them with a sound Christian background.” (ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa, 2006: 14) Among the confessional private schools in Portugal, there is also the International School of Palmela (Col8gio Isl.mico). The Islamic Community of Palmela (A Comunidade Isl.mica de Palmela (CIP), founded in 1996, initially licensed for elementary education in 1998, started the implementation of the Cambridge International Curriculum for all school stages. The majority of students are Muslims.

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

Given that the subject of Moral and Religious Education is a confessional one in Portugal, each confession develops its own contents. Currently, four confessions have a state-approved curriculum and are thus authorised to teach EMR.8 The Catholic Church, whose curriculum for EMRC is from 2014; the Protestant Alliance of Portugal, whose curriculum for EMRE is from 1997; the Baha’i Community of Portugal, whose curriculum is from 19989, and the Buddhist Union of Portugal, whose curriculum is from the year 200010. In practice, there are two denominations (Catholic and Protestant); whereby each of them is responsible for the organisation of their subject, and according to P.J. Malicia there is good cooperation between them. The curriculum for Protestant Moral and Religious Education (Programa de Educażo Moral e Religiosa Evang8lica – EMRE) was drawn up in 1997 by the Commission for Protestant Education at Public Schools of the Portuguese Protestant Alliance (Comiss¼o para a Ażo Educativa Evang8lica nas Escolas Pfflblicas – entidade pertenecente / AEP – AlianÅa Evang8lica Portuguesa).11 A curriculum has just been developed and approved solely for EMRC which, on the basis of the current syllabus, defines key skills (Aprendizagens essenciais) for every school year from 1–9 in line with the most recent education reform (decree-law no. 55/2018 of 6 July 2018). The confessional nature of EMRC means “that the perspective from which reality is presented – i. e. its view of the world – proposes and articulates a 8 9 10 11

http://www.dge.mec.pt/educacao-moral-e-religiosa. Ensino Religioso Segundo os Ensinamentos Bah#’&s. Programa de Ensino do Budismo. http://www.aliancaevangelica.pt/files/Programa2013/ProgramaEMRE.pdf.

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Christian view in general and a Catholic one specifically as a coherent viewpoint, with the different fields of culture and science.” (Programa de EMRC, 2007: 21) Ultimately, Catholic moral and religious education is seen by the Portuguese Bishops’ Conference (CEP)12 as “service at school”. With regard to the framework and the significance of the subject at public schools according to the CEP, the following conclusion has been reached: EMRC is in the interests of schools, and in particular of public schools. It is a privileged space for the harmonious development of the pupil, viewed as a person, in the integrity of the physical and spiritual dimension and the openness towards transcendence, for others and for the world, which is to be created. At the same time, EMRC takes care to reference these dimensions which also stimulate reflection in other disciplines, school activities and the educational project itself.” (ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa, 2006: 14) The Catholic curriculum for EMRC has been approved by the Portuguese Bishops’ Conference. Even though the subject Moral and Religious Education is confessional, the Catholic Church emphasises that it does not see it as catechesis, which it offers outside schools and which is organised by a separate department. Those responsible for EMRC endeavour to develop programmes that differ from catechesis. Their contents are based on the principles of ‘integrated education’ of a person in the context of school, on the phenomenon of religion as a fundamental element of human existence and the dialogue between the cultures, as well as the knowledge obtained in other subjects and with the message and values of each religious community. The goals of the subject of EMRC are: – “To learn about the cultural dimension of the phenomenon of religion, and of Christianity in particular; – to become familiar with the content of the Christian message and the values of the gospel; – to develop a dialogue between culture and faith; – to develop a Christian vision of life; – to understand and contribute towards the ecumenical and inter-religious dialogues; – to acquire a broad knowledge of Jesus Christ, the history of the church and the Catholic doctrine, particularly in the moral and social fields; – to learn about the religious foundations of Christian morality; – to discover and become familiar with the significance of the artistic-religious heritage and Christian symbolism; – to formulate an interpretation key which opens up the option of belief (Formula uma chave de leitura que clarifique) – to ask questions and find answers to the question about the meaning of life; and – to learn how to position oneself with regard to the phenomenon of religion and to act with responsibility and coherence.” (SNEC 2014: 5) 12 http://www.educris.com/v3/.

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The 17 learning plan goals are assigned to the following three areas: – Religion and religious experience – Christian culture and the Christian view of life – Ethics and morals One of the topics of the 7th year are the Abrahamic religions, and a topic of the 8th year is the ecumenism of Christian denominations. According to Catarino and Junqueira (2015), the special feature of religious education in schools is that it relates to the field of culture and to other subjects such as history, philosophy and geography, etc. The authors established that in the case of Catholic moral and religious education the objective is ultimately to enable pupils to understand the Christian perspective of life and to systematically relate it to everyday situations and other forms of knowledge, regardless of whether they are of a scientific, cultural or artistic nature. (see Programa de EMRC, 2007)

6

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

This system of permitting religious communities to carry out religious education classes has some disadvantages which are far from ideal. Although they have the right to insist that confessional lessons are included in the school timetable, they are not integrated into the curricula of the Ministry of Education, which means that in reality pupils have a choice between a religious education class and a an hour of free time per week. On the other hand there is the obligation for the groups to contain at least ten pupils, which for most non-Catholic communities is difficult to reach, as not all churchgoers live in the same areas and cannot send their children to the same schools. Muslims therefore frequently cannot succeed in reaching the minimum figure of ten pupils to form a group because the children live so far apart. This is why religious education takes place in mosques. According to P.J. Malicia the Baha’i Community and the Buddhist Union have no groups for Moral and Religious Education. The subject is generally taught once a week and follows the same rules as other subjects in the curriculum. The minimum number of ten pupils mentioned above can, however, be reduced in exceptional cases if good reasons are put forward. The legal provisions which apply to other subjects regarding participation and evaluation also apply here. Even though each religious community is responsible for the organisation of the subject, in the view of P.J. Malicia there is a recognisable spirit of cooperation and sharing.

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As an example, here is the statistical data on the number of teachers and registered pupils of Catholic Moral and Religious Education and Protestant Moral and Religious Education. School Public schools

Pupils N 275.895

% of all 32 %aa

Teacher 1.360

Catholic schools

56.061

100 %13

231

Private schools

14

21.520

112

15

Table 1. MREC registered pupils and teacher Schools Public schools

Pupils

Teacher 1.700

138

Table 2. Protestant Moral and Religious Education16

An element of the realisation of EMR which is criticised is that the state legally guarantees religious education in schools, but does not sufficiently ensure adherence to the law so that the subject can be taught under the same circumstances (hours, registration) as other subjects. In this way the subject is sometimes marginalised and is not treated equally in some public schools.

7

Observations on alternative subjects/learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc. “As confessional classes are optional, the central religious issues are absent from general studies – this represents a significant gap in the educational system. On this matter, M#rio Soares, former Chief of State, and since 2007 Chairman of the Religious Freedom Commission, asked the Government in 2009 to devote a part of Civic Studies classes and textbooks to religious issues – Religion in Societies. This was not intended to support this or that church, but to give children some keys to understand religious facts and to be aware of religion’s role on history, arts, philosophy and ethics. The former Minister for Education gave her agreement and some Commission members –

13 The subject of EMRC is obligatory at Catholic schools. According to the official statistics of the Department of Catholic Schools, however, participation in the subject of EMRC is always less than 100 %. 14 non-confessional. 15 The data refers to the school year 2015/16 and was provided by the National Secretariat for Christian Education. 16 Data for the school year 2014/15 provided by the Protestant Alliance – Commission for the Protestant Education Campaign in Public Schools. According to Minist8rio Semeadores de Boas Novas, the news site of the Protestant Alliance, EMRE is taught at 237 schools in 320 groups: https://msbnportugal.com/paginas/lista-de-noticias/disciplina-de-educacao-moral-ereligiosa-evangelica/.

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forming a small committee – wrote guidelines for 12 classes for 8th level children. An implementation has not been carried out so far.” (Folque 2011: 410).

The state-guaranteed subject of religious education at public schools, referred to as Moral and Religious Education, is organised on a confessional basis. But in the public education system there is – alongside the Catholic subject of EMRC – only the Protestant EMRE. Although the majority of pupils do not take part in this subject and – this is the point of criticism – the religious diversity of Portugal is not sufficiently taken into account due to the confessional orientation of the subject, there is nevertheless no alternative to EMR. In order to deal with the religious dimension beyond a confessional perspective, and to treat religious and denominational traditions in a diversified, non-party political and well-informed way, in 2015 the Department of Religious Studies of the University of Lusjfona developed an alternative curriculum for all years of compulsory schooling (primary and secondary education). This curriculum is designed to form part of the commitment to the democratisation of the presence of religions in the public space, namely in schools, and in a nonconfessional, philosophical and historical way. This proposed curriculum attempts to concentrate on developing a programme in which pupils – aside from understanding and reflecting upon contemporary religious phenomena – practise critical analysis and reflective thinking which develops philosophical and social abilities related to knowledge of sacred texts, convictions and other practices. In this approach, knowledge requires an epistemic depth, which reflects the etymological meaning of the French verb connaitre. Seen in this light, the pedagogical approach tries not only to recognise and know who others are, but to “be born with them”, in other words to have an experience of knowledge with the other. This curriculum recognises the different cultural concepts surrounding transcendence and immanence which characterise every ethnic grouping or other group, and which frame the process of understanding themselves and the world around them. In this way, ideologies which work in this academic perspective materialise in religious convictions, and values and practices constitute cultural representations which, like maps, guide the daily lives of individuals and faiths. Care should also be taken to involve religious groups will all their differences, such as minorities, who tend to be portrayed within society as foreign or marginal, or even a threat. For the initiators, ‘education for all’ is not enough: ‘education about everyone’ is necessary. They view the public space as an arena in which public visibility and social legitimation are won or lost, which is why it is important, if not indispensable, to not only make others into the subject of knowledge, but also to create ethics for equality and a pedagogy of difference for citizenship (cidada-

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nia), also in a more integrated, present and lively way which it is easier to experience. The curricular goals of this project include: an understanding of the meaning of spirituality, of values and religions and the identification of the forms in which they appear in their surroundings and also in people’s own personal lives; an understanding of tolerance and coexistence; understanding how the old religions are still present; being able to think about the role of rationality. One’s relationship to religious convictions and the interpretation of religion. Spirituality and universal values and their relationship to science; understanding in theory the terms transcendence and immanence in spiritual and religious experience and being able to work with these concepts philosophically ; researching the terms freedom, fraternity and equality in the fields of history and philosophy individually and in groups; having an integrated chronological perspective of the three religions and important historical events; being able to respect and appreciate different features of identity in practice. This project was developed in order to attempt – using teachers of history, philosophy, and moral and religious education – to take up a fixed place in weekly lessons. There is currently no prospect of this project being including in the school system. In the school year 2018/19, a new subject in the field of citizenship education was introduced. It is called Cidadania e Desenvolvimento (Citizenship and Development) and is obligatory for all pupils in all public and private schools. On the basis of the national strategy for citizenship education to promote a fairer and more inclusive society via education17, the subject Citizenship and Development was tested at 235 schools in the school year 2017/18.18

8

Dealing with religious diversity

The Religious Freedom Act ensures that all those entities which satisfy the relevant conditions have the possibility to offer EMR in their particular confessional form, which de facto is only the case with the Catholic Church and the Protestant Alliance. Although religious diversity in Portugal is increasing, the establishment of additional confessional EMR curricula is improbable, because given the size of most religious communities the hurdle of ten pupils as a condition for the formation of an EMR group is proving to be too high. The presence

17 http://www.dge.mec.pt/educacao-para-a-cidadania/documentos-de-referencia. 18 http://acegis.com/2017/09/disciplina-de-cidadania-e-desenvolvimento-comeca-este-ano-le tivo/.

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of religious diversity in a different form at state schools is not planned. In this way, religious diversity at schools is neither recognisable nor is it an issue. This situation has been criticised by Fernando Catarino (among others), who advocates EMR for all pupils.19

9

Religion in school outside of RE

Folque notes: “Outside the limited scope available for confessional education (45 minutes weekly), religion is not generally addressed in the curriculum.” (Folque 2011: 413). He points to the study by Mucnik (2007), developed by the Commission for Religious Freedom, on basic textbooks. It “reveals religion is presented as something belonging to the past, losing its place inversely to scientific growth” (Folque 2011: 413).

10

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

In order to be able to carry out their work, teachers of Moral and Religious Education need to have special training and to be authorised by the respective religious community. According to article 24/5 of the Religious Freedom Act, churches and religious communities are themselves responsible for the training of RE teachers. However, like all curricula, the relevant curricula have to be approved by the state. In the case of teachers of EMRC, they must have completed a Master’s degree or an equivalent programme which is recognised by the Faculty of Theology of the Catholic University of Portugal. For other faiths, a degree which is recognised by the Ministry of Education or another qualification which is recognised by the ministry is sufficient. The Catholic University of Portugal (Universidade Catolica Portuguesa) offers a three-year Bachelor’s degree (licenciatura) in Theology (CiÞncias Religiosas) at various locations in the country. The use of blended learning makes it possible to reduce the days on which students have to be present to Friday and Saturday, so that the degree course can be completed on a part-time basis. Entry to the course is dependent on passing the school-leaving/university entrance examination, and a two-part admission examination.20 19 http://www.sabado.pt/vida/detalhe/portugal-nao-tem-um-ensino-religioso-equilibrado-etransversal. 20 http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/licenciatura-em-ciencias-reli giosas.

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In addition, the Catholic University offers a two-year Master’s degree in EMRC which trains teachers for primary and secondary schools (Mestrado em CiÞncias Religiosas – Educażo Moral e Religiosa) which in 2011 was accredited by the national Accreditation Agency for Education (AgÞncia de Avaliażo e Acreditażo do Ensino Superior A3ES).21 Initial teacher training includes academic aspects and elements which are specific to the profession. Graduates receive a degree in Religious Studies. The Catholic University also offers a postgraduate course (30 credits) for EMRC teachers in primary schools (1st–4th school years). The reason given for this are the increasing demands made with regard to the teaching of EMRC in this field.22

11

Empirical Research concerning RE

Empirical studies on religious education at Portuguese schools are still in the early stages of development. Miguel dos Santos Patricio Peixoto has reported on the preparatory work for a study on the contribution of EMRC towards the development of the ability to make moral judgements (following Kohlberg) in the 9th school year (Peixoto 2016). The project on “approaching the universe of religions in the context of schools” carried out by the University of Lusjfona (cf. section 7) was tested during the school year 2015/16 in the Col8gio dos Aprendizes school in Cascais (a district of Lisbon) in the second cycle (5th school year, pupils around the age of ten). The evaluation of the project took the form of a survey among parents regarding their experiences with the new teaching programme. According to the project leaders, 17 answers from parents out of a group of 20 pupils were collected. The answers were on questions related to the continuance of the subject, becoming familiar with religions, and a better preparation of the pupils for understanding reality. In addition, a question was posed about the right of pupils to a secular space, such as in this programme. All of the parents who answered were content with the programme and wanted it to continue as a multi-year educational initiative, and as the citizenship education which is required at schools. Research undertaken to find other studies was not successful.

21 http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/mestrado-em-ciencias-religi osas. 22 http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/pos-graduacao-ensino-educa cao-moral-e-religiosa-catolica-no-1o-ciclo.

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157

Desiderata and challenges for RE in a European context

From the perspective of Catholic religious education, the following desiderata have been noted by P.J. Malicia: Given that the subject of Moral and Religious Education is confessional in Portugal, the question arises of how its presence in public schools can be guaranteed to abide by the secular nature of the state. It is not always easy to structure the co-existence of a confessional subject in the public school system. This also applies to the urgent intensification of the dialogue between the state and the different religions and denominations. This co-existence must be peaceful and takes into account the fact that the principle of the secularity of the state (which is not always recognised) is not synonymous with the secularity of society. Does it make sense for religious education in schools to be confessional, or should Portugal follow the non-confessional model which exists in other countries? From the viewpoint of the leading figures of the different religions and denominations and the relevant politicians, the confessional character of religious education should be maintained. In order to continue on this path, an intensified discourse on what modern confessional religious education can be is necessary. The social resonance in response to the efforts of recent years to differentiate religious education in schools from catechesis is low, particularly among Catholics. This leads to many parents not enrolling their children in the subject given that they already go to catechesis. The training of teachers and the development of the fundamental contents should therefore increasingly reflect the special nature of religious education in schools. From the perspective of Catholic religious education, the following (among others) is given as a desideratum by Paulo M. Pinto: How can religious “education for all” and religious “education about everyone” be facilitated in public schools?

13

Further information

Legal foundations (https://dre.pt/) Concordata entre a Repfflblica Portuguesa e a Santa S8, 2004. http://www.ministeriopublico. pt/instrumento/concordata-entre-republica-portuguesa-e-santa-se-0 (15. 02.2018). Constituiżo da Repfflblica Portuguesa. VII Revisffio Constitucional [2005] https://www. parlamento.pt/Legislacao/Paginas/ConstituicaoRepublicaPortuguesa.aspx (15. 02. 2018) http://www.en.parlamento.pt/Legislation/CRP/Constitution7th.pdf (15. 02. 2018).

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Lei da Liberdade Religiosa. (Gesetz der Religionsfreiheit). Assembleia da Repffllica. Lei n.o 16/2001 de 22 de Junho https://data.dre.pt/eli/lei/16/2001/p/cons/20141231/en/htm (15. 02. 2018).

Curricula Ensino Religioso Segundo os Ensinamentos Bah#’&s http://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/ files/ficheiros/ensino_relioso.pdf (15. 02. 2018). Programa de Educacao Moral e Religiosa (Evangelische Allianz) http://www.dge.mec.pt/ educacao-moral-e-religiosa (15. 2. 2018). Secretariado Nacional da Educażo Crist¼ (SNEC) 2014. Programa de Educażo Moral e Religiosa Catjlica, EdiÅles SNEC. Programa de Ensino do Budismo http://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/ficheiros/pro grama_de_ensino_do_budismo.pdf (15. 2. 2018). Citizenship and Development, CD http://www.dge.mec.pt/educacao-para-a-cidadania/ documentos-de-referencia (25. 4. 2019).

Teacher training http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/licenciatura-em-ciencias-reli giosas (25. 4. 2019). http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/mestrado-em-ciencias-reli giosas (25. 4. 2019). http://www.teologia.porto.ucp.pt/pt/central-oferta-formativa/pos-graduacao-ensino-edu cacao-moral-e-religiosa-catolica-no-1o-ciclo (25. 4. 2019).

Statistics Direżo-Geral de Estat&stica de Educażo e CiÞncia: Educażo Pr8-escolar, Ensino B#sico e Secund#rio http://www.dgeec.mec.pt/np4/17 (15. 02. 2018). http://www.educris.com/v2/centrorecursos/departamento-das-escolas-catolicas/estatisti cas-das-escolas-catolicas/2395-estatisticas-das-escolas-catolicas-20162017 (25. 4. 2019).

References Calazans, A.C., L. S. Melancia and P.J.S.M. Pinto (2016). Key dates of the history of Portugal. eurel. Sociological and legal data on religions in Europe and beyond http://www. eurel.info/spip.php?rubrique445 (18. 2. 2018). Canas, V. 2008. “Ptat et Pglises au Portugal”. Robbers Gerhard ed. Ptat et Pglises dans l’Union europ8enne, 2e 8d., Baden-Baden: Nomos: 470–500.

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Catarino, F. 2016. Modelo de Ensino Religioso em Portugal. Pinto ed.: 41–48. ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa (2006) Sobre a leccionażo da disciplina de Educażo Moral Religiosa Catjlica no 18 Ciclo do Ensino B#sico http://www.conferenciaepiscopal. pt/v1/sobre-a-leccionacao-da-disciplina-de-educacao-moral-religiosa-catolica-no-1-cic lo-do-ensino-basico (15. 02. 2018). ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa (2006) EDUCAC ¸ ffiO – Direito e dever – miss¼o nobre ao serviÅo de todos. http://www.conferenciaepiscopal.pt/v1/educacao-direito-e-dever-mis sao-nobre-ao-servico-de-todos (15. 02. 2018). Duque, E. 2014. MudanÅas culturais mudanÅas religiosas. Perfis e tendÞncias da religiosidade em Portugal numa perspetiva comparada, Ribeir¼o: EdiÅles Hfflmus. European Commission 2018. Education and Training Monitor 2018. Portugal https://ec. europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report2018-portugal_en.pdf (25. 4. 2019). European Values Survey. Portugal 1990 und 2008. http://www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu/ page/survey-2008.html (18. 2. 2018) https://www.gesis.org/en/services/data-analysis/ international-survey-programs/european-values-study/ (18. 2. 2018). Folque, A. 2011. Religion in Public Portuguese Education. Robbers, G., ed. Religion in Public Education. La Religion dans l’8ducation publique, o.O.: European Consortium for Church and State Research: 399–424. Gouvaia, J. B. 2012. Religious education in Portugal. Davis, D.H. and E. Miroshnikova, eds. The Routledge international handbook of religious education, London [u. a.]: Routledge: 272–279. Instituto Nacional de Estat&stica, Ed. 2012, Censos 2011 Resultados definitivos. Portugal. Lisboa: INE. Junqueira, S. R. and F. Catarino 2015. Ensino Religioso: concepÅles e compreenslesPortugal e Brasil. Revista CiÞncias da Religi¼o-Histjria e Sociedade, 13(1): 1–29. http:// editorarevistas.mackenzie.br/index.php/cr/article/viewFile/7859/5476 (25. 4. 2019). Melo, R.Q.E. (2013) Relations Between Catholic Schools Funded by the State and the National Educational Inspectorate in Portugal–Freedom of Education With State Funding, Journal of School Choice, 7:3, 312–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159. 2013.808570 (25. 4. 2019). Mucznik, E. 2007. A Religi¼o nos Manuais Escolares, Comiss¼o da Liberdade Religiosa. Lisboa. Pereira, J.A.P. 2007. Programa de Educażo Moral e Religiosa Catjlica: ensinos b#sico e secund#rio; EMRC. http://curricula-depot.gei.de/bitstream/handle/11163/1328/77936 9246_2007.pdf ?sequence=1 (18. 2. 2018) Pinto, P.M. 2017, Definitions and Practices of religious minorities in their Relationship with the portuguese State. Ways of Instrumentalization by the Majority. 5ltimo Andar n. 30: 332–337. https://revistas.pucsp.br/ultimoandar (25. 4. 2019) Pinto, P.M., ed. 2016. Desafios do Ensino Religioso numa sociedade laicizada. 1.8 Fjrum internacional de Ensino Religioso, Lisboa: EdiÅles Universit#rias Lusjfonas. Pinto, P.M. 2016. The perception of religious freedom as a social representation of the legal framework. https://classic.iclrs.org/content/events/123/3414.pdf (25. 4. 2019) Pinto, P.M. ed. (2016). Cosmovisles Religiosas e Espirituais: Guia Pr#tico de TradiÅles Presentes em Portugal ed. 1, 1 vol. Lisboa: ACM – Alto Comissariado para as MigraÅles.

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Pinto, P.M. (2005). Para uma CiÞncia das Religiles em Portugal. ed. 1, 1 vol. Lisboa: EdiÅles Un. Lusjfonas. Pinto, P. M. (2002). O “ensino das religiles” na escola: a urgÞncia da participażo c&vica das religiles na auto-imagem da sociedade. Peixoto, M.D.S.P. 2016. O ensino religioso escolar. Pinto ed.: 49–61. Pratas, M.H.G. 2018. Religious Education in Portugal. Portugal. https://eftre.weebly.com/ portugal-portugal.html (25. 4. 2019). Stark, C. 2003. Religionsunterricht und Verfassung. Eine Rechtsvergleichende Betrachtung. Heinrich De Wall/Michael Germann (eds.): Bürgerliche Freiheit und Christliche Verantwortung. Festschrift für Christoph Link. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr Siebeck: 483–500. Sousa, J.M. and C.N. Fino 2015. Portugal. W. Hörner et al. eds. The Education Systems of Europe. 2. Aufl. Cham [u. a.]: Springer International Publishing: 645–658. Teixeira, A. 2012. Identidades religiosas em Portugal: representaÅles, valores e pr#ticas. Lisboa: Com o patroc&nio da ConferÞncia Episcopal Portuguesa.

Carlos Esteban Garc8s

Religious Education at Schools in Spain

This article will begin with a description of the social and religious situation in Spain and present a general overview of the cultural context of the country (Part 1). Then, the basic features of religious education in the Spanish education system will be presented by taking into consideration not only Catholic religious education, but also its Islamic, Protestant and Jewish counterparts (Part 2). This description will be supported by a brief overview of the legal context of education at schools in the years of democracy, when a large variety of questions began to be raised concerning religious education, which granted religious education particular importance (Part 3). After that, the role of denominational private schools, which are mostly Catholic and very important in Spain, will be illustrated by some data (Part 4). Further section of this article will focus on the concept of religious education (Part 5) and its implementation (Part 6). Reference will be made to the data of a sociological study conducted by the author of this article, which consisted of over 6000 interviews with teachers, pupils and families who expressed their opinions on religious education. An overview of alternative subjects to religious instruction (Part 7) is presented in the context of the school reform of 2013. Dealing with religious diversity is explained with reference to a study about the cooperation between Catholic and Protestant teachers of religious education (Part 8), which was conducted by the author of this article a few years ago with the purpose of strengthening the ecumenical dimension of religious education in schools. A brief description of religious life in schools outside of religious education classes is presented in the Part 9. Finally, a quick look at the training of (religious education) teachers will be given in the Part 10, including a few references to the capacity building (further education) of teachers who completed this training. At the end of the article, references will be listed to important institutions in the field of religious education. Likewise, some bibliographic references will be suggested in the footnotes for deeper acquaintance of the readers with the aforementioned issues. Further bibliographical references can be found in the cited works containing numerous publications on the various topics discussed in this article.

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This article is based on the findings of the project REL-EDU and the author’s experience in educating religious teachers at the Religious Studies Center of the University La Salle in Madrid, as well as his experiences as the person responsible for the training of religious teachers in state institutions and at the Archdiocese of Madrid.

1

Socio-religious background

1.1

General information

As of 2014, 46.8 million people lived in Spain on a territory of 506,000 km2. The population is decreasing by a ratio of 0.8 % (2015), and it is also aging. For instance, since 2015, the population of the age group 15–29 years has fallen by 5.2 %, while the age group of 54–59 years has grown by 2.7 % (National Statistics Institute 2015). Unemployment, which particularly affects young people, is the major factor contributing to the current population loss in the country. Despite having traditionally considered a destination for migration, in which migrants constituted ca. 5 million people or 10 % of the population (2014), Spain began to display a negative migration balance in the recent years. Due to the recent economic crisis, some migrants returned to their home countries, especially to Latin America.1 According to data of the National Statistics Institute for 2013, for every thousand people, Spain has lost 5 residents.2 Total population

The data on the population of Spain 46.449.565

46.423.064

Male

22.826.546

22.807.603

Female

23.623.019

23.615.461

Spanish citizens

41.995.211

41.996.253

Foreign citizens

4.454.353

4.426.811

Table 1

69.4 % of Spanish citizens identify as Catholic, 2.5 % – 15.4 % as followers of other religions – 10.9 % as non-believers and as atheists (Centre for Sociological Research, 2015).3 The latest data collected by the Centre for Sociological Research (Centro de Investigaciones Socioljgicas de EspaÇa) in January 2016 1 http://www.ine.es/inebaseDYN/cp30321/cp_inicio.htm. 2 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Spain:Population:_Demogra phic_Situation, Languages_and_Religions. 3 Ibid.

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showed the following picture: more than 71 % of the population identified as Catholic. The other religions constituted 3 %. The percentage of atheists (almost 10 %) became the highest in recent decades.4 Data on religious identification in Spain in % Catholics

71.8

Other religions

2.5

Non-believers

14.1

Atheists

9.3

No answer

2.4

Table 2

Spanish is the official language of the country. Some autonomous communities have their own co-official language: these are Catalan, Valencian, Galician and Basque. The 2013 Law on Improving the Quality of Education establishes that the education authorities must guarantee that lessons are taught in Spanish and in the co-official languages. The models regarding teaching of the official languages vary depending on the language mostly spoken in a given community. Thus, in some cases, teaching is conducted only in Spanish, while in others, Spanish is the language of instruction with the co-official language being taught as a separate subject. In some communities, bilingual education is practiced. And there are also cases when a co-official language is the language of instruction while Spanish is taught as a distinct subject. The 2006 Education Law promotes foreign language learning in compulsory and post-compulsory education while special attention is paid to the priority languages of the EU: English, French and German. Since 1976, Spain has been a democratic state based on the Spanish Constitution. The Constitution is the fruit of consensus between all social and political partners, which received the consent of the people through the Referendum of 1978. This way, Spain ended the 40-year period of a military dictatorship of the middle of the 20th century, which had resulted from a civil war and lasted from 1936 until 1975. Apart from thousands of deaths and displaced persons, the war resulted in a divided society, subjected to a political military regime. After the dictator’s death, the first local elections took place in 1976, and then the national elections took place in 1977. After the elections, a new, democratic era began and social cohesion was restored. The 1978 Constitution created a foundation to overcome social isolation of Spain and to begin a new historical chapter of its history, the one of social harmony and political democracy. The consolidation of the democratic system in a plural society of more than 46 million inhabitants has become visible through multiple political 4 http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.jsp?estudio=14256.

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changes taking place in Spain. The country is now fully integrated into the European Union.

1.2

Developments

Spanish society has experienced significant socio-religious changes. These changes have been caused by several factors. First of all, the general process of European secularization has brought about a steady decrease in religious practices. The second factor is the growing religious diversity due to the inclusion in the Spanish society of a large number of immigrants. And the third factor that could be mentioned in this regard is a decline of prestige of the Catholic Church as an institution. These changes can be illustrated by the fact that 23 000 Catholic parishes are now joined by approximately 5 000 places of worship of smaller religious communities, which are likely to account for about 4 % of the population. The latest data indicates that the proportion of religious people seems to have stabilized, and about 30 % of the country’s population are practicing Catholics. The majority of the population, however, can be located somewhere between cultural Catholicism and atheism, while the indifference of people to religion continues to increase.5 Because a large number of immigrants left the country in the wake of the recent economic crisis, the other religions, as compared to Catholicism, have also decreased in numbers.

1.3

Socio-demographic changes in the education system

In the school year 2014/15, the number of pupils in Spain was 8,090,017 (excluding tertiary education) – 0.2 % more than the previous year. 68.1 % of pupils attend public schools (5 507 913 persons) and 31.9 % attend private schools (2 582 104 persons). The number of pupils in public schools remains about the same, but the number of pupils in private schools showed a slight increase of 0.5 %. The number of teachers was 670 398, of which 477 125 worked in public and 193 273 in private schools6. Regarding the education of pupils from other countries, the Spanish legislation guarantees access to the education system for all pupils within the com5 Ljpez Rodrigo, J.M. 2012. La libertad religiosa en EspaÇa hoy. Alandar n8 288. 6 http://www.mecd.gob.es/educacion-mecd/areas-educacion/sistema-educativo.html http:// www.mecd.gob.es/educacion-mecd/mc/redie-eurydice/estudios-informes/eurydice/cifras-cla ve.html.

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pulsory schooling age. The number of foreign pupils enrolled in schools in 2013/14 was 736 249, which is 3.5 % smaller than during the previous school year. 33.5 % of foreign pupils are enrolled in primary education and 26 % in compulsory secondary education. The main educational challenge for Spain is the high dropout rate from education caused by the fact that unskilled labor is required on the labor market, particularly in the construction sector. In 2010, the dropout rate of pupils aged 18–24 was more than 30 %, but currently it is about 21.9 %. This decrease is caused by the young people’s return to school due to the rise of unemployment. There are also indicators showing that there is a tendency for young people to stay in school education longer, rather than leaving school prematurely.7

2

Legal frameworks of RE and the relationship between religious communities and the state

Religious education in schools (in Spain, it is known by the acronym ERE – “enseÇanza de la religijn en la escuela”) existed in the different school systems. Thus, in the old political system, religious education was based on the Concordat concluded in 1953 between Spain and the Holy See. Religious education was influenced by the religious nature of the regime, and it was a compulsory subject, understood as catechesis in schools. With the rise of democracy in Spain, the Concordat of 1979 between the Spanish State and the Holy See was revised in accordance with the Constitution of 1978. This created a new social and political context and introduced new frameworks for the school system, which opened up a possibility for introducing such religious education in schools that would be neither compulsory nor understood as a catechesis, but defined as an academic subject. Similarly, the involvement of other religions in school introduced a diversity of religious views. In the Spanish school system, religious education is based on several legal principles. First and foremost, it is founded on the recognition of human dignity and fundamental rights and freedoms of persons, and on the recognition of international law. The Spanish legislative framework on education was prepared on the basis of these principles, and it interprets and concretizes various rights and principles in different ways, depending on the political party in power. Religious education plays an essential role in schools, from a legal point of view. In terms of administrative organization in the field of education, the powers are divided between the State General Administration and the Autonomous 7 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Spain:Population:_Demogra phic_Situation,_Languages_and_Religions.

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communities. This administrative model reflects the decentralization of the Spanish state and the territorial divisions in the country, and it allows education authorities to delegate to the municipalities the exercise of powers in areas directly related to their interests.

2.1

The Constitution of 1978

The legislative framework guiding the overall education system in Spain is established on the basis of the Constitution of 1978 and on a series of legal acts, promoting the principles of justice, freedom, equality and political pluralism. The Constitution of 1978 is the Magna Carta of democracy in Spain after Franco’s military dictatorship (1936–1975). It has two major reference points: the right to education and the right to religious freedom. The first reference point is expressed in the Article 27 that speaks about the right to education, as defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which outlines the right to education to all and freedom of education with the guarantee of it being obligatory and gratuitous, as well as defines the concept of education as an absolutely necessary foundation for the full and integral development of the personality of a student. These are the keys to the formation of educational policy in Spain. This Article is based on the democratic views that create a framework in which the right to education is implemented in Spanish society. This Article also supports such forms of religious education in schools, in which authorities could guarantee to parents that their children will receive religious and moral education corresponding to their own convictions. This constitutional provision establishes concrete foundations for religious education in schools in two ways: first, by using the concept of holistic education (Paragraph b) and by supporting the right of parents to decide about religious and moral education of their children according to their own convictions (Paragraph c). The second reference point is expressed in Article 16 on freedom of religion, in which the non-denominational character of the state and religious freedom of Spanish society are specified. The democratic vision of religion is presented in a concise form – only through three sentences – in which ideological and religious freedom, as well as freedom to practice religion is guaranteed for individuals and communities, as long as public order is maintained, with the statements that no one can be forced to express one’s views and that no religion will acquire a state character. The freedom of religion guaranteed to the citizens and the commitment of the state to working together with religious communities, especially with the Catholic Church, provide a legal basis for religious education. In compliance

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with this constitutional provision, the Spanish government has made several agreements with religious communities (with the Catholic Church in 1979 and with the Protestant church, Muslims and Jews in 1992), which specifically mention religious education.

2.2

State agreements with religions and confessions (1979–1992)

Based on the Constitution and on the social context after the establishment of democracy in 1979, which is characterized by pluralism and democracy, the Spanish State and the Holy See concluded a number of new cooperation agreements. These new agreements replaced the old ones that were based on the previous Concordats, such as that of 1953, and were established during the dictatorship in Spain, reflecting the pre-conciliar ecclesial reality. One of these new agreements was on Education and Cultural Affairs, in which the state, in cooperation with the Church, was committed to guaranteeing the right of parents to send their children to religious lessons in public and private schools in order to give them religious education in accordance with their own religious and moral convictions. It was stated thereby that religious education was to be provided at all school levels and included in the curricula, but it did not have a binding character and may be dropped because of the principle of religious freedom (See the agreements between the Catholic Church and the State, Article II). In addition to the agreement that was concluded in 1979 between the Spanish State and the Catholic Church and had a status of an international agreement, the agreements with the Protestant churches (the Law 24/1992 of November 10), Jewish communities (the Law 25/1992 of November 10) and Muslim communities (the Law 25/1992 of November 10) were also concluded in 1992, and they regulated the issues of religious education. Religious communities were granted the right to independently select teachers, establish curricula and approve textbooks, as well as to offer courses in religious education in universities and to establish religious schools. The principles of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 as a fundamental law of Spain were concretized in the agreements with the religious communities in such a way as to guarantee religious education in the school system with the following characteristics: religious education is to be chosen by the family ; religious education is to be chosen by religious communities that have corresponding agreements with the state (such as Catholic, Protestant, Muslim and Jewish), the subject “Religion” is to be offered in educational institutions, and concrete regulation of religious education in schools are to be based on legal provisions in the field of education.

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Carlos Esteban Garcés

Legislation on religious freedom (1980)

The Law on Religious Freedom (BOE – Bolet&n Oficial del Estado, July 24, 1980) gives to all citizens the right to receive education and information about religious matters of any kind, obtained either orally, in written form, or otherwise, as well as to pass on information on religious matters, and to be able to make personal decisions concerning one’s own moral and religious views (see Ley de Libertad Religiosa, Article 2, Paragraph c).

2.4

Legislation on education system (most recently – 2013)

In all reforms of education (1990, 1994, 2002, 2006 and 2013), specific regulations were made concerning religious education, which always took place in accordance with the agreements between the state and religious communities. The number of hours devoted to religious education has been modified several times and often reduced; in some cases, an alternative subject was offered for pupils who do not attend religious education lessons; in some cases, it was abolished. The last law on education was adopted on November 28, 2013 by the House of Representatives with 182 votes in favor, 143 votes against and 6 – undecided (Ley Org#nica 8/2013 of December 9, on Improving the Quality of Education, BOE of December 10, 2013) and is known by the abbreviation LOMCE (Ley Org#nica para la mejora de la calidad educativa / The Fundamental Law on Improving the Quality of Education). Religious education, explicitly supported by LOMCE through the agreements between the state and religious communities, has an ambivalent character. Namely, the legal arguments do not specify an important educational perspective on religious education – do not have a concept of religious education – which creates the impression that religious education is only a legal obligation and that it is not necessary for the proper education of a person. The positive side of this educational reform is that all grades of the school system have to offer religious lessons to pupils. And also that the assessment of educational achievements of pupils in religious education lessons is to be made in the way similar to the assessment of pupils’ achievements in other subjects. Moreover, an alternative subject “Ethics and Social Values” is to be offered for all those pupils who do not attend religious education. In addition, the law guarantees that pupils can attend religious education as well as moral education lessons. Among the negative aspects of this educational reform are that religious education as a school subject continues to be excluded from the external school evaluations and that the concept of religious education is missing. Moreover, the

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fact that the state delegates the determination of school timetables to the Autonomous communities creates inequalities between different regions of the country. In addition, the choice between religious and moral education is ambivalent, despite it being made to establish equality between pupils who take religious lessons and those who do not. From an intellectual perspective and with a view to building up civil society, it does not seem to be a good idea to draw a dividing line between religion and morality/values because such a dichotomy gives the impression that those, who choose to study religion, do not need education in the area of morality and values, while those, who choose to study morality and values, do not need religious education. Obviously, this distinction is not ideal, but it still can be considered as a valid option when viewed from the perspective of school organization. For the time being, it is easier to accept that all citizens have the right to ethical knowledge, especially in basic (minimal) ethics, and, desirably, in universal values. The time may come, when it will be recognized that all citizens have the right to receive religious knowledge in school, especially in areas related to the history of civilizations and cultures and to burning issues of contemporary society that are meaningful to many people. This knowledge is very important and should be present in the school system, not merely as a side note.

2.5

Teachers of religious education (most recently – 2006)

The total number of religion teachers in public educational institutions stood at approximately 12 000 persons in 2015. This figure refers only to the public school system, in which the profile of religious education teachers is characterized by several specific elements related to the organization of their work. In the private school system, the administrative side of work and specific features, related to technical and organizational aspects of teaching are less abundant, thereby creating fewer difficulties for the rest of the teaching staff. There are also specific characteristics concerning the work of religious education teachers in both public and private education system. The teachers can be divided into two groups: 9 000 school teachers with a university Master’s degree teaching religion in kindergartens and pre-school educational institutions and at the primary school level and 3 000 middle school teachers with academic degrees. In addition, about 100 teachers with a university degree or doctoral degree teach religious education at the state pedagogical colleges and faculties, including professors of religious education at numerous religious studies institutes of higher education and theological departments. The agreement between the state and the Catholic Church concluded in 1979 serves as a basis for defining the current situation of teaching staff and as a

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reference point for other religious communities. The teaching activity of religious education teachers is defined in the Articles 3 and 7 of this agreement. The teachers are approved by the diocesan bishop as competent to teach religion and are included in educational institutions as a part of the teaching staff. It is also provided that no one can be obligated to give religious lessons (see the Agreement between the Catholic Church and the State concluded in 1979, Article 3). The Article 3 lays down a standard that the diocesan education authorities propose to teachers and school administrations to build necessary relationships guaranteeing proper functioning of religious education at public schools and achievement of acceptable organization of religious education lessons. These standards have been established as the standard practice. The school administration signs contracts with those religion teachers that were recommended by the Church and appoints these teachers in the usual manner to teach their subjects at the schools. The rules regarding the recommendation and the contract with religion teachers are quite simple: Every year, the Church selects the competent teachers through the Diocesan School Boards and proposes these teachers to public schools’ administration. This practice is also called Missio canonical – a Recommendation or a statement of competence of the Church. Based on this Recommendation, the school administration concludes contracts with the recommended teachers and appoints them as teachers of religious education at the corresponding educational institutions. According to this contract, a religious education teacher is subjected to the Disciplinary Code of his/her educational institution and functions according to the requirements of his/her profession under the legislation in the sphere of education. Employment relations are established between the teacher and State Administration, while ecclesiastical relations are established between the teacher and the Church: the former are based on the work and contract regulations, while the latter are understood in terms of qualifications, as provided by the Canon 804 of the Code of Canon Law of 1983. In line with this development, the most recent regulation, presented in the Education Law 2/2006 of May 3, recognizes an unlimited period of employment contracts with religion teachers as long as the Missio canonica from the religious communities is available. This is applied to teachers of all religious communities. The legal development was affirmed through the Royal Decree 696/2007 of June 1, in which the employment relations of religion teachers are regulated in the third Appendix to the Education Law 2/2006 of May 3 (BOE of June 9) and are currently in force. Thus the teachers of religious education are recommended to all public schools in Spain by corresponding religious communities, which, from an organizational point of view, are renewed every year, but can also be given for an

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unlimited period of time, if agreed upon. This recommendation requires a teacher to have a university degree and to pass a teacher training course, as determined by the respective religions. In the case of the Catholic Church, the DECA – Declaracijn Eclesi#stica de Competencia Acad8mica (Ecclesiastical Academic Diploma) is required. This recommendation confirms the teacher’s professional competence viewed from the perspective of a respective religious community. Based on this recommendation, the school administration concludes an employment contract with the teacher, in which all payments that are to be made to the teacher are determined in the same manner as to the teachers of all other subjects. The contract can have an unlimited employment period with a trial period and a period for substitution specified in the usual manner. In private educational institutions, the teachers of religious education are also recommended by the respective religious communities and their employment relationships are established with the educational institutions directly through employment contracts: in this case, an educational institution assumes the role of a company and an employer. Teachers of religious education must have a university degree of the same level as the teachers of other school subjects and, in addition to that, they have to have specific training required by religious communities. In the case of the Catholic Church, the extent of this specific training amounts to 24 ECTS for preschool teachers (Infantil) and teachers on the primary school level, and 18 ECTS for teachers of secondary school; in both cases these credits are credited toward a university degree.8 Training of teachers is conducted based on a proposal and initiative of the religious communities, however, it can also be offered in coordination with the school administration to be financed and officially certified.9

3

Developments in the country’s education policy

The constitutional framework of Spanish democracy clearly expresses the principles of religious freedom (Article 16) and the right to education (Article 27) which, without any doubts, represented a major political consensus in the process of transition from dictatorship to democracy. In terms of religious freedom, this initial consensus was embodied in the Law of 1980; yet, without leading to any consequences. However, regarding the issue of education, several laws were accepted, some of them with short lifespan; among the laws of the highest rank can be mentioned, for instance, the laws of 1985, 1990, 1995, 2002, 8 http://www.conferenciaepiscopal.es/requisitos-deca. 9 See, for example: http://dee.archimadrid.es/actividades/formacion-del-profesorado.

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2006 and 2013. The issue of the place of religious education within the school system and its organization was one of the most discussed issues in these educational reforms. Below, the different phases in the educational policy of the Spanish democracy will be outlined from the perspective of religious education and how it was regulated in each respective phase, yet without going into the details of pedagogical aspects of these educational reforms. Any legislation on religious education has its own specific features. Just as the liberal and conservative parties change their presence and influence in the government, so the respective changes appear in the legislation.

3.1

The first phase (governments of UCD, 1980–1990)

In each new democratic period of Spanish society, after the dictatorship was overthrown, it was obvious that religious education could not be established in the form of an obligatory, purely Catholic subject in all school levels – as a form of catechesis – as had been the case in the previous historical periods, from 1940 to 1980. It was necessary to modify the legislation on education in order to reshape religious education as an optional school subject, by taking into consideration all pupils. But this produced a new problem: What should be done with all those pupils, who choose no religious instruction? At the very beginning of the new democracy, the solution consisted of providing an alternative subject to religious education, namely the study of ethics. From a pedagogical perspective, it was a new development to emphasize the educational aspect of religious education and to put less emphasis on the catechetical aspect. This scheme existed over a decade, until, in 1990, the current framework for religious education was replaced and new solutions were offered. Undoubtedly, this approach had epistemological limits, because the issues of religious nature were opposed to (or compared with) those of an ethical nature. From an academic point of view, however, this did not cause any special difficulties, except with those people, who refused to recognize the existence of religious education as a learning subject in school curriculum. This solution has been present in Spanish democracy for the longest period of time, and, as an academic solution, it was the least controversial.

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3.2

173

The second phase – LOGSE (the governments of PSOE, 1990–2002)

The Education law of 1990 (LOGSE) per se did not deal with religious education, except in the Regulation of the Second Amendment, which established religious education as an obligatory subject to be offered at various educational levels of educational institutions and as an optional subject for pupils. The law respected the principles contained in the Constitution. It was guaranteed that the pupils willing to take religious education lessons will be provided with these lessons by the education system. This also led to some restrictions for religious education: the hours were reduced by half; the learning achievements of pupils in religious education were no longer evaluated as their achievements in other school subjects; and alternative ethics classes were abolished. These difficulties continue to persist in different ways to the present day.10 This legal provisions on religious education did not go through the process of either political or social consensus. They were accepted without the consent of religious communities. It was mainly the Catholic Church that went to courts to oppose this law and prevent the problems that could be caused by it in the area of religious education. The Supreme Court in Spain considered the Church’s objections and concluded that the law had to be modified in order to give greater consideration to religious education. To some extent, the evaluation of religious education as a school subject became possible, thus restoring its academic value. Alternative subjects to religious education could also be offered; although these measures were only partial, they involved consideration of educational needs of pupils who do not attend religious lessons. The main aspects of this new solution were the following (Esteban Garc8s 1995): Religious education is offered in all educational institutions, starting from the second circle of pre-school to Baccalaureate (Matura), and it is comparable with the other subjects. Thus, religious education was given a role to play at all educational levels. – An alternative subject is offered parallel to religion; this subject is concretized by the school administration. – However, this alternative subject should not be connected to the existing content of the basic curriculum requirements, it should not be evaluated, and it should not be indicated in the pupils’ certificates.

10 More on pedagogical aspects of religious education in terms of curriculum development in the framework of the LOGSE (1990) can be found in the following three-volume study : Esteban Garc8s, Carlos (Coord.). 1998. Claves de la ERE. De la Teolog&a a la Pedagog&a. Madrid: Editorial PPC.

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– In the upper secondary education (ESO and Baccalaureate), the alternative subject deals with the written, plastic and musical expressions of different religions. It is therefore the first proposal for the subject “Society, culture and religion.” – There is a school evaluation of religious education at all levels; however, the grades that the pupils receive for this subject are not taken into the Baccalaureate.

3.3

The third phase – LOCE (governments of PP, 2002–2006)

The provisions made in the period between 1990 and 1995 have always been considered temporary and it was assumed that, sooner or later, they would be substituted by new solutions. The Law on Quality of Education (LOCE), adopted in 2002, created in the Second Additional Regulation a new framework for religious education in the Spanish education system. It was titled “Society, culture and religion” and represented a subject with two variations, denominational and non-denominational, which all pupils had to attend. In this way, the old concept in which pupils had to study ethics or religion, or attend an alternative subject, offered in place of religious education, was overcome. With the new concept, a new paradigm of religious education was introduced, and a new focus of thinking about religious education was offered. It introduced a new school subject for all pupils who now have to choose between a confessional religious education, related to religious communities that have an agreement with the state, and a non-denominational one. Because it was one subject for all pupils, there was no more need to develop any kind of alternative subject to those not attending religious education lessons. This Law represented a major advance not only because it improved the organization of religious education, but also because it established religious knowledge as a valuable element of education within the school system. This was an important innovation, which, unfortunately, did not take hold for long. This Law expressed a clear intention to treat religious education academically and as part of school curriculum, based on the conviction that religious knowledge contributes to a holistic education. In the text of this Law, this was expressed as follows: At the level of primary and secondary school, the law grants academic treatment to religious education and its corresponding cultural expression due to its importance for a holistic education, and does so according to the Constitution and contracts signed by the Spanish State. This short but very expressive paragraph clearly states an intention to treat religious knowledge as an academic subject and contains a claim to consider religion as an educational subject, which includes corresponding forms of cultural expression. Not only is

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the objective of the law clearly revealed here, but also the reason for the mentioned academic treatment: its significance for a holistic education. With this formulation, the law on the Quality of Education established a new role for religion education in schools.11 A new framework was established which contained a dual function: – First, to react to the necessity of ensuring that all pupils have access to a religious dimension of culture as a basic tool of holistic education, which presupposes an overall development of the human personality in compliance with the democratic principles of coexistence and fundamental rights and freedoms (CE, 27.2); – Second, to offer all pupils access to this religious dimension of culture in accordance with their own convictions. This means to achieve that this fundamental right, as guaranteed under the Constitution, is exercised appropriately within the framework of the lessons designed by the respective educational institutions (CE, 27.3). To understand the scope of the LOCE Regulation, it is necessary to fully overcome the idea that religious education exclusively ensures the right of just a few families and that the alternative subjects are included in the curriculum purely due to the wish of a number of individuals, who pursue their individual rights without considering that they thereby determine the freedom of others.

3.4

The fourth phase – LOE (governments of PSOE, 2006–2013)

The change of government in 2004 means, from the perspective of education, a change in education policy. In April 2006, a new Education Law (LOE) replaced the Law on Quality of Education (LOCE), which has once again put religious education in a worse position. The position of religious education under LOE remained roughly like it was under LOGSE, as has been already explained. It had no theoretical concept of education and was limited to fulfilling the requirements of the contracts between the State and religions communities. The treatment of pupils that did not chose to participate in religious education changed from participation classes (estudio asistido), as was in the LOGSE model, to educational attention (atencijn educativa), as outlined by the LOE, but without formal evaluation in both cases.

11 An extensive explanation of the novelty of the concept of LOCE of 2002 on religious knowledge can be found in the following book: Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2003. EnseÇanza de la religijn y Ley de Calidad. Madrid: Editorial PPC.

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The fifth phase – LOMCE (governments of the PP, 2013 until today)

The last reform in Spain, known under the acronym LOMCE, was passed by the House of Representatives on November 28, 2013, with 182 votes in favor, 143 – against and 6 – undecided (Law 8/2013 of December 9 on Improving the Quality of Education, BOE of December 10). This law established a new system of religious education, as explained in more detail in Part 4 of this article on the basis of the text of the law and with the evaluation of its specific formulations. This part of the historical overview of 1980 to today, does not need to be repeated here (Esteban Garc8s 2014).

3.6

Unresolved problem requires greater consensus

In summary, religious education remains an unresolved problem in need of a greater consensus. After five generations of proposed solutions, religious education continues to require durable solutions and social and political consensus. Despite many difficulties, religious education was not abolished in almost 40 years of democracy and remained present and popular in Spanish society.

4

Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes and developments, legal relationships

The organization of educational institutions in Spain is based on the Law 8/1985 of July 3 on the Right to Education. Since then, the organization of educational institutions has not been substantially altered. Educational institutions are state schools, usually called public schools, because they are under direct supervision of the State Administration. Yet, they may also be in private ownership, if their founders and directorate fall under the category of a civic, private cooperation. Private schools are characterized by the fact that since 1985 they can cooperate with the State Administration (legislation on private schools). While maintaining their private nature, they largely adapt to public institutions and are financed to a large extent by the State Administration. Private Catholic schools always maintain their private nature and, in most cases, work in cooperation with the State Administration. State funding enables them to enroll pupils of all socioeconomic backgrounds for free and thus to avoid exclusivity despite their status as private schools.

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The majority of private Catholic schools are created on the initiative of religious communities of the Catholic Church, some are run by parishes or dioceses. Spain also has some private schools, which are run by other religious communities. A notable feature of private schools is that their founders can develop and define the school profile according to their own principles/identity. In the case of Catholic private schools, the educational mission as a whole is characterized by the Christian faith. Parents that send their children to these schools have to respect this fact, which does not mean that they have to share the same personal convictions. Religious education in public schools is offered as an optional subject for pupils who are Catholic or belonging to other religious communities. In the case of denominational private schools, religious education corresponds to the identity of the school and is compulsory for all pupils. Nearly all Catholic private schools are part of a network-organization with a long history and certain social and media presence (more information about this organization can be found at www.escuelascatjlicas.es). Below, data on the educational institutions in Spain are presented by taking into consideration school levels, pupils and teachers. In Spain, Catholic educational institutions have proven to be an enormous asset for the Church and for society. The schools are held in high regard by society. There are more than 2 600 schools with more than 1.5 million pupils, over 123 000 teachers and nearly 9 000 support teachers (dyslexia, physiotherapy, etc.). Education levels

All Centers *

Catholic Centers

Total

Public Private

Pre-school Education

8.155

4.136

4.019

240

Primary school Ed. (1)

10.348

9.887

461

221

Primary and lower secondary school Ed.(1)

2.149

533

1.616

968

Lower and higher secondary school Ed.

4.739

3.997

742

165

Primary, lower and higher secondary school Ed. (1)

1.408

4

1.404

836

481

195

86

219

27.280 18.752

8.528

2.601

Special school Ed. TOTAL number of educational institutions

Table 3: Educational institutions in Spain, total, public and private. (1) They can also provide pre-school education. * 2012–2013. Ministerio de Educacijn, Cultura y Deporte.

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Education levels

Students

Pre-school Ed.

All Centers (1) Total Public Private 1.900.173 1.237.979 662.194

Primary school Ed.

2.827.480

1.910.026

917.454

561.068

32.918

18.773

14.145

3.845

Lower secondary school Ed.

1.806.058

1.191.340

614.718

409.932

Upper secondary school Ed.

635.100

474.214

160.886

101.853

Middle vocational Ed.

317.656

241.534

76.122

35.358

Higher vocational Ed.

300.632

233.677

66.955

22.758

84.297

65.829

18.468

7.944

7.904.314

5.373.372

2.530.942

1.441.753

Special school Ed.

Pre-vocational Ed. TOTAL LEVELS

Catholic Centers 298.995

Table 4: Students in Spain, total, public and private. (1) Students in presence modus. Source: 2012–2013. Ministerio de Educacijn, Cultura y Deporte.

5

Conceptions and tasks of RE

The nature and identity of Catholic religious education in the Spanish school system within the democratic political system were laid out in 1979 in an official Document issued by the Spanish Bishops Conference. Without a doubt, this Document is the key to understanding the importance and the role of Catholic religious education in primary and secondary schools from the perspective of the Church. In this Document, the proper, academic character of religious education is determined, namely that religious education is to be treated just like any other school subject. The aims, methods and content of this education, however, are designed from a Christian perspective, because it is a denominational subject, which is, nevertheless, different from catechesis or preparation to the sacraments. In the first part of the aforementioned Document, religious education in schools is justified as follows: – To educate and to offer an upbringing integral to the meaning and purpose of school education, since the natural function of school is the delivery of education in a systematic way. Within the context of school, religious education enables pupils to clearly position themselves in relation to cultural traditions and to critically integrate themselves in society as well as to answer questions concerning the ultimate meaning of human life with a sensitivity for the

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corresponding ethical implications. Therefore, religious education must be seen and structured as an ordinary school subject. – Religious education is the right of pupils and their parents. This right of families does not come from a possible confessional nature of the state because the state is not responsible for the religious, moral or philosophical orientation of its citizens. Instead, the state’s function is to maintain a continued coexistence of social groups within the current legal framework. – Religious education in schools is an integral part of human culture, which enables the development of a dialogue between faith and education based on critical judgment and in accordance with educational process. – Finally, the Document stresses that religious education in schools is a religious service that does not hinder the right to religious freedom, but rather contributes to its development. It constitutes a response to the right of parents, who want their children to receive a religious education in accordance with the Church. Therefore, religious education in school constitutes a school subject as well as a religious subject. It is, in terms of content, designed by the Church, just as it is taught by teachers who are proposed by the Church and hired by the State Administration under a contract. In the second part, the Document emphasizes the essence of religious education at school as a curricular subject that is different from catechesis. The unique nature of religious education at school becomes clearer, when it is seen in relation to the catechesis of the Christian community, on the one side, and other school subjects, on the other side. It is emphasized that, in school, different groups are connected mainly through school relationships; that the initiative for religious education is a contribution of the Church to the offer made by the state, and, therefore, it always has to adapt to concrete historical circumstances; that religious education should be seen as part of human culture which adds a Christian perspective to questions about the meaning of life and to the choice of a worldview; that the aim of school is to give to its pupils knowledge about faith through interdisciplinary dialogue and as a contribution to their general education, as well as through the integration of religious education in the process of personality development. The aforementioned Document also emphasizes the special nature of religious education as compared to other school subjects. Religious education establishes its unique identity not only with regard to the catechesis of the Christian community, but also with regard to its special contribution to the academic world, similarly to other school subjects. Indeed, any discipline is an approximation of reality that addresses certain human questions and challenges and thus presents a unique contribution to achieving educational goals.

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Religious education offers pupils the opportunity to contemplate questions of the ultimate, deeper meaning of life. In order to answer these questions, religious education also opens up an interdisciplinary exchange between its own sphere of knowledge and the knowledge of other disciplines. Religious education is a school subject that is comparable to all other subjects in its relationship to science. From a curricular perspective, it makes a similar contribution to the holistic development of the person as other school subjects do. The denominational orientation that characterizes religious education does not necessarily undermine its serious nature and its objective methodological approach as a discipline that is focused on knowledge. Religion is a part of social and cultural development of mankind that has been present throughout the human history. Religion represents not only an integrative, but also unavoidable element in human cultures of the past and present. Therefore, religion should be taught and learned within this specific context. If it is desired that pupils understand the historical and social context in which they live, it is necessary that all the essential elements of this context be presented to them. If pupils are to actively participate in society, it is necessary for them to be familiar with and to contribute to all the aspects that define the development of this society. If the aim is that pupils acquire the basic tools for active social life, it is also necessary that they should have access to tools that facilitate their understanding of the entire environment and heritage that surrounds them. If pupils are to be made familiar with all the different fields of knowledge, it is necessary to show them the entire scope of this knowledge. Religious education as a school subject has some features that characterize it as an optional educational subject of a confessional nature: – Presentation of the essential core of Christian thinking based on personal experiences of faith. – An open, respectful, critical and interdisciplinary dialogue with other cultures and sciences. – Openness to transcendence and giving possible answers to basic questions about the meaning of life, including their individual, social and ethical implications. – Strict curricular and extracurricular methodology and pedagogical principles. Additionally, religious education as a school subject of a confessional nature on par with other school subjects has the following unique objectives: – To introduce and discover religion with an emphasis on the collective Christian experience and to introduce its function as a critical point of reference within society.

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– To represent the Christian faith along with its moral obligations and its individual as well as social dimensions of liberation and humanism. – To offer a Christian anthropology in an open dialogue with other approaches and beliefs. – To form a religious dimension of a person alongside with other dimensions that define the development of a human being. – To develop the ability to understand and to experience faith in a scientific manner in relation to other areas of knowledge. – To contribute to the education of pupils in terms of the development of their personal autonomy and active participation in society.

6

Practice/reality of RE in different schools

While religious education seems to be marred with political debates, the pupils, teachers and families are generally satisfied with it. In most schools, religious education is successful, teachers are well integrated into the faculty, and pupils appreciate the lessons and teachers. Similarly, families not only choose religious education year after year, but they also express a notable satisfaction with it. Here we are dealing with a paradox: Religious education appears to be a problem when viewed from a political or media perspective but it works well, when we take a closer look at schools and individuals involved directly in religious education. This paradox is confirmed by a sociological case study (Esteban Garc8s 2010) with more than 6000 respondents, which shows that the religious education works reasonably well. Although a detailed discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper, some facts and figures should be cited to illustrate the context which the LOMCE provisions on religious education in schools are applied to.

6.1

Families that chose religious education are satisfied

Families that choose religious education feel 97.8 % responsible of their children’s education. The families are more than 77 % satisfied or very satisfied with the religious lessons that their children receive in school. This is 10 % more than found by the study of the Bishops Conference conducted ten years ago. On a grading scale, religious education receives the grade “Good”. Many families believe that religious education has a very positive effect on their children: 69.5 % believe that it helps them in the matters of faith, but also that it makes them more responsible and critical (55 %). Additionally, religious education is believed to contribute to the general education of pupils and sup-

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port their value formation, without posing a risk of manipulative influence on the conscience of children.

6.2

Pupils that choose religious education enjoy the lessons

61.5 % of pupils like religion lessons. A large majority finds that these lessons have helped them to learn about God and to believe in God (68 %). More than half said that the lessons have helped them to learn about the Church. And 65.5 % say that they helped them to learn about other religions. 68 % of pupils agree that religious education has helped them to become better people and more than 73 % say that it helps them to be able to distinguish the good from the bad. Pupils express an appreciation for the values that religious education passes on to them and believe that it enriches their general knowledge, helping them to be more responsible and tolerant. Finally, pupils in public schools evaluate their teachers very positively, and one third even says that their religion teacher is better than teachers of other school subjects.

6.3

Teachers of religious education are satisfied

The profile for teachers of religious education is strongly associated with social and ecclesial tasks. More than 94 % follow current events as well as educational and political developments. In addition to their responsibilities at their schools, 56.8 % are also engaged in voluntary activities aimed at increasing social justice. 36 % belong to trade unions or professional associations. 56 % of the religion teachers are married, 27 % divorced and only 11 % are priests or members of religious communities. 98 % describe themselves as practicing Catholics and 65 % are connected to a parish or a religious community. The religion teachers find their profession fulfilling and only 8 % would pursue a different career if they could. More than 90 % think that their own behavior must correspond to the values they teach, which also includes loyalty to the Church. A notable majority believe that the problems with religious education have more to do with politics than with education, and more than 90 % see their work as essential to a comprehensive education. Concern for the pupils is the main focus of teaching for almost 60 % of teachers. The emotional state of religion teachers is also quite balanced and

183

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cheerful – only 1.5 % of them said that they feel sad. This emotional state of religion teachers positively contributes to school environment. It is a paradox: Even if there are some people who insist on problematizing religious education, in reality, no one is forced to take these lessons and those who freely choose religious education are reasonably satisfied and appreciate it.

6.4

Pupils that choose religious education

The number of pupils who chosen religious education in the 2015/16 school year constitutes on average 63 % across all school types, both in public and private educational institutions. Public Centers Registered Non registered

Students Pre-school Primary school

Total

% Registered

459.292

376.523

835.815

55 %

1.160.303

693.355

1.853.658

63 %

Lower secondary school

436.058

657.430

1.093.488

40 %

Upper secondary school

130.078

207.178

337.256

39 %

2.185.731

1.934.486

4.120.217

53 %

Total Table 5

Catholic Centers Registered Non registered

Students Pre-school

Total

10.959

Primary school

508.905

10.806

519.711

98 %

Lower secondary school

379.142

8.285

387.427

98 %

Upper secondary school

77.378

4.699

82.077

94 %

1.213.278

34.749

1.248.027

97 %

Total

258.812

% Registered

247.853

96 %

Table 6 Students

Private Centers (without Catholic Centers) Registered Non registered Total

Pre-school

% Registered

56.096

36.869

92.965

60 %

135.898

68.196

204.094

67 %

Lower secondary school

65.638

55.610

121.248

54 %

Upper secondary school

10.175

14.917

25.092

41 %

267.807

175.592

443.399

60 %

Primary school

Total Table 7

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Carlos Esteban Garcés

Students Pre-school Primary school

All Centers Registered Non registered

Total

% Registered

763.241

424.351

1.187.592

64 %

1.805.106

772.357

2.577.463

70 %

Lower secondary school

880.838

721.325

1.602.163

55 %

Upper secondary school

217.631

226.794

444.425

49 %

3.666.816

2.144.827

5.811.643

63 %

Students Total

Table 8: Source: 69 dijcesis; Elaboracijn: Oficina de Estad&stica y Sociolog&a de la CEE.12

7

Observations on alternative subjects / learning areas like ethics, philosophy etc.

Since the last Education Law of 2013, pupils who do not choose religious education among available religious education lessons of religious communities at their school, attend an alternative subject that deals with ethical and social values. This subject is a part of the official curriculum of school, it has its own teachers, its own program and evaluation, as is the case for all school subjects. The Ministry of Education set the curriculum for special subjects in the legislation, which also includes the alternative subject to religion, titled Social and Cultural Values. Social and cultural values, as the basic curriculum says, discusses the fundamental values for living in a democratic society. Herein lies the importance of education, which facilitates the formation of a personal identity and the development of enriching interpersonal relations as a means of improving social coexistence in accordance with civic values that are recognized by society. The subject “Social and cultural values” helps to further guarantee the universal right of children to receive an education that allows them to develop in the best possible way, to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and to lead a responsible life in a free and tolerant society that values diversity. Similarly, this subject supports the preparation of individuals for active citizenship and supports their ability to improve, uphold, defend and develop a democratic society. This education includes the acquisition of social and civic competences – personal, interpersonal and intercultural – that enable an efficient and constructive participation in increasingly diverse societies. 12 More information can be found at: http://www.conferenciaepiscopal.es/comision-episcopalde-ensenanza-y-catequesis/.

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The subject can convey to pupils from the beginning of the primary level the ability to reflect on and experience values. This is a response to the concern about the need to increase the quality of education for all pupils through the development of educational processes that encourage individual participation in achieving common goals. The social experience of pupils is thus enriched, considering the fact that during this educational process they live in a society, and their shared experiences enrich their learning processes. The subject promotes reflection and presupposes a learning process centered around human dignity, mutual respect and a coexistence based on social values. It is prioritized that each pupil acquires skills that are necessary for the formation of an appropriate personal goals and good self-esteem necessary to be able to act responsibly and to live in dignity. Once personal identity is formed, the child is ready to recognize others. This leads to empathy, respect and tolerance towards other people and includes certain necessary skills of understanding fundamental rights and needs and acting in accordance with this understanding. If an individual is able to get to know and accept themselves while at the same time understanding and respecting others, he or she can accept the complexity of social life. At this point, attitudes are stimulated promoting positive interdependence, cooperation and solidarity in accordance with the values, rights and duties of the Spanish Constitution. In this way, religious education teaches pupils to understand social reality, to resolve conflicts in a reflective way, to achieve progress through dialogue, to respect universal values and to create their own system of values and to participate actively, peacefully and democratically in public life. The subject “Social and cultural values” helps pupils improve their skills by stimulating their motivation, efforts and ability to think reflectively. Religious education helps them face problems, to work in a team, to be independent, to make decisions and to work out personal alternatives. This subject has to be taught by the teachers that encourage mutual assistance and cooperation, inspired by the idea that all people, despite their individual restrictions, have important skills. It must promote the development of skills that lead pupils to believe that they are valuable members of society capable of helping others, to feel recognized and to show attention, as well as to receive help to solve problems. The methodology in the classroom must be based on the relationship between personal and academic progress because emotional balance and learning go together and reinforce each other. The methodological decisions will be aimed towards facilitating the development of well-educated and informed individuals that are able to take responsibility, to defend their rights to exercise active citizenship, to fit in a satisfactory manner into adult life and to develop a lifelong learning process.

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Teaching and learning processes should be oriented towards the participation of all pupils, so that they feel valuable and capable. The basis for cooperation can be provided by tasks that enable pupils to analyze, explain and interpret thoughts, feelings and actions in different social and cultural contexts and employ a language that structures behavior and supports the formation of relationships. For decisions to be made based on moral judgments and for problems and conflicts to be solved in cooperation with others, the necessary skills have to be developed, involving the ability to follow different thought processes, to think logically, to analyze social and historical problems and to critically evaluate them. When the skills are developed in a friendly, stimulating and educational environment of coexistence and cooperation, this by itself supports the achievement of the aforementioned objectives. This basic curriculum does not determine aims and content of education, as these are the task of the Autonomous communities, bit it nevertheless determines the subject areas for evaluation. The following topics have been set for the primary school level, for pupils aged 6 to 12: – Topic 1: Identity and personal dignity – Topic 2: Understanding and respect in relationships between human beings – Topic 3: Coexistence and social values And for the secondary school level (ESO), pupils aged 12 to 16, the topics are as follows: – Topic 1: Personal dignity – Topic 2: Understanding and respect in relationships between human beings – Topic 3: Reflection on ethics – Topic 4: Justice and politics – Topic 5: Ethical values, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international treaties on human rights – Topic 6: Ethical values and their relation to science and technology.

8

Dealing with religious diversity

Among different kinds of denominational religious education, Catholic religious education is the most typical. There are about 12 000 Catholic religion teachers, 200 Protestant religion teachers and fewer than 100 Muslim religion teachers. The picture of religious diversity at schools is highly asymmetric. Apart from schools, where teachers and pupils of different faiths come together, different religions are brought into contact with each other in a constructive and ecumenical way. Some years ago, I was actively working to facilitate interreligious

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187

communication between Catholic and Protestant teachers working at the same school to support the process of their mutual acquaintance with each other’s faiths. The result of these interreligious encounters was a study, which was published in the Revista de Pastoral Ecumenica and included field reports of the teachers and a theoretical section. Several meetings and symposiums, including those with Islamic religious teachers, were held at the Institute for Studies of Religions in the Contemporary World (IERMA) of the University of La Salle in Madrid in cooperation with the Department of Interreligious Dialogue in Granada (CANDIR).

9

Religion in school outside of RE

Religious activity in public schools is mostly structured around religious education and can create the impression that no other forms of religious expression exist at public schools. The situation is different at private schools, the majority of which are closely connected to religious institutions and communities. There are many pastoral projects in which religious education is only a part of the religious experience. In public schools, there are several examples of activities that are worth mentioning as expressions of religiosity within the school system. One of these is called “Christian educators”, which is a platform of communication between religious teachers working in public schools, where they discuss issues concerning their work and experiences of faith. In the dioceses, this kind of activities take place through various projects of spiritual and vocational assistance. A small association of Catholic teachers at schools and a recently formed movement of Christians in public school also draw attention to these activities. In summary it can be said that the religious reality in schools consists mostly of separate initiatives of lay Christians who are trying to connect their faith with their work. Other religious activities, or activities related to religiosity in a broader spiritual sense, are projects aimed at fostering the formation of personal spiritual development in pupils. Although the activities of this kind are spread mostly in private schools, they also exist in some public schools. Their aim is to develop a spiritual dimension of human personality through mediation, yoga and selfreflection. These activities represent a small-scaled but growing phenomenon. School life in private schools, as already mentioned, is mostly religious by its nature and pastoral projects involve the school community as a whole, from families to pupils and teachers. These projects aim at the development of an individual experience of faith within the schools’ religious communities. They include catechesis as well as courses for personal development in the faith for youth and young adults. Christian movements are connected to the principles

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and identity of schools, involving not only pupils but also families. Ultimately, religiosity penetrates the whole school community and is connected to all aspects of school life, from curricula to leisure activities.

10

Training of teachers of RE: institutes, structures, priorities issues

As for all other subjects of a certain grade, the basic education of religion teachers consists of a university degree, irrespective of religion. This requirement is applied to public and private educational institutions. In addition, teachers must have a didactic preparation acquired at pedagogical and theological institutions of their religious communities. In the case of the Catholic Church, this specialization carries the acronym DECA (Declaracijn Eclesi#stica de Competencia Acad8mica / Ecclesiastical Academic Diploma), which is offered in teacher training colleges and theological colleges. It comprises 24 ECTS. The DECA title was introduced by the Spanish Bishops Conference on April 27, 2007 as an additional academic requirement to a university degree that would entitle teachers of religious education to teach in schools. The academic education of DECA program consists of 4 subjects, each worth 6 ECTS: 1. Values education. Citizenship and religion Deals with the ethical dimension of education and the importance of values in the development of a human personality. The diversity of religious phenomena and the living Christian faith are analyzed from a phenomenological perspective and in dialogue with other cultures and sciences. 2. Theology 1 The basic content of the Christian faith is systematically and holistically presented from a theological perspective. This part is concerned with Jesus Christ and His message. It also discusses the Bible and methods of its interpretation in the contemporary world, and introduces the basics of theological anthropology. 3. Theology 2 The fundamental principles of the Christian faith are discussed further on and are considered from a theological perspective with an emphasis on the Church as a community of the disciples of Jesus. Their liturgical practices and sacraments, ethics and commitment to justice and human dignity are also considered.

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4. Religious education The way religious reality and the Christian faith can contribute to the improvement of education are the topics that are discussed during this part. The essence of religious education at schools is discussed by developing a didactic concept which is based on the key educational and theological elements that are intrinsic to religious education in schools.13 Training of teachers is carried out on the basis of initiatives and proposals of religious communities, but can also be implemented in coordination with school administration and can be financed and officially certified. In private schools, this training is usually initiated by the school sponsors, i. e. the religious institutions that have established these schools. In public schools, the organization and maintenance of religion teachers’ training falls under the responsibility of the dioceses, which manage these trainings through the school boards.14

11

Empirical Research concerning RE

The most important research study concerning religious education in Spain is a social science study with more than 6000 respondents (Esteban Garc8s 2010). An overview can be found in section 6 above.

12

Desiderata / challenges for RE in a European context

The future of Religious Education at schools in the European Union depends on a recommendation from the highest level of its state institutions, which expressly supports that the educational systems of all Member States include content on the subject of religion in their curricula, religion as an anthropological dimension and also on their contribution to history and culture, especially to Western and European civilization. A request from European institutions to religious traditions is also necessary to propose in schools, without proselytizing, the best values of coexistence and solidarity building of societies. A challenge for the future of Religious Education in Europe is that in the European Education Framework, when talking about key competences, the religious component is explained both in personal as well as social and cultural

13 Further information: http://www.conferenciaepiscopal.es/requisitos-deca/. 14 Further information: http://dee.archimadrid.es/actividades/formacion-del-profesorado/.

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identities. This is the basis for educating the socio-political commitment of future European citizens. Another challenge for the future will be the growing responsibility of the European institutions in the management of Religious Education in schools. The necessary neutrality of the State and the secularity of Governments must be made compatible with the cooperation of the Churches and religious traditions with the administrations. Finally, another challenge for the future of Religious Education will be to link its curricular contents with the learning of global citizenship, including in the future PISA reports school performance evaluations of the educational contributions of the teaching of religion.

13

Further information

Comisijn Episcopal de EnseÇanza / Episcopal Commission for teaching. It is the Catholic institution functioning at the state level, which coordinates religious education in schools. It is part of the Spanish Bishops Conference http://www.conferenciaepiscopal.es/com ision-episcopal-de-ensenanza-y-catequesis/. Authoritative body responsible for teaching at the dioceses. In each diocese, there is an administrative body responsible for pastoral activities at schools and for religious education. Here is an example of the Diocese of Madrid and the sphere of its responsibilities: www.dee.archimadrid.es. Colegio Profesional de la Educacijn / Professional association of teachers. This is an organization for teachers of all subjects and all schools. It represents professional interests, needs and suggestions of all teachers in a form of a professional association. The teachers of religious education can become members of this organization as well. https://www. cdlmadrid.org/cgi-bin/cdl/colegiodeprofesores.pl. Escuelas Catjlicas / Catholic schools. This is an organization for Catholic schools that were founded by religious communities or religious institutions of the Catholic Church. It unites more than 2000 schools. http://www.escuelascatolicas.es/Paginas/default.aspx. Magazine “Religijn y Escuela”. This is a professional journal for religion teachers, which was founded in Spain at the beginning of the democratic period and functions as a reference book for religion teachers and those responsible for religious education. http:// www.ppc-editorial.es/es/catalogo/categoria/religi%C3%B3n%20y%20escuela. University Centre La Salle. In this university, which specializes in teachers training, a range of religious studies is offered, including study programs for DECA (Ecclesiastical-academic diploma). There are also programs offering university degrees in the field of religious studies and several postgraduate programs that are specifically designed for teachers of religion. http://www.lasallecentrouniversitario.es/estudios/estudios_grado/religion/Pagi nas/default.aspx.

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Professional associations for teachers of religion. There are associations that are established especially for teachers of religion, such as APPRECE (Professional Association of Religion Teachers in Public Schools). Teachers of religion are also represented in other general professional associations, in spite of having their own sub-area: USIT-EP (Independent Professional Association of Public Service Workers), USO (Association of Workers), ANPE (National Professional Association of Teachers), and CSIF (Central Association of Civil Servants). http://www.apprece.es/ http://usitep.es/.

References Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 1995. Did#ctica del #rea de Religijn. Madrid: Ediciones SPX. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos (Coord.). 1998. Claves de la ERE. De la Teolog&a a la Pedagog&a. Madrid: Editorial PPC. (tres volfflmenes). Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2003. EnseÇanza de la religijn y Ley de Calidad. Madrid: Editorial PPC. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2006. Ley Org#nica de Educacijn. Edicijn did#ctica. Madrid: Ediciones SM. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2007. El #rea de Religijn en el sistema educativo de la LOE. Madrid: Ediciones SM-PPC. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2008. EnseÇanza de la Religijn y competencias b#sicas. Gu&a pr#ctica de programacijn. Madrid: Ediciones SM-PPC. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2010. Protagonistas de la clase de Religijn. Madrid: Fundacijn SM. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos y Prieto Chaparro, Rub8n. 2011. Competentes en Religijn. Propuestas y actividades para mejorar las clases de Religijn. Madrid: Editorial PPC. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos. 2014. La asignatura de Religijn en el sistema educativo de la LOMCE. Madrid: Ediciones SM-PPC. Esteban Garc8s, Carlos y Prieto Chaparro, Rub8n. 2015. Alumnos competentes en Religijn. Propuestas para la programacijn b#sica. Madrid: Editorial PPC. Ljpez Rodrigo, J.M. 2012. La libertad religiosa en EspaÇa hoy. Alandar n8 288.

Martin Jäggle

Religious Education at Schools in Andorra – Monaco – San Marino

These three micro-states in Southern Europe, the Principality of Andorra, the Principality of Monaco and the Republic of San Marino – each have a very long history, their population is traditional largely Catholic and the Catholic Church has a great influence in history and the present. None of these states is Member of the European Union, but all are members of the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the United Nations and other international organizations. All three states have low taxes and tourism has great economic importance.

1

Principality of Andorra1

The Principality of Andorra (Principat d’Andorra), which lies in the Pyrenees is a land-locked country 468 km2 in size situated between France and Spain, with a population of 72,000 inhabitants as of 2017. Sixty years ago, there were 6,000 inhabitants. Since then, a country of emigration has become an immigration country, especially from Spain. 44.4 % of the population have Andorran citizenship, 25.0 % have Spain citizenship, 12.3 % have Portuguese citizenship, 4.2 % have French citizenship. It is very difficult to get an Andorran citizenship. Because of its history and the historical role of the Catholic Church in its political structure, Andorra is a state unlike any other. It is a co-principality in which the Head of State is the Bishop of Urgell (whose See is the city of Seu d’Urgell in Catalonia, close to the border with Andorra) and the President of the French Republic, on a non- separable format. The Principality of Andorra has had a special relationship with the Catholic Church since the 9th century. Seven hundred years later, the first constitution of Andorra (1993) declared in Article 43.2: “The Co-Princes, an institution which dates from the Pareatges2 and their historical evolution, are in their personal and 1 Thankfully, Cristina Pokora has provided a text for this article. 2 Contracts of 1278 and 1288.

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exclusive right, the Bishop of Urgell and the President of the French Republic. Their powers are equal and derive from the present Constitution. Each of them swears or affirms to exercise their functions in accordance with the present Constitution.”

Religion Article 11 of the Constitution of Andorra guarantees political and religious freedom. It also establishes the right of individuals not to be forced to declare or make public their ideology, religion or beliefs. Article 11.2 of the Constitution establishes that the freedom to express one’s religious beliefs or opinions should only be subject to the legal limitations considered necessary for the protection of public safety, order, health or morals, or the fundamental freedoms of other persons. Finally, in Article 11.3 the “Constitution guarantees the Roman Catholic Church free and public exercise of its activities and the preservation of the relationship of special co-operation with the State in accordance with the Andorran tradition.” There is no mention of any other religion as a potential alternative entity with which the State could co-operate. Although there is no official data on religion, most of the population of Andorra is traditionally Catholic or from Catholic “origins”. However due to an extraordinary rise in the population in the last 60 years several religious communities live in the country nowadays. According to a Survey on the expenses of the families made by the Statistics Department of the Andorran Government, the distribution of the population according to religion and creed in 2016 was as follows: Religion Buddhists Catholics Hindus Jews Muslims Protestants Others None Do not answer

2015 1.0 % 69.8 % 0.0 % 0.3 % 0.7 % 1.7 % 2.1 % 24.4 % 0.0 %

Table 1. Source: Departament d’Estad&stiques d’Andorra

There is a small Jewish Community, which opened a synagogue and a cultural centre in 2000.

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Education Article 20.2 of the Constitution establishes the freedom of education and the establishment of educational centres, so that religious communities have the freedom to set up faith schools. Article 20.3 establishes the rights of parents to decide the type of moral or religious education that their children should receive in accordance with their own convictions. The text of the Andorran Constitution also establishes the principle of religious equality, even the Constitution (art. 11.3) makes only a reference to the Catholic Church and its relation of special co-operation with the State as forming part of Andorran tradition. The Ministry for Education and Youth (Ministeri d’Educacij i Joventut) is responsible for the school system. Officially, the level of literacy in Andorra currently stands around 100 %. Educational expenses make up 3.8 % of GDP (as per 2016). “Schooling is compulsory from the ages of six to sixteen.” (Brock 2016: 284) “Catalan (catal/) is the only official language, with Spanish and – to a somewhat lesser extent – French also being widely used in the country. This linguistic diversity is the basis of a multilingual education system” (Sroka 2015: 21). There are 3 public and free educational systems: Andorran, Spanish and French. The Andorran system was established in 1982, while the Spanish and the French systems have existed for a long time. Each of the 3 educational systems represents approximately 1/3 of the students: 39 % in the Andorran system (schooling through the medium of Catalan), 33 % in the French system (schooling through the medium of French) and 28 % in the Spanish system (schooling through the medium of Spain). Catalan is learned in every system. All schools are built and backed up by Andorran authorities. “In general, education of the Spanish and French systems (including curriculum, teaching staff, and salaries of teachers) is organized by Spain and France on the basis of international agreements between the principality and the respective governments” (Sroka 2015: 22), only for the teacher for Catalan und Andorran history is the Andorran ministry responsible. “The Andorran school system follows a national curriculum. Its distinctive feature is that three languages (Catalan, French, and Spanish) are used as media of instruction.” (Sroka 2015: 23) There is one private school where pupils study in English and Spanish. A British College was opened in September 2018. However there are some Catholic schools based on the Spanish system, but neither financially nor institutionally dependent on the Spanish state system, but is financed by the Andorran state.

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Religious Education (Catholic) Religious Education is an optional subject during the first and secondary school in the Andorran educational system and in the Spanish public schools. The Catholic Church choses the teachers, the state pays their salary. The Curriculum of Religious Education follows the Curriculum of Spain. And there is no Religious Education in the French Schools. Apart from Religious Education, the different religions are studied as a social, philosophical or literary phenomenon.

2

Principality of Monaco

The Principality of Monaco (Principaut8 de Monaco) is located on the French Riviera, bordered by France and the Mediterranean Sea. Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of 38 400 (Census 2016). 9 160 have the citizenship of Monaco. Monaco has a high level of immigration and its inhabitants come from over 150 states. Within the culturally mixed population there “is a significant minority of mega-rich inhabitants” (Brock 2016: 287). The official language is French, the language of the native Monegasque, the Occitan, is not recognized. Mon8gasque (munegascu), a Romance dialect, related to the northern Italian Ligurian dialect is a compulsory school subject. The House of Grimaldi comes from Liguria and have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, since 1297.

Religion “The Catholic, Apostolic and Roman religion is the religion of the State.” (Constitution Art. 9)

The freedoms of other religions and denominations are guaranteed by the Monegasque constitution: “Freedom of religion and of public worship, and freedom to express one’s opinions in all matters, shall be guaranteed, subject to the right to prosecute any offences committed in the exercise of the said freedoms.” (Art. 23) There must be no compulsion in religious matters: “No one may be compelled to participate in the rites or ceremonies of any religion or to observe its days of rest.” (Art. 23) About 90 % of the Monegasques are Catholics, 6 % are Protestants, and there are Orthodox and Jewish minorities.

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Education The Department of Education, Youth and Sports (Ministry of Interior) is responsible for education especially : “The organisation and administration of primary, secondary, vocational and higher education. The implementation of reforms to education programmes, training and the recruitment of teachers. Monitoring of private educational institutions.” Schooling is free (“Monegasques are entitled to free primary and secondary education.” Art. 27). The Education Act, passed in 2007 (Loi no 1.334 sur l’education), is the legal basis of schooling”. The education system is completely orientated to the French System “and the schools are equivalent to French institutions situated abroad” (Sroka 2015: 557). The Medium of instruction is French, but also Monegasque is used. Schooling is “compulsory from the ages of 6 to 16, and voluntary from 3 to 5. There are in Monaco state-run nursery and primary school (3–11), colleges (secondary) for the 11–15 age group and lyc8es for post-15 education” (Brock 2016: 87). Teaching and examinations at the level of lyc8e are supervised by the Academy of Nice (France). “In addition to the public system, there are two types of private establishments: private, public founded Catholic schools working under state contract and private, independent providers”. Of the about 6,000 students 75 % are in schools of the public system and 20 % in schools under contract (Sroka 2015: 557).

Religious Education One of a specific feature of Monegasque school system is Catholic religious education in public schools, “included in the curriculum unless explicitly refused by parents.” (Sroka 2015: 558) There are no alternative courses for exempted children. Religious education is given one hour per week by Catholic teachers selected by the archbishop and paid for by the state. It is intended for “all children, regardless of their beliefs, beliefs or religious affiliations.” The diocese emphasizes that, “Religious education is not catechism.” There is a separate catechesis for children and adolescents in the parishes. “Children who wish to prepare for baptism and first communion can turn to churches that deal with catechism and the preparation for the sacraments.” And for children “who attend catechism courses in the community, religious education at school remains complementary.”3 The diocese has a special school pastoral for “religion 3 https://diocese.mc/fr/aumoneries-scolaires/public/R%C3%A9voires.

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in school outside RE”. On special occasions and days there are worship services for students, to which their parents are invited to come as well.

3

Republic of San Marino4

San Marino is a small landlocked country in the northern part of the Apennine peninsula with approximately 32,500 inhabitants and an area of about 61.2 km2. The Republic of San Marino dates back to the year 301, the year of the death of the stonemason Marino. He had gathered on Mount Titano a small community of Christians to whom he bequeathed this area. Most of the roughly 4 800 inhabitants are foreigners from Italy. There are roughly 12 000 San Marino natives living in other areas on the world. The state language of San Marino is Italian, although Romagnol is also spoken throughout the region. “The Republic of San Marino has no real written Constitutional Charter but its normative references are the Statues, ius commune and customary law. Moreover, in 1974, San Marino adopted a law having a constitutional value: Law no. 59 of 1974 “Declaration on the Citizens’ Rights and Fundamental Principles of San Marino Constitutional Order”, amended and integrated with Laws no. 95 of 19 September 2000, no. 36 of 26 February 2002 and no. 61 of 28 April 2005.”5 (S. 15)

Religion The majority of Sammarinese people are of the Roman Catholic faith, making up over 97 % of the population. Other minor religions in the area include Protestant, Jewish, and other Christian faiths. The Protestant minority largely belongs to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont. Roman Catholic Religion is the predominant religion in San Marino, but not a state religion. The territory belongs to the Diocese of San Marino-Montefeltro. The bishop see is located in Italy.

4 Thankfully, Don Gabriele Mangiarotti has provided a text with support from Prof. Claudia Mariani and Prof. Gabriele Raschi for this section. 5 http://www.esteri.sm/contents/instance2/files/document/RSM%20SCHEDA%20PAESE%20GE NERALE%20GB.pdf, p. 15.

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Education The Education Department of San Marino Public Administration is responsible for the school system, which comprises some types of institutions: Education for children from 3 months and 3 Years the Asilo Nido (nursery), for children from 3 and 6 years the Scuola dell’Infanzia (infant school), for children from 6–11 years the Scuola Elementare (primary school), for children from 11–14 the Scuola Media (lower secondary school). “The scuola Secondaria Superiore (upper secondary school) has 2- und 3-years programs” (Sroka 2015: 707) Schooling is compulsory of 10 years, but nearly all students learn at school at least until the age of 18. In San Marino there are only public schools.

Religious Education Roman Catholic religious education is compulsory for all, but students may be exempted from it if they so wish. There are no alternative courses for exempted children. Catholic religion education is a study subject like any other and is also a grade point average in high school. Within a Catholic sociocultural context there has been a political debate about religious education for years, as a brief list of legal developments shows: 1909 1963 1972 1975 1994 2004 2015 2018

Abolition of catechism lessons at the public school. Law for the introduction of middle school as a compulsory school with compulsory Catholic religious instruction for all. The religion teacher is added to Appendix “F” and paid accordingly, i. like freelancers based on the number of hours worked. Law on the possibility of getting rid of religious education (together with the subject of gymnastics) Agreement between state and catechetical office, according to which laymen can be charged with religious instruction. Agreement for the grant of permanent teaching assignments with annual confirmation of suitability by the Catechetical Office. The Law 176 of 04. 12. 2015 equates the religious education persons to the other teachers in terms of labour law and economy. Religious education agreement between the Vatican and San Marino.

The formation of religious teachers is ensured on the one hand by continuing education courses of the diocese itself, which are addressed to all teachers (including those in Italy), on the other hand, five-year training courses at the

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Institute of Religious Studies (Istituto di scienze religiose) “A. Marvelli ”6 offered in Rimini. “In General, instruction in Sammarese schools follows the Italian curriculum.” (Sroka 2015b: 707) Also the religious education follows the Italian curriculum. With the CEI (Italian Episcopal Conference) it can be said that “the IRC (Catholic Religious Education) allows students to deal with the important issues related to the meaning of life and the meaning of the person in the light of the Bible and the Christian tradition”. The agreement between the Vatican and San Marino (2018) describes the content of religious education shortly. It is to provide the students with the cultural foundations necessary for the knowledge of religion, the development of the personality and for the understanding of the current circumstances and history of the country as well as the European culture.

References Andorra d’Department d’Estat&stica: https://www.estadistica.ad/serveiestudis/web/index.asp. De Oto, Antonio, Luca Iannaccone eds. 2013. Il fattore religioso nella Repubblica di San Marino, Il Cerchio. Brock, C. 2016. Mikro-states in Western and Sothern Europe outside the European Union. Sprague, T. ed. Education in Non-EU Countries in Western and Southern Europe. London-New York: Bloomsbury Academic: 283–290. Constitution of the Principality of Andorra 1993. http://www.consellgeneral.ad/fitxers/ documents/constitucio/const-en. Constitution of the Principality 1962 (as amended by Law n8 Section 1.249 dated April 2nd 2002). http://www.monaco-consulate.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/Constitution. pdf. Hörner, W. et.al. eds. 2015. The Education Systems of Europe. 2. edition. Cham [u. a.]: Springer International Publishing. Monaco Statistics http://www.monacostatistics.mc/. Sroka, W. 2015. Andorra. Hörner, W. et.al. eds.: 21–24. Sroka, W. 2015a. Monaco. Hörner, W. et. al. eds.: 557–559. Sroka, W. 2015b. San Marino. Hörner, W. et. al. eds.: 707–708.

Others Department of Education, Youth and Sport https://en.gouv.mc/Government-Institutions/ The-Government/Ministry-of-Interior/Department-of-Education-Youth-and-Sport. https://diocese.mc/. http://www.sanmarino.sm/on-line/en/home/public-administration/departments.html.

6 http://www.issrmarvelli.it/corsi/.

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http://www.sanmarino.sm/on-line/home/pubblica-amministrazione/dipartimenti/artico lo44003286.html.

Contributors

Christian Alber has a Master of Advanced Studies (MAS) of Communicative Theology and is Inspector of Catholic Religious Education, Autonome Provinz Bozen. Stavros S. Fotiou has a PhD in Theology and is Associate Professor of Theology and Christian Education at the Department of Education of the University of Cyprus. Carlos Esteban Garc8s has a PhD in Theology and is Profesor Titular de Pedagog&a de la Religijn and Director de Ciencias de la Religijn de La Salle Centro Universitario, Madrid. Adrian-Mario Gellel has a PhD in Theology and is Associate Professor in Religious Education in both Faculties of Education and Theology, University of Malta. Margret Jäger has a PhD in Philosophy. She is university research and teaching assistant at the Sigmund Freud PrivatUniversity Wien-Linz. Martin Jäggle has a PhD in Theology and was Full Professor for Religious Education and Catechetics at the Faculty of Catholic Theology at the University of Vienna. Vassiliki Mitropoulou-Murcia has a PhD in Theology. She is Assistant Professor of Pedagogy and Teaching in the Faculty of Theology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Flavio Pajer has a PhD in Theology and was Full Professor of Pedagogy and Didactics of Religions at the Pontifical Salesian University in Rome.

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Contributors

Dorothea Rechenmacher has a PhD in Theology. She is Full Professor for Religious Education and Catechetics at the Philosophical-Theological Academy Brixen. Martin Rothgangel has a PhD in Theology and Philosophy and is Full Professor for Religious Education at the Faculty of Protestant Theology at the University of Vienna.