Reconsidering Cuzco-Quechua Vowels —An acoustic Study on the Influence of Spanish in the Categorical Properties of Vowels Lowering—

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Reconsidering Cuzco-Quechua Vowels —An acoustic Study on the Influence of Spanish in the Categorical Properties of Vowels Lowering—

Carlos Molina-Vital Rice University Abstract A three vowel system, /i-u-a/ is considered the basic one for Cuzco-Quechua (CQ). The presence of mid vowels, [e-o], is seen as a co-articulatory effect triggered by /q/. This lowering rule, and the absence of minimal pairs in CQ distinguishing high and mid vowels, are arguments against categorical status for [e] and [o]. In this study, this view of CQ vowels is reconsidered by observing acoustic data from vowels produced in (near) minimal pairs distinguished by the use of /q/ or /k/ in four groups —CQ monolinguals, CQ L1, CQ L2 and Spanish-CQ bilinguals. The first study performed found that the amount of vowel lowering in uvular context has categorical properties in the more Spanish-influenced groups (BL and QL2), while there is more variation and less lowering for the more CQ-influenced groups (QML and QL1). The second study determined that vowel lowering in both BL and QML groups can’t be explained as just a co-articulatory effect by observing the presence of linear effects on F1 trajectory of a vowel in uvular context. Two follow-up studys were made. The first one found an early lowering effect for high vowels in /q/ context, indicating an anticipatory process. The second one found that early lowering for BL group occurred in a more consistent way for /i-u/ than for /a/, while QML doesn’t differentiate significantly between /i-u/ and /a/ lowering. These results suggest that mid vowels do have categorical properties, contrary to what many standard descriptions of CQ hold.

1. Introduction and Aims of the Study

Cuzco-Quechua (CQ), a member of the Quechua family, is spoken in the region of Cuzco, Peru, in the Southern Andes. It has been grouped with other varieties spoken in the Southern Andes, from the Peruvian region of Ayacucho, to the western portion of Bolivia, based on their shared grammatical features and level of intelligibility (Cf. Cerrón-Palomino 1987). In spite of possessing a fairly big literature for an indigenous language (Cf. Cerrón-Palomino 1987, Calvo

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1993, Sánchez 2010), most of the description of CQ phonology included in modern grammars (particularly Cusihuamán 2001 [1976]) has been presented under a rather traditional approach that combines distributional principles and early Generative Phonology. Although very valuable, these descriptions don’t specify if they have used any kind of instrumental or quantitative methods.

Furthermore, the long-standing influence of Spanish onto CQ has been considered a problem for its modern description (Cf. Hosokawa 1981).The most notable consequence of this has been the debate around the number of CQ phonological vowels. This debate is fueled by practical and ideological reasons —orthography for CQ required an agreement on how to represent vowel variation among speakers with different levels of bilingualism; but the intellectual regionalist elite from Cuzco considers that the standard should be their heavily Spanish-influenced variety (Cf. Godenzzi 1992). The more conservative approach based on the notion of phonemes as contrastive units (for instance, Cerrón-Palomino 1987, 1992, Heggarty ND), considers only three CQ vowels —/i - a - u/. A less orthodox approach considers the influence of Spanish as an integral part of the CQ phonological system; thus /e/ and /o/ are included in the system. This was the position taken by linguists such as Cusihuamán (2001 [1976]) and Weber (2005).

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Studies making use of acoustic phonetics and quantitative methods have been few for CQ. Among them, those dealing with vowel variation have been Pasquale (2001, 2005), and Pérez et al. (2008). Pasquale (2001) dealt with the influence of level of bilingualism in the variation of CQ vowels, and made use of statistical analysis to determine differences in vowel production by speaker groups. Pérez et al. (2008) provided detailed quantitative descriptions of vowel space for diverse bilinguals, for both their Spanish and CQ vowels; however, a statistical comparison of the results was not one of the goals of their study.

My study aims to complement and develop the results of Pasquale (2001) and Pérez et al. (2008) by analyzing the variation of vowels in four different CQ speaker groups, divided by their level of Spanish knowledge. In my analysis, I will specifically ask the question of how much Spanish has influenced the categorical production of vowels in those CQ speaker groups. Also, I will complement that analysis with one inspired by Bessel’s (1998) work on local and long distance vowel lowering in Interior Salish. The objective of the second analysis is to determine if vowel lowering in uvular context is a purely co-articulatory process by observing the trajectory of F1 and F2 for vowels in (near) minimal pairs distinguished by the use of uvular or velar stops.

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Some basic standard notions of CQ phonology relevant to this study are presented in section 2. Section 3 will present the tested hypothesis, design and methodology of study one (Spanish influence in categorical production of vowels). Section 4 will do the same for study two (gradient vs. categorical vowel lowering). Section 5 will present and discuss the results of both studys. Finally, section 6 will present the main conclusions and discussion of the results.

2. Basics of CQ Vowel Phonology

The most accepted description of the CQ phonology states that the least Spanish-influenced system has three vowels grouped by height. High vowels, /i/ and /u/, are commonly pronounced as mid-high vowels [ɪ] and [ʊ], respectively. The low vowel, /a/, is produced slightly centralized (Cf. Cusihuamán 2000 [1976]: 43-48, Cerrón-Palomino 1987).

Allophones occur in the context of a uvular stop, /q/. It is important to notice that the influence of the uvular stop lowers high vowels that are located before and after that consonant. Moreover, the influence of the uvular stop usually affects other high vowels in different syllables (non–local effect), as long as they are in the same stem. CQ speakers spread the lowering even if there are [+ Continuant] consonants between the /q/ and a high vowel. Some instances of vowel lowering in CQ are: /ˈʧiqaq/  [ˈʧeqaq] (“true“), /ˈqiru/  [ˈqero]

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(“wooden cup“), /ˈsunqu/  /ˈsonqo/ (“heart“), /ˈirqi/  [ˈerqe] (“kid“), /q’iˈliti/  [q’eˈlete] (“node“), /ˈsuqta/  [ˈsoqta] (“six“).

Some morphophonological restrictions apply to the vowel lowering rule in CQ: if the stem has a suffix containing /q/, it won’t lower any high vowel in the stem, but it will lower any high vowel inside of the suffix. This restriction does not apply if the combination of stem and suffix is re-analyzed as a whole word (usually due to a prominent referential status of the concept alluded): /ˈyacha-/ + /-chi/ + /-q/  [yaˈʧaʧeq] (“teacher“, literally, “the one who makes learn”), /ˈwatu/ + /-q/  [ˈwatoq] (“fortune-teller“, literally “the one who guesses“). On the other hand, a compound like /ˈʧunka iskajˈniyuq/ (“twelve“, literally “ten having two”) is pronounced consistently as [ˈʧunka iskajˈniyoq], with the final vowel lowered to [o] inside of the suffix /-yuq/. However, I have noticed based on my observations and the different orthographic renditions of words like those in different books that use the five vowel system that there is much variation for vowel lowering inside suffixes and between stems and suffixes.

CQ has a series of glottalized stops (ejective and aspirated) that are unique to this and the Bolivian varieties. Although glottalization can be understood as a post-velar way of articulation, it has never been proposed that glottalization causes vowel lowering. I will assume

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this standard assumption in my study, and will consider glottalization or aspiration as nonrelevant factor in the comparison of vowel lowering.

Also, CQ doesn’t present uvular and velar stops at the same time in a stem. It seems plausible to propose a functional reason for this restriction: it might be difficult to distinguish between uvular and velar stops. As it has been noticed by Maddieson (1984) distinction between velar and uvular stops is not very common in world languages, and it can be problematic. Thus, the language has organized its lexicon to avoid the co-occurrence of potentially confusing consonants. An example of the difficulty in the distinction of a uvular and velar point of articulation is the palatalization of /k/ as a strategy to distinguish it from a /q/ that follows it after an intervening unrounded vowel Q’iche (Campbell 1998: 32). However, claims about difficulties in the perception of two confusing segments still need to acknowledge that human perception can easily deal with more complex consonant or vowel systems.

3. Study one: Effect of Spanish Influence on Lowering and of CQ Vowels By examining vowel pronunciation in CQ words that are (near) minimal pairs containing uvular vs. velar stops, I will investigate the claim that Spanish language contact influences vowel lowering in this language. Specifically, I will analyze the vowel production of four different speaker groups, ranging from little knowledge of Spanish to complete bilingualism.

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Because of the existence of categorically produced mid vowels in Spanish, it is claimed here that the most Spanish-influenced groups will show a greater difference in the production of [e] and [o] in uvular context compared to the most CQ-influenced groups. Thus, the main question addressed in study one is whether high vowels, regarded phonological categories, and mid vowels, regarded as allophones, are significantly different for different speaker groups of CQ.

3.1. Materials

A male bilingual CQ speaker from La Convención province in the Cuzco region was recorded reading twice the words in table 1. 1 Those recorded words were presented as stimuli to the consultants, who were asked to repeat twice what they heard. In some cases, they were also asked to provide a spontaneous sentence using some of the stimulus words. Since CQ is eminently an oral language, many of its speakers are not familiar with reading it. In addition, having used the Latin alphabet that is official for CQ would have biased those consultants with Spanish education towards a pronunciation of vowels that reflected the Spanish use, not the CQ one. I am aware of the fact that the stimuli, having been read by a bilingual speaker could have

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The amount of words recorded as stimulus and the ones provided by the consultants were organized in three sets

of words: the first one of 60 words, the second one with 25, and the third one with 55. Several minimal pairs and many other words using vowels in different contexts were present in these lists, and only some of them (presented in table 1) were used for this and the next study.

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introduced some priming effect on the participants. However, this method allowed me to avoid the influence of bias due to the influence of Latin alphabet. OK

The responses from the participants were recorded using an Audio-Technica headset mounted microphone using an Edirol R-09HR recorder into WAV format at 44.1 kHz and 16-bit resolution. The environment of the recordings was always a room, though some background noise was unavoidable —some participants were interviewed at their work place, others at their home, while some others were interviewed at an empty classroom.

Minimal pairs for /a/

Minimal pairs for /i/

Minimal pairs for /u/

aq-ak (taqi-taki)

qi-ki (taqi-taki)

qu-ku (qusa-kusa)

qa-kha (sinqa-sinkhay)

qi-ki (qiru-kiru)

urq-urk (urqu-kurku)

aq-ak (waqay-wakay)

iq -ik (siqi-siki)

qu-ku (urqu-kurku)

aq-ak (t'aqlla-taklla)

qi -ki (siqi-siki)

unq-unk (unquy-unkuy)

qha-ka (usqhay-puskay)

qi-ki (qilla-killa)

uq-uk (puquy-pukuy)

iq -ik (wiqi-piki)

qu-ku (qutu-kuti)

qi-ki (wiqi-piki)

qu-ku (qulla-kulla)

inq-inkh (sinqa-sinkhay)

uq-uk (t' uquy-tukuy)

Table 1. List of minimal pairs used in the study.

I selected those words that were (near) minimal pairs distinguished by their use of a uvular stop or a velar stop (for instance /puqu/ and /puku/, or /wiqi/ and /piki/). Then, I organized the words according to the vowel observed in relation to /q/ or /k/ and its phonetic context: vowels in pre- and post-consonant position. The lowering effect was considered to be the same on both sides of the uvular stop. I also assumed that long distance lowering is like local lowering, 8

although the long distance lowering in the data I have used include only one continuant consonant between the uvular stop and the lowered vowel, as in /ˈsinqa/ or /ˈurqu/. In addition, I didn’t make a distinction between glottalized and non-glottalized stops; consequently pairs like /ˈt’uquy/ and /ˈtukuy/ were compared disregarding any glottalization effects on the vowel.

3.2. Participants

I decided to use speakers from different backgrounds, as long as all of them were permanent residents of the Cuzco region, and who use or have used CQ on a regular basis. A broader view can only be achieved through the analysis of speakers with different degrees of bilingualism, which is the norm, rather than the exception in the majority of CQ speaking communities in that region (Cf. Chirinos 2001: 81, 203-206).

Eight male speakers of CQ, ranging from 25 to 69 years old, were recorded. They were organized in these groups: Bilinguals (BL), CQ first language (QL1), CQ second language (QL2) and (Near) CQ monolingual (QML). Each group had two members. The basis to assign a speaker to a group was based on the information they provided regarding their age of acquisition of Spanish and CQ (during the first 4 years of life, or after that), their level of instruction, and the situations in which Spanish and CQ are used. Although no test was conducted to determine their proficiency in CQ or Spanish, one set of questions was given only 9

in CQ. While the bilinguals understood perfectly both the CQ and the Spanish sections, the two (near) monolingual speakers had great difficulties understanding what was asked from them when being addressed in Spanish. Therefore, everything was conducted for them in CQ with the help of the research assistant. 2

3.3. General procedure The participants repeated the word they heard at least twice and gave its Spanish meaning (if they were bilingual), or explain its meaning using CQ (only the QML group). Many times, the pronunciations of the tokens were more than two, which allowed picking out the clearest utterances for analysis. I didn’t make use of a carrier phrase, so the words should be considered as coming from a word-list repetition task. However, in a few cases I had to use words from sentences asked or spontaneously used by the consultants during the recordings. If I had a poor quality token of, for instance, /taki/, but the consultant produced a sentence using that noun in the form /takita/ (with the accusative marker –ta), I decided to use that token in the analysis.

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See appendix for detailed sociolinguistic data of the participants.

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Those cases are marked in the tables with tokens analyzed and their formant values by the acronym IC (meaning “in context“) next to the name of the word and token number.

Once the words were recorded, I used PRAAT v.5.2.23 to segment each word, and then, by using PRAAT script, I saved them as separate files. Once this was done, I used another PRAAT Script, a text-grid maker, in order to mark the vowels I considered relevant to the study on each word (i.e. those in uvular and velar contexts). I marked the beginning and the end point of the vowel taking the first and last point in which F1 and F2 were both present.

The results were organized in four different spread sheets, one for every speaker group. Then, I proceeded to normalize all of the values obtained for F1 and F2 in each speaker group in order to reduce the variability due to physical differences. I used the vowel normalization and plotting suite NORM V.1.1. 3 The normalization method selected was the Labov ANAE (speaker extrinsic) since it provided results in Hertz values (which made scaling of values not necessary), and it required only the use of the first two formants, which are the only ones relevant for the observation of lowering (F1) and backing (F2).

Once the normalized results were available and organized in spreadsheets, I calculated the mean value of F1 and F2 for each word separately. Then, F1 and F2 values were averaged

3

Available online at .

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across tokens within speaker groups, and a uvular vs. velar F1 or F2 difference was calculated for each speaker group for each (near) minimal pair.

To conduct the statistic measurements, I made a spreadsheet for each speaker group in which each word’s mean value for F1 and F2 of each token was averaged. Those average values for a word with velar context were subtracted from those obtained for a word with uvular context. For every case, the subtraction of a uvular influenced formant from a velar influenced one used (near) minimal pairs. For instance, in the comparison between the minimal pair /taqi/ and /taki/ for the bilingual group the following table was made to compare /a/ in uvular (represented by Aq) and velar (represented by ak) contexts. Each word has four tokens (two per speaker), and the mean values of F1 and F2 for each token were averaged (results shown in the “average“ row). Then, the difference between F1 average and F2 average for /a/ in /taqi/ and /taqi/ are shown in the “difference“ row. 4

BL: Aq 4

F1

F2

BL: ak

F1

F2

Here and in the following analyses, I will assume the following levels of significance for p numbers:

Equal or below 0.001: very highly significant Equal or below 0.01: highly significant Below 0.05: significant 0.1 or under: approaching significance (shows an interesting but non-significant trend). Reported p values are assuming sphericity. For complete details on the statistical results, refer to the appendix.

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taqi

650.855

1678.521

628.942

taki

575.543

1729.401

1690.611

543.555

1785.066

681.446

1636.27

571.51

1856.675

620.5

1538

541.164

1840.172

AVERAGE

645.4358

1635.851

557.943

1802.829

Difference F1

87.49275

AVERAGE Difference F2

-166.978

Table 3. An example from the table with the difference value between formants in uvular and velar contexts

3.3.1. Inter-group Comparison of Lowering of Vowels This is the part of Study one that deals with the difference in F1 between high and mid vowels in context of velar and uvular stops. The main hypothesis is that the difference in height for [e] in, for example, [qeru] and [i] in [kiru] will be affected by the level of Spanish influence in the speaker.

To obtain the statistical results for this part of study one, I have taken the value of the difference between average F1 for each token of, for instance, [qeru] (‘cup’) and [kiru] (‘tooth’), from each speaker group and make an inter-group comparison for those values. If there is a strong significant difference between two groups, this means that they are not doing the vowel lowering in the same way. Therefore, inter-group comparison will tell if the main hypothesis is correct —more Spanish-influenced speakers will show more lowering than less

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Spanish-influenced speakers. However, due to extended contact with Spanish, I believe that Spanish influence can be perceived even in QL1 and QML vowel lowering.

These data were subjected to a two different two-way mixed model ANOVAs. The dependent measure was the difference in F1 values, respectively, for uvular vs. velar contexts. For both ANOVAs, speaker group was a within-item variable with four levels (BL, QL2, QL1, ML) and vowel was a between-item variable with three levels (i, u, a). All the analyses in this study were done using the PASW 18.0.0 (formerly SPSS) statistics software.

4.

Study Two: Gradient vs. Categorical Vowel Lowering 5

Study two examines the evidence for gradient production of mid vowels in CQ, traditionally considered as allophones in most descriptions. The hypothesis here is that the way allophonic vowels are produced in CQ is gradient instead of categorical, which would support the idea of a more mechanical production of allophones. Evidence favoring that view would be the lack of stability of formant trajectory expressed in a linear effect.

A vowel will be affected by co-articulation if the trajectory of the formants in a vowel is progressively affected by the proximity of a uvular stop, which will continuously increase the F1 and decrease the F2 value of the vowel as they get closer to the source of co-articulation.

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Materials and participants for study two are the same as those for study one (see 3.1 and 3.2).

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Conversely, if mid vowels are produced categorically, then, there should be comparative parallelism between the F1 trajectory from the beginning to the end of a high vowel in a velar context and the corresponding F1 of the so-called allophonic mid vowel in a uvular context, provided that the comparison uses (near) minimal pairs.

Additionally, results from study two are followed up by two studys to clarify if gradience is the major factor in the articulation of lowered vowels. In the first one, I will measure the level of anticipatory lowering of the vowel for each speaker group. In the second one, I will observe which vowels are more affected by early lowering. To sum up, study two evaluates how much of the vowel lowering can be attributed to the co-articulatory pull of the uvular stop for every speaker group.

4.1. General procedure

The procedure is exactly the same as the one described in section 3.1 for study one. The only difference is that once the vowels were marked, I ran a formant-logging script to measure the first two formants at four time points in the vowels. This means that the formants were equally divided, so that the logger could obtain the formant values at each of the four points. In doing this, I tried to get a clearer view of the progressive articulation of a vowel in velar and uvular contexts (Cf. Bessel 1998: 11-14). 15

Again, all the results for the four points in each word’s F1 and F2 were normalized for each speaker group and organized in spread sheets. Then, I calculated the mean value for every time point in all the tokens of the same word in each speaker group, as well as the overall mean values of F1 and F2 for each word separately.

In order to examine the level of stability in the formant trajectory, I took the two intermediate F1 points of a vowel in a word with uvular context and the corresponding intermediate F1 points of its minimal pair with velar context. Then, I subtracted the formant point closer to the velar consonant from the one closer to the uvular consonant, and did the same for the formant points further from velar and uvular consonants. Table 4 provides an example from the BL group data to illustrate this process.

F1 Differences between second and third nearest points to source of co-articulatory effects Speaker

Context

Uvular context

Velar context

Closer to /q/

Closer to /k/

Mamani

a.q - a.k

taqi_1

Morante

a.q - a.k

Mamani

Difference Closer Points

taki_1

756.051

702.552

53.499

taqi_1

taki_1

751.788

642.108

109.68

a.q - a.k

taqi_2

taki_2

714.665

665.204

49.461

Morante

a.q - a.k

taqi_2

taki_2

721.972

605.903

116.069

Mamani

a.q - a.k

waqay_1

wakay_1

663.185

711.637

-48.452

Morante

a.q - a.k

waqay_1

wakay_1

617.616

621.876

-4.26

Mamani

a.q - a.k

waqay_2

wakay_2

690.439

586.47

103.969

Morante

a.q - a.k

waqay_2

wakay_2

660.211

527.104

133.107

Table 4. Part of the table to find difference between formant points closer and further from velar and uvular consonants.

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Once all the differences were obtained for each token of all the minimal pairs containing, for instance, /a/ in a speaker group, the results were subjected to a two different two-way mixed factor ANOVAs. The dependent measure was the difference in uvular and velar F1 values closer to the source of co-articulation and those values further to the source of co-articulation. For both ANOVAs, phonetic context was the between-item variable with as many levels as relevant contexts were identified for each vowel (for instance, a particular vowel in either pre or post consonant position, word initial or word final, etc.).

4.1.1. First Follow-Up study: Early Lowering Effect

In order to complement the results for the linear effect study, this study examines if there is an early lowering effect. This effect will make the furthest points from a uvular and velar consonant in two minimal pairs significantly different. The presence of early lowering effect in the production of allophonic vowels is evidence against purely co-articulatory motivation of the production of vowel allophones, since such a form of lowering could only be planned from the very onset of the vowel production, which is a more categorical characteristic.

The process to evaluate if there is early lowering effect, involved taking the F1 values of the furthest point from the uvular and the velar consonant on (near) minimal pairs for a given vowel in a speaker group. Then, those values were compared using a two different two-way 17

mixed factor ANOVAs. The dependent measure was the value of the furthest from uvular F1 formant point and the value of the corresponding furthest from velar F1 formant point in a (near) minimal pair. For both ANOVAs, phonetic context was the between-item variable with as many levels as relevant contexts were identified for each vowel (for instance, a particular vowel in either pre or post consonant position, word initial or word final, etc.).

If the furthest values for the words with uvular and velar context are significantly different, it means that there is an early lowering effect. Table 5 shows an example from the BL group data to illustrate this process.

Speaker

Phonetic Context

Word w/ uvular context

Word with velar context

Furthest

Furthest Point Velar

Point Uvular

F1

F1 Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

taqi_1

taki_1

559.215

557.197

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

taqi_1

Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

taqi_2

taki_1

552.66

614.422

taki_2

553.159

491.585

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

taqi_2

taki_2

Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

waqay_1

wakay_1

629.33

579.282

669.241

615.743

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

waqay_1

wakay_1

601.643

442.98

Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

waqay_2

wakay_2

698.514

604.639

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

waqay_2

wakay_2

464.277

522.844

Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

t_aqllay_1

taklla_1

647.432

547.102

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

t_aqllay_2

taklla_2

602.708

655.951

Mamani

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

t_aqlla_1

taklla_1

759.079

576.375

Morante

a.q - a.k -aq - ak

t_aqlla_2

taklla_2

731.825

582.476

Table 5. An example from the table comparing the furthest point from uvular and velar consonant in minimal pairs in the BL group.

4.1.2. Second Follow-Up Study: Comparison of Early Lowering Effect Between Vowels in Each Speaker Group 18

Finally, I wanted to observe if the early lowering effect takes place differently in high vowels (which most likely have that effect) than for /a/ (which being already low has not much need to lower in a systematic way different from its realization in velar context). This was performed to complement the previous follow-up study. Even if all the groups are doing early lowering, it is worth observing if there is an overall pattern in the way they do it.

Thus, I calculated the difference between the furthest point from uvular consonant and the one from velar consonant for each (near) minimal pair with /i/, /u/, and /a/. The comparison was made using a two-way single factor ANOVA. The dependent measure was the value of the difference between the furthest F1 points from uvular and velar stops for (near) minimal pairs for each vowel (difference from furthest point uvular and velar context /i/, difference from furthest point uvular and velar context /u/, difference from furthest point uvular and velar context /a/). There was no between item variable, since the only result relevant was the test of within-subject contrast. If there is a significant difference in the way the /i/ compares to /a/ and the way /u/ compares to /a/, then that complements the second study to determine if the lowering of vowels is mostly a co-articulatory phenomena.

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Two observations need to be made here. First, the comparison among (near) minimal pairs for words with different vowels is not as exact as one done for pairs that share the same vowels. In other words, while study two and the first follow-up focused on comparing the vowel /i/ in pairs like /wiqi/ and /piqi/, a comparison among (near) minimal pairs for /i/, /u/ and /a/ compares pairs like /wiqi/ and /piqi/, /taqi/ and /taki/, and /puquy/ and /pukuy/. The basis for the comparison is, therefore, the parallelism in phonetic contexts for the different vowels in the words compared.

Second, the number of words used as minimal pairs with /a/ is not the same as the number of minimal pairs analyzed with /i/ and /u/. Thus, I had to select words from the two last groups (/i/ and /u/) to closely match the phonetic context of those with /a/. Table 6 gives an illustration of the way the tokens were arranged for this final study.

Phonet

Word

Word

Diff

Phonet

Word

Word

Diff

Phonet

Word

Word

Diff

ic

with

with

eren

ic

with

with

eren

ic

with

with

eren

Contex

uvular

velar

ce

Conte

uvular

velar

ce

Conte

uvular

velar

ce

t

context

context

xt

context

context

xt

context

context

i.q -

wiqi_1

piki_1

144

a.q -

taqi_1

taki_1

2.0

u.q -

puquy_1

pukuy_1

.34

a.k -aq

18

u.k -

i.k -inq -inkh i.q -

wiqi_1

piki_1

i.k -inq -inkh i.q -

wiqi_2

piki_2

i.k -inq -inkh i.q i.k -inq

wiqi_2

piki_2

6

- ak

195

a.q -

.93

un - ur taqi_1

taki_1

-

u.q -

a.k -aq

61.

u.k -

4

- ak

762

un - ur

149

a.q -

61.

u.q -

.39

a.k -aq

574

u.k -

4

- ak

73.

a.q -

475

a.k -aq

30. 282

taqi_2

taki_2

puquy_2

pukuy_3

98. 922

t_uquy_1

tukuy_1

36. 339

un - ur taqi_2

taki_2

50.

u.q -

048

u.k -

t_uquy_2

tukuy_2

167 .56

20

-inkh

- ak

un - ur

3

Table 6. Distribution of differences between furthest point from uvular and velar for comparison between vowels in BL group.

5.

Results and Interpretation of the Studys

In this section I will present the results for study one, study two and the follow–up studys. After having done so, I will provide an interpretation of the results relating to the main hypotheses of this paper —the influence of Spanish in the production of lowering of vowels, and the gradient production of contextually determined vowels in CQ.

5.1. Study One 5.1.1. Inter-Group Vowel Lowering a.

Test of Within-Subjects Effects (i)

Speaker Group: F (3, 54)=5.510, p=.002. There was a significant main effect of speaker group. BL group produced vowels with a significant increase in F1 value (M=128.41 Hz), closely followed by QL2 (M=118.80 Hz), while the F1 increase for QML and QL1 was lower and more variable (M=79.56 and M=118, respectively). Therefore, not all the speaker groups do vowel lowering in the same way, when observed at the overall level. (See Graph 1 and (c) below for more details.)

(ii)

Speaker Group and Vowel: p=.245. There was not a significant interaction between speaker group and vowels. This indicates that when including the vowels in the comparison, no vowel is lowered in a significantly different way group by group.

21

b.

Test of Between-Subjects (i)

Effects for vowel: p=.176. There was not a significant main effect for vowels. This indicates in a comparison based only on vowels, without considering speaker groups, no vowel is doing lowering in a significantly different way.

The results for the speaker group comparison are significant —it tells us that there are differences in the way vowels are lowered between groups. We need, then, to see how each speaker group contrast to the other to determine any differences in vowel lowering. Thus, next section provides the results for the within-subject contrast analysis of every group.

c.

Test of Within-Subject Contrasts (i)

QL1 vs. QML: p=.372. This indicates that there is no difference in the way QL1 and QML do the vowel lowering in a uvular context (not significant p number).

(ii)

BL vs. QML: F(1,18)=15.107, p=.001. This indicates that BL1 does lowering in a different way from QML (very highly significant p number).

(iii)

QL2 vs. QML: F(1,18)=5.217, p=.035 This indicates that QL2 does lowering in a different way from QML (significant p number)

(iv)

QL1 vs. QL2: p=.090. This suggests that QL1 might be doing lowering in a way different from QL2 (p number is approaching significance)

(v)

BL vs. QL2: p=.389. This indicates that BL does lowering in the same way as QL2.

(vi)

QL1 vs. BL: F(1,18)=9.474, p=.006. This indicates that QL1 does lowering in a way that can be considered different from BL (p highly significant)

22

From the results shown above, we can see that there is a clear division between the four groups observed: those who have more Spanish influence (QL2 and BL) and those who have more CQ influence (QL1 and QML): this confirms our first hypothesis. When each member of the groups organized by Spanish influence is compared to each other (results i and v), they are doing lowering in the same way (not significant result). On the other hand, when the two extremes are compared (very little Spanish influence, QML, vs. high Spanish influence, BL) we have the most extreme difference in the way the lowering occurs (result ii).

Graph 1 below shows the error bar distribution of the values used in the statistical analysis. Let us remember that in this inter-group statistical analysis we are observing the amount of lowering expressed in Hz, obtained from the difference between the F1 of a vowel in a uvular context and the F1 of the corresponding vowel in a velar context.

The reason behind significant results is a combination of less variation and higher degree of lowering. This produces no overlap between the error bars of the significantly different groups. We can see that the best example of this in the extremes, represented by BL and QML. While the first has an average increase of F1 of 128.41 Hz, QML increases F1 in 79.56 Hz. Moreover, BL has visibly less variation than QML in the amount of lowering it does. Still, despite some

23

overlap, there is statistical significance in the difference between speakers groups that have different level of influence of Spanish and CQ, as it was hypothesized.

Graph 1. Error bars for the different amount of vowel lowering (F1 increase) by speaker group.

At the overall level of speaker groups there is validation for the fact that Spanish-influenced speakers are more systematic (i.e. significantly different) from those that have the least amount of Spanish influence. An interesting complementary result comes from the analysis of the interaction between speaker group and vowel. Although the lowering of high vowels in groups influenced by Spanish (BL and QL2) didn’t yield significant results, it appears that, as graph 2 below shows, there is a clear pattern emerging at a descriptive level —it seems that BL and

24

QL2 /i, u/ are lowering more than /a/, however, that pattern is not present in QML and QL1.

Graph 2. Error bars for the different amount of vowel lowering (F1 increase) by speaker group by vowel phoneme.

Although this pattern did not emerge as statistically significant in the current analysis (F(6,54)=1.366, p=.245), a more fine-grained analysis in section 5.2.3 confirms that Spanish influence is associated with more categorical lowering of /i/ and /u/ versus /a/.

Observing the variation and average degree of lowering for BL, it seems evident that there is a higher lowering for /i/ (143.72 Hz mean increase) and /u/ (132.68 Hz mean increase) in uvular context, and it has much less variation than the one present in the lowering of /a/. The other 25

Spanish-influenced group, QL2, is not following the same pattern, since the lowering of /i/ seems more unstable and has less lowering (113.63 Hz mean increase). Regarding the more CQ-influenced groups, QML shows a very big variation in vowel lowering. Also, since the highest level of average lowering is 109.87 Hz for /i/ and 50.68 Hz for /u/, this means that QML is doing lowering, but not that much altogether. This evidences an unstable variation. In other words, mid vowels do not seem to pattern in a clearly different way from high vowels in QML. Still, the results for BL, and to a lesser degree for QL2, make it evident that those two groups do much more lowering than the other two, which are less influenced by Spanish.

Perhaps, with more data and speakers a significant result can be achieved. This wouldn’t be a surprise, since it is not the case that every analysis rules out a significant difference in the way lowering is carried out, as the speaker group main effect results showed.

To summarize, the results for the inter-group analysis of lowering effect suggest that the main hypothesis is correct: there is clear difference in the way CQ high vowels are lowered related to the amount of Spanish influence in the speaker groups. Although there are no significant results for the speaker group by vowel interaction, there is still a clear descriptive pattern that suggests that high vowels are indeed lowered more consistently by the most Spanish-influenced speaker groups. 26

5.2. Study two: Gradient vs. Categorical Vowel Lowering While Study one found evidence supporting the influence of Spanish in BL and QL2 speaker groups of CQ, study two examined the gradient properties of vowel lowering. After study one showed that the most Spanish-influenced groups did mid-vowel lowering in a significantly different way from the most CQ-influenced groups, a question was left to solve —are coarticulatory factors the main responsible for lowering in CQ? Thus, the hypothesis to be tested is the traditional description of lowering for CQ vowels which claims that it is only a mechanical process, based on co-articulatory pressures.

If mid vowels are produced in a gradient way, then vowel articulation is progressively affected due to the uvular stop continuously increasing the F1 and decreasing the F2 values of the vowel as it gets closer to the source of co-articulation. In other words, vowel formants should start at a neutral position, and then progressively change towards lowered values anticipating or as a consequence of the articulation of /q/. On the other hand, if the effect of /q/ in the vowels is categorical, then there should be comparative parallelism between the F1 and F2 trajectories from the beginning to the end of a high vowel in a velar context and the corresponding F1 and F2 of the so-called allophonic mid vowel in a uvular context when using (near) minimal pairs for the comparison.

27

Still, it should be taken into account that expectation of complete parallelism when comparing formants for vowels in (near) minimal pairs would be untenable. There will always be some amount of co-articulatory effects based on the difference between /q/ and /k/. However, if there is lack of trajectory parallelism, then it would be expected to be of a similar magnitude to that seen in other systems with categorical lowering. Thus, since we know from study one that the BL group has categorical lowering of /i/ and /u/, any co-articulatory effects in the production of those vowels won’t be considered as a counterargument, but as a natural effect.

Considering that QML is the group that descriptions of CQ have in mind when stating that the production of allophones is inherently unstable due to the variability of the instantiation of the lowering rule, focusing on the results for that group is of great interest. Thus, instead of showing results for every group, I will concentrate in the results from study two that come from QML. To have a clear idea of the process of lowering, I will compare those results to those from BL. It provides an excellent term of comparison, since those speakers have categorical production of mid vowels in uvular context.

5.2.1. Linear effects for vowel lowering

Here we are comparing the value of the difference between F1 of the closer and the further point to a uvular and velar consonant in a (near) minimal pair. In other words, the value of the 28

difference from F1 in the closer point to /k/ in /i/ in /taki/ and F1 in the closer point to /q/ in /i/ in /taqi/ is compared to the value of the difference from F1 in the further point to /k/ in /i/ in /taki/ and F1 in the further point to /q/ in /i/ in /taqi/.

If the trajectory from one formant point to one closer to the source of allophonic effects shows a clear variation, then we are dealing with a linear effect. In the case of lowering, the F1 of the affected vowel will raise its value approaching to the source of co-articulation. If the coarticulatory pull is not operating progressively, then the trajectory from one point to the other in F1 towards the co-articulation source should be less noticeable. Thus, if the results of the comparison are not significant, there is evidence to consider the lowering more categorical.

a.

QML results for lowering linear effect (Test of Within-Subjects Contrasts): /a/: p=.178 (not significant) /i/: F(1, 28)=13.114, p= .001 (highly significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing closer (M=122.21) and further (M=100.34) formant trajectory point to source of articulation. /u/: p= .268 (not significant)

b.

BL results for lowering linear effect (Test of Within-Subjects Contrasts): /a/: p=.671 (Not significant) /i/: F(1, 27)=4.817, p= .037 (Significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing closer (M=153.03) and further (M=135.73) formant trajectory point to source of articulation. /u/: p= .607 (Not significant)

29

These results mean that for /a/ and /u/, the degree of lowering for two clearly different groups, QML and BL do not show any significant increase as the measurement points approach the coarticulatory source. This lack of linear effect goes against the hypothesis that CQ allophony is mainly due to co-articulatory reasons.

Although /i/ does show an increase in lowering, that doesn’t necessarily mean that its lowering is due to co-articulation. As it was mentioned in 5.2, there is always some amount of coarticulation. If we compare the QML result for /i/ with the one for BL, we can see that even for this group, which has categorical production of mid vowels, there is linear effect for lowering of /i/. Thus, when dealing with the distinction between co-articulation and categorical production of a sound, we have to remember that it is a matter of degree. Even categorical units will eventually feel the influence of co-articulatory processes, because it is impossible to produce sounds of speech continuously without some degree of co-articulation. In this regard, the position of /i/, being it the furthest from the uvular point of articulation, has a greater tendency to get lowered due to the pull of the consonant.

To sum up, the results here suggest that the mechanical lowering of vowels in CQ is not as prevalent as supposed under a view of allophony as purely mechanical or “parasitic“ (López et al. 1987:11, quoted by Weber 2005: 22). Two opposite groups in terms of the level of Spanish 30

influence, QML and BL show no linear effect for /a/ and /u/ and they share linear effect for /i/, which can be attributed to some influence of co-articulation due to the fronted position of /i/.

5.2.2. Early Lowering Effect

The first follow-up study will establish if there is early lowering effect. This effect will make the furthest points of F1 from a uvular and velar consonant in two (near) minimal pairs significantly different. If there is an early lowering effect in the production of allophonic vowels, then that will complement the results from study two, showing that the hypothesis of purely co-articulatory motivation of the production of vowel allophones is not correct. Such a form of lowering could only be planned from the very onset of the vowel production, which is a more categorical characteristic. Once again, I will focus on the QML and BL groups. Here are the results for the between furthest points from uvular and velar consonant in minimal pairs.

a.

QML results for early lowering effect (Tests of Within-Subject Contrast):

/a/: F(1, 16)=5.722, p=.029 (Significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=502.780) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=360.317). /i/: F(1, 28)=31.900, p= .000 (very highly significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=386.988) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=292.90).

31

/u/: F(1, 26)=6.507, p= .017 (Significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=387.439) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=350.838). b.

BL results for early lowering effect (Tests of Within-Subject Contrast):

/a/: F(1, 16)=13.745, p=.002 (Significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=542.616) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=479.121). /i/: F(1, 27)=81.799, p= .000 (very highly significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=465.403) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=320.815). /u/: F(1, 26)=115.701, p= .000 (very highly significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing furthest F1 point in uvular context (M=502.780) and furthest F1 point in velar context (M=360.317).

Graph 4. BL group vowel plot considering furthest from /q/ and /k/ formant points.

32

Graph 5. QML group vowel plot considering furthest from /q/ and /k/ formant points.

Here we have results that demonstrate that the onset of vowels in uvular context experience a lowering degree that makes them significantly different from the onset of the same vowel in a minimal pair with velar context. This suggests that despite the level of Spanish influence, CQ shows categorical vowel lowering in uvular contexts, reinforcing the results on study two. Graphs 4 and 5 above plot the position of CQ vowels for the observed contrasting groups QML and BL considering only the F1 and F2 points that are further from the uvular and velar contexts.

5.2.3. Comparison of early lowering effect between vowels in each speaker group

33

Study one showed us that CQ high vowels tend to lower more in BL and QL2 than in QML and QL1. Then, study two showed that QML had no linear effect for /u/ and /a/, and the linear effect for /i/ might well be the result of some co-articulation, just like it is the case for the linear effect on BL /i/. After the first follow-up study, in which early lowering effect is present in all the vowels for QML and BL, this second follow-up study will determine if early lowering effect takes place differently in high vowels (which most likely have that effect) than for /a/ (which being already low has not much need to lower in a systematic way different from its realization in velar context). I will focus again on BL and QML, the most contrasting groups of CQ speakers.

a.

BL results for early lowering effect comparison between high and low vowels: /i/ vs. /a/: F(1, 19)=6.843, p=.017 (Strongly significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing the difference from the furthest F1 point in uvular context and furthest F1 point in velar context for all the cases of /i/ (M=125.15) and the difference from the furthest F1 point in uvular context and furthest F1 point in velar context for all the cases of /a/ (M=63.49). /u/ vs /a/: F(1, 19)=12.645, p=.002 (Significant). There was a significant main effect when comparing the difference from the furthest F1 point in uvular context and furthest F1 point in velar context for all the cases of /u/ (M=139.82) and the difference from the furthest F1 point in uvular context and furthest F1 point in velar context for all the cases of /a/ (M=63.49).

b.

QML results for early lowering effect comparison between high and low vowels: /i/ vs. /a/: p=.977 (Not significant) /u/ vs /a/: p=.228 (Not significant) 34

Confirming what we found in study one, BL groups clearly high vowels against /a/ for early lowering, while QML has no significant distinction among high and low vowels, even if there is early lowering effect present. The contrast between BL and QML can be clearly appreciated in graphs 6 and 7, which show the error bars for the data compared in this analysis.

Graph 6. Error bars for BL early lowering effect by vowel.

35

Graph 7. Error bars for QML early lowering effect by vowel.

6. Conclusions and Discussion It has been showed in this study that the degree of influence of Spanish in the BL and QL2 groups of CQ affect in a categorical way the production of mid vowels [e] and [o], giving them a regularity that is far from a purely mechanical effect of the presence of /q/ in a word. Furthermore, even in the least Spanish-influenced group, QML, it was found that vowel lowering has categorical features. If we observe the consistency of vowel production based on their acoustic properties and then compare a number of instances of lowered vowels in (near) minimal pairs, evidence suggests that there is a significant contrast between /i - u/ vs. /e -o/ and /a/ vs. /ɑ/ even in the earliest moments of the vowels. Also, given that even BL group has some

36

degree of co-articulation for lowering of /i/, the fact that there is co-articulation for /i/ lowering in QML is not enough evidence for assuming, as it has been the norm in descriptions of CQ, that the current way QML speakers lower their vowels rests mostly on co-articulation.

Study one has shown that the variation in the overall values of F1 increase (vowel lowering) for QML is very high compared to BL. Under those results alone, it would be safe to claim, as Cerrón-Palomino (2007: 423) and Pérez et al. (2008: 43-46) do, that bilingual speakers with Spanish as their first language produce mid vowels in their CQ speech with a categorical level of lowering. Thus, /i – u / lowering is consistently produced because of their phonological awareness of the distinctiveness of mid and high vowels in the Spanish vowel system. 6 However, it has been argued that even CQ monolingual speakers are capable of categorical use of mid vowels. Corroborating Adelaar and Myusken impressions (2007: 196), Pasquale’s

6

Pasquale (2001: 63-65) shows that CQ speakers who have Spanish as their dominant language do not follow the

lowering rule in context of uvular. This is a particularly surprising result, since, corroborating Cerrón-Palomino and Pérez et al. impressions, my consultants with Spanish as L1 and CQ as L2 presented clearly articulated mid vowels. I think that Pasquale’s work has been affected by the kind of data he picked up and his disregard of the distinction between stem and suffixes in the lowering rule. By selecting his data from religious hymns he was using words that are not commonly used in CQ and that might have been interpreted by the CQ L2 speakers as they are read in Spanish. A word like qispichiqllay (”my savior‘) uses the verb qispi with a rather obscure sense – a neologism created during the evangelization process in the Colony to express Christian salvation, expanding the original sense of that verb (”to grow healthy‘, ”overcome disease‘) (Cesar Morante, personal communication). Also, he considers cases of faulty lowering rules words like willamuq (”the one who tells me‘), and as we will see when describing Quechua phonology, suffixes containing /q/, such as the agentive /-q/ in that word, do not necessarily exert lowering influence in high vowels. Another option to the lack of lowering is that those bilingual speakers Pasquale consulted have lost the distinction between velar and uvular. He doesn’t explore that possibility.

37

dissertation on the influence of Spanish influence in the CQ phonological system proposes found that CQ monolingual speakers produced “Quechua allophones (iq) and (uq) ≈ at the same height as [e] and [o], respectively, of the Spanish borrowed words (and of the Spanish monolingual system), but somewhat farther back.‘ (2001: 60)

These ideas are in agreement with the findings presented in study two, in which the analysis of formant trajectories showed that the degree of co-articulation in the less-Spanish-influenced groups is no greater than that found in the groups with heavier Spanish influence. Consequently, there is no basis to completely rule out categorical production of vowels in the most CQ-influenced speaker groups.

The high level of variation in the production of mid vowels of QML, and the categorical features with which vowels are produced leave open the following question for future research: what is the status of this variable vowel lowering? Is it a gradient, purely co-articulatory phenomenon, or is it a categorical change in vowel quality? Even if it is a categorical phenomenon, it would be one with an allowable range of variable phonetic implementation greater than that in the more Spanish-influenced groups. Perhaps, it is the case that categorical clustering —observed in study one— and stable production of sounds —observed in study two— are just two important factors to determine complete categorical status of a phonetic 38

element. Therefore, another study would be necessary to pursue this issue; for instance, one that takes into consideration the perception of minimal pairs with /k/ and /q/ controlling the amount of variation in the production of instances of [i], [e], [o], and [u] to determine at what point QML speakers can’t distinguish between minimal pairs.

In this study, I have made a conscious effort to stay away from a more traditional view of phonology based in the phonemic principle and the minimal pair as the decisive factor to determine categorical segments in the phonological knowledge of speakers. In doing this, I am assuming the principles of a usage-based approach to phonology (Cf. Bybee 2000, 2001, Pierrehumbert 1990, 1999, 2001, Port and Leary 2005, and Silverman 2006, 2010). This theory doesn’t consider the phonemic principle as the starting point of the organization of the system, but a consequence of the accumulation of particular experienced instances of sounds (exemplars) with phonetic details, even redundant ones, associated to them. Organizing those instances requires of multiple and coexisting layers of abstraction, regulated by human categorization processes via prototypes. Thus, a phoneme is not a primitive, underlying unit, but the result of categorization process. A consequence of this is that the acquisition of sound categories is not regulated by the phonemic principle —what learners acquire is not underlying

39

categories, but phonetic categories. As Maye and Gerken (2000: 532, n. 1) state, speakers learn how to group sounds together “in a particular phonological position.”

This form of categorization, strictly derived from the experienced exemplars, is coherent with the idea that eventually, phonetic categories might achieve a higher degree of abstraction, capable of including allophones, as understood in classical phonological analysis. However, the important contribution of Maye and Gerken is evidence against the idea that the acquisition of sounds classes requires the existence of minimal pairs. The minimal pair approach to categories learning implies that infants required to be exposed to sound in contrastive contexts, in order to acquire phonemic categories. However, children are capable of distinguishing consonants they are commonly exposed to around 8-10 months, while the development of a large understood vocabulary doesn’t occur before 12 months. Without a somewhat rich vocabulary, there is no way children can master basic contrastive opposition. Hence, the idea that the phonemic principle is relevant for acquisition of sound categories should be considered inadequate (Maye and Gerken 2000: 523-524).

Instead, these authors provide evidence from other studies that children seem to be aware, from 8 – 9 months of age, of ”the relative frequency with which various phonotactic patterns occur in their language“ (2000: 524). This means that one of the most important characteristic of the 40

early acquisition of sound categories in language is the relative frequency of listened exemplars. This is replicated by the learners, even if there is variation and overlapping in many of the perceived exemplars, because the most frequently heard tokens can still be organized in different clusters, which is equivalent to the cloud of exemplars mentioned earlier.

To sum up, if Maye and Gerken (2000) is right, minimal pairs are only a quick way to determine phonemic status; but the real basis for phonemic status would be whether the language uses that particular sound frequently and in a way that is stable enough to form an emergent category which will be used with functional purposes. In other words, the contrastive property of a phoneme to distinguish meaning is not its most basic property, but one that is derived from the possibilities of categorization of sounds. Instead, perceptual and frequency properties, both understood better through acoustic and quantitative analysis, are more basic in the determination of what makes a sound categorical in a language.

In the case of CQ, the lack of minimal pair data has been claimed as the most decisive factor in denying phonemic status to [e] and [o] (as claimed, for instance, in Heggarty ND, but see Weber 2005 for a detailed presentation of the minimal pair line of argumentation). However, minimal pairs are not as important to define a category as it is to know how variable or stable

41

those allophones are, and whether they can be accounted for by alternate means (i.e., as the effects of pure co-articulation).

In conclusion, the status of vowels in CQ is far from being a closed controversy. Although distributional and unit and allophonic rule descriptions have been presented as conclusive scientific evidence for a closed three vowel inventory, the reality of the actual production of vowels shows a more complex situation that still requires the attention from linguists, and requires the use of a different approach —one that considers actual usage and its inherent variability and quantitative techniques.

References Adelaar and Muysken. 2007. Languages of the Andes. Cambridge: CUP. Bessel, Nicola. 1998. Local and non-local consonant-vowel interaction in Interior Salish.

Phonology 15 (1998), 1-40. Bybee, Joan 2000. Usage-Based Phonology [Functionalist Phonology Position Paper]. In Michael Darnell et al. (eds.), Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics Vol. I, 211–242. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bybee, Joan. 2001. Phonology and Language Use. Cambridge: CUP. Campbell, Lyle. 1998. Introduction to Historical Linguistics, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Calvo, Julio. 1993. Pragmática y gramática del quechua cuzqueño. Cuzco: CBC. 42

Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo. 1987. Lingüística Quechua. Cuzco: CBC. Cerrón-Palomino 2007. The Languages of the Andes (Review). Language 83 (2). 422-425. Chirinos, Andrés. 2001. Atlas lingüístico del Perú. Cuzco: CBC. Godenzzi, Carlos (ed.). 1992. El quechua en debate. Cuzco: CBC. Heggarty, Paul. ND. Three vowels or five? http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/~pah1003/quechua/Eng/Main/i_ISSUES.HTM#ThreeVowelsOrFive. (23 February, 2011) Hosokawa, Koomei. 1981. On phonological redefinition of foreign lexical entries: A case of Spanish-Quechua contact. Studia Phonologica (15). 1-17. Maddieson, Ian. 1984. Patterns of sounds. Cambridge: CUP. Maye, Jessica and LouAnn Gerken. 2000. Learning phonemes without minimal pairs. In S. Catherine Howell et al. (eds.). BUCLD 24 Proceedings, 522-533. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. Pasquale, Michael. 2001. Quechua and Spanish Language Contact: Influence on the Quechua phonological system. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State Univeristy, Ph.D. Dissertation. Pasquale, Michael. 2005. Phonological variation in a Quechua speech community. In James N. Stanford and Dennis Preston (eds.) Variation in indigenous minority languages, 245-258. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Pierrehumbert, Janett. 1990. Phonological and Phonetic Representation. Journal of Phonetics (18) 375-394. Pierrehumbert, Janett. 1999. Knowledge of variation. In Papers from the Parasession on Variation. 30th Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society, 232-256. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society. Pierrehumbert 2001. Stochastic phonology. GLOT (5) 6. 1-13. 43

Port, Robert F. and Adam P. Leary. 2005. Against formal phonology. Language (81) 4. 927964. Sánchez, Liliana. 2010. The Morphology and Syntax of Focus and Topic: Minimalist Inquiries

in the Quechua periphery. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Silverman, 2006. A critical introduction to phonology. Of sound, mind, and body. London/New York: Continuum. Silverman, Daniel. 2010. Usage Based Phonology. http://seedyroad.com/academics/usagebased-phonology.pdf (12 December 2010) Weber, David J. 2005 [1994] Writing Quechua. Latin American Center Publications. Los Angeles: UCLA.

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Appendix

A. Sociolinguistic Data of the consultants Speaker

Age

name

Place of

Place of

Age and

Age and

Level of

Current

origin

residence

condition of

condition

education

activities

acquisition of

of

Quechua

acquisition of Spanish

B. Table of words used and formant values B.1. Words and difference in formants by speaker group Differences in Formants

QML F1

aq-ak (taqi-taki) qa-kha (sinqa-sinkhay) aq-ak (waqay-wakay) aq-ak (t'aqlla-taklla)

QL1 F2

F1

BL

QL2

F2

F1

F2

F1

Vowel F2

50.36

-307.705

50.106

-74.3765

87.49275

-166.978

50.863

-31.146

a

192.7763

-674.606

184.4145

-655.636

142.6213

-297.931

167.5135

-398.996

a

16.361

-26.6237

-37.822

-41.69

77.27125

-90.5795

1.63075

205.2105

a

-0.09125

-62.9415

18.45

-85.1045

43.2945

-99.3125

157.443

-84.1095

a

qha-ka (usqhay-puskay)

46.9195

-471.555

140.133

-338.082

134.6998

246.0223

47.003

-82.9142

a

qi-ki (taqi-taki)

126.895

-396.256

103.7005

-348.866

137.824

-454.567

47.235

-279.371

i

qi-ki (qiru-kiru)

132.621

-118.857

109.852

-258.138

160.1053

-463.755

178.673

-355.227

i

iq -ik (siqi-siki)

88.4155

-283.932

37.48975

-51.5815

145.0188

-560.282

137.9088

-488.41

i

qi -ki (siqi-siki)

123.9455

-352.168

75.3395

-45.3293

125.7345

-500.705

97.55075

-355.88

i

qi-ki (qilla-killa)

101.4775

-218.36

101.5618

-210.632

128.376

-283.564

90.62125

-277.142

i

iq -ik (wiqi-piki)

157.5365

-632.4

185.2698

-379.343

145.39

-711.812

126.23

-565.48

i

qi-ki (wiqi-piki)

132.0613

-185.117

147.8665

-333.191

165.4368

-469.704

111.2065

-390.658

i

inq-inkh (sinqa-sinkhay)

16.04325

-469.169

75.41525

-553.674

141.9

-250.158

119.593

-587.522

i

77.3835

-16.5008

124.923

-108.199

132.8748

-22.3708

215.128

0.2575

u

16.25

-152.744

87.19025

-95.4953

128.853

-8.83225

170.4288

125.5245

u

145.4833

-23.5982

40.9445

-113.54

112.76

-53.3108

99.80825

-29.2845

u

qu-ku (qusa-kusa) urq-urk (urqu-kurku) qu-ku (urqu-kurku)

45

unq-unk (unquy-unkuy)

1.637

29.9555

6.91

85.5545

133.1788

82.74075

112.1515

57.5405

u

61.6115

-28.4465

37.62775

-36.004

127.8005

84.93275

95.5865

175.3053

u

4.0225

-155.923

150.9915

-208.584

140.3425

-47.7375

162.9223

-84.0775

u

qu-ku (qulla-kulla)

46.1455

-121.921

126.8258

-59.9438

163.8885

-20.6215

195.8243

101.8705

u

uq-uk (t' uquy-tukuy)

132.878

29.96075

161.7058

-102.318

121.7153

-87.6547

109.446

-179.957

u

uq-uk (puquy-pukuy) qu-ku (qutu-kuti)

B.2. Words used for analysis of four transition points, values of each point and averages for F1 and F2. a. Bilingual group (BL) Speak

Vow

er

el

Context

Average

a

killa_1

Mama ni Mama ni

i

killa_1

Mama ni

a

killa_2

Mama ni

i

killa_2

Mama ni

i

kiru_1

Mama ni

u

kiru_1

Mama ni

i

kiru_2

Mama ni

u

kiru_2

Mama ni

a

kulla_1

Mama ni

u

kulla_1

Mama ni

a

kulla_2

Mama ni

u

kulla_2

Mama ni

kur

kurku_1

Mama ni

ku

kurku_1

Mama ni

kur

kurku_2

Mama ni

ku

kurku_2

Mama

F1-1

F1-2

F1-3

F1-4

Average F2-1

F1

605.6

648.0

728.7

669.24

48

44

97

1

291.7

317.9

336.1

329.06

662.9325

F2-2

F2-3

F2-4

F2

1754.3

1692.7

1648.3

1628.1

62

87

73

85

1680.926 75

2605.2

2574.0

2541.7

2491.2

2553.060

21

65

35

9

318.7225

97

06

04

34

25

574.3

586.4

669.2

793.39

655.8667

1802.8

1747.2

1741.2

1665.5

1739.220

5

13

96

39

2224.7

2385.2

57

7

41

9

347.2

375.5

383.5

370.45 5

38

02

77

279.6

289.7

298.7

08

02

87

344.21

416.8

402.7

390.6

314.93

88

56

43

7

259.4

294.7

314.9

374.49

33

25

1914.8

2220.962

369.193

48

45

2359

58

75

303.0767

2527.5

2457.9

2454.8

2157.1

2399.377

18

5 381.306

73

23

95

1155.7

991.24

925.63

25 979.1317

79

5

3

843.87

5

2448.8

2438.7

2421.5

2181.3

2372.627

19

49

37

3

310.8995

38

44

84

44

5

439.0

436.0

403.7

397.70

419.1592

1090.1

1028.5

991.24

997.30

1026.826

5

95

67

66

9

553.1

577.3

633.9

716.68

67

93

5

1

5

1856.3

1786.6

1717.0

1612.0

1743.005 5

59

85

12

4

620.285

12

63

13

34

367.4

400.7

413.8

410.83

398.2137

935.72

934.71

975.09

1257.7

5

27

37

6

1

509.7

578.3

690.4

794.40

54

94

39

9

364.3

367.4

373.4

387.61 5

98

27

83

365.4

393.6

420.9

7

7

4

3

1025.817

1943.1

1887.6

1767.4

1702.8

1825.272

643.249

22

04

84

81

75

373.2307

882.22

943.80

1010.4

1295.0

1032.882

5

8

2

23

78

75

393.9237

1007.3

1028.5

1126.5

1287.0

1112.374

08

71

26

395.69

5

95

93

06

03

25

358.3

429.0

460.2

542.05

447.4227

1059.8

1081.0

1134.5

1149.7

1106.317 75

42

01

93

5

5

85

82

81

23

350.2

388.6

415.8

394.68

387.3627

977.11

1026.5

1109.3

1227.4

5

67

24

79

1

336.1

390.6

436.0

546.09

35

43

422.9

67

3

427.2345

392.6

391.65

400.9897

3

74

46

47

1085.12

1042.7

1055.8

1163.8

1170.9

1108.336

25

47

54

2

5

1013.4

1039.6

1207.2

1060.641

ni

kur

kurku_3

44

396.7

62

3

5

982.16

52

96

59

75

Mama

ku

kurku_3

305.8

361.3

346.2

279.60

323.2647

1106.3

1092.1

1057.8

931.68

1047.014

46

ni Mama ni

kur

kurku_4

Mama ni

ku

kurku_4

Mama ni

u

kusa_1

u

kusa_2

Mama ni Mama ni

u

kuti_1

Mama ni

u

kuti_2

Mama ni

u

kuti_3

u

kuti_4

Mama ni Mama ni

a

opa_1

Mama ni

o

opa_1

Mama ni

a

opa_2

o

opa_2

Mama ni Mama ni

pi

piki_1

Mama ni

ki

piki_1

Mama ni

pi

piki_2

Mama ni

ki

piki_2

Mama ni

pu

pukuy_1

Mama ni

kuy

pukuy_1

Mama ni

pu

pukuy_2

Mama ni

kuy

pukuy_2

Mama ni

pu

pukuy_3

Mama ni

kuy

Mama ni

pukuy_pukuyta pu

Mama ni

pukuy_3 _IC pukuy_pukuyta

kuy

_IC

Mama ni

pu

puquy_1

52

7

29

8

379.5

384.5

400.7

386.60

4

87

37

6

303.8

380.5

34

49

396.7

9

298.7

347.2

359.3

341.18

87

38

51

2

315.9

340.1

352.2

294.74

47

73

85

9

354.3

361.3

380.5

340.17

5

18

86

66

9

1094.2

1003.3

1069.9

1238.5

05

57

79

51

1101.523

1037.6

1029.6

1070.9

1168.9

1076.792

78

02

88

01

25

967.01

901.40

1061.9

1529.2

336.6395

9

7

04

62

1021.5

1120.4

1507.0

325.7885

982.16

27

5

55

856.99

904.43

937.74

1318.2

387.8675

415.87 374.2405

04

7

49

3

359.099

2

5

6

95

358.3

376.5

394.6

322.00

362.8842

921.59

1008.4

1112.3

1454.5

5

42

11

81

3

315.9

367.4

383.5

356.32

47

27

77

3

333.1

362.3

376.5

07

8

11

631.8

663.1

75

1114.898 1157.798 1004.367

5

05

74

66

1124.235

1007.3

987.20

1074.0

1387.9

1114.140

355.8185

95

7

16

44

5

326.04

349.5097

886.26

924.62

1059.8

1387.9

1064.679

1

5

5

3

85

44

25

700.5

744.94

685.1397

1207.2

1300.1

1362.7

1417.2

1321.827

8

93

85

33

421.9

514.8

517.8

5

59

25

09

17

5

449.9462

838.82

928.66

900.39

920.58

897.1167

35

01

29

345.22

481.4

609.6

653.0

814.59

9

86

91

7

484.5

534.9

517.8

287.68

19

89

29

3

456.255

343.2

347.2

330.0

289.70

327.5547 5

01

38

78

2

343.2

337.1

372.4

357.33

01

44

74

3

330.0

354.3

330.0

245.28

78

04

78

8

252.3

272.5

294.7

312.91

53

42

49

8

345.2

384.5

405.7

356.32

2

87

84

3

335.1

343.2

366.4

358.34 2

25

01

17

341.1

371.4

360.3

82

64

61

362.38

329.0

354.3

351.2

294.74

5 639.716

352.538 314.937 283.1405

12

97

8

299.7

234.18

37

41

96

4

297.7

323.0

337.1

342.19

77

12

44

1

375.5

497.6

471.3

407.80

02

41

96

3

932.69

916.54

914.52

917.8097

3

9

8

9

5

2342.8

2340.8

2387.2

2550.7

2405.433 5

5

31

64

89

2563.9

2633.5

2684.0

2657.7

12

61

32

87

2161.1

2227.7

2291.3

2448.8

55

77

7

38

2535.6

2405.4

2361.0

2323.6

2634.823 2282.285

903.1732

2

2

1

8

5

350.7712

944.81

959.95

1062.9

1325.3

1073.259 5

5

1

3

13

61

358.8467

969.03

882.22

845.88

765.13

5

5

326.0

907.46

372.9785

331.5922

11

5

2406.443

332.3495

314.9

92

71

9 7

74

830.74

297.77 330.07

95

19

76 98

41

962.98

364.3 332.0

5 1364.475

34

04 85

6 1564.5

943.80

352.2 323.0

7 1423.2

48

69 09

1 1318.2

875.16

311.9 290.7

3 1151.7

318.9745 293.7395 325.031 438.0855

7

8

9

6

956.92

988.21

1029.6

992.25

4

6

02

4

854.97

873.14

767.15

865.5725 991.749

879.2

4

3

5

843.618

1281.9

1329.3

1421.2

1680.6

1428.320 75

56

98

55

74

834.78

797.43

801.47

760.08

5

7

5

9

934.71

980.14

1092.1

1296.0

7

1

86

88

1008.4

1024.5

976.10

741.91

05

55

3

9

798.4465 1075.783 937.7455

47

Mama ni

quy

puquy_1

Mama ni

pu

puquy_2

Mama ni

quy

puquy_2

a

puskay_1

Mama ni Mama ni

u

puskay_1

Mama ni

a

puskay_2

Mama ni

u

puskay_2

A

q_upa_1

Mama ni Mama ni

U

q_upa_1

Mama ni

A

q_upa_2

Mama ni

U

q_upa_2

A

q_upa_3

Mama ni Mama ni

U

q_upa_3

Mama ni

A

qilla_1

Mama ni

I

qilla_1

I

qilla_2

Mama ni Mama ni

A

qilla_2

Mama ni

I

qilla_3_IC

Mama ni

A

qilla_3_IC

I

qiru_1

Mama ni Mama ni

U

qiru_1

Mama ni

I

qiru_2

Mama ni

U

qiru_2

U

qulla_1

Mama ni Mama

403.7

446.1

468.3

504.70

66

61

68

7

410.8

499.6

512.7

404.77

31

6

82

5

489.5

500.6

481.4

470.38

66

69

9

7

409.8

486.5

507.7

22

38

35

482.5

306.8

382.5

394.6

62

68

81

348.2

442.1

487.5

786.33

851.94

3

5

895.35

94

898.6305

1080.0

1061.9

1001.3

773.21

979.1317

73

04

39

1

5

1124.4

1154.7

1282.9

1474.7

485.528

87

7

65

54

1259.244

471.6487

1860.3

1783.6

1803.8

2000.6

1862.116

5

5

35

23

59

75

296.76

345.2197

868.09

1005.3

1211.2

1596.8

1170.415

8

5

455.7505 457.012

1060.8

6

76

97

93

5

1945.1

1887.6

1955.2

2026.9

1953.720

48

23

47

431.02

427.2345

41

04

35

03

75

298.7

363.3

379.5

259.41

325.2837

901.40

973.07

1085.1

1421.2

1095.214

87

89

4

9

5

7

5

2

55

25

490.5

605.6

671.2

759.07

75

48

6

9

522.8

570.3

548.1

1159.8

1217.3

1320.3

1404.0

1275.394

631.6405

17

53

13

95

5

509.2492

919.57

894.34

867.08

853.96

76

19

12

395.69

5

6

1

7

4

520.8

632.9

697.5

790.37

660.4092

1187.0

1289.0

1360.6

1414.1

883.742

58

03

05

1

5

71

22

9

89

1312.743

570.3

576.3

567.2

358.34

518.0817

925.63

933.70

944.81

921.59

931.4367

19

75

91

2

5

3

8

1

5

5

518.8

600.6

646.0

741.91

1207.2

1281.9

1345.5

1409.1

1310.976

39

01

25

9

59

56

49

42

5

541.0

553.1

535.9

962.98

968.02

909.48

942.5402

46

59

99

361.37

575.3

612.7

653.0

641.98

66

14

91

7

404.7

469.3

463.3

371.46

75

78

21

4

505.7

463.3

460.2

392.66

16

21

93

2

558.2

594.5

601.6

06

45

11

655.11

465.3

462.3

435.0

315.94

626.846 497.8935 620.7895 427.2345 455.498 602.368

4

12

57

7

550.1

640.9

638.9

940.77

31

78

59

4

692.7105

413.8

456.2

473.4

6

55

15

465.34

452.2175

472.4

469.3

453.2

404.7752

06

78

27

420.9

460.2

486.5

224.09

26

93

38

464.33

444.1

378.5

276.5

457.26

42

3

79

5

472.4

496.6

509.7

523.88

06

32

54

6

607.6

623.8

843.8

821.66

419.664

929.67

1

8

2

5

1847.2

1759.4

1705.9

1560.5

1718.275 25

28

09

1

54

2172.2

2116.7

2238.8

2235.8

59

41

8

52

2102.6

2099.5

2121.7

2222.7

09

81

88

3

2136.677

1975.4

1901.7

1847.2

1806.8

1882.809

23

36

28

51

5

2209.6

2186.3

2171.2

2241.9

2202.288

07

91

49

08

75

2023.8

1959.2

1827.0

1747.2

1889.370

75

73

39

96

75

2043.0

2081.4

2078.3

1808.8

2002.929

54

12

83

7

75

1162.8

1088.1

1018.4

1012.4

1070.483 5

5

45

48

99

42

458.0217

2028.9

1969.3

1980.4

1751.3 33

5 389.129 500.6695

2190.933

1932.523

22

67

7

1206.2

945.82

1049.7

5

1

91

1619.1

5

926.64

952.88

986.19

1303.1

1042.219

2

7

7

53

75

1845.2

1783.6

1835.1

1740.2

1801.047

1205.240

ni

A

qulla_2

67

18

7

3

724.2545

09

35

15

3

25

Mama

U

qulla_2

484.5

507.7

514.8

519.84

506.7257

966.00

995.28

1023.5

1304.1

1072.25

48

ni Mama ni

A

qulla_3

Mama ni

A

qusay_1

Mama ni

U

qusay_1

A

qusay_2_IC

Mama ni Mama ni

U

qusay_2_IC

Mama ni

qu

qutu_1

Mama ni

tu

qutu_1

qu

qutu_2

Mama ni Mama ni

tu

qutu_2

Mama ni

si

siki_1

Mama ni

ki

siki_1

si

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21

25

1191.5

1101.0

979.66

746.46

1004.691 5

79

7

8

5

435.526

74

61

7

4

380.1

496.2

497.2

408.90

445.6422

1150.0

1199.0

1291.6

1500.3

53

23

88

5

5

44

28

7

82

1285.281

583.5

439.7

499.4

502.61

506.3387

1294.8

1204.3

1137.2

954.11

1147.648

41

85

17

2

5

65

52

66

1

5

534.5

497.2

522.8

484.50

509.7997

906.19

989.25

1118.0

1364.0

1094.405

5

58

88

44

9

614.4

636.7

642.1

392.93

22

84

08

2

256.6

249.1

250.2

222.55

3

76

41

5

579.2

618.6

605.9

360.98

571.5615 244.6505

2

1

99

8

5

1890.1

1796.4

1727.1

2013.6

1856.842 25

19

12

96

42

2119.0

2408.7

2489.6

2493.8

63

04

33

92

1670.7

1815.5

1776.1

2098.8

2377.823

82

81

03

6

541.213

59

79

79

31

264.0

286.4

314.1

259.82

281.1217

2408.7

2270.2

2386.3

2456.6

84

46

32

5

5

04

72

42

22

2380.485

655.9

697.4

730.4

819.93

1677.1

1583.4

1616.4

1720.8

1649.461

51

81

91

9

48

4

51

07

5

725.9655

1840.337

55

Moran te

lla

taklla_1

Moran te

tak

taklla_2

Moran te

lla

taklla_2

A

taqi_1

Moran te Moran te

I

taqi_1

Moran te

A

taqi_2

Moran te

I

taqi_2

tu

tukuy_1

Moran te Moran te

kuy

tukuy_1

Moran te

tu

tukuy_2

Moran te

kuy

tukuy_2

un

unkuy_2_UNK

Moran te Moran te

kuy

unkuy_2_UNK

Moran te

un

unkuy_UNK

Moran te

kuy

unkuy_UNK

un

unquy_1

Moran te Moran te

quy

unquy_1

Moran te

un

unquy_2

Moran te

quy

unquy_2

ur

urqu_1

Moran te Moran te

qu

urqu_1

595.2

611.2

696.4

665.53

1745.2

1706.9

1663.3

1633.4

1687.264

54

27

16

5

642.108

99

64

05

89

25

582.4

637.8

686.8

724.10

657.8147

1613.2

1589.8

1622.8

1634.5

5

54

76

49

32

2

628.2

686.8

727.2

624.00

65

32

96

5

552.6

736.8

751.7

684.70

6

8

88

2

681.5075

434.4

463.2

373.7

567.56

61

12

64

8

629.3

727.2

721.9

564.37

ur

urqu_2

Moran te

qu

urqu_2

A

usqhay_1

Moran te Moran

3

4

1730.3

1675.0

96

91

18

1627.1

1404.5

1778.3

1747.4

1615.3

45

09

28

86

1636.417

459.7512

1950.8

1940.1

2028.5

1956.1

1968.918

5

16

67

5

4

25

1608.9

1732.5

1679.2

1530.1

1637.748

666.5995

1615.12 1699.776 25

3

96

72

4

660.743

97

2

78

98

25

466.4

458.9

382.2

571.82

469.8677

1868.8

1915.6

1909.2

1885.8

1894.910

07

53

83

8

5

22

75

86

6

75

384.4

364.1

343.9

237.46

332.5012

1370.4

1060.5

969.01

896.60

1074.173

13

81

48

3

5

69

96

9

9

25

318.3

335.4

334.3

329.3067

973.27

1042.4

1108.5

1222.4

1086.685

5

8

25

92

3

65

329.04

402.5

389.7

366.3

268.34

15

37

1

4

291.7

314.1

351.4

338.62

7

32

02

4

456.8

331.1

413.1

409.96

23

7

64

9

272.6

379.0

373.7

346.07

03

89

64

8

341.8

330.1

310.9

284.31

356.7265 323.982 402.7815 342.8835

15

54

1026.5

824.19

1293.8

77

21

8

973.27

1042.4

1072.3

1241.6

1068.849

8

94

1

22

987.12

947.72

894.47

936.00

1

2

9

8

941.3325

1246.9

1317.2

1365.1

1174.5

1275.963

46

27

45

36

5

918.97

872.11

906.19

1082.426

1

7

2

778.41

868.9225

1090.4

1186.2

1153.2

1130.344

312.8015

77

12

49

39

25

422.74

542.0117

1090.4

1052.0

1011.6

864.66

1004.691

8

5

12

77

13

3

25

1021.1

1044.6

1180.9

1533.3

1195.034

05

38

6

310.9

318.3

319.45

19

38

92

7

651.6

568.6

524.9

92

33

74

420.6

503.6

505.8

444.04

316.7945

94 1130.8

1091.4

19 302.4

18

77

06

5

468.5365

97

23

25

92

25

649.5

527.1

518.5

532.42

556.9197

1150.0

1080.8

1068.0

1028.6

1081.893

62

04

85

8

5

44

29

5

51

5

371.6

451.4

468.5

428.07

429.9357

1005.2

1179.8

1331.0

1567.4

1270.905

35

99

37

2

5

24

6

7

68

5

376.9

429.1

464.2

445.9082

902.99

998.83

916.84

1194.7

1003.360

59

37

77

513.26

5

8

5

1

68

5

432.3

490.8

510.0

418.48

462.9457

881.70

1026.5

1033.9

998.83

5

31

Moran te

56 1766.5

98

66

8

552.6

514.3

419.55

666.6

6

25

3

551.5

557.9

575.0

568.63

95

84

22

3

634.6

561.1

545.2

451.49

54

79

06

9

425.9

402.5

415.2

247.04

538.2845 563.3085 548.1345

1

21

75

5

985.258

1051.0

1030.7

1041.4

1244.8

1092.009

13

8

29

16

5

1043.5

961.56

1008.4

1024.3

1009.483

59

5

18

91

25

1654.7

1670.7

1734.6

1898.6

1739.708

86

59

5

38

25

947.72

978.60

965.82

1272.5

1041.162

te

U

usqhay_1

42

15

94

7

372.6995

2

2

4

03

75

Moran

A

usqhay_2

529.2

529.2

501.5

425.94

496.4887

1656.9

1717.6

1779.3

1885.8

1759.940

56

te Moran te

U wa kay

wakay_1

wa

wakay_2

Moran te Moran te

kay wa qay

waqay_1

wa

waqay_2

Moran te Moran te

qay wi qi

wiqi_1

wi

wiqi_2

Moran te Moran te

qi

74

6

307.7

523.9

449.3

332.23

43

09

69

5

944.52

1044.6

1028.6

1212.8

7

23

51

442.9

560.1

621.8

71

1057.668

1053.1

1290.6

1464.1

1618.5

8

14

76

372.7

1356.626

499.4175

42

05

77

81

391.8

460.0

493.0

25

398.25

435.7922

1831.5

1801.7

1802.8

1927.3

1840.869

67

18

28

6

5

52

36

01

89

5

522.8 44

529.2

527.1

308.80

471.9972

1127.6

1309.7

1410.9

1482.2

33

04

8

5

82

73

34

79

1332.667

373.7

465.3

483.4

428.07

437.6557

1736.7

1781.5

1765.5

1916.7

1800.138

64

42

45

2

5

8

04

31

4

75

601.6

624.0

617.6

549.46

1175.6

1241.6

1262.9

1276.7

6

43

05

16

628.2

585.6

565.4

65

71

38

482.38

464.2

609.0

660.2

77

97

11

581.4

645.3

643.1

593.12

403.314

5

01

22

19

62

1239.226

1698.4

1788.9

1954.0

1776.445

565.4385

7

45

58

1

75

604.83

584.6057

918.97

1142.5

1307.6

1335.3

1176.133

8

5

1

9

43

29

25

1521.6

1626.0

1648.3

1813.4

11

03

73

5

504.7

498.3

425.94

88

42

52

2

424.8

456.8

461.0

446.17

77

23

83

5

421.6

418.4

418.4

83

88

88

481.3

454.6

458.9

563.30

15

93

53

9

wiqi_2

5

1664.3

497.2 wiqi_1

Moran te

12

waqay_2

Moran te

16

waqay_1

Moran te

2

wakay_2

Moran te

47

wakay_1

Moran te

33

usqhay_2

Moran te

33

598.1825

79

35

97

49

1814.5

1886.9

2117.9

1980.6

615.753

1652.39

14

24

98

32

1950.017

1866.6

1936.9

1988.0

2000.8

1948.153

447.2395

92

73

86

64

75

388.67

411.8327

1573.8

1705.8

1769.7

1746.3

1698.977

2

5

57

99

9

63

25

1808.1

1829.4

1844.3

1850.7

25

22

3

19

481.581

489.5675

1833.149

b. Quechua first language (QL1) Speak

Vow

er

el

Average Context

Peralt a

a

killa_1

i

killa_1

Peralt a Peralt a

a

killa_2

Peralt a

i

killa_2

i

kiru_1

Peralt a Peralt a

u

kiru_1

i

kiru_2

Peralt a Peralt a

u

kiru_2

F1-1

F1-2

F1-3

F1-4

Average F2-1

F1

F2-2

F2-3

F2-4

F2

512.1

659.5

691.4

652.2

628.8557

1924.9

1817.7

1673.5

1501.4

1729.417

53

13

58

99

5

53

82

14

22

75

221.5

271.0

278.2

209.1

244.9987

2310.3

2348.4

2367.0

2302.1

2331.996

55

19

32

89

5

56

84

33

12

25

429.7

491.5

539.9

773.8

2066.1

1884.7

1678.6

1578.7

1802.067

14

43

76

97

558.7825

3

64

66

09

25

230.8

258.6

269.9

205.0

241.1342

2344.3

2376.3

2419.5

2335.0

2368.836

29

53

88

67

5

62

07

88

88

25

203.0

262.7

283.3

306.0

2145.4

2146.5

2136.2

1820.8

2062.265

06

75

84

55

263.805

78

08

03

74

75

320.4

354.4

363.7

231.8

317.6482

1407.6

1173.7

1010.9

968.65

82

88

63

6

5

48

27

1

9

223.6

277.2

285.4

292.6

269.7302

2211.4

2220.7

2179.4

1917.7

16

01

45

59

5

29

03

84

4

2132.339

272.0

285.4

308.1

203.0

1442.6

1320.0

1178.8

1132.5

1268.531

49

45

16

06

84

56

79

07

5

267.154

1140.236

57

Peralt a

a

kulla_1

u

kulla_1

Peralt a Peralt a

a

kulla_2

Peralt a

u

kulla_2

ku

kurku_1

Peralt a Peralt a

kur

kurku_1

ku

kurku_2

Peralt a Peralt a

kur

kurku_2

Peralt a

539.9

655.3

720.3

863.5

694.8072

1882.7

1722.9

1650.8

1529.2

76

91

12

5

5

03

77

43

45

1696.442

264.8

323.5

309.1

285.4

295.7502

1015.0

979.99

1055.2

1302.5

1088.196

36

73

47

45

5

31

5

21

38

25

465.7

519.3

517.3

724.4

1836.3

1709.5

1620.9

1505.5

1668.103

81

66

05

34

272.0

294.7

296.7

278.2

49

2

81

32

268.9

336.9

336.9

58

7

7

240.1

335.9

04

31

81

59

44

75

922.28

911.98

988.23

1319.0

1035.383

285.4455

7

3

9

26

75

238.0

295.2352

1020.1

941.86

43

5

84

7

864.58

3

908.6335

352.4

339.0

316.8752

1080.9

1106.7

1173.7

1345.8

1176.818

39

27

31

5

83

45

27

18

25

362.7

389.5

391.5

194.7

334.6512

968.65

929.50

895.49

732.67

881.5832

32

25

86

62

5

9

1

5

8

5

258.6

322.5

339.0

328.7

312.2382

1042.8

1035.6

1124.2

1261.3

1116.019

5

53

43

31

26

631.6

479.1

461.6

349.3

77

59

36

a

kusa_1

9

324.6

330.7

187.5

u

kusa_1

253.5

04

87

49

567.7

581.1

596.6

696.6

Peralt a Peralt a

a

kusa_2

Peralt a

u

kusa_2

i

kuti_1

Peralt a Peralt a

u

kuti_1

i

kuti_2

Peralt a Peralt a

u

kuti_2

Peralt a

a

opa_1

u

opa_1

Peralt a Peralt a

o

opa_2

Peralt a

ki

piki_1

pi

piki_1

Peralt a Peralt a

ki

piki_2

pi

piki_2

Peralt a Peralt a

kuy

pukuy_1

556.7215

480.4655 274.11

807.90

55

41

63

18

25

1482.8

1466.3

1525.1

1603.4

1519.455

73

86

23

41

75

1189.1

1180.9

1181.9

1379.8

84

4

71

25

1232.98

1411.7

1436.5

1411.7

1416.9

1419.240

99

96

53

1

610.5645

7

01

7

22

75

235.9

349.3

350.3

297.8

308.3737

1163.4

1129.4

1171.6

1312.8

1194.336

82

36

66

11

5

22

16

66

43

75

267.9

293.6

308.1

250.4

280.0352

2215.5

2350.5

2471.1

2474.2

27

89

16

09

5

51

45

12

04

2377.853

240.1

317.3

323.5

336.9

1046.9

1024.3

1067.5

1269.5

1102.107

04

91

73

7

77

06

86

62

75

287.5

310.1

367.8

333.8

2070.2

2137.2

2202.1

2448.4

2214.520

06

77

85

78

52

34

55

41

5

266.8

332.8

347.2

319.4

1121.1

1068.6

1140.7

1260.2

97

48

75

52

512.1

580.1

629.6

647.1

53

65

29

47

370.9

280.2

332.8

330.7

76

93

48

87

498.7

369.9

333.8

345.2

304.5095 324.8615 316.618 592.2735 328.726 386.9485

57

45

78

14

203.0

261.7

259.6

247.3

06

44

83

17

151.4

249.3

254.5

220.5

82

78

31

25

218.979

255.5

264.8

266.8

322.5

61

36

97

220.5

268.9

25

58

247.3 17

72

17

51

88

1147.707

1066.5

1208.7

1257.1

1163.4

1173.984

56

63

96

22

25

1006.7

893.43

891.37

840.87

88

4

3

9

870.76

799.65

849.12

790.38

908.1185 827.4825

3

9

3

5

2339.2

2394.8

2462.8

2597.8

1

56

68

62

2448.699

2054.7

2188.7

2232.0

2413.4

2222.249

95

58

39

05

25

277.4592

2393.8

2445.3

2456.6

2526.7

2455.654

43

5

25

5

85

59

75

267.9

199.9

239.3312

2142.3

2205.2

2285.6

2481.4

2278.668

27

15

5

86

46

24

17

25

299.8

307.0

282.3

284.1572

1201.5

1262.3

1332.4

1676.6

1368.231

72

86

54

5

5

49

22

05

5

242.9375

58

Peralt a

pu

pukuy_1

kuy

pukuy_2

Peralt a Peralt a

pu

pukuy_2

Peralt a

pu

puquy_1

quy

puquy_1

Peralt a Peralt a

pu

puquy_2

quy

puquy_2

Peralt a Peralt a

a

puskay_1

Peralt a

u

puskay_1

a

puskay_2

Peralt a Peralt a

u

puskay_2

Peralt a

A

q_upa_1

U

q_upa_1

Peralt a Peralt a

A

q_upa_2

U

q_upa_2

Peralt a Peralt a

lla

qilla_1

Peralt a

qi

qilla_1

lla

qilla_2

Peralt a Peralt a

qi

qilla_2

Peralt a

I

qiru_1

U

qiru_1

Peralt a Peralt a

I

qiru_2

U

qiru_2

Peralt a Peralt a

A

qulla_1

232.8

325.6

340.0

331.8

1021.2

961.44

958.35

789.35

932.5922

9

34

61

17

307.6005

14

6

5

4

5

376.1

286.4

293.6

273.0

307.3432

1340.6

1164.4

1426.1

1293.778

28

76

89

8

5

66

52

1243.8

96

5

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78

82

F1-3

F1-4

420.3195

21

79

92

87

75

1812.4

1952.0

2085.3

2166.1

2003.994

395.394

63

45

3

4

5

464.9

454.1652

1807.2

1999.2

2086.3

1747.3

1910.065

23

5

16

72

79

95

5

c. Quechua second language (QL2) Vow Speaker

el

Average Context

F1-1

F1-2

F1

Average F2-1

F2-2

F2-3

F2-4

F2

69

Gutierre z

a

killa_1

i

killa_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

i

killa_2

Gutierre z

i

kiru_1

u

kiru_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

i

kiru_2

u

kiru_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

kulla_U

Gutierre z

u

kulla_U

u

kulla_4_U

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

kulla_4_U

Gutierre z

kur

kurku_U

ku

kurku_U

Gutierre z Gutierre z

kur

kurku_2_U

ku

kurku_2_U

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

kusa_1

Gutierre z

u

kusa_1

u

kusa_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

i

kuti_1

Gutierre z

u

kuti_1

u

kuti_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

opa_1

o

opa_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

opa_2

587.0

578.3

578.3

546.76

572.630

1599.9

1615.2

1596.7

1409.3

1555.33

62

49

49

3

8

89

38

22

85

35

259.2

267.9

264.6

277.73

2087.9

2184.8

2237.1

2104.2

2153.55

22

36

68

8

37

73

53

75

95

248.3

307.1

279.9

245.06

2168.5

2191.4

2230.6

2181.6

2193.04

267.391

31

46

16

3

270.114

36

08

18

06

2

289.7

294.0

313.6

337.64

308.779

2057.4

2084.6

2116.2

2016.0

2068.60

19

76

81

2

5

4

7

55

52

425

365.9

363.7

365.9

377.94

368.411

1051.0

61

82

61

2

5

48

996.59

8

904.01

5

210.2

272.2

267.9

312.59

265.757

2122.7

2099.9

2105.3

2019.3

2086.84

1

92

36

2

5

9

18

64

19

775

357.2

341.9

340.9

348.53

347.172

1387.6

1136.0

1006.3

951.93

1120.48

47

99

1

4

5

01

03

92

4

25

608.8

652.4

655.6

725.38

1706.7

1689.3

1609.7

1541.1

1636.74 875

45

12

8

7

161.1

247.2

318.0

273.38

97

41

37

1

262.4

334.3

326.7

9

75

51

567.4

570.7

601.2

660.581

985.69

984.336

28

01

92

74

1220.9

892.02

1030.3

1299.3

249.964

58

9

54

79

1110.68

321.30

311.230

981.34

962.82

925.79

1094.6

991.143

5

3

1

5

4

15

75

519.53

564.734

1680.5

1660.9

1567.3

1515.0

1605.97

57

25

21

4

3

88

83

14

34

975

284.2

325.6

307.1

318.03

308.779

915.99

803.80

788.55

791.82

825.045

73

62

46

7

5

1

7

8

6

5

257.0

381.2

377.9

369.22

346.355

1015.1

910.54

910.54

984.60

955.201

44

09

42

8

8

06

5

5

9

25

309.3

362.6

368.1

364.87

939.95

919.25

953.02

1023.8

959.013

24

93

39

2

3

9

3

19

5

274.4

310.4

328.9

331.10

876.78

824.50

71

13

29

7

311.23

1

1

812.52

8

835.665

468.3

514.0

544.5

673.10

550.030

1630.4

1599.9

1561.8

1540.0

1583.10 7

351.257

828.85

43

88

85

6

5

86

89

68

85

257.0

319.1

336.5

325.66

309.596

934.50

961.73

1015.1

1113.1

44

27

53

2

5

7

6

06

31

1006.12

339.8

324.5

346.3

242.88

313.408

1079.3

1124.0

1174.1

1215.5

1148.25

21

72

56

5

5

67

22

24

13

65

186.2

258.1

233.0

255.95

233.354

1964.8

2112.9

2187.0

2195.7

2115.16

48

33

82

5

5

61

88

51

65

625

330.0

371.4

391.0

358.33

362.693

1177.3

1046.6

1104.4

1307.0

1158.87

18

07

12

7

5

92

91

17

03

575

215.6

367.0

408.4

371.40

340.637

1196.9

1187.1

1281.9

1426.8

1273.23

55

5

38

7

5

97

94

52

11

85

493.3

585.9

587.0

567.457

1058.6

1228.5

1272.1

1377.7

1234.30

94

73

62

603.4

3

72

83

49

99

075

447.6

461.8

463.9

444.38

454.455

837.57

829.94

826.67

767.86

815.515

48

08

86

1

8

1

7

9

4

25

515.1

564.1

567.4

1146.8

1250.3

1308.0

1342.9

1262.07

77

9

57

95

66

92

45

45

551.12

549.486

70

Gutierre z

o

opa_2

pi

piki_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

ki

piki_1

Gutierre z

pi

piki_3

ki

piki_3

Gutierre z Gutierre z

kuy

pukuy_1

pu

pukuy_1

Gutierre z

470.5

472.6

469.4

401.90

453.638

896.38

886.58

784.20

21

99

32

3

8

890.94

6

4

2

864.528

245.0

298.4

303.8

272.29

279.916

2110.8

2160.9

2203.3

2263.2

2184.60

63

32

78

2

3

1

11

89

93

075

198.2

249.4

260.3

270.11

244.518

2193.5

2192.4

2252.4

2272.0

2227.62

29

2

11

4

5

86

97

02

07

3

764.5

261.4

279.9

228.72

383.659

2303.5

2150.0

2214.2

2346.0

2253.49

97

01

16

5

8

93

2

81

7

1

260.3

289.7

272.2

370.31

298.159

2211.0

2319.9

2338.4

2477.8

2336.81

11

19

92

7

8

13

3

46

6

225

139.4

241.7

252.6

272.29

226.547

1053.2

1028.1

1207.8

1626.1

1228.85

14

96

87

2

3

26

76

88

29

475

395.3

399.7

344.1

709.04

723.20

715.58

673.10

705.236

68

25

77

314.77

363.51

9

8

4

6

75

333.2

336.5

316.94

322.121

712.31

748.25

755.88

733.01

737.367

8

Gutierre z

pu

pukuy_2

Gutierre z

kuy

pukuy_2

quy

puquy_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

pu

puquy_1

Gutierre z

quy

puquy_2

pu

puquy_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

puskay_1

u

puskay_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

puskay_2

Gutierre z

u

puskay_2

a

q_upa_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

u

q_upa_1

Gutierre z

a

q_upa_2

u

q_upa_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

i

Gutierre z

qillallanan a

Gutierre z

qilla_1 _IC qillallanan

i

_IC

301.7

86

53

206.9

241.7

289.7

42

96

19

328.9

398.6

29

36

467.2

512.9

506.4

8

7

9

3

1

5

263.306

1287.3

1168.6

1256.9

1584.7

1324.42

314.77

8

98

78

01

41

95

402.9

392.10

380.664

875.69

981.34

1072.8

1359.2

1072.28

93

1

8

2

1

32

83

7

551.936

875.69

892.02

915.99

2672.8

1339.13

54

99

64

721.03

340.9

364.8

379.0

345.26

1

72

31

7

422.5

459.6

505.3

98

29

74

327.8

345.2

4

8

2

9

1

21

325

788.55

914.90

1005.3

1279.7

997.134

357.52

8

2

03

74

25

413.88

450.371

950.84

900.74

880.04

804.89

884.133

4

3

5

3

9

6

25

398.6

454.18

381.481

2066.1

1888.6

1750.2

1756.8

1865.47

67

36

3

5

54

19

95

3

45

306.0

362.6

388.8

824.50

973.71

1031.4

926.882

57

93

33

340.91

3

877.87

1

7

43

75

300.6

356.1

425.8

425.86

377.124

1840.6

1892.9

1845.0

1875.5

1863.56

76

349.623

11

58

65

5

8

96

312.5

325.6

355.0

326.75

330.018

852.81

52

49

825

1045.6

1234.0

1015.92

92

62

69

1

5

9

931.24

02

29

25

553.2

583.7

582.7

562.01

570.452

98

95

05

1

3

1165.4

1289.5

1376.7

1414.8

1311.63

11

76

1

31

515.1

512.9

490.1

435.66

488.492

2

873.51

853.90

871.33

795.09

848.462

77

99

26

8

5

4

9

5

3

75

401.9

502.1

466.1

913.81

570.996

1004.2

1207.8

1336.4

1280.8

1207.34

03

07

64

3

8

14

88

1

63

375

539.1

495.5

465.0

396.45

902.92

913.81

906.18

852.81

893.935

39

72

75

8

474.061

1

3

9

9

360.5

444.3

406.2

332.19

385.838

2038.9

2054.1

2099.9

15

81

6

7

3

24

73

18

2071.6

375

579.4

581.6

1799.3

1754.6

1801.4

1920.2

1818.91

38

16

563.1

4

531.242

07

51

86

05

225

338.7

448.7

447.6

375.76

402.720

2049.8

1933.2

1962.6

1999.7

1986.37

32

38

48

3

3

16

75

83

14

2

400.81

5 2066.15

71

Gutierre z

i

qiru_1

u

qiru_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

i

qiru_2

Gutierre z

u

qiru_2

a

qulla_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

u

qulla_1

a

qulla_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

u

qulla_2

Gutierre z

u

qusa_1

a

qusa_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

u

qusa_2

Gutierre z

a

qusa_2

qu

qutu_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

tu

qutu_1

tu

qutu_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

qu

qutu_2

Gutierre z

si

siki_1

ki

siki_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

si

siki_2

Gutierre z

ki

siki_2

a

sinkhay_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

sin

sinkhay_1

a

sinkhay_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

sin

sinkhay_2

429.1

441.1

449.8

478.14

449.554

1890.7

1935.4

1940.8

1785.1

1888.07

33

13

27

5

5

97

53

99

48

425

490.1

465.0

459.6

423.68

459.629

967.18

945.39

908.36

26

75

29

7

3

2

9

7

931.24

938.047

519.5

495.5

493.3

449.82

489.581

1843.9

1837.4

1845.0

1683.8

1802.57

7

34

72

94

446.5

411.7

386.6

8

63

28

52

55

45

325.933

1063.0

976.98

889.85

814.69

936.140

59

06

55

58.815

8

29

5

1

8

75

516.2

533.6

573.9

698.15

66

93

92

7

580.527

1635.9

1597.8

1542.2

1549.8

1581.47

32

11

63

88

411.7

459.6

445.4

447.64

441.113

873.51

35

984.60

1324.4

1031.44

06

29

7

8

3

4

943.22

9

3

325

521.7

536.9

542.4

675.28

569.090

12

6

06

5

8

1657.7

1559.6

1593.4

1568.4

1594.81

15

9

54

03

412.7

424.7

436.7

423.68

424.503

955.20

55

1064.1

1254.7

1067.65

95

76

57

7

8

1

996.59

18

23

8

469.4

512.9

515.1

486.85

496.116

926.88

972.62

1022.7

1084.8

1001.76

32

99

77

9

8

3

8

3

12

325

438.9

607.7

674.1

739.54

615.108

1480.1

1448.5

1493.2

1540.0

1490.52

35

56

96

6

3

81

95

51

85

8

494.4

480.3

509.7

473.78

489.581

1019.4

1015.1

1057.5

1122.9

1053.77

83

24

31

9

8

62

06

83

33

1

630.6

680.7

727.5

756.97

698.974

1494.3

1456.2

1458.3

1532.4

1485.35

29

31

65

2

3

4

19

97

61

425

417.1

487.9

494.4

438.93

459.629

826.67

910.54

962.82

1079.3

52

48

83

5

5

9

5

5

67

944.854

388.8

412.7

412.7

496.66

1078.2

915.99

850.64

884.40

932.328

33

95

95

1

427.771

77

1

1

5

5

373.5

362.6

377.9

341.99

364.054

925.79

841.92

811.43

846.28

856.359

85

93

42

9

8

4

8

1

4

25

417.1

452.0

489.0

369.22

431.855

868.06

945.39

1021.6

1106.5

8

5

8

9

41

96

985.426

273.381

2214.2

2285.0

2292.7

2466.9

2314.75

288.63

8

81

77

01

68

675

319.1

145.94

295.437

2221.9

2118.4

2179.4

2281.8

2200.39

27

9

3

05

34

27

09

375

331.1

235.26

2073.7

2116.2

2136.9

2227.3

2138.58

1

52

05

37

261.4

267.9

275.5

01

36

6

412.7

303.8

95

78

180.8

311.5

264.668

78

55

5

51

35

263.306

2193.5

2193.5

2248.0

2286.1

2230.34

249.42

5

86

86

45

66

575

501.0

482.50

414.701

1737.2

1712.1

1703.4

1877.7

1757.64

18

2

3

25

74

6

27

65

424.7

399.7

446.55

381.753

2531.2

2489.8

2529.0

2766.4

2579.15

55

76

25

9

8

29

4

51

89

225

477.0

455.2

436.7

363.78

1664.2

1793.8

1887.5

2012.7

1839.60

56

73

57

2

433.217

5

61

3

84

625

313.6

397.5

434.5

360.51

376.580

2559.5

2595.4

2693.5

2838.3

2671.73

81

47

78

5

3

47

9

15

75

175

02

02

07

298.4

253.7

251.5

32

76

98

201.4

473.7

96

89

255.9

72

Gutierre z

a

sinqa_1

sin

sinqa_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

sin

sinqa_2

Gutierre z

a

sinqa_2

qi

siqi_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

si

siqi_1

si

siqi_3

Gutierre z Gutierre z

qi

siqi_3

Gutierre z

lla

t_aqlla_1

t_aq

t_aqlla_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

lla

t_aqlla_2

Gutierre z

t_aq

t_aqlla_2

quy

t_uquy_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

tu

t_uquy_1

quy

t_uquy_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

tu

t_uquy_2

Gutierre z

a

taki_1

i

taki_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

a

taki_2

Gutierre z

i

taki_2

tak

taklla_1

Gutierre z Gutierre z

lla

taklla_1

tak

taklla_2

Gutierre z Gutierre z

lla

taklla_2

394.2

521.7

568.5

619.73

526.068

1637.0

1525.9

1505.2

1540.0

1552.06

79

12

46

7

5

21

26

32

85

6

263.5

467.2

518.4

652.41

475.422

1733.9

1705.6

1780.7

2085.7

1826.53

79

54

44

2

3

57

39

91

59

65

312.5

414.9

483.5

556.56

441.930

1610.8

1625.0

1676.2

1831.9

1686.03

92

73

91

5

3

81

4

31

82

35

544.5

673.1

658.9

785.29

665.482

1606.5

1572.7

1535.7

1531.3

1561.59

85

06

47

1

3

24

6

28

72

6

290.8

382.2

409.5

401.90

371.134

2130.4

2143.4

2143.4

2150.0

2141.85

08

98

28

3

3

15

85

85

2

267.9

443.2

494.4

414.97

1616.3

1823.2

1904.9

36

92

83

3

405.171

27

69

57

2071.6

825

341.9

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1220.5

1128.2

809.70

1167.17

94

53

61

7

8

56

09

27

4

4

283.7

295.7

293.7

290.73

290.987

963.50

1024.0

1086.5

1288.9

1090.76

93

01

16

9

3

8

37

51

77

825

264.9

357.2

344.3

258.98

306.367

1284.0

1138.1

1021.0

749.17

1048.09

4

22

23

6

8

15

5

6

4

975

327.4

359.2

398.8

219.29

326.213

748.18

785.88

54

07

98

5

5

2

9

769.02

5

782.664

392.9

343.3

299.6

231.20

316.786

821.61

779.93

633.07

639.03

718.413

827.56

44

3

7

2

5

1

5

7

1

5

281.8

336.3

307.6

186.54

278.087

741.23

779.93

787.87

675.74

746.197

09

84

08

9

5

6

5

3

5

25

339.3

338.3

310.58

324.228

835.50

771.00

675.74

736.27

61

69

308.6

5

8

3

5

5

5

482.2

513.0

518.9

490.436

881.14

879.16

850.38

827.56

754.632

5

11

65

447.52

5

8

4

7

5

859.566

350.2

397.9

443.5

439.58

407.828

887.10

930.76

982.36

1250.2

1012.62

76

06

51

2

8

2

2

1

78

575

479.2

499.1

504.0

453.47

483.986

952.59

982.36

935.72

857.33

932.002

73

19

8

4

5

3

1

4

3

342.3

419.7

411.7

400.88

393.688

941.67

945.64

1014.1

38

36

98

3

8

7

7

14

1298.9

45

296.6

505.0

525.9

569.57

914.88

972.43

1043.8

1019.0

987.570

93

73

11

1

6

8

83

76

75

556.6

508.0

510.0

510.03

954.57

1154.0

980.872

474.312

898.01

75 1050.08

71

49

34

4

521.197

7

916.87

7

26

5

250.0

478.2

496.1

503.08

431.891

1075.6

1055.7

1054.7

1200.6

1096.72

56

81

42

8

8

36

9

98

64

2

495.1

496.1

505.0

445.53

485.475

944.65

940.68

944.65

959.53

5

42

73

6

3

4

5

4

9

947.383

506.0

483.2

466.3

441.56

474.311

1578.7

1659.0

1785.1

1976.6

1749.89

65

42

73

6

5

24

99

19

3

3

440.5

454.4

418.7

300.66

403.611

1107.3

1127.2

1168.9

1246.3

1162.46

74

66

44

2

5

89

35

11

09

1

357.2

423.7

389.9

253.03

355.981

944.65

1020.0

1175.8

1031.72

22

05

68

2

8

4

986.33

68

57

725

388.9

406.8

438.5

448.51

420.728

1437.8

1556.8

1641.2

1929.9

1641.48

75

36

9

2

3

19

94

38

92

575

476.2

561.6

653.9

492.17

546.004

1695.8

1634.2

1646.1

1809.9

1696.55

96

33

15

3

3

13

92

99

26

75

700.5

687.6

571.5

227.23

546.748

1181.8

1249.2

1232.4

1242.3

1226.46

52

53

56

3

5

1

86

17

4

325

80

Valenzu ela

kay

wakay_2

wa

wakay_2

Valenzu ela Valenzu qay

ela

waqay_1

Valenzu ela

wa

waqay_1

qay

waqay_2

Valenzu ela Valenzu ela

wa

waqay_2

qi

wiqi_1

Valenzu ela Valenzu wi

ela

wiqi_1

Valenzu ela

qi

wiqi_2

wi

wiqi_2

Valenzu ela

425.6

556.6

566.5

442.55

497.878

1691.8

1619.4

1732.5

2069.9

1778.42

9

71

94

9

5

44

07

28

04

075

673.7

674.7

351.26

588.920

1241.3

1284.0

1292.9

1226.4

1261.19

61

53

655.9

9

8

47

15

46

63

275

625.1

637.0

637.0

561.63

1520.1

1530.1

1584.6

1759.3

1598.56

39

46

46

3

673.7

694.5

694.5

491.18

61

99

99

1

600.3

614.2

584.4

32

24

55

564.6

684.6

1

615.216

79

02

78

19

95

1210.5

1238.3

1256.2

1241.3

1236.63

638.535

86

7

32

47

375

527.89

581.726

1590.6

1586.6

1632.3

1911.1

1680.18

5

5

31

62

07

39

475

713.4

569.57

633.077

1088.5

1194.7

1248.2

1350.4

1220.50

76

52

1

3

36

1

93

98

925

427.6

411.7

423.7

444.54

1847.6

1935.9

2015.3

1842.6

1910.39

74

98

05

3

426.93

33

46

29

71

475

514.0

510.0

492.1

415.76

482.994

1538.0

1669.0

1738.4

1630.3

1643.96

03

34

73

7

3

4

22

82

23

675

271.8

314.5

403.8

255.01

311.329

2167.1

2100.6

2220.7

2019.2

2126.96

86

54

6

7

3

48

65

32

98

075

418.7

431.6

438.5

307.60

399.146

1934.9

1973.6

1951.8

1680.9

1885.33

44

44

9

8

5

54

53

23

29

975

d. Quechua monolingual (QML) Spea

Vo

ker

wel

AVERA Context

Ord onez

a

killa_1

Ord onez

i

killa_1

Sam ata

a

killa_1

Sam ata

i

killa_1

i

killa_2

Sam ata Ord onez

a

killa_2_

Ord onez

i

killa_2_

i

kiru_1

Ord onez Ord onez

u

kiru_1

Ord onez

i

kiru_2

i

kiru_2

Sam ata

F1-1

F1-2

F1-3

516.

597.

738.

F1-4

GE F1

845.

674.475 25

754

068

673

406

331.

346.

328.

221.

822

616

651

919

581.

608.

577.

366.

AVERA F2-1

F2-2

F2-3

F2-4

1888

1725

1668

1664

GE F2

.425

.684

.619

.392

1736.78

2000

2045

2112

1956

2028.70

307.252

.441

.882

.457

.057

925

533.605

1894

1854

1826

1736

1827.84

839

103

799

68

25

.007

.612

.328

.426

325

235.

248.

237.

196.

229.553

2369

2331

2345

2316

2340.74

362

494

382

977

75

.782

.397

.539

.245

075

247.

297.

284.

210.

260.110

2414

2374

2376

2355

2380.38

484

991

859

109

75

.228

.833

.853

.64

85

735.

773.

769.

1140

854.652

1851

1727

1636

1703

1729.91

503

546

319

.241

25

.438

.798

.917

.492

125

267.

327.

342.

288.

306.459

2113

2189

2233

2303

2210.20

36

595

389

495

75

.514

.601

.984

.73

725

326.

344.

352.

363.

346.880

2129

2161

2045

1687

2005.98

538

503

957

524

5

.365

.068

.882

.641

9

360.

400.

395.

375.

382.810

1192

960.

777.

797.

932.059

354

511

227

149

25

.022

592

773

852

75

307.

323.

329.

348.

327.330

2108

2083

2072

1802

2016.82

516

368

708

73

5

.23

.925

.301

.828

1

232.

293.

288.

422.

309.354

2373

2427

2537

2235

2393.52

332

95

899

237

5

.823

.36

.465

.434

05

81

Sam ata

u

kiru_2

i

kiru_3

Ord onez Ord onez

u

kiru_3

Sam ata

i

kiru_3

u

kiru_3

Sam ata Sam ata

i

kiru_IC

u

kiru_IC

Sam ata Ord onez

a

kulla_1

Ord onez

u

kulla_1

a

kulla_1

Sam ata Sam ata

u

kulla_1

Sam ata

a

kulla_2

u

kulla_2

Sam ata Ord onez

a

kullachi_2

u

kullachi_2

Ord onez Ord onez

a

kullachi_3

Ord onez

u

kullachi_3

a

kullachi_4

Ord onez Ord onez

u

kullachi_4

Ord onez

a

kullachiy_1

u

kullachiy_1

Ord onez Ord onez

kur

kurku_0

ku

kurku_0

Ord onez Ord onez

kur

kurku_1

340.

297.

284.

241.

291.172

975.

804.

772.

820.

843.212

416

991

859

423

25

793

069

755

232

25

317.

345.

367.

367.

349.522

1680

1520

1455

1555.01

027

56

751

751

25

.244

1564

.673

.154

775

354.

365.

385.

385.

788.

820.

870.

872.

838.008

014

638

716

716

372.771

341

043

768

881

25

219.

254.

286.

374.

283.848

2341

2390

2440

2440

2403.36

2

555

879

761

75

.498

.995

.492

.492

925

389.

371.

347.

176.

321.476

861.

901.

917.

852.

883.112

913

731

487

774

25

647

042

205

556

5

230.

268.

276.

377.

288.394

2359

2439

2481

2408

2422.30

311

697

778

791

25

.681

.482

.907

.167

925

396.

400.

395.

367.

390.165

1203

1006

990.

1118

1079.58

984

014

974

69

5

.074

.097

945

.222

45

574.

671.

674.

657.

644.357

1683

1633

1598

1560

1619.21

876

041

211

303

75

.414

.746

.873

.83

575

354.

386.

394.

386.

380.432

832.

790.

786.

1121

882.656

014

773

17

773

5

725

454

227

.219

25

582.

620.

650.

621.

618.708

1854

1733

1710

1664

1740.71

849

224

528

234

75

.612

.396

.162

.706

9

244.

318.

320.

290.

898.

926.

934.

873.

908.113

453

193

214

92

293.445

012

296

377

769

5

667.

711.

733.

1022

783.614

1837

1824

1801

1647

1777.58

701

137

36

.259

25

.44

.308

.075

.534

925

267.

310.

303.

248.

282.333

834.

886.

831.

758.

827.807

686

112

041

494

25

373

901

343

613

5

461.

493.

551.

438.

486.372

1790

1978

1935

2208

1978.24

803

506

627

554

5

.146

.249

.979

.622

9

394.

406.

414.

410.

958.

927.

872.

1192

987.803

17

851

249

022

406.323

479

833

881

.022

75

593.

711.

729.

560.

648.584

1644

1707

1722

1937

1752.89

081

897

198

162

415.

425.

432.

5

.314

.719

.514

.036

575

416.098

955.

915.

923.

1298

1023.20

306

873

214

391

25

308

152

606

.754

5

493.

608.

506

692

646.

425.

543.701

1967

1633

1778

1971

1837.96

735

873

5

.682

.746

.522

.909

425.

454.

475

434.

373.

421.910

845.

876.

842.

1059

873

406

327

035

25

406

052

235

.927

905.905

435.

497.

506.

382.

455.462

1873

1853

1676

1925

1832.15

384

733

187

546

5

.63

.552

.017

.411

25

319.

371.

381.

366.

359.825

703.

820.

933.

1069

881.599

141

978

489

695

75

8

043

116

.438

25

363.

430.

443.

443.

843.

874.

945.

1045

927.304

524

1

838

838

420.325

292

995

798

.133

5

374.

387.

416.

419.

399.454

798.

830.

873.

888.

848.047

092

83

362

533

25

908

611

938

733

5

317.

398.

411.

429.

388.886

879.

915.

980.

1063

959.535

027

397

078

043

25

222

152

671

.098

75

82

Ord onez

ku

kurku_1

kur

kurku_1

Sam ata Sam ata

ku

kurku_1

Ord onez

kur

kurku_2

ku

kurku_2

Ord onez Sam ata

ku

kurku_2

kur

kurku_2

Sam ata Ord onez

kur

kurku_3

Ord onez

ku

kurku_3

kur

kurku_4

Ord onez

ku

kurku_4

Ord onez

kur

kurku_imataq_k_aspi

ku

kurku_imataq_k_aspi

Ord onez Ord onez

u

kusa_1

a

kusa_1

Sam ata Sam ata

u

kusa_1

Sam ata

a

kusa_2

u

kusa_2

Sam ata Ord onez

a

kusa_2_

Sam ata

a

kusa_3

u

kusa_3

Sam ata Sam ata

a

kusa_4

u

kusa_4

Sam ata Sam ata

334.

394.

265.

327.594

683.

807.

832.

807.

782.792

97

992

17

246

5

722

362

725

362

75

265.

387.

415.

354.

355.820

800.

857.

950.

1030

909.628

666

893

166

558

75

029

607

539

.34

75

276.

336.

293.

236.

717.

689.

673.

828.

197

924

762

313

727.299

833.

934.

994.

1168

982.783

383.603

781

173

408

.773

75

290.

305.402

777.

786.

829.

820.

803.399

608

5

773

227

554

043

25

283.

112.

244.705

745.

738.

790.

873.

787.149

082

849

125

75

481

41

938

769

5

334.

382.

376.

355.

362.386

774.

760.

860.

975.

842.959

355

842

781

568

5

775

633

637

793

5

369.

463.

478.

456.

442.252

816.

988.

1056

1096

778

376

95

372

345.

388.

403.

396.

56

887

681

284

329.

303.

298.

708

289

005

275.

307.

767

a

kusa_5

285.869

865

916

711

519

75

873

068

.757

.914

989.653

356.

363.

447.

435.

400.510

817.

818.

873.

880.

847.783

127

524

008

384

75

93

987

938

279

5

385.

Ord onez

315.

419.

430.

406.587

883.

868.

954.

1097

951.081

716

391

533

1

25

449

654

252

.971

5

310.

378.

402.

374.

366.430

741.

766.

769.

810.

687

319

624

092

5

843

149

319

533

771.961

350.

388.

394.

360.

373.563

882.

907.

944.

887.

905.640

843

887

17

354

5

392

754

741

676

75

333.

358.

376.

424.

373.299

729.

695.

738.

896.

764.827

935

241

206

816

5

162

346

673

13

75

365.

343.

358.

285.

338.162

687.

764.

785.

1184

855.444

638

446

241

324

25

949

035

17

.625

75

626.

646.

663.

695.

658.104

1537

1477

1482

1532

285

488

66

985

5

.429

.831

.882

.378

1507.63

297.

347.

379.

332.

339.406

959.

776.

816.

1058

902.810

991

487

812

335

25

63

796

191

.624

25

746.

683.

719.

774.

731.086

1590

1585

1557

1604

1584.65

491

863

218

775

75

.966

.916

.632

.098

3

299.

328.

369.

405.

350.517

801.

782.

836.

1061

870.485

001

295

71

065

75

039

856

394

.654

75

314.

356.

379.

378.

697.

793.

898.

1206

899.036

914

127

376

319

602.

670.

701.

674.

042

731

035

772

302.

370.

420.

031

72

217

683.

647.

863

357.184

46

625

244

.817

5

1512

1478

1667

1580

1559.90

662.145

.176

.841

.737

.865

475

335.

357.083

968.

891.

921.

1208

997.510

366

5

722

951

245

.124

5

674.

733.

684.873

1705

1630

1623

1580

1634.90

498

772

36

25

.112

.362

.291

.865

75

306.

385.

435.

393.

380.316

933.

885.

945.

1012

072

872

369

954

75

367

89

489

.158

944.226

591.

624.

635.

614.

1569

1598

1646

1533

1586.92

94

265

376

163

.753

.037

.524

.388

55

616.436

83

Sam ata

u

kusa_5

u

kusa_6

Sam ata Ord onez

ku

kuti_1

Sam ata

i

kuti_1

ku

kuti_1

Sam ata Ord onez

ku

kuti_2

ti

kuti_2

Ord onez Sam ata

i

kuti_2

Sam ata

ku

kuti_2

ku

kuti_3

Ord onez Ord onez

ti

kuti_3

Sam ata

i

kuti_3

ku

kuti_3

Sam ata Ord onez

i

kuti_4

ku

kuti_4

Ord onez Ord onez

a

opa_1

Ord onez

o

opa_1

a

opa_2

Ord onez Ord onez

o

opa_2

Ord onez

pi

piki_1

ki

piki_1

Ord onez Sam ata

ki

piki_1

pi

piki_1

Sam ata Sam ata

ki

piki_2

319.

346.

352.

294.

328.294

836.

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027

555

838

686

5

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625

84

Sam ata

pi

piki_2

pi

piki_2_

Ord onez Ord onez

ki

piki_2_

Ord onez

pi

piki_in_context_

ki

piki_in_context_

Ord onez Ord onez

pu

pukuy_1

kuy

pukuy_1

Ord onez Sam ata

kuy

pukuy_1

Sam ata

pu

pukuy_1

pu

pukuy_2

Ord onez Ord onez

kuy

pukuy_2

Ord onez

pu

pukuy_pukuycha

kuy

pukuy_pukuycha

Ord onez Ord onez

pu

pukuy_pukuycha

kuy

pukuy_pukuycha

Ord onez Sam ata

pu

pukuycha_1

Ord onez

pu

puquy_1

quy

puquy_1

Ord onez Sam ata

quy

puquy_1

Sam ata

pu

puquy_1

quy

puquy_2

Sam ata Sam ata

pu

puquy_2

pu

puquy_2_

Ord onez Ord onez

quy

puquy_2_

287.

314.

307.

214.

280.818

2277

2297

2336

2423

2333.66

889

153

082

149

25

.86

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975

302.

360.

331.

253.

312.007

1981

2120

2189

2145

2109.28

233

354

822

622

75

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7

236.

305.

287.

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714

403

438

749

262.076

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7

329.

314.

310.

296.

313.064

1962

2001

2039

1981

1996.21

708

914

687

949

5

.398

.498

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.419

4

263.

240.

246.

236.

2009

2013

2074

1877

1993.83

133

941

224

714

246.753

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625

363.

362.

367.

349.

360.882

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524

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787

5

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75

341.

395.

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390.471

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327

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5

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17

397

66

935

5

965

825

103

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05

374.003

85

Ord onez

a

puskay_1

u

puskay_1

Ord onez Sam ata

a

puskay_1

Sam ata

u

puskay_1

a

puskay_2

Ord onez Ord onez

u

puskay_2

a

puskay_2

Sam ata Sam ata

u

puskay_2

Ord onez

q_u

q_upa_1

pa

q_upa_1

Ord onez Sam ata

u

q_upa_1

Ord onez

U

q_upa_2

A

q_upa_2

Sam ata Sam ata

u

q_upa_2

A

q_upari_IC

Ord onez Ord onez

U

q_upari_IC

Sam ata

U

q_upaykitas

qi

qilla_1

Ord onez Ord onez

lla

qilla_1

Sam ata

A

qilla_1

I

qilla_1

Sam ata Ord onez

I

qilla_2

A

qilla_2

Sam ata Sam ata

I

qilla_2

427.

525.

543.

500.

499.317

1743

1760

1783

1873

1790.41

987

208

173

903

75

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05

406.

423.

430.

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1179

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76

1

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365

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475

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407.644

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411

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640.174

2098

1994

1911

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1955.87

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5

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382.

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279.

351.275

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2306.64

842

852

599

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25

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85

400.

438.

404.

366.

402.624

1928

1922

2038

2072

1990.40

511

554

738

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5

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2

533.

571.

601.

550.

1935

1842

1765

1733

1819.25

353

738

032

525

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725

384.

383.

350.

253.

2148

2256

2379

2404

2297.30

862

852

518

544

.562

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.127

5

564.162 343.194

86

Ord onez

I

qilla_3

A

qilla_3

Ord onez Sam ata

a

qilla_irqikuna

Sam ata

I

qilla_irqikuna

I

qiru_1

Ord onez Sam ata

I

qiru_1

U

qiru_1

Sam ata Ord onez

I

qiru_2

Ord onez

U

qiru_2

I

qiru_2

Sam ata Sam ata

o

qiru_2

Ord onez

qi

qiru_3

ru

qiru_3

Ord onez Sam ata

I

qiru_3

U

qiru_3

Sam ata Sam ata

I

qiru_4

Sam ata

U

qiru_4

I

qiru_5

Sam ata Sam ata

U

qiru_5

Ord onez

A

qulla_1

U

qulla_1

Ord onez Sam ata

U

qulla_1

A

qulla_2

Ord onez Ord onez

U

qulla_2

404.

341.

378.

346.

367.751

1475

1544

1774

1942

1684.20

738

333

319

616

5

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.295

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65

548.

623.

667.

610.

1180

1616

1510

1573

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457

487

87

806

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325

557.

627.

605.

637.

1869

1835

1809

1909

1855.87

612.655

596

295

072

397

606.84

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5

320.

450.

414.

308.

373.245

2128

2265

2254

2268

2229.37

214

521

156

092

75

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3

426.

488.

456.

460.

458.104

1469

1710

1998

1760

1734.93

93

222

519

746

25

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444.

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582

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46

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05

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412.

323.

1093

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959.

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116

156

136

244

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62

63

995

927.306

460.

437.

400.

393.

1653

2011

2152

1620

1859.36

428.803 389.913

746

497

511

114

422.967

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425

402.

435.

454.

386.

419.796

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924.

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947.382

624

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406

773

75

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662

711

087

75

420.

457.

426.

434.

434.611

2050

2160

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5

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965

25

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378.

400.519

2063

2184

2208

2012

248

2117.24

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5

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8

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221.

324.001

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315

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731

22

75

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2004.87

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025

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256.

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248

318

426

575

75

833

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749

25

474.

503.

470.

405.

463.400

1975

2077

2151

1843

2012.19

765

048

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065

5

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35

372.

373.

347.

273.

341.931

1058

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891.193

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487

747

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587.

617.

910.

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566

87

715

75

1668

1636

1546

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1667.82

968

557

146

925

668.399

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7

360.

399.

380.

354

454

433

341.

370.393

617.

708.

765.

954.

761.129

333

5

146

027

092

252

355.

410.

25

409.

319.

373.498

816.

810.

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990.

868.718

568

116

106

203

25

191

13

607

945

25

467.

562.

765.

1035

2028

1915

1827

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1916.42

087

195

092

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707.499

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.709

925

416.

385.

418.

420.

410.285

739.

724.

738.

798.

750.561

362

716

476

589

75

73

935

673

908

5

87

Sam ata

u

qulla_2

a

qulla_2

Sam ata Ord onez

A

qulla_3

Ord onez

U

qulla_3

u

qulla_3

Sam ata Sam ata

a

qulla_3

A

qulla_4

Sam ata Sam ata

U

qulla_4

Sam ata

A

qulla_5

U

qulla_5

Sam ata Sam ata

A

qulla_runakuna

Sam ata

U

qulla_runakuna

qu

qusa_1

Ord onez Sam ata

A

qusa_1

qu

qusa_1

Sam ata Sam ata

qu

qusa_2

Sam ata

a

qusa_2

qu

qusa_2_

Ord onez Ord onez

qu

qusa_3_

Ord onez

qu

qutu_1

qu

qutu_1

Sam ata Sam ata

tu

qutu_1

qu

qutu_2

Sam ata Sam ata

tu

qutu_2

368.

446.

467.

450.

7

481

694

521

886.

824.

856.

1174

935.639

901

272

596

.79

75

620.

659.

680.

714.

224

62

833

167

668.711

1656

1625

1576

1539

1599.55

.625

.311

.824

.449

664.

746.

783.

438.

225

658.095

1825

1737

1609

1613

1696.35

25

.019

.309

.441

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925

689.

730.

809.

1035

816.080

433.349

7

07

057

554

420.

422.

441.

401.

589

703

724

568

421.646

006

219

476

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75

412.

404.

415.

279.

377.791

750.

878.

962.

701.

823.261

136

055

166

808

25

532

819

661

035

75

499.

658.

747.

774.

669.973

1916

1874

1776

1678

1811.68

008

61

502

775

75

.231

.815

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.848

15

657.

701.

730.

840.

732.349

1707

1681

1660

1635

1671.27

599

035

329

434

25

.132

.879

.666

.412

225

335.

420.

408.

284.

362.134

687.

830.

884.

907.

25

904

333

88

103

827.555

1792

1749

1662

1535

1685.16

569.465

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.686

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175

339.

361.629

813.

890.

977.

1031

928.316

406

25

161

941

813

.35

25

374.

549.767

1653

1576

1522

1417

1542.47

366

217

095

859

482.

541.

604.

649.

846

434

062

518

335.

386.

384.

366

883

862

602.

620.

602.

042

224

042

761

25

.595

.824

.277

.223

975

420.

438.

441.

364.

416.176

958.

1024

1121

1398

1125.54

217

4

43

66

75

62

.279

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.03

525

453.

443.

451.

347.

424.023

784.

802.

851.

935.

843.292

349

838

235

673

75

114

079

746

23

25

486.

649.

692.

692.

1271

1511

1602

1684

1517.47

886

518

954

954

630.578

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.165

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.909

875

389.

488.

495.

359.

433.601

773.

873.

941.

1072

913

906

977

609

25

765

769

448

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915.437

301.

422.

434.

356.

378.548

720.

806.

839.

1064

857.606

75

021

237

359

578

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608.

632.

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228

09

424

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75

1492

1380

1385

1465

1431.36

93

103

346

197

637.144

.983

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45

447.

436.

441.

008

441

724

394.

429.835

762.

786.

848.

965.

840.914

17

75

979

227

576

876

416.

401.

431.

5

424.

418.475

710.

699.

764.

1003 794.417

362

568

157

816

75

141

573

035

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416.

401.

431.

424.

418.475

710.

699.

764.

1003

362

568

157

816

75

141

573

035

.919

794.417

388.

394.

407.

403.

398.499

822.

789.

819.

916.

836.898

903

964

085

045

25

252

927

221

195

75

406.

415.

397.

250.

367.437

1014

964.

875.

865.

075

166

994

514

25

.178

681

789

688

400.

389.

359.

217.

960.

864.

831.

821.

014

913

609

18

341.679

641

678

343

242

869.476

308.

411.

445.

370.

383.852

708.

749.

810.

837.

776.290

092

126

471

72

25

106

522

13

404

5

930.084

88

Ord onez

qu

qutupi

tu

qutupi

Ord onez Ord onez

qu

qututa

Ord onez

tu

qututa

qu

qutuy_1

Ord onez Ord onez

tuy

qutuy_1

qu

qutuy_2

Ord onez Ord onez

tuy

qutuy_2

Ord onez

si

siki_1

ki

siki_1

Ord onez Sam ata

si

siki_1

Sam ata

ki

siki_1

ki

siki_2

Sam ata Ord onez

si

siki_2_

ki

siki_2_

Ord onez Sam ata

si

siki_2_

Ord onez

a

sinkhay_1

sin

sinkhay_1

Ord onez Sam ata

a

sinkhay_1

Sam i

sinkhay_1

onez

sin

sinkhay_2

Ord

kha

onez

y

sinkhay_2

a

sinkhay_2

ata Ord

Sam ata Sam ata

i

sinkhay_2

413.

425.

436.

411.

192

873

441

078

432.

509.

513.

398.

214

357

584

397

463.388

346.

411.

412.

396.

391.528

421.646

818.

897.

1032

1195

985.954

987

187

.452

.192

5

1137

1302

1277

1057

1193.87

.071

.981

.619

.814

125

719.

747.

802.

1067

834.045

616

078

135

284

25

652

127

079

.325

75

300.

414.

374.

354.

360.618

1147

1021

1033

1188

1097.97

119

249

092

014

5

.638

.884

.508

.852

05

400.

466.

497.

414.

444.630

780.

829.

946.

1136

923.341

511

03

733

249

75

943

554

854

.014

25

447.

422.

432.

434.

1062

1126

1120

1308

1154.24

008

703

214

327

434.063

.041

.503

.162

.265

275

458.

455.

460.

418.

448.329

802.

807.

880.

1112

900.621

633

462

746

476

25

079

362

279

.765

25

375.

445.

460.

399.

942.

972.

966.

1025

976.707

149

951

746

454

420.325

627

216

933

.054

5

369.

371.

360.

295.

349.522

1771

1837

2045

2497

2037.95

865

978

354

892

25

.125

.701

.882

.117

625

287.

286.

277.

285.

284.267

2276

2177

2240

2285

2245.08

438

381

927

324

5

.255

.976

.325

.766

05

349.

343.

318.

231.

310.617

2361

2412

2504

2624

2475.59

508

447

193

321

25

.701

.208

.13

.337

4

267.

286.

276.

267.

274.757

2385

2390

2424

2533

2433.67

686

879

778

686

25

.944

.995

.33

.424

325

262.

285.

275.

262.

2389

2390

2420

2547

2437.20

636

869

767

636

271.727

.985

.995

.289

.566

875

373.

350.

340.

303.

341.860

1985

2145

2205

2293

2157.36

035

843

276

289

75

.647

.217

.452

.163

975

261.

278.

290.

129.

2151

2313

2325

2466

2314.29

019

984

608

981

.557

.241

.922

.471

775

350.

346.

328.

263.

2362

2397

2484

2575

2455.13

240.148

518

477

295

646

322.234

.711

.056

.938

.85

875

565.

590.

565.

477.

549.777

1859

1606

1772

1990

1807.31

365

727

365

654

75

.892

.271

.182

.93

875

389.

432.

419.

399.

2241

2455

2465

2600

2440.84

943

214

533

454

.382

.903

.414

.679

45

494.

517.

484.

407.

2311

2295

2321

2470

2349.57

410.286

967

19

866

085

476.027

.194

.032

.296

.796

95

282.

413.

414.

371.

370.467

2387

2333

2410

2484

2404.12

838

146

156

731

75

.965

.417

.188

.938

7

439.

419.

412.

434.

426.401

1792

1840

2075

2297

2001.49

611

533

135

327

5

.26

.871

.471

.39

8

631.

602.

593.

489.

579.367

1809

1794

1881

1956

1860.15

941

352

897

279

25

.168

.373

.028

.057

65

350.

426.

401.

384.

390.670

2216

2283

2419

2459

2344.78

518

278

025

862

75

.241

.92

.279

.684

1

262.

392.

392.

349.

349.507

2490

2489

2521

2584

2521.80

636

943

943

508

5

.999

.989

.303

.941

8

89

Ord onez

a

Ord onez

i

sinkhay_wiruta_sinkhayku__pe

487.

535.

584.

489.

524.151

2047

1914

1858

1987

1952.35

lar_pelamos_la_viruta_

165

776

387

279

75

.995

.844

.836

.76

875

sinkhay_wiruta_sinkhayku__pe

492.

438.

413.

418.

440.667

1764

1967

2058

2274

2016.29

lar_pelamos_la_viruta_

449

554

192

476

75

.784

.682

.563

.141

25

478.

557.

602.

601.

560.081

1211

1201

1253

1318

1246.18

5

Ord onez

A

sinqa_1

Ord onez

I

sinqa_1

A

sinqa_1

Sam ata Sam ata

I

sinqa_1

A

sinqa_2

Ord onez Ord onez

I

sinqa_2

Sam ata

A

sinqa_2

I

sinqa_2

Sam ata Sam ata

A

sinqa_3

Sam ata

I

sinqa_3

si

siqi_0_

Ord onez Ord onez

qi

siqi_0_

si

siqi_1

Sam ata Sam ata

qi

siqi_1

Sam ata

I

siqi_2

I

siqi_2

Sam ata Sam ata

si

siqi_3

Sam ata

qi

siqi_3

si

siqiy_1

Ord onez Ord onez

qiy

siqiy_1

lla

t_aqllay_1

Ord onez Ord onez

ta

t_aqllay_1

711

968

352

295

459.

454.

466.

434.

.044

.533

.314

.833

1

1624

1758

1834

703.

1480.25

689

406

03

327

.236

.444

.53

8

25

643.

688.

684.

765.

457

914

873

684

1556

1590

1678

1592

1604.85

.622

.966

.848

.987

195.

208.

338.

305.

575

1962

2108

2121

397.

1647.53

967

088

396

061

261.878

.697

.157

.288

994

4

523.

643.

708.

095

565

027

823.

674.475

1085

1229

1304

1471

1272.33

214

25

.29

.008

.038

.006

429.

448.

443.

55

427.

437.233

1801

1902

1901

1736

1835.32

25

043

065

838

987

644.

744.

770.

836.

468

471

735

394

448.

378.

311.

501

801

122

617.

683.

790.

453.613 695.732

.771

.163

.106

.252

3

1584

1520

1577

1608

1572.78

749.017

.905

.257

.834

.139

375

346.

371.225

2015

2116

2178

2000

477

25

.224

.238

.866

.072

2077.6

1048

785.129

1539

1517

1518

1692

1566.97

194

863

938

.523

5

.449

.226

.236

.99

525

307.

313.

322.

362.

326.274

1987

2088

2116

2187

2095.27

082

143

234

639

5

.95

.964

.238

.957

725

355.

418.

432.

414.

405.002

1789

1808

1842

1713

1788.29

07

476

214

249

25

.09

.111

.984

.003

7

309.

389.

378.

359.

359.297

1911

1874

1845

2034

1916.42

63

943

319

297

25

.674

.687

.098

.257

9

429.

464.

526.

493.

478.552

1952

2043

2126

1963

2021.53

308

663

282

957

5

.595

.508

.339

.707

725

441.

445.

450.

333.

417.691

2034

2119

2139

1634

1981.88

43

471

521

345

75

.417

.268

.471

.402

95

397.

425.

448.

411.

420.722

1994

2052

2111

1846

2001.08

994

268

501

126

25

.011

.599

.187

.531

2

424.

442.

424.

427.

2083

2218

2288

2287

2219.77

258

44

258

288

.913

.262

.971

.961

675

395.

426.

434.

405.

1989

2010

2032

1782

1953.85

429.561

974

278

359

065

415.419

.971

.173

.396

.892

8

380.

441.

428.

334.

396.226

1843

2054

2109

2215

2055.62

822

43

298

355

25

.501

.619

.167

.231

95

410.

422.

427.

422.

420.853

1906

1930

1959

2044

1960.28

022

703

987

703

75

.39

.695

.228

.825

45

449.

385.

370.

363.

1911

1963

2059

2250

2046.41

122

716

922

524

392.321

.674

.455

.62

.893

05

463.

503.

514.

519.

500.374

2116

1980

1900

1953

916

016

641

924

25

.684

.363

.049

.944

1987.76

511.

621.

607.

590.

582.801

1420

1306

1381

1541

1412.35

47

373

635

727

25

.281

.152

.181

.809

575

90

Ord onez

lla

t_aqllay_2

ta

t_aqllay_2

Ord onez Sam ata

t_aq

t_aqllay_3

Sam ata

llay

t_aqllay_3

llay

t_aqllay_4

Sam ata Sam ata

t_aq

t_aqllay_4

quy

t_uquy_1

Ord onez Ord onez

tu

t_uquy_1

Sam ata

tu

t_uquy_1

quy

t_uquy_1

Sam ata Ord onez

quy

t_uquy_2

Ord onez

tu

t_uquy_2

t_u

t_uquy_2

Sam ata Sam ata

quy

t_uquy_2

a

taki_1

Ord onez Ord onez

i

taki_1

Sam ata

a

taki_1

i

taki_1

Sam ata Ord onez

a

taki_2

Ord onez

i

taki_2

a

taki_2

Sam ata Sam ata

i

taki_2

tak

taklla_1

Ord onez Ord onez

lla

taklla_1

411.

453.

480.

473.

454.669

2129

2135

1990

2042

2074.67

078

349

824

427

5

.365

.706

.93

.711

8

517.

531.

575.

618.

1240

1318

1345

1426

1332.83

811

549

933

203

560.874

.633

.833

.252

.622

5

589.

720.

800.

823.

733.359

1661

1513

1615

1509

1574.80

92

228

029

262

75

.676

.186

.21

.145

425

406.

483.

504.

505.

474.764

2042

2187

2250

2288

2192.50

075

856

059

069

75

.498

.957

.586

.971

3

418.

434.

433.

344.

407.590

1993

2121

2229

2278

2155.63

197

359

349

457

5

.001

.288

.373

.87

3

647.

707.

746.

751.

713.156

1571

1539

1623

1577

1578.08

498

096

491

542

75

.774

.449

.291

.834

7

490.

505.

524.

481.

500.374

883.

927.

1047

1291

1037.47

335

13

152

881

5

449

833

.246

.357

125

499.

559.

575.

546.

545.286

1001

1000

990.

878.

967.725 25

846

024

933

343

5

.806

.749

181

165

377.

401.

426.

383.

397.236

946.

799.

827.

687.

791

025

278

852

5

499

019

302

904

815.181

397.

441.

424.

409.

894.

976.

990.

1032

973.772

994

43

258

106

982

803

945

.36

5

453.

490.

507.

481.

803.

887.

992.

1283

991.766

349

335

243

881

553.

571.

569.

554.

741

706

592

797

521.

507.

495.

231

089

977

450.

479.

521

418.197

135

676

295

.96

5

1041

1026

987.

864.

979.877

562.459

.962

.111

011

427

75

403.

481.835

1105

926.

907.

703.

910.386

045

5

.09

296

103

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kuy

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qu

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Ord onez

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qu

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Ord onez Sam ata

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ur

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Sam ata Ord onez

qu

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Ord onez

ur

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Ord onez Ord onez

U

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Sam ata

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A

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kay

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wa

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kay

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824

322

541

75

.23

.43

.773

.984

425

449.

392.

347.

362.

1903

2005

2157

2277

2086.03

122

057

673

468

387.83

.219

.725

.898

.311

825

459.

464.

466.

464.

463.916

1494

1735

1885

1938

1763.19

25

689

973

03

973

314.

431.

429.

452.

.254

.195

.255

.092

9

1011

1652

1654

1503

1455.35

153

329

308

542

406.833

.147

.585

.605

.084

525

447.

466.

432.

491

683

339

394.

435.369

2126

2200

2222

2296

2211.19

964

25

.339

.079

.302

.042

492.

510.

05

500.

525.

507.243

1257

1607

1816

1854

1634.01

449

414

903

208

5

.541

.327

.565

.609

05

413.

393.

374.

364.

386.244

1934

1903

1960

2041

192

114

092

581

75

.922

.219

.284

.655

1960.02

455.

450.

448.

425.

444.965

1457

1625

1785

1756

1656.37

572

521

501

268

5

.628

.311

.923

.629

275

439.

468.

459.

457.

456.329

2082

2249

2262

2352

2236.94

41

704

612

592

5

.903

.576

.708

.61

925

wiqi_2

C. Statistics results and error bars a.

Study One (Inter-group comparison of lowering of vowels) Tests of Within-Subjects Effects: Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F1 Raising)

Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Sphericity Assumed

28722.771

3

9574.257

5.510

.002

Greenhouse-Geisser

28722.771

2.539

11312.096

5.510

.004

95

Huynh-Feldt

28722.771

3.000

9574.257

5.510

.002

Lower-bound

28722.771

1.000

28722.771

5.510

.031

factor1 * Vowel Sphericity Assumed

14237.300

6

2372.883

1.366

.245

Greenhouse-Geisser

14237.300

5.078

2803.589

1.366

.254

Huynh-Feldt

14237.300

6.000

2372.883

1.366

.245

Lower-bound

14237.300

2.000

7118.650

1.366

.280

Sphericity Assumed

93834.603

54

1737.678

Greenhouse-Geisser

93834.603

45.704

2053.087

Huynh-Feldt

93834.603

54.000

1737.678

Lower-bound

93834.603

18.000

5213.033

Error(factor1)

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects: Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F2 Raising) Measure:MEASURE_1 Transformed Variable:Average Source

Type III Sum of Squares

Intercept

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

205615.356

1

205615.356

161.032

.000

Vowel

4887.388

2

2443.694

1.914

.176

Error

22983.503

18

1276.861

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: All groups contrasted to QML for Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F1 Raising) Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 (QL1) vs.

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

2870.734

1

2870.734

.837

.372

44594.386

1

44594.386

15.107

.001

27807.862

1

27807.862

5.217

.035

5450.977

2

2725.489

.795

.467

6937.884

2

3468.942

1.175

.331

27671.026

2

13835.513

2.596

.102

Level 4 (QML) Level 2 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QML) Level 3 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (QML) factor1 * Vowel Level 1 (QL1) vs. Level 4 (QML) Level 2 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QML) Level 3 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (QML)

96

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 4

61734.118

18

3429.673

Level 2 vs. Level 4

53133.656

18

2951.870

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: All groups contrasted to QL2 for Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F1 Raising Lowering) Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 (QML) vs.

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

27807.862

1

27807.862

5.217

.035

12809.182

1

12809.182

3.214

.090

1972.864

1

1972.864

.778

.389

27671.026

2

13835.513

2.596

.102

8857.016

2

4428.508

1.111

.351

7296.140

2

3648.070

1.439

.263

Level 1 vs. Level 4

95935.249

18

5329.736

Level 2 vs. Level 4

71732.574

18

3985.143

Level 3 vs. Level 4

45616.997

18

2534.278

Level 4 (QL2) Level 2 (QL1) vs. Level 4 (QL2) Level 3 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QL2) factor1 * Vowel Level 1 (QML) vs. Level 4 (QL2) Level 2 (QL1) vs. Level 4 (QL2) Level 3 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QL2) Error(factor1)

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: All groups contrasted to BL for Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F1 Raising) Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 (QML) vs.

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

44594.386

1

44594.386

15.107

.001

24836.056

1

24836.056

9.474

.006

1972.864

1

1972.864

.778

.389

Level 4 (BL) Level 2 (QL1) vs. Level 4 (BL) Level 3 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (BL)

97

factor1 * Vowel Level 1 (QML) vs.

6937.884

2

3468.942

1.175

.331

736.156

2

368.078

.140

.870

7296.140

2

3648.070

1.439

.263

Level 1 vs. Level 4

53133.656

18

2951.870

Level 2 vs. Level 4

47185.816

18

2621.434

Level 3 vs. Level 4

45616.997

18

2534.278

Level 4 (BL) Level 2 (QL1) vs. Level 4 (BL) Level 3 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (BL) Error(factor1)

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: All groups contrasted to QL1 for Inter-Group Vowel Lowering (F1 Raising) Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 (QML) vs.

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

2870.734

1

2870.734

.837

.372

12809.182

1

12809.182

3.214

.090

24836.056

1

24836.056

9.474

.006

5450.977

2

2725.489

.795

.467

8857.016

2

4428.508

1.111

.351

736.156

2

368.078

.140

.870

Level 1 vs. Level 4

61734.118

18

3429.673

Level 2 vs. Level 4

71732.574

18

3985.143

Level 3 vs. Level 4

47185.816

18

2621.434

Level 4 (QL1) Level 2 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (QL1) Level 3 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QL1) factor1 * Vowel Level 1 (QML) vs. Level 4 (QL1) Level 2 (QL2) vs. Level 4 (QL1) Level 3 (BL) vs. Level 4 (QL1) Error(factor1)

b.

Study two: Results for Linear Effect for vowel lowering

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: BL Linear Effect for /a/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1

98

Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

268.523

1

268.523

.187

.671

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

6.263

1

6.263

.004

.948

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

25888.537

18

1438.252

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: BL Linear Effect for /i/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

8050.589

1

8050.589

4.817

.037

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

314.911

3

104.970

.063

.979

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

45126.524

27

1671.353

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: BL Linear Effect for /u/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

367.476

1

367.476

.271

.607

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

9721.417

4

2430.354

1.789

.161

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

35315.908

26

1358.304

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL1 Linear Effect for /a/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

229.194

1

229.194

.104

.752

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

2790.031

3

930.010

.421

.741

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

35381.716

16

2211.357

99

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL1 Linear Effect for /i/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

3580.210

1

3580.210

2.805

.106

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

2535.286

3

845.095

.662

.583

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

34458.462

27

1276.239

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL1 Linear Effect for /u/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

3761.141

1

3761.141

5.720

.024

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

12972.455

4

3243.114

4.932

.004

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

17753.872

27

657.551

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL2 Linear Effect for /a/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

4602.446

1

4602.446

3.708

.072

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

5809.317

3

1936.439

1.560

.238

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

19860.497

16

1241.281

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL2 Linear Effect for /i/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

979.460

1

979.460

.689

.414

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

9831.743

3

3277.248

2.305

.098

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

39811.381

28

1421.835

100

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL2 Linear Effect for /u/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

13471.458

1

13471.458

9.029

.006

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

21549.019

4

5387.255

3.611

.018

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

40285.119

27

1492.041

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QML Linear Effect for /a/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

32438.513

1

32438.513

1.988

.178

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

145280.475

3

48426.825

2.967

.063

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

261123.286

16

16320.205

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QML Linear Effect for /i/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

14722.549

1

14722.549

13.114

.001

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

2585.889

3

861.963

.768

.522

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

31434.280

28

1122.653

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QML Linear Effect for /u/ Lowering Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

1665.818

df

Mean Square 1

1665.818

F

Sig.

1.279

101

.268

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

495.868

4

123.967

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

33866.941

26

1302.575

.095

.983

c. First follow-up Study (Results for early lowering analyses) Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect BL /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

89636.084

1

89636.084

13.745

.002

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

10572.475

3

3524.158

.540

.661

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

104339.416

16

6521.213

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect BL /i/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

516879.507

1

516879.507

81.799

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

31938.109

3

10646.036

1.685

.194

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

170610.317

27

6318.901

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect BL /u/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

629903.756

1

629903.756

115.701

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

56061.807

4

14015.452

2.574

.061

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

141549.853

26

5444.225

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL1 /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1

102

Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

94455.825

1

94455.825

10.255

.006

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

262146.369

3

87382.123

9.487

.001

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

147372.113

16

9210.757

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL1 /i/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

355574.146

1

355574.146

42.799

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

26537.548

3

8845.849

1.065

.380

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

224316.205

27

8308.008

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL1 /u/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

342079.905

1

342079.905

47.561

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

73582.218

4

18395.555

2.558

.062

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

194195.942

27

7192.442

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL2 /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

106943.164

1

106943.164

10.071

.006

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

166573.088

3

55524.363

5.229

.010

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

169910.131

16

10619.383

103

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL2 /i/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

200804.676

1

200804.676

12.394

.001

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

10483.083

3

3494.361

.216

.885

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

453647.577

28

16201.699

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QL2 /u/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

530330.959

1

530330.959

77.341

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

15163.313

4

3790.828

.553

.699

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

185139.358

27

6857.013

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QML /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

146120.470

1

146120.470

5.722

.029

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

251293.527

3

83764.509

3.280

.048

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

408588.281

16

25536.768

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QML /i/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

191124.837

df

Mean Square 1

191124.837

F

Sig.

31.900

104

.000

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

24650.534

3

8216.845

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

167757.425

28

5991.337

1.371

.272

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: Early lowering effect QML /u/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

factor1

Level 1 vs. Level 2

42693.384

1

42693.384

6.507

.017

factor1 * Phonetic_context

Level 1 vs. Level 2

80257.969

4

20064.492

3.058

.034

Error(factor1)

Level 1 vs. Level 2

170587.005

26

6561.039

d. Second Follow-up Study (Results for early lowering effect comparison between /i/-/u/ and /a/ by speaker group)

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: BL Early Lowering Effect /i/ vs. /a/ and /u/ vs. /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1 Error(factor1)

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Level 1 vs. Level 3

76029.123

1

76029.123

6.843

.017

Level 2 vs. Level 3

116497.901

1

116497.901

12.645

.002

Level 1 vs. Level 3

211089.896

19

11109.995

Level 2 vs. Level 3

175040.008

19

9212.632

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL1 Early Lowering Effect /i/ vs. /a/ and /u/ vs. /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1 Error(factor1)

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Level 1 vs. Level 3

78370.943

1

78370.943

2.287

.147

Level 2 vs. Level 3

195210.028

1

195210.028

6.929

.016

Level 1 vs. Level 3

651104.381

19

34268.652

Level 2 vs. Level 3

535292.884

19

28173.310

105

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QL2 Early Lowering Effect /i/ vs. /a/ and /u/ vs. /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1 Error(factor1)

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Level 1 vs. Level 3

38342.174

1

38342.174

1.362

.258

Level 2 vs. Level 3

180201.064

1

180201.064

7.394

.014

Level 1 vs. Level 3

534814.972

19

28148.156

Level 2 vs. Level 3

463064.366

19

24371.809

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts: QML Early Lowering Effect /i/ vs. /a/ and /u/ vs. /a/ Measure:MEASURE_1 Source

factor1

Type III Sum of Squares

factor1 Error(factor1)

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Level 1 vs. Level 3

35.020

1

35.020

.001

.977

Level 2 vs. Level 3

59730.483

1

59730.483

1.550

.228

Level 1 vs. Level 3

748720.988

19

39406.368

Level 2 vs. Level 3

732052.942

19

38529.102

D. Tables with data for charts for vowels transition comparison and graphics. D.1. Bilingual speaker group (BL) 7 Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

BL /a.q/ F1

591.0049

687.8049

696.9909 571.7025

BL /a.q/ F2

1402.641

1499.871

1501.798 1453.553

BL /a.k/ F1

553.5865

624.4418

632.8568 386.7366

BL /a.k/ F2

1451.809

1540.294

1580.364 1750.962

BL /a.q/ F1 StErr

26.46908

16.95828

17.04309

BL /a.q/ F2 StErr

106.7966

93.39986

73.33095 49.35295

BL /a.k/ F1 StErr

22.30756

20.43769

21.70342

21.56033

BL /a.k/ F2 StErr

112.9865

83.66787

60.31566

92.8876

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

7

Point 4

19.427

Point 4

A dot in between two phonetic symbols represents syllable break. In other words, /a.q/ means that /a/ is before

/q/ in a different syllable. The lack of the dot means that both segments are in the same syllable.

106

BL /aq/ F1

685.261

701.1123

728.4798

765.104

BL /aq/ F2

1412.572

1602.643

1585.358 1553.243

BL /ak/ F1

590.476

668.7058

707.121 740.0623

BL /ak/ F2

1652.844

1634.917

1637.542

BL /aq/ F1 StErr

36.35856

34.05221

25.42003 29.09111

BL /aq/ F2 StErr

231.3167

30.70715

16.14665 22.78217

BL /ak/ F1 StErr

23.15009

12.32744

9.291166 28.87152

BL /ak/ F2 StErr

14.25882

27.9066

10.61653 34.69458

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F1

622.4236

692.2407

707.4872

636.1697

BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F2

1405.951

1534.128

1529.652

1486.783

BL /a/ before /k/ same and different syllable F1

565.883

639.1964

657.6115 504.5118

BL /a/ before /k/ same and different syllable F2

1518.821

1571.835

1599.423 1709.285

BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F1 St. Err.

24.43124

15.19857

14.21278 31.50694

BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F2 St. Err.

98.51399

63.24547

49.45797 35.79505

BL /a/ before /k/ same and different syllable F1 St. Err.

16.95072

15.18561

17.86337 52.86763

BL /a/ before /k/ same and different syllable F2 St. Err.

79.06207

56.7583

40.24525 63.91911

1625.931

107

108

109

1800 1700

BL /a/ before /q/ and /k/ in the Same or Different Syllable

1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 Hz

BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F1 BL /a/ before /q/ same and different syllable F2

1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Group

Point 1

BL /qa/ F1

593.2259 586.7326

BL /qa/ F2

Point 2

Point 4

Point 3

Point 4

590.378 592.7743

1617.68 1615.524 1673.617 1735.764

BL /ka/ F1

422.5878 486.7233 486.0578

BL /ka/ F2

1650.474 1620.779 1669.112 1823.179

BL /qa/ F1 Std. Error

25.81154 26.26062 33.30076

55.4863

BL /qa/ F2 Std. Error

31.33696 29.74693 42.55739

60.9398

BL /ka/ F1 Std. Error

55.74086 35.81647 34.51074 37.26049

BL /ka/ F2 Std. Error

143.8603 123.2666 123.0837 109.9828

Group

Point 1

BL /qa/ F1

630.7335 608.2853 603.4045 576.2395

BL /qa/ F2 BL /qhay/ F1 BL /qhay/ F2

Point 2

1581.62 1599.545 555.7183

Point 3

418.751

Point 4

1651.94 1738.613

565.18 577.3515

609.309

1653.74 1631.502 1695.295 1732.914

110

BL /qa/ F1 Std. Error

22.23266

19.992 28.07188 65.11149

BL /qa/ F2 Std. Error

42.0349

30.4889 43.04059 102.9298

BL /qhay/ F1 Std. Error BL /qhay/ F2 Std. Error

46.05523 54.48501 70.80392 109.5359 51.0249

60.1629 86.56556 95.94907

Group

Point 1

BL /ka/ F1

327.4165 416.3853 425.5865 361.2208

BL /ka/ F2

1451.056 1450.504 1498.548 1673.757

BL /khay/ F1

Point 2

517.759 557.0613

Point 3

Point 4

546.529 476.2813

BL /khay/ F2

1849.891 1791.055 1839.676 1972.601

BL /ka/ F1 Std. Error

34.55858 31.24415 45.97262 62.37977

BL /ka/ F2 Std. Error

263.6318 223.9201 222.4658

BL /khay/ F1 Std. Error

85.24589 41.37637 31.72741 19.52483

BL /khay/ F2 Std. Error

23.81408

197.424

37.9339 42.57195 50.87363

111

112

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /i/ before uvular ctx. F1

465.4567 484.0048 488.7587 431.9964

BL /i/ before uvular ctx. F2

1750.623 1801.399 1845.776 1720.836

BL /i/ before velar ctx. F1

333.4223

BL /i/ before velar ctx. F2

2097.039 2175.184 2248.179 2390.492

348.104 333.1608 300.5522

BL /i/ before uvular ctx. F1 Std. Error

12.8435 12.08571 12.87576 15.25082

BL /i/ before uvular ctx. F2 Std. Error

50.71322 38.98105 41.51111 36.39282

BL /i/ before velar ctx. F1 Std. Error

8.771506

BL /i/ before velar ctx. F2 Std. Error

105.4447 100.9715 101.8735 109.1959

Group

Point 1

BL /i.q/ F1

453.4225 469.6463 471.5818 419.7541

BL /i.q/ F2

1727.069 1797.474 1852.283 1750.989

6.18056 7.487122 23.64057

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

113

BL /i.k/ F1

329.0879 351.1714

BL /i.k/ F2

2201.385 2265.486 2336.863 2490.981

BL /i.q/ F1 StErr

12.51808 10.19217 9.669916 18.21342

BL /i.q/ F2 StErr

72.94547 50.52058 53.66245 44.51233

BL /i.k/ F1 StErr

10.19736 7.203864 6.324421 8.947875

BL /i.k/ F2 StErr

32.2382 46.14945 42.49499 48.37291

Group BL /inq/ F1

Point 1

Point 2

333.78 263.4256

Point 3

489.525 512.7218 523.1125

Point 4 456.481

BL /inq/ F2

1797.731 1809.247 1832.763 1660.532

BL /inkh/ F1

342.091 341.9693 331.9225 374.8053

BL /inkh/ F2

1888.347 1994.581 2070.809 2189.515

BL /inq/ F1 Std. Error

28.17073

BL /inq/ F2 Std. Error

48.46683 69.08745 73.70083 59.19628

BL /inkh/ F1 Std. Error

17.98584 12.61726 20.71718 54.92949

BL /inkh/ F2 Std. Error

309.319 293.0869 300.0054 316.2996

26.6383 28.23434 26.65797

Group

Point 1

BL /i.q/ F1

453.4225 469.6463 471.5818 419.7541

BL /i.q/ F2

1727.069 1797.474 1852.283 1750.989

BL /inq/ F1

Point 2

Point 3

489.525 512.7218 523.1125

Point 4

456.481

BL /inq/ F2

1797.731 1809.247 1832.763 1660.532

BL /i.q/ F1 StErr

12.51808 10.19217 9.669916 18.21342

BL /i.q/ F2 StErr

72.94547 50.52058 53.66245 44.51233

BL /inq/ F1 Std. Error

28.17073

BL /inq/ F2 Std. Error

48.46683 69.08745 73.70083 59.19628

Group

Point 1

BL /i.k/ F1

329.0879 351.1714

BL /i.k/ F2

2201.385 2265.486 2336.863 2490.981

26.6383 28.23434 26.65797

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

333.78 263.4256

BL /inkh/ F1

342.091 341.9693 331.9225 374.8053

BL /inkh/ F2

1888.347 1994.581 2070.809 2189.515

BL /i.k/ F1 StErr

10.19736 7.203864 6.324421 8.947875

BL /i.k/ F2 StErr

32.2382 46.14945 42.49499 48.37291

114

BL /inkh/ F1 Std. Error

17.98584 12.61726 20.71718 54.92949

BL /inkh/ F2 Std. Error

309.319 293.0869 300.0054 316.2996

115

116

117

BL /i.q/and /inq/ 2500

2000

1500 Axis Title

BL /i.q/ F1 BL /i.q/ F2 BL /inq/ F1

1000

BL /inq/ F2

500

0 Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

118

BL /i.k/ and /inkh/ 3000

2500

Axis Title

2000 BL /i.k/ F1 BL /i.k/ F2

1500

BL /inkh/ F1 BL /inkh/ F2 1000

500

0 Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /qi/ F1

440.9598

458.2445

451.725

458.3636

BL /qi/ F2

1970.411

1991.895

2028.086

2007.279

BL /ki/ F1

303.4951

326.6077

327.1712

297.5666

BL /ki/ F2

2331.764

2371.455

2410.046

2388.956

BL /qi/ F1 StErr

15.15642

8.305926

9.730341

18.64271

BL /qi/ F2 StErr

33.3129

25.99709

28.08272

43.71482

BL /ki/ F1 StErr

8.022726

8.091143

6.0131

11.64085

BL /ki/ F2 StErr

36.40883

31.43005

24.02168

51.38302

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /qi/ word initial F1

450.5641

482.2163

482.0344

426.786

BL /qi/ word initial F2

2014.109

2025.331

2064.72

1980.733

BL /ki/ word initial F1

286.0788

313.4783

328.9368

335.2764

BL /ki/ word initial F2

2449.592

2471.748

2454.053

2203.448

119

BL /qi/ word initial F1 Std. Error

15.42536

10.44457

10.35133

22.8176

55.27242

42.77119

46.33881

90.38386

11.33494

9.821681

8.714927

15.4955

39.7195

27.99166

27.76231

90.72827

Point 4

BL /qi/ word initial F2 Std. Error BL /ki/ word initial F1 Std. Error BL /ki/ word initial F2 Std. Error

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

BL /qi/ word initial F1

450.5641

482.2163

482.0344

426.786

BL /qi/ word initial F2

2014.109

2025.331

2064.72

1980.733

BL /qi/ word final F1

434.5569

442.2633

431.5188

479.4153

BL /qi/ word final F2

1941.278

1969.604

2003.664

2024.977

15.42536

10.44457

10.35133

22.8176

55.27242

42.77119

46.33881

90.38386

23.47434

9.709677

11.58926

26.05618

Error

41.30102

32.50536

34.98282

44.32153

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /ki/ word initial F1

286.0788

313.4783

328.9368

335.2764

BL /ki/ word initial F2

2449.592

2471.748

2454.053

2203.448

BL /ki/ word final F1

315.106

335.3607

325.9942

272.4268

BL /ki/ word final F2

2253.212

2304.593

2380.708

2512.629

11.33494

9.821681

8.714927

15.4955

39.7195

27.99166

27.76231

90.72827

10.00721

11.40734

8.458921

12.02492

BL /qi/ word initial F1 Std. Error BL /qi/ word initial F2 Std. Error BL /qi/ word final F1 Std. Error BL /qi/ word final F2 Std.

BL /ki/ word initial F1 Std. Error BL /ki/ word initial F2 Std. Error BL /ki/ word final F1 Std. Error

120

BL /ki/ word final F2 Std. Error

41.76659

38.66994

33.7428

25.14585

121

122

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

BL /qu/ F1

463.8259

502.0036

522.1129

487.376

BL /qu/ F2

939.6431

988.586

1030.953

1209.693

BL /ku/ F1

316.9925

362.0085

374.6705

356.803

BL /ku/ F2

1001.188

982.5584

1023.928

1280.944

BL /qu/ F1 Std. Error

12.83664

8.667409

8.066121

26.586

BL /qu/ F2 Std. Error

16.11613

11.92818

12.34306

33.7258

BL /ku/ F1 Std. Error

9.155952

7.627812

9.500194

21.95703

BL /ku/ F2 Std. Error

20.89785

16.85351

20.77505

33.08288

123

Group

Point 1

Point 2

BL /u/ before uvular context F1

515.5126 496.4758 499.5858

BL /u/ before uvular context F2

1051.246

BL /u/ before velar context F1

361.6879 372.4454 375.6219 332.3423

BL /u/ before velar context F2

1056.94 993.2908 963.2271 907.2249

1030.84

Point 3

Point 4 449.449

982.845 927.7838

BL /u/ before uvular context F1 Std. Error

23.29061 12.50495 6.325157 12.05904

BL /u/ before uvular context F2 Std. Error

32.82533 22.38457 20.85328

BL /u/ before velar context F1 Std. Error

11.86006 7.378169 9.529647 14.50325

BL /u/ before velar context F2 Std. Error

55.58684 40.22082 33.24922 44.37631

Group

Point 1

BL /u.q/ F1

487.4626 481.6635 493.0386 433.1314

BL /u.q/ F2

1119.658 1071.609

BL /u.k/ F1

356.3975 373.4689 365.3616 301.1953

BL /u.k/ F2

1146.747 1040.079 975.8421 833.7455

Point 2

Point 3

48.364

Point 4

992.454 805.5893

124

BL /u.q/ F1 Std. Error

27.0905 18.61323 9.577313 17.65825

BL /u.q/ F2 Std. Error

40.82271 30.03842 31.54453 28.98912

BL /u.k/ F1 Std. Error

11.87741 9.117926 11.87382

BL /u.k/ F2 Std. Error

17.9978

101.232 73.96239 49.17952 24.35158

Group

Point 1

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F1

543.5625 511.2881

506.133 465.7666

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F2

982.8346 990.0713

973.236 1049.978

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F1

366.9784 371.4219 385.8823 363.4894

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F2

967.1324 946.5023

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F1 Std. Error

36.96082 16.15656 8.215165 15.34083

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F2 Std. Error

40.17692 27.75331 29.02145 70.12915

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F1 Std. Error

21.30172 12.24202 14.76949 17.33123

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F2 Std. Error

26.26993 28.93353 47.68447 79.39797

Group

Point 1

BL /u.q/ F1

Point 2

Point 2

477.082 473.8809

Point 3

Point 4

950.612 980.7044

Point 3

Point 4

491.843 425.3814

BL /u.q/ F2

1100.762 1047.198 994.7483 801.8605

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F1

495.5589 500.4219 486.5568

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F2

944.0889 964.9918 930.2418 1013.638

BL /u.q/ F1 Std. Error

32.29588 19.62917 11.72664 17.71217

BL /u.q/ F2 Std. Error

47.94517 44.59711 34.25374 30.95277

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F1 Std. Error

31.56893 15.00273 15.95287 17.77546

BL /u/ before continuant and uvular F2 Std. Error

31.82691 25.05067 25.88026 70.96222

Group

Point 1

BL /u.k/ F1

351.6134 371.6579 365.5883 308.0798

BL /u.k/ F2

1192.178 1053.693 986.1954 840.4873

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F1

364.9966 354.9746 368.8878 357.9569

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F2

961.3185 905.6611 903.9873 968.1225

BL /u.k/ F1 Std. Error

10.10358 8.808081 11.83729 17.44573

BL /u.k/ F2 Std. Error

117.0313 77.41631 51.61609 24.97142

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F1 Std. Error

19.72863 11.50039 12.24928

BL /u/ before continuant and velar F2 Std. Error

44.97939 18.08736 32.47412 64.78449

Point 2

Point 3

441.321

Point 4

17.8918

125

126

127

128

129

D.2. Quechua Monolingual Group (QML) Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /a/ before /q/ same and different syll. F1

548.8514

635.5108

685.2438

650.2075

QML /a/ before /q/ same and different syll. F2

1254.589

1285.16

1337.648

1363.047

QML /a/ before /k/ same and different syll. F1

567.0977

643.6595

639.6008

518.9503

QML /a/ before /k/ same and different syll. F2

1376.774

1397.885

1439.507

1617.893

QML /a/ before /q/ same and different syll. F1 St. Err.

21.3631

27.48216

26.29653

37.57545

QML /a/ before /q/ same and different syll. F2 St. Err.

84.65026

71.71746

63.1063

42.03486

QML /a/ before /k/ same and different syll. F1 St. Err.

23.17123

17.15969

14.7209

26.96529

QML /a/ before /k/ same and different syll. F2 St. Err.

87.99514

72.82246

71.79692

90.76977

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /a.q/ F1

540.7999

632.2847

682.7067

605.6604

QML /a.q/ F2

1151.205

1220.091

1266.916

1295.732

QML /a.k/ F1

542.6948

626.193

631.8058

484.4083

QML /a.k/ F2

1287.873

1325.983

1393.952

1637.128

Group

130

QML /a.q/ F1 StErr

28.40291

35.19952

33.48359

43.7542

QML /a.q/ F2 StErr

97.3289

93.01436

74.95341

42.6736

QML /a.k/ F1 StErr

29.21172

23.22565

20.20661

31.12214

QML /a.k/ F2 StErr

117.5804

91.51242

94.66834

135.0522

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /aq/ F1

549.638

736.212

779.578

819.919

QML /aq/ F2

1715.476

1561.174

1636.812

1510.748

QML /ak/ F1

615.9035

678.5925

655.1908

588.0345

QML /ak/ F2

1554.575

1541.69

1530.618

1579.423

QML /aq/ F1 StErr

30.57128

48.57046

47.40253

45.06915

QML /aq/ F2 StErr

101.3081

68.07029

76.60427

31.60328

QML /ak/ F1 StErr

27.06991

10.55948

18.8891

33.04555

QML /ak/ F2 StErr

69.6462

94.40966

103.5813

69.1008

Group

131

132

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qa/ and /qhay/ F1

513.0523

611.5521

634.729

645.1063

QML /qa/ and /qhay/ F2

1293.224

1411.844

1486.146

1663.169

QML /kay/ and /khay/ F1

449.8158

504.7358

509.1205

459.2469

QML /kay/ and /khay/ F2

2043.803

1976.905

2017.88

2142.443

QML /qa/ and /qhay/ F1 Std. Error

37.15246

27.83528

32.56509

75.76088

QML /qa/ and /qhay/ F2 Std. Error

95.32084

88.88699

96.89131

105.5716

QML /kay/ and /khay/ F1 Std. Error

23.25328

21.32773

23.87156

19.31859

QML /kay/ and /khay/ F2 Std. Error

96.74271

113.9979

114.2163

94.18331

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qhay/ F1

460.4903

579.5268

572.9105

480.5335

QML /qhay/ F2

1238.346

1439.006

1533.683

1807.383

QML /khay/ F1

474.5038

517.4928

508.9108

439.72

QML /khay/ F2

2108.831

2025.017

2092.898

2227.293

Group

133

QML /qhay/ F1 Std. Error

55.61395

44.88566

29.95066

13.42002

QML /qhay/ F2 Std. Error

162.475

162.9544

180.5425

177.8673

QML /khay/ F1 Std. Error

44.91407

34.17815

41.93371

25.77067

QML /khay/ F2 Std. Error

99.23009

165.183

162.3612

137.3993

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qhay/ F1

460.4903

579.5268

572.9105

480.5335

QML /qhay/ F2

1238.346

1439.006

1533.683

1807.383

QML /kay/ F1

425.1278

491.9788

509.3303

478.7738

QML /kay/ F2

1978.776

1928.793

1942.862

2057.594

QML /qhay/ F1 Std. Error

55.61395

44.88566

29.95066

13.42002

QML /qhay/ F2 Std. Error

162.475

162.9544

180.5425

177.8673

QML /kay/ F1 Std. Error

9.986562

29.08774

30.01401

28.69339

QML /kay/ F2 Std. Error

176.0977

178.3738

175.4005

133.107

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qa/ F1

565.6143

643.5775

696.5475

809.679

QML /qa/ F2

1348.101

1384.683

1438.609

1518.954

QML /khay/ F1

460.4903

579.5268

572.9105

480.5335

QML /khay/ F2

1238.346

1439.006

1533.683

1807.383

QML /qa/ F1 Std. Error

38.81583

30.28656

38.78405

92.4613

QML /qa/ F2 Std. Error

118.3037

99.1207

98.53038

80.68294

QML /khay/ F1 Std. Error

44.91407

34.17815

41.93371

25.77067

QML /khay/ F2 Std. Error

99.23009

165.183

162.3612

137.3993

Group

Group

134

135

136

137

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /i/ before uvular ctx. F1

403.7864

423.2264

435.4142

426.4848

QML /i/ before uvular ctx. F2

1688.545

1858.159

1928.257

1616.247

QML /i/ before velar ctx. F1

330.7692

365.8143

354.8933

306.0649

QML /i/ before velar ctx. F2

2180.815

2241.779

2320.785

2435.932

QML /i/ before uvular ctx. F1 Std. Error

23.64156

21.62902

17.32652

17.03209

QML /i/ before uvular ctx. F2 Std. Error

93.44761

53.70569

45.83968

151.0789

QML /i/ before velar ctx. F1 Std. Error

16.45088

11.64673

12.45802

19.93512

QML /i/ before velar ctx. F2 Std. Error

71.86941

64.98774

48.97459

45.39436

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /i.q/ F1

414.0296

448.6696

458.198

450.4956

QML /i.q/ F2

1607.327

1801.613

1887.912

1819.605

QML /i.k/ F1

324.2753

341.492

327.4941

264.7199

QML /i.k/ F2

2157.147

2222.646

2297.13

2407.905

138

QML /i.q/ F1 StErr

20.69645

10.95884

13.0967

14.92316

QML /i.q/ F2 StErr

126.8491

61.84153

52.5695

60.29944

QML /i.k/ F1 StErr

15.29377

7.198533

6.074285

11.50363

QML /i.k/ F2 StErr

82.76017

70.45502

57.13862

58.97649

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /inq/ F1

383.3

372.34

389.8465

378.463

QML /inq/ F2

1850.982

1971.251

2008.948

1209.53

QML /inkh/ F1

343.757

414.459

409.6918

388.755

QML /inkh/ F2

2228.152

2280.045

2368.094

2491.987

QML /inq/ F1 Std. Error

62.76446

57.36547

38.25758

31.60218

QML /inq/ F2 Std. Error

88.17178

86.51804

83.43857

389.0958

QML /inkh/ F1 Std. Error

42.43905

8.193736

5.797053

18.30624

QML /inkh/ F2 Std. Error

154.0578

150.2012

100.1434

69.74482

139

140

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qi/ F1

410.4852

441.951

416.4272

376.909

QML /qi/ F2

1904.592

2006.583

2098.342

2115.289

QML /ki/ F1

262.6231

294.7284

290.3349

270.1811

QML /ki/ F2

2242.674

2280.29

2307.843

2298.369

QML /qi/ F1 StErr

9.174851

8.999402

8.867092

13.21462

QML /qi/ F2 StErr

50.40301

48.942

44.96037

50.81521

QML /ki/ F1 StErr

8.27544

7.629055

8.065284

16.37188

QML /ki/ F2 StErr

47.53947

47.90251

53.11115

69.28526

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qi/ word initial F1

399.2253

451.5718

420.4188

385.8915

QML /qi/ word initial F2

1879.431

1997.998

2136.573

2113.53

QML /ki/ word initial F1

272.1406

307.408

311.2209

305.7216

QML /ki/ word initial F2

2177.862

2185.642

2201.668

2093.799

141

QML /qi/ word initial F1 Std. Error

5.794371

16.80982

16.42763

27.83519

QML /qi/ word initial F2 Std. Error

109.5047

92.13101

75.98029

69.69238

QML /ki/ word initial F1 Std. Error

16.31533

14.21172

15.49812

31.00053

QML /ki/ word initial F2 Std. Error

88.98978

100.3766

113.2484

126.3622

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qi/ word final F1

417.9918

435.5371

413.7662

370.9206

QML /qi/ word final F2

1921.366

2012.307

2072.855

2116.461

QML /ki/ word final F1

256.2781

286.2753

276.4108

246.4874

QML /ki/ word final F2

2285.883

2343.388

2378.627

2434.749

QML /qi/ word final F1 Std. Error

14.67241

10.19427

10.49987

12.87865

QML /qi/ word final F2 Std. Error

46.50053

57.33366

56.76701

73.29866

QML /ki/ word final F1 Std. Error

8.664229

8.101075

6.426424

15.37291

QML /ki/ word final F2 Std. Error

52.17377

37.76906

39.25264

53.08739

142

143

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /qu/ F1

399.6507

431.7809

436.9879

376.0087

QML /qu/ F2

762.9104

790.0431

835.3847

910.9906

QML /ku/ F1

325.1323

358.8159

370.8041

339.9777

QML /ku/ F2

847.7986

849.6315

869.6674

1032.777

QML /qu/ F1 Std. Error

13.40666

7.99498

9.576688

17.29903

QML /qu/ F2 Std. Error

18.63049

15.37613

18.80464

35.61972

QML /ku/ F1 Std. Error

13.30943

9.642615

13.93892

23.77554

QML /ku/ F2 Std. Error

24.07704

23.25726

25.37244

47.73239

144

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /u/ before uvular context F1

394.905

435.4561

442.4426

427.0759

QML /u/ before uvular context F2

817.1915

817.0906

809.5698

758.5609

QML /u/ before velar context F1

366.2161

397.6053

394.8563

340.411

QML /u/ before velar context F2

878.3476

841.8825

838.8571

797.6096

QML /u/ before uvular context F1 Std. Error

19.61945

15.78847

15.30359

16.83607

QML /u/ before uvular context F2 Std. Error

33.56955

26.32624

23.82094

25.47618

QML /u/ before velar context F1 Std. Error

16.97563

11.64994

12.56551

16.04752

QML /u/ before velar context F2 Std. Error

40.0118

27.38098

26.71606

44.89244

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /u.q/ F1

430.6464

473.2664

478.5929

468.3089

QML /u.q/ F2

894.8118

867.8586

841.6493

725.6509

QML /u.k/ F1

378.2125

400.5871

392.5271

321.3808

QML /u.k/ F2

962.5201

877.8841

824.0655

714.182

145

QML /u.q/ F1 Std. Error

30.6881

23.18033

22.43235

21.75447

QML /u.q/ F2 Std. Error

53.59187

38.72226

39.78681

33.36479

QML /u.k/ F1 Std. Error

25.86421

17.99247

17.71929

26.54662

QML /u.k/ F2 Std. Error

67.00313

39.19884

35.84787

32.07285

Group

Point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

QML /u/ before continuant and uvular F1

359.1636

397.6459

406.2924

385.8429

QML /u/ before continuant and uvular F2

739.5713

766.3225

777.4903

791.471

QML /u/ before continuant and velar F1

354.2198

394.6234

397.1854

359.4413

QML /u/ before continuant and velar F2

794.175

805.8809

853.6486

881.0371

QML /u/ before continuant and uvular F1 Std. Error

18.51825

11.06959

11.27474

15.9932

QML /u/ before continuant and uvular F2 Std. Error

15.36701

27.1015

23.55538

36.86357

QML /u/ before continuant and velar F1 Std. Error

22.91173

15.981

19.00415

17.18936

QML /u/ before continuant and velar F2 Std. Error

18.64082

36.14152

41.36832

74.96565

146

147

148