The Pronunciation of English in New York City: Consonants and Vowels 9780231896610

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The Pronunciation of English in New York City CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

Allan Forbes Hubbell

KING'S CROWN PRESS, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, 1950

Copyright 1950 by

ALLAN FORBES HUBBELL KING S CROWN

PRESS

is α subsidiary imprint of C o l o m b i a University Press established for the purpose of m a k i n g certain scholarly material a v a i l a b l e at minimum cost. T o w a r d thot e n d , the publishers hove a d o p t e d every r e a s o n a b l e economy except such as w o u l d interfere with a l e g i b l e format. The work is presented substantially as submitted by the author, without the usual editorial a n d typog r a p h i c a l attention of C o l u m b i o University Press.

Published in G r e a t Britain a n d I n d i a by Geoffrey C u m b e r l e g e , O x f o r d University Press London a n d Bombay Manufactured in the United States of A m e r i c a

ACKNOWLEDGMENT During from

the

the

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friendly

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analysis

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furthermore Jr.,

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Harry

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Victor

California

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informants,

Mr.

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1 want

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1941·

made

use

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me

Although

to u s e

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appreciation

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nine

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editor

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recordings

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A. F. H. New

York

August,

City 1949

CONTENTS GENERAL

OBSERVATIONS;

INFORMANTS, THE

METHODS

LIMITATIONS AND

OF

THIS

STUDY

SYMBOLS

12

CONSONANTS

20

The S t o p s

20

The

33

Fricatives

The A f f r i c a t e s Voiced

43

Frictionless

Fricative

Consonants

with

Voiceless

Variants

44

The N a s a l s THE

VOWELS

AND

55 DIPHTHONGS

Vowels That

Do Not

STRESSED

Occur

SYLLABLES

as W o r d - F i n a l s

53

53

of

the

[Γ]-Se ri es

64

Diphthongs

of

the

[u]-Series

70

Diphthongs

of

the

[5]-Series

VOWELS

OF

WEAK

SYLLABLES

Primary

APPENDIX

Supplementary

B:

APPENDIX C:

Test

and

Variants

APPENDIX A:

Informants

Sentences

NOTES

Informants

Their 73 37

91 119

125 133

SELECTIVE WORD

OF

Di p h t h o n g s

Monophthongal THE

1

INDEX

BIBLIOGRAPHY

149 151

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS; LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY 1.1. Among the several regional types of American English, none perhaps is more distinctly set apart from others, both in fact and in the popular awareness of the fact, than that of New York City and its environs. Not all the phonological characteristics of the speech of this area are unique, of course, in the sense that they do not occur elsewhere in the I'nited States. That is sometimes the case; but at least as frequently particular features of metropolitan pronunciation are shared by other dialects of American Fnplish. There are certain similarities between the pronunciation of New York and that of the coastal areas in the South. Other similarities link the city with the Middle Atlantic states, with eastern New Fngland, or even with the Middle West. Put despite all these partial resemblances, the metropolitan patterns resulting from the combination of many features are rather unlike those which appear in other varieties of spoken Fn g 1 i s h . This singularity of N'ew York speech, though it is often apprehended well enough by those innocent of any linguistic training, has not always been adequately recognized bv phoneticians. To be sure, Tiany features of metropolitan pronunciation, and especially some of those which occur on the uncultivated level, have been described in detail. Students have even been conscious that the substandard speech of New York would not fit easily into anv of the usual categories. But manv of them have not been very familiar with the cultivated types of metropolitan pronunciation and have in any case been more interested in the dialects of other regions of the I'nited States. As a result, they have often been content to accept what was in most respects an elocutionist's fiction: the concept of an eastern type of pronunciation that included the speech both of New York City and of eastern New England. The cultivated usage, at. least, of these two areas was thought to exhibit a sufficient number of fundamental similarities to justify classing them together as a regional type distinct from other types of American English. And so the term "Fastern A m e r i c a n " has been employed, not only in manuals of a prescriptive sort, but also in Kenyon's American Pronunc lat ion and in the Kenyon and Knott Pronouncing Dictionary. The accuracy of this term, however, has not gone lenged. Its most outspoken critic has been Charles Thomas, who in several articles and in a recently book, 1 has denied that the classification had any

unchalKenneth published validity

2

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 2

whatever. In one of these articles, after listing what he takes to be the chief characteristics of eastern New England speech, he then sets against them the results of an extensive tabulation of metropolitan usage. The differences are so considerable that he concludes by stating: "Actually three major types, each with its standard, have their habitation east of the Hudson, and an amalgam, or higher synthesis, of the three has never been anything more than conversational. 1 *^ Some of Thomas' specific statements, I think, need to be qualified. His method is to tabulate the occurrences of particular pronunciations used by an undifferentiated group of speakers. Pronunciations heard from persons whose dialects are probably quite different are lumped together and, as a result, the patterns occurring in the speech of individuals are sometimes obscured. For example, his tables indicate that vowels approximating the so-called "intermediate quality" occur rather more frequently in metropolitan speech in abandon, damp, and man than in ask and dance. "It is impossible to avoid the conclusion," he therefore asserts, "that the 'broad a' category has no validity in downstate speech and that [a] is merely a lowered variety of the [se] phoneme. An examination of the total pattern of successive individual speakers, however, will show something different. In the speech of a large number of New Yorkers, all these words contain the same vocalic phoneme (which is not /ae/),^ and one of the variants of this phoneme in the pronunciation of some speakers is a very low long vowel or a diphthong that begins at a very low position. But this is not the only type of pronunciation which occurs. Some speakers, most of them women, use the "intermediate v o w e l " rather consistently in the osfe-group and do not use it elsewhere. Such speakers, it may be added, also often pronounce mid-central vowels without " r - c o l o r i n g " in third, turn, etc., and may frequently round the vowel of stop, possible, and volume. These " e a s t e r n " patterns, to be sure, are not infrequently acquired ones, carefully drilled into the speaker in college or in finishing school. But that in a certain sense is beside the point. The fact remains that such a type of pronunciation does exist in New York and cannot be omitted from any description of the city's speech. Individual patterns similarly disappear in Thomas' figures for the occurrence of /r/ in the preconsonantal and final positions. His tables show that the consonant is very frequently pronounced in absorb, barn, course, and the like. "New York C i t y , " he sums up, "agrees with eastern New England in the excrescent [r] of idea...but in little else in the treatment of r."® These tabulations, however, conceal the fact that millions of New Yorkers rather regularly pronounce in the " r - l e s s " fashion, according to which the consonant occurs only when immediately followed by a vowel. It might further be added that coastal New England is by no means so predomi-

GENERAL OESEPVATIONS

3

nantly " r - l e s s " as Thomas seems to assume. The maps o f the Unguis tic Atlas make c l e a r t h a t in M a s s a c h u s e t t s , f o r examp l e , w i t h i n f i f t y m i l e s of B o s t o n , t h e r e a r e communities in which many s p e a k e r s pronounce the consonant q u i t e in the General American manner. And the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many o t h e r persons who l i v e e a s t o f the C o n n e c t i c u t B i v e r e x h i b i t s t h a t same haphazard i r r e g u l a r i t y t h a t i s so common in the c i t y . Undoubtedly, the o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l pos i t i o n i s somewhat more f r e q u e n t in New York than in e a s t e r n New England; but t h a t the two a r e a s r e v e a l no s i m i l a r i t y in regard to the o c c u r r e n c e o f the consonant i s s i m p l y n o t s o . N e v e r t h e l e s s , though one may l e g i t i m a t e l y t a k e i s s u e w i t h Thomas about s p e c i f i c p o i n t s , t h e r e can c e r t a i n l y be no q u a r r e l with h i s g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n . The t y p e s o f m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h a t bear any marked r e s e m b l a n c e to the speech of e a s t e r n Mew England ( i n m a t t e r s o t h e r than the o c c u r r e n c e of /r/) a r e spoken o n l y by a s m a l l m i n o r i t y o f New V o r k e r s . So f a r as the o t h e r d i a l e c t s o f the c i t y a r e c o n c e r n e d , d i vergences from the New England p a t t e r n a r e f a r more numerous than s i m i l a r i t i e s . The [ ϊ ] - d i p h t h o n g s in third and turn, the same d i p h t h o n g s in boil and joint, the r e t r a c t i o n o f the l o n e vowels or d i p h t h o n g s in c a r t and in law, the absence o f the hoarse-horse d i s t i n c t i o n , the homonymy o f cod and card, the b l a d e - a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e s o f / t / and / d / - - t h e s e a r e but a few o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f one o r a n o t h e r o f the m e t r o p o l i t a n d i a l e c t s t h a t have no c o u n t e r p a r t s in the s p e e c h of e a s t e r n New England. The c i t y and i t s suburbs must, as Thomas i n s i s t s , be c o n s i d e r e d a s e p a r a t e area in the l i n g u i s t i c geography o f the c o u n t r y . The term " E a s t e r n A m e r i c a n " should e i t h e r n o t be used a t a l l o r s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d in i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to the r e g i o n e a s t o f the C o n n e c t i c u t . 1.2. Although one may p r o p e r l y speak o f a d i s t i n c t m e t r o p o l i tan d i a l e c t - a r e a , one c a n n o t s i m i l a r l y speak o f a s i n g l e m e t r o p o l i t a n d i a l e c t - - f o r ( t h e s p e e c h - p a t t e r n s heard in the c i t y and i t s e n v i r o n s a r e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y v a r i e d . The task o f the o b s e r v e r , as a r e s u l t , i s a somewhat d i f f e r e n t one from that which would c o n f r o n t him in Ohio or in Montana. The phon e t i c i a n s t u d y i n g the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many p a r t s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s can p r a c t i c a l l y l e a v e o u t o f account d i f f e r ences t h a t may be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n and o f s o c i a l s t a t u s . Nowhere, o f c o u r s e , do e d u c a t e d and uneducated p e r s o n s speak the same E n g l i s h . Put i n l a r g e areas o f A m e r i c a , so f a r as my l i m i t e d k n o w l e d g e g o e s , the d i f f e r e n c e s that occur are c h i e f l y morphological, s y n t a c t i c , and l e x i c a l . A M i d d l e Western farmhand whose f o r m a l s c h o o l i n g had been r a t h e r l i m i t e d and a member o f a u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y , both o f them n a t i v e s o f the same s t a t e , w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t t a l k a l i k e . The t e a c h e r w i l l a v o i d c e r t a i n v e r b - f o r m s , f o r example, which the o t h e r uses n a t u r a l l y . H i s s e n t e n c e s , even

4

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

in his most colloquial moments, are likely to exhibit a somewhat different syntactic arrangement, more influenced, for one thing, by the patterns of written English. And his vocabulary will be very different indeed. But in phonemic structure and in phonetic detail the speech of the two men will probably not be very far apart. In the Preface to the first edition, Kenyon describes his American Pronunc iat ion as being based on the cultivated usage of the Western Reserve of Ohio. One wonders whether his work would have been very different had he chosen instead to describe the pronunciation of garage mechanics and soda clerks in the same region--or at least of those among them who were of the older American stock. Probably it would not be. The phonetic uniformity in cultivated and uncultivated speech in much of the United States is, in truth, one of the most striking aspects of American English. In New York City this uniformity does not exist. Here too, as everywhere, cultivated and uncultivated English go their separate ways in many matters of morphology, syntax, and vocabulary. But in addition, a large number of marked differences in pronunciation serve to set apart from one another the speech-habits of individuals and of social groups. In some cases these variations involve the occurrence and distribution of phonemes, for example the distribution of /sS/ and /3Ϊ/. More commonly, they are of the kind which Jones calls diaphonic, that is, they are articiilatory and acoustic differences in the pronunciation of what is phonemically the same vowel or consonant. A s examples one might cite the varying articulation of intervocalic [r] before an unstressed vowel or the variations in quality of the first element of the diphthong /ai/. In either case, the result is that the pronunciation of two New Yorkers, both of them born and bred in the city, may exhibit far greater divergences than those that distinguish the speech of Wisconsin, let us say, from that of Oregon. These variations in metropolitan usage are for the m6st part not chance, individual peculiarities, but as I have indicated, features of class-dialect. Py this I mean that they can be brought into an approximate relation at least with the whole complex of such nonlinguistic factors as education, income, occupation, family background, and so forth. The pronunciation of a cab-driver whose father and grandfathers were also members of the working class will normally differ, both phonemically and phonetically, from that of a physician whose family has been well-to-do and college-educated for several generations. And the features that appear in the pronunciation of the two men are likely to recur in the speech of others of similar background and education. The correspondence between language and these nonlinguistic factors is never, of course, exact. In the pronunciation of this or that cultivated speaker, for example, one may observe some feature

GENERAI

OBSEPVATIONS

5

t h a t is for the m o s t part c o n f i n e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d u s e . I h a v e d e s c r i b e d the w e l l - k n o w n h o m o n y m y of curl and coil, learn and loin a s u n c u l t i v a t e d , for a l t h o u g h the d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / may a p p e a r in w o r d s like curl on all levels, in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h w o r d s like coil o r d i n a r i l y e x h i b i t the p h o n e m i c a l l y d i s t i n c t / o l / . N e v e r t h e l e s s , I h a v e a few t i m e s h e a r d e l d e r l v p e r s o n s o f u n d o u b t e d c u l t i v a t i o n p r o n o u n c e / 3 Ϊ / in w o r d s o f the c o i l - g r o u p also. But the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , e v e n if they are n o t o n e - t o - o n e , d o n o n e the less e x i s t ; and anv d e s c r i p t i o n cf m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h in w h i c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s w e r e n o t l a b e l e d as b e l o n g i n g to o n e or a n o t h e r c l a s s - d ia lec t w o u l d be c o n f u s i n g and m o r e or less m e a n i n g l e s s . T h r o u g h o u t this s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , I h a v e tried to indicate as b e s t I c o u l d on w h a t levels p a r t i c u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e likely to occur. N o w , w h e n one e m p l o v s t e r m s like " c u l t i v a t e d ' ' and " u n c u l t i v a t e d , " t h e r e is s o m e d a n g e r that he w i l l apply the f o r m e r to p r o n u n c i a t i o n s that h e h a p p e n s to like and the l a t t e r to t h o s e a g a i n s t w h i c h h e has s o m e m e r e l y p e r s o n a l p r e j u d i c e . H e is c e r t a i n to f a l s i f y the r e c o r d , of c o u r s e , if h e a p p r o a c h e s h i s task w i t h a p r e c o n c e i v e d idea of p r o p r i e t y , of a s t a n d a r d , as do the a u t h o r s of so m a n y p r e s c r i p t i v e m a n u a l s . It m a y be that I h a v e n o t e n t i r e l y s u c c e e d e d in a v o i d i n g s u c h dange'rs m y s e l f . I h a v e , h o w e v e r , tries to w o r k w i t h o u t p r e c o n c e p t i o n s and to g r o u n d my u s e of c l a s s i f i c a t o r y labels exc l u s i v e l y on n o n 1 i n g u i s t i c c r i t e r i a . T h a t is to say t h a t I h a v e begun w i t h the facts o f s o c i a l life, as it w e r e , and f i r s t r o u g h l y c l a s s i f i e d those w h o m I h a v e o b s e r v e d on t h e b a s i s o f m a t t e r s o t h e r than t h e i r u s e o f s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . Qie i n f o r m a n t , for i n s t a n c e , is an e l e v a t o r o p e r a t o r , born in the H e l l ' s K i t c h e n d i s t r i c t o f M a n h a t t a n . H i s father and p a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r w e r e both s l a u g h t e r h o u s e w o r k e r s . H e h a s n o t c o m p l e t e d the e i g h t h grade o f e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n and the n e c e s s i t y of w r i t i n g a c l a i m - l e t t e r to the V e t e r a n s ' A d m i n i s tration presents him with a difficult problem. Since leaving s c h o o l h e has h e l d a s u c c e s s i o n of j o b s , all o f t h e m r e l a t i v e ly u n s k i l l e d . T h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n s that I h a v e o b s e r v e d in the u s a g e o f this s p e a k e r and of o t h e r s o f c o m p a r a b l e e d u c a t i o n and b a c k g r o u n d I h a v e classed as u n c u l t i v a t e d . A n o t h e r i n f o r m ant is a w o m a n o f e d u c a t i o n , the s i s t e r of a w e l l - k n o w n n o v e l ist and p o e t e s s , and a d e s c e n d a n t o f two f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t s o f C o l u m b i a C o l l e e e . T h e u s a g e o f this s p e a k e r and o f o t h e r s o f c o m p a r a b l e e d u c a t i o n and family b a c k g r o u n d I have d e s c r i b e d as c u l t i v a t e d . ^ 1.3. T h e r e is a n o t h e r s o r t of v a r i a t i o n that I think r e q u i r e s some c o m m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e it s e e m s to be v e r y r a r e i v d i s c u s s e d in p h o n o l o g i c a l w r i t i n g s . It h a s long been r e c o g n i z e d that all d i a l e c t s are in a s e n s e m i x e d o n e s : p a r t i c u lar l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e s , h o w e v e r r e g u l a r l y they may h a v e been c a r r i e d t h r o u g h in the forms o f s p e e c h in w h i c h they first

6

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

a r o s e , do not s p r e a d u n i f o r m l y a c r o s s an a r e a , and each word c o n s e q u e n t l y has i t s own h i s t o r y and i t s own i s o g l o s s . Put i t i s u s u a l l y assumed t h a t the r e s u l t i n g i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in the speech o f a g i v e n a r e a or o f a g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l i n v o l v e merel y t h e l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f phonemes. Thus in one s p e a k e r ' s d i a l e c t M i d d l e E n g l i s h " s h o r t o " may be r e p r e s e n t e d by /o3/ The h i s t o r i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s a r e in dog but by /αδ/ in log. d i s t u r b e d , presumably as a r e s u l t o f d i a l e c t m i x t u r e . The two phonemes /o§/ and /a§/ f o r m , n e v e r t h e l e s s , a s e t o f e x c l u s i v e c a t e g o r i e s , as do a l l the o t h e r phonemes o f the d i a l e c t . T h e i r a c t u a l i z a t i o n s in s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s may e x h i b i t a good d e a l o f p h o n e t i c v a r i a t i o n , but n o r m a l l y w i t h i n such l i m i t s t h a t t h e r e i s no o v e r l a p p i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n . As B l o o m f i e l d puts i t : " I n the o r d i n a r y c a s e , t h e r e i s a l i m i t t o t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f the n o n - d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s : the phoneme i s k e p t d i s t i n c t from a l l o t h e r phonemes o f i t s l a n g u a g e . Thus we speak the v o w e l o f a word l i k e pen in a g r e a t many ways, but n o t in any way t h a t b e l o n g s t o the v o w e l o f and n o t in any way t h a t b e l o n g s to the vowel o f pan: t h e pin, three types are kept r i g i d l y a p a r t . " ® " I n the o r d i n a r y c a s e , " t h i s i s o f c o u r s e t r u e . I f i t were n o t , i f t h e r e were no l i m i t s s e t t o the v a r i a b i l i t y o f a l l o phones, we c o u l d n o t t a l k at a l l and e x p e c t t o be u n d e r s t o o d . Put I have been i m p r e s s e d , in s t u d y i n g the usage o f i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s , by the number o f c a s e s t h a t a r e n o t o r d i n a r y . In some i n s t a n c e s , in the speech o f the same p e r s o n , a p a r t i c u l a r o p p o s i t i o n may appear and d i s a p p e a r in a r a t h e r bew i l d e r i n g f a s h i o n . In the s p e a k e r ' s d i a l e c t , t h a t i s to say, one may o b s e r v e two phonemic p a t t e r n s : he pronounces now acc o r d i n g to o n e , now a c c o r d i n g t o the o t h e r , and f r e q u e n t l y in such a f a s h i o n t h a t the phonemic s i t u a t i o n i s o b s c u r e . I became aware o f t h e s e i n c o m p l e t e s u s p e n s i o n s , as t h e y might be c a l l e d , when I n o t i c e d t h a t i t . w a s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t in t r a n s c r i b i n g t o d e c i d e t o which o f two c o n t i g u o u s phonemes t h e v o w e l in a p a r t i c u l a r u t t e r a n c e should be a s s i g n e d . A few e x a m p l e s w i l l s e r v e to make t h i s m a t t e r c l e a r . In the h i g h - f r o n t v o w e l r a n g e , t h e r e i s an o p p o s i t i o n between / i / and / i § / , which s e r v e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h ( i n the Millys p e e c h o f " r - l e s s " s p e a k e r s ) p a i r s l i k e bid-beard, merely, and the l i k e . Put b e f o r e / r / i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s t o d e c i d e whether t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s p r e s e n t or n o t . Dearer, f o r example, n o r m a l l y has a r a t h e r l o n g mono p h t h o n g ; but mirror may be pronounced by t h e same p e r s o n , now w i t h a s h o r t v o w e l , so t h a t it. does n o t r i m e , and now w i t h a l o n g e r o n e , so t h a t i t d o e s . And o f t e n one h e a r s v o w e l s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e l e n g t h , so t h a t one i s q u i t e a t a l o s s t o know w h e t h e r in a phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n one should w r i t e / i / or / i S / . The same d i f f i c u l t y may be p r e s e n t in t h e c a s e of /a/ and /as/ b e f o r e / r / . In s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s a s p e a k e r may pronounce s o r r y so t h a t i t d o e s n o t rime w i t h starry, then so t h a t i t d o e s , and then so t h a t the l i s t e n e r c a n n o t be s u r e . T h e s e l o w - b a c k v o w e l s a l s o f u r n i s h a n o t h e r example o f the

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

7

same s o r t . In t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of " r - l e s s " s p e a k e r s , p a i r s l i k e shop-sharp, cot-cart, g o g g I e s - g a r g l e s e x h i b i t t h i s same o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n / a / and / a s / . D e f o r e c e r t a i n c o n s o n a n t s , however, t h e o p p o s i t i o n t e n d s t o d i s a p p e a r , and god a n d guard, gob and garb may be homonymous. P u t t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many persons i s r a t h e r u n p r e d i c t a b l e . In t h e i r s p e e c h words l i k e guard and garb n o r m a l l y h a v e a l o n g m o n o p h t h o n g o r a d i p h t h o n g , and do n o t v a r y much. B u t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s y l l a b l e s in w o r d s l i k e god and gob s e e m s h i g h l y u n s t a b l e : i n s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s o f s t r e s s o n e may hear long monophthongs, d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a pronounced g l i d e , or v o w e l s t h a t a r e r a t h e r s h o r t . The s p e e c h o f s u c h p e r s o n s a p p e a r s t o be f o r e v e r o s c i l l a t i n g b e t w e e n o n e p a t t e r n a c c o r d i n g to which a d i f f e r e n c e in l e n g t h (and o f t e n in q u a l i t y a l s o ) s e r v e s t o c o n s t i t u t e an o p p o s i t i o n b e f o r e t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s , and a n o t h e r p a t t e r n a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e o p p o sition is suspended. I t may be t h a t i r r e g u l a r i t i e s l i k e t h e s e - - a n d many m o r e e x a m p l e s may be f o u n d in t h e b o d y o f t h i s s t u d y - - a r e t o b e o b s e r v e d e v e r y w h e r e . P e r h a p s t h e y may o c c u r e v e n i n t h e s p e e c h o f s m a l l , h o m o g e n e o u s , and i s o l a t e d c o m m u n i t i e s . P u t I am i n c l i n e d t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e y a r e p e c u l i a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e d i a l e c t s of l a r g e c i t i e s l i k e New Y o r k . I n s u c h c i t i e s , w h e r e s o many d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s e x i s t c h e e k - b y - j o w l , t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r s p e a k e r may n e v e r r e a c h a s t a t e o f p h o n e m i c e q u i l i b r i u m , a s o n e m i g h t c a l l i t . From c h i l d h o o d , h i s s p e e c h i s a f f e c t e d by a l l s o r t s of d i v e r s e i n f l u e n c e s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , h i s u s a g e may e x h i b i t a d e g r e e of v a r i a b i l i t y t h a t i t w o u l d n o t h a v e i f h e had grown u p i n a community of a n o t h e r s o r t - - a c o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h a l l t h e p e r sons whom h e i m i t a t e d when h e l e a r n e d t o t a l k s p o k e w h a t was in g e n e r a l t h e same d i a l e c t . 1 . 4 . As t h e s u b t i t l e i n d i c a t e s , t h i s a c c o u n t o f New York p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s a p a r t i a l o n e , d e a l i n g o n l y w i t h t h e v o w e l and consonant phonemes of t h e v a r i o u s m e t r o p o l i t a n d i a l e c t s . C e r t a i n m a t t e r s have n o t been d i s c u s s e d a t a l l , c h i e f l y b e c a u s e i n c l u d i n g them w o u l d h a v e r e s u l t e d i n a s t u d y o f s u c h l e n g t h t h a t i t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e f o r me t o p u b l i s h i t . I h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , e x c l u d e d any c o n s i d e r a t i o n of i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n s o r of j u n c t u r e p h e n o m e n a , a l t h o u g h i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e a good d e a l of i n c i d e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e p a r a t e p h o n e m e s . I h a v e i n a d d i t i o n made two o t h e r m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n s , w h i c h s h o u l d be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d . In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , I h a v e a r b i t r a r i l y c o n f i n e d my a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c i t y p r o p e r . Such a r e s t r i c t i o n , of c o u r s e , i s a wholly a r t i f i c i a l one: t h e s p e e c h - p a t t e r n s of t h e m e t r o p o l i s do n o t s u d d e n l y d i s a p p e a r a t t h e N o r t h F i v e r o r t h e N a s s a u C o u n t y l i n e . Beyond Y o n k e r s , many f e a t u r e s o f m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n d i e o u t r a t h e r q u i c k l y , b u t t h e s u b u r b a n commun i t i e s o f N a s s a u Coun-ty and t h e n e a r - b y t o w n s o f H u d s o n

8

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

C o u n t y , New J e r s e y , a r e 1 i n g u i s t i c a 11 γ p a r t , o f t h e c i t y . If o n e d o e s n o t s e t an a r b i t r a r y l i m i t t o t h e a r e a b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , he i s f a c e d w i t h t h e t a s k of e s t a b l i s h i n e a s e p a r a t e i s o g l o s s f o r e a c h m a j o r f e a t u r e o f t h e New Y o r k d i a l e c t s . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e b o u n d a r i e s , I h a v e f e l t , m i g h t p r o p e r l y be made t h e s u b j e c t of a s e p a r a t e investigat i o n and I h a v e n o t u n d e r t a k e n i t h e r e . I do h a v e a good d e a l of m a t e r i a l in t h e s p e e c h r e c o r d s of Columbia C o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s f r o m t h e s e s u b u r b a n a r e a s , on t h e b a s i s o f w h i c h c e r t a i n i s o g l o s s e s m i g h t be d e t e r m i n e d - - a t l e a s t f o r t h e s p e e c h o f t h o s e u n d e r t h i r t y y e a r s o f a g e . An a n a l y s i s o f t h i s m a t e r i a l I hope to p u b l i s h later. The s e c o n d l i m i t a t i o n I h a v e s e t i s i m p l i e d in t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h i s s t u d y d e a l s w i t h t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f New Y o r k e r s who h a v e n o i m m e d i a t e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e b a c k g r o u n d . ' No i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n , e x c e p t i n c i d e n t a l l y , r e g a r d i n g t h e many s u b d i a l e c t s t h a t a r i s e f r o n t h e b l e n d i n g o f E n g l i s h a n d o t h e r l a n g u a g e s in the s p e e c h of t h e f o r e i g n born o r of t h e i r c h i l d r e n . S i n c e t h e n u m b e r of p e r s o n s l i v i n g i n t h e f i v e b o r o u g h s o f New Y o r k C i t y who f a l l i n t o t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e p o p u l a t i o n of s o m e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , t h i s i s a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s t r i c t i o n i n d e e d . Nor would the detailed i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e u s a g e of s u c h s p e a k e r s be u n p r o f i t a b l e . An e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t o f t h e v a r i e d s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d " c o n t a m i n a t i o n - f o r m s " i n t h e E n g l i s h o f b i l i n g u a l New Y o r k e r s w o u l d n o t o n l y be of i n t e r e s t t o l i n g u i s t s , b u t of g r e a t p r a c t i c a l v a l u e t o t e a c h e r s of p r o n u n c i a t i o n . Put t h i s too i s a s u b j e c t f o r h a l f - a - d o z e n o t h e r m o n o g r a p h s - - a n d b e f o r e any o f them can be w r i t t e n , a m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n t h a n h a s h i t h e r t o a p p e a r e d o f t h o s e t v p e s o f New Y o r k s p e e c h t h a t a r e n o t t h e r e s u l t o f b i l i n g u a l i s m i s r e q u i r e d . I t h a s b e e n my a i m t o p e r form t h i s more r e s t r i c t e d task. P e r h a p s i t may b e o b j e c t e d t h a t s u c h a l i m i t a t i o n i s b a s e d on a r a t h e r d u b i o u s a s s u m p t i o n . New Y o r k i s a m u l t i l i n g u a l c i t y , i n w h o s e s t r e e t s o n e may h e a r a l l t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e W e s t e r n W o r l d . Some o f t h e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y Y i d d i s h a n d I t a l i a n , a r e s p o k e n by l a r g e g r o u p s a m o n g t h e c i t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n . I s i t at a l l p o s s i b l e , one might ask, to i g n o r e t h e s e o t h e r lang u a g e s in s t u d y i n g any a s p e c t o f t h e c i t y ' s s p e e c h ? Let u s put the c a s e of a w o r k i n g - c l a s s f a m i l y of the o l d e r stock, one which has l i v e d in t h e c i t y f o r a number of g e n e r a t i o n s . In such a f a m i l y , n o r m a l l y , n o t h i n g but E n g l i s h i s spoken o r u n d e r s t o o d . P u t t h e c h i l d r e n go t h r o u g h t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s w i t h t h e b o y s a n d g i r l s who h e a r I t a l i a n , Y i d d i s h , G r e e k , o r P o l i s h a t h o m e . l a t e r on t h e y w o r k i n f a c t o r i e s o r o f f i c e s w i t h p e o p l e of s i m i l a r l y d i v e r s e b a c k g r o u n d s . I s i t n o t abs u r d t o t h i n k t h a t t h e i r s p e e c h w i l l be u n a f f e c t e d by a l l t h e s e i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t s ? I n d e e d , i s i t n o t p r o b a b l e t h a t many of t h o s e f e a t u r e s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o n from t h a t of K e n t u c k i a n s o r Y o r k s h i r e m e n have r e s u l t e d from the i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e f o r e i g n t o n g u e s ?

GENEPAL OBSERVATIONS

9

In a t t e m p t i n g to answer such q u e s t i o n s as t h e s e , one might have r e c o u r s e to c e r t a i n g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d c o n c l u s i o n s o f h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s . I t has been p o i n t e d o u t t i m e and again t h a t when f o r e i g n e r s e n t e r a c o u n t r y , n o t as c o n q u e r o r s but as i m m i g r a n t s , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on the l a n g u a g e o f t h e o l d e r n a t i v e groups i s v e r y s l i g h t . And t h i s i s t r u e even i f they come in c o n s i d e r a b l e numbers. U s u a l l y b o r r o w i n g does n o t go beyond the t a k i n g o v e r o f a few words and p h r a s e s . A s m a l l number o f Y i d d i s h w o r d s , f o r example, have passed o v e r i n t o American s l a n g , and Americans c a l l c e r t a i n f o o d s by t h e i r German o r I t a l i a n names. Put d e t a i l s o f m o r p h o l o g y , of s y n t a x , or o f phonemic s t r u c t u r e a r e n o r m a l l y not adopted at a l l . The newcomer i m i t a t e s as b e s t he can the speech o f the n a t i v e speaker, but h i s own usage i s n o t s i m i l a r l y i m i t a t e d . G r a n t i n g , however, that t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s p e r f e c t l y v a l i d when a p p l i e d t o American E n g l i s h as a w h o l e , i t may be t h a t c o n d i t i o n s in New York C i t y a r e so v e r y s p e c i a l t h a t one cannot applv i t h e r e . C e r t a i n l y nowhere e l s e in the U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e t h e r e such v a s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f the f o r e i g n born. The not u n n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y , f u r t h e r m o r e , o f t h e f o r e i g n language groups to c o n g r e g a t e in p a r t i c u l a r n e i g h b o r h o o d s und o u b t e d l y r e s u l t s in a s l o w i n g down o f the p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r al a s s i m i l a t i o n . So c e r t a i n v e r y d e f i n i t e f o r e i g n i s m s may o f t e n be o b s e r v e d in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f Columbia C o l l e g e freshmen who a r e monoglot s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h , but whose g r a n d p a r e n t s spoke Y i d d i s h o r I t a l i a n . Hence, b e c a u s e o f the sheer w e i g h t o f numbers and because o f the p e r s i s t e n c e o f f o r e i g n t r a i t s w i t h i n c e r t a i n groups a t l e a s t , an i n f l u e n c e might p o s s i b l y be e x e r t e d on the speech o f t h e o l d e r n a t i v e stock t h a t would n o t be e x e r t e d e l s e w h e r e in A m e r i c a . I t would not be w i s e , t h e r e f o r e , to l a y much s t r e s s on t h i s general p r i n c i p l e . More to the p o i n t i s the f a c t , a l r e a d y a l l u d e d t o , t h a t so many f e a t u r e s o f m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n r e c u r in o t h e r areas where f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e can be d i s c o u n t e d . ( A s I have s a i d , i t i s o f t e n m e r e l y the p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s which i s unique in the c i t y ' s s p e e c h . ) The New York [ l ] - d i p h t h o n g s , f o r example, in words l i k e third and turn a r e a l s o heard v e r y commonly in c o a s t a l Southern s p e e c h , even though the e x a c t q u a l i t y may n o t be q u i t e the same. With simi l a r s l i g h t q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s , the r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f the d i p h t h o n g in ride and fly a l s o appears in o t h e r d i a l e c t s . The d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e o r s t o p in the and this may o c c u r in the substandard speech o f many r e g i o n s . Again, the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many New Y o r k e r s d i f f e r s , as I have s a i d , from most t y p e s o f spoken E n g l i s h in t h a t words l i k e guard and god, large and lodge, garb and gob a r e homonyms. But o n l y the p a t t e r n h e r e i s unusual; f o r the absence of / r / in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n i s t o be o b s e r v e d in o t h e r a r e a s , and so i s the unrounding and l e n g t h e n i n g o f Midd l e E n g l i s h " s h o r t o " b e f o r e c e r t a i n c o n s o n a n t s . And t h e s e

10

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

a r e b u t a few o f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e s , p a r t i a l o r c o m p l e t e , w h i c h m i g h t be p o i n t e d o u t . A c e r t a i n r e s i d u e o f u n i q u e f e a t u r e s , t o be s u r e , w o u l d r e main e v e n a f t e r one had made an e x h a u s t i v e c a t a l o g o f s u c h s i m i l a r i t i e s . One m i g h t m e n t i o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e b e f o r e a p a u s e o f m o n o p h t h o n g a l v a r i a n t s o f / i s / and / e s / ( i n w o r d s l i k e clear and h a i r ) . Or t h e o c c u r r e n c e b e t w e e n a s t r e s s e d and an u n s t r e s s e d vowel of a s t r o n g l y l i p - m o d i f i e d a l l o p h o n e of / r / ( v e r y , fear it). Or t h e p e c u l i a r d e n t a l i z e d b 1 a d e - a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t s . The d i f f i c u l t y i n s u c h c a s e s i s t h a t a n a l o g o u s f e a t u r e s do n o t a p p e a r in t h e l a n g u a g e s from which b o r r o w i n g m i e h t c o n c e i v a b l y have taken p l a c e . One c a n n o t , a f t e r a l l , l a b e l m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n s " f o r e i g n i s m s " m e r e l y b e c a u s e s p e a k e r s in C h a t t a n o o g a and E v a n s t o n do n o t u s e them. A f o r e i g n i s m in p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n v o l v e s the s u b s t i t u t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e of the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , the h y p e r c o r r e c t i o n of such a f e a t u r e , or a c o n t a m i n a t i o n ( a s when a German p r o d u c e s t h e F n g l i s h [ r ] w i t h the t o n g u e - p o i n t r a i s e d to the back o f the a l v e o l a r r i d g e , b u t w i t h v e l a r f r i c t i o n as w e l l ) . In any e v e n t one must f i n d s o m e t h i n g in t h e f o r e i g n p a t t e r n w h i c h m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y be c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u r c e o f t h e E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n . And t h i s , so f a r a s I h a v e b e e n a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e , c a n n o t be done in the c a s e of the s e v e r a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s of m e t r o p o l i t a n English. T h i s m a t t e r may be f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d i f we a p p r o a c h i t f r o m the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . Let us c o n s i d e r c e r t a i n pronunciat i o n s w h i c h v e r y d e f i n i t e l y a r e f o r e i g n i s m s . The d i f f i c u l t y , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t many p e r s o n s w h o s e f i r s t l a n g u a g e i s Y i d d i s h h a v e i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n reed and rid, feel and f i l l i s w e l l known. The s o u r c e o f t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s a l s o v e r y a p p a r e n t . Many d i a l e c t s o f Y i d d i s h h a v e o b l i t e r a t e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e M i d d l e H i g h Herman s h o r t and l o n g v o w e l s . In t h e h i g h - f r o n t r a n g e t h e y h a v e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o n l y one phoneme. Many Y i d d i s h s p e a k e r s , t h e r e f o r e , h e a r no m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e F n g l i s h / i / and / i l / and s o c o n f u s e t h e m . P u t d e s p i t e t h e l a r g e number o f s u c h s p e a k e r s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , t h i s c o n f u s i o n n e v e r a p p e a r s in t h e s p e e c h o f New Y o r k e r s o f t h e o l d e r s t o c k . ( I n f a c t , i t i s o n l y in e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a s e s t h a t the Amerlcan-born c h i l d r e n of Y i d d i s h - s p e a k i n g p a r e n t s show any t r a c e o f i t . ) A more s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e i s a f f o r d e d by t h e f o r e i g n e r ' s f a i l u r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n / g / and t h e s e q u e n c e / i j g / · The E n g l i s h p a t t e r n e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e s e r i e s s irtke r- i i n g e r - s i n g e r d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n any E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e t h a t I know o f . In Y i d d i s h , I t a l i a n , S p a n i s h , G r e e k , and t h e S l a v i c g r o u p t h e s i n g e r - t y p e i s l a c k i n g , with the r e s u l t t h a t s p e a k e r s of t h e s e l a n g u a g e s commonly p r o n o u n c e t h e v e l a r s t o p i n s u c h w o r d s . T h i s m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e the /r)/-/rig/ d i s t i n c t i o n i s s e m a n t i c a l l y unimportant in E n g l i s h , persists v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s p e e c h o f t h e f i r s t Arnerican - born g e n e r a t i o n . I n d e e d , among t h o s e o f Y i d d i s h o r I t a l i a n b a c k -

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

11

« r o u n d , i t i s common i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e i m m i g r a n t ' s g r a n d c h i l d r e n . I t does n o t a p p e a r , however, in t h e s p e e c h of t h o s e w h o d o n o t h a v e one of t h e s e l a n g u a g e s i n t h e i r own f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d s . Among C o l u m h i a f r e s h m e n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h i s f o r e i g n i s m i s e x t r e m e l y common. I t o c c u r s i n t h e s p e e c h o f a l a r g e m a j o r i t v o f t h o s e who h e a r Y i d d i s h o r I t a l i a n a t home, a n d i t i s a l s o f r e q u e n t a n i o n ; t h o s e i n w h o s e f a m i l i e s t h e s e l a n g u a g e s w e n t o u t of u s e a g e n e r a t i o n a g o . P u t i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s o f t h e o l d e r E n g l i s h and D u t c h s t o c k s , o r t h o s e whose f a m i l i e s t o o k p a r t in t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u ry German i m m i g r a t i o n , o r t h o s e o f I r i s h d e s c e n t , I have n o t once e n c o u n t e r e d i t . 1 ! 1 . 5 . T h e r e a d e r , m a k i n g h i s l a b o r i o u s way t h r o u g h t h e l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y , m i g h t p e r h a p s t h i n k t h a t I h a d made a n o t h e r m a j o r o m i s s i o n , of which I have s o f a r n o t s p o k e n . Where, he might a s k , i s t h e P r o o k l y n a c c e n t ? T h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f comment a b o u t t h e l e v e l s on w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s mav a p p e a r , b u t w h e r e i s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of v a r i a n t s w i t h i n t h e c i t y ? And i t i s t r u e t h a t I h a v e n o t a t a n y p l a c e m a r k e d a c e r t a i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n as b e i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h e u s a g e of P r o o k l y n , or of S t a t e n I s l a n d , o r of t h e P o r o u g h of Q u e e n s . Put the reason f o r t h i s s i l e n c e i s a very s i m p l e one: t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e , s o f a r as I have been a b l e to d i s c o v e r , that any p u r e l y g e o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n s p e e c h - p a t t e r n s r e a l l v o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e c i t v . C e r t a i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , of c o u r s e , may h a v e a much h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y in o n e n e i g h b o r h o o d t h a n i n a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , a c a r e f u l s a m p l i n g of t h e u s a g e of a l a r e e n u m b e r of s p e a k e r s w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y show t h a t t h e homonymv o f learn and loin was f a r more f r e q u e n t in F l m h u r s t i n t h e P o r o u g h o f Q u e e n s t h a n in t h e e a s t S i x t i e s b e t w e e n F i f t h and L e x i n g t o n A v e n u e s . Put. s u c h f a c t s a s t h i s c a n be b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d in s o c i a l , t h a n i n g e o g r a p h i c t e r m s . D u r i n g t h e p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s p h o n o g r a p h i c r e c o r d i n g s of t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d s t u d e n t s from t h e c i t y have been made a t C o l u m b i a C o l l e g e , b o t h a s p a r t o f t h e f r e s h m a n s p e e c h t e s t and d u r i n g t h e work o f an u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e . An o b s e r v e r , l i s t e n i n g to these r e c o r d s with a s u f f i c i e n t knowle d g e o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n d i a l e c t s , c o u l d make v e r v s h r e w d g u e s s e s a b o u t t h e f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d of t h e v a r i o u s s p e a k e r s , t h e kind o f n e i g h b o r h o o d s t h e y g r e w up i n , and s o f o r t h . P u t I am q u i t e c o n v i n c e d t h a t no o b s e r v e r , h o w e v e r k e e n h i s e a r o r c o n s i d e r a b l e h i s k n o w l e d g e , c o u l d s o r t t h e s p e a k e r s o u t by b o r o u g h s . The " B r o o k l y n a c c e n t " i s m e r e l y u n c u l t i v a t e d New Y o r k e s e : i t mav be h e a r d i n a l l t h e b o r o u g h s , a n d i n J e r s e y C i t y and t l o b o k e n a s w e l l . The u s e o f t h e t e r m I t a k e a s a t r i b u t e t o t h e p e c u l i a r v i t a l i t y o f t h e l i f e i n my n a t i v e b o r o u g h , w h i c h h a s come i n a s e n s e t o st>and f o r t h e w h o l e c i t y in the p o p u l a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t c e r t a i n l y i s n o t the a c c u r a t e e x p r e s s i o n of any l i n g u i s t i c reality.

INFORMANTS,

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2 . 1 . The t h i r t y p e r s o n s who h a v e s e r v e d a s p r i m a r y i n f o r m a n t s d u r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y e r e l i s t e d in s e c t i o n 1 3 . 1 . In e a c h c a s e c e r t a i n p e r t i n e n t f a c t s a b o u t t h e i n f o r m a n t a r e n o t e d , s u c h a s h i s a g e , e d u c a t i c r , and o c c u p a t i o n , t h e e d u c a t i o n o f h i s p a r e n t s , a n d , when known, o f h i s g r a n d p a r e n t s , t h e o c c u p a t i o n of h i s f a t h e r a n d , when known, o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r s . A l l t h e i n f o r m a n t s w e r e born in Mew Y o r k C i t y and w i t h m i n o r e x c e p t i o n s , t h e d e t a i l s o f w h i c h a r e g i v e n in 1 3 . 1 , h a v e a l w a y s l i v e d h e r e . With s i m i l a r u n i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s , t h e p a r e n t s o f a l l i n f o r m a n t s w e r e a l s o n a t i v e New Y o r k e r s , and in some c a s e s t h e f a m i l i e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e c i t y s i n c e b e f o r e 1 7 0 0 . Τ h a v e a l s o made some u s e o f p h o n o g r a p h i c r e c o r d i n g s o f c e r t a i n o t h e r New Y o r k e r s whom 1 h a v e n o t l i s t e d b e c a u s e t h e m a t e r i a l Τ g o t from them was r a t h e r s c a n t y - - ! made t h e s e r e c o r d s a t a t i m e when I d i d n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a p p r e c i a t e the n e c e s s i t y o f g e t t i n g r e a l l y adea u a t e samples of each i n d i v i d u a l ' s s p e e c h . 2 2 . In a d d i t i o n , I h a v e s t u d i e d a number o f r e c o r d i n g s of t h e s p e e c h o f n i n e o t h e r New Y o r k e r s , who a r e l i s t e d in s e c t i o n 1 3 . 2 . T h e s e r e c o r d s w e r e made in 19 41 at C o l u m b i a I ' n i v e r s i t v o f Linguistic Atlas i n f o r m a n t s whom P r . Guv S . lowman, . J r . , i n t e r v i e w e d w h i l e he was w o r k i n g iri t h i s a r e a . The b r i e f b i o g r a p h i c a l comments a r e from D r . I.owman's n o t . e s . 2 . 3 . The d a t a o f f e r e d by t h e s e i n f o r m a n t s c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o r e o f t h i s s t u d v ; b u t in a d d i t i o n I h a v e f r e q u e n t l y pone on t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r words t h a t do n o t o c c u r in mv r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l . To c i t e c n l y a few e x a m p l e s , 1 h a v e s p o k e n in o n e p l a c e or a n o t h e r o f t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f C o n n e c t i c u t , dirigible, hundred, lasso, Lenox, lilacs, liverw u r s t , l.ceser ( t h e name o f a P r o o k l v n d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e ) , moire, monger, radish, sarsaparil In, Schermerhorn (a f a m i l v name, and s t r e e t nam** in B r o o k l y n ) , temperature, end vanilla. F o r t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l o o s e n e s s i n v o l v e d h e r e , Τ make no p a r t i c u l a r a p o l o g y . In w o r k i n g w i t h my i n f o r m a n t s , I was p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in d i s c o v e r i n g what p a t t e r n s e m e r g e d when o n e s c r u t i n i z e d r a t h e r c l o s e l y t h e u s a g e o f i n d i v i d u a l r.pc.ike r s - - f o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r v o w e l s . Τ c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y i n c l u d e in mv t e s t m a t e r i a l ( w h i c h ran to f i f t e e n t y p e w r i t t e n paires a-j i t w a s ) a l l t h e w o r d s whose p r o n u n c i a t i o n was in any wav o f i n t e r e s t . Vet when 1 came t o w r i t i n g , i t seemed t o me t h a t w h a t e v e r v a l u e try a c c o u n t ir.ifch" have would be c c n s i d n r a M y d e c r e a s e d i f I

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most

the

on

almost

heard

only of

the in

as

i n New Y o r k . every

the

the

in

of

for listed

variant; pronunci-

some

speakers;

sarsaparilla

Such

pro-

pronun-

is

an o l d of

rec-

city

and

a British

usage

my

local

that

country,

the

on

a common

most d i c t i o n a r i e s

pronunciation

heard

13

occurred

that

/ ' s k e m s f hr>3n/;

survives

radish

which

note

frequently in

parts

dictionary

added

to

Dictionary

some o t h e r

have n e v e r

alone

is

recorded

and K n o t t ' s

as

that

words

desirable

1 have not

that, and

those it

Scherrnerhorn

which

Jirigib in

to

thought

METHODS AND SYMBOLS

information

is

one

as

this

page.

2 . 4 . The m a t e r i a l examined in t h i s study i n c l u d e s t e s t s e n s e l e c t i o n , and e x t e m p o r a n e o u s conversation. t e n c e s , t h e tat As f o r t h e f i r s t , Τ p r e p a r e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f my i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s e t o f 365 f a i r l y s i m p l e s e n t e n c e s , c o m p o s e d t o i n c l u d e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f t h o s e v o w e l s and c o n s o n a n t s t h a t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y v a r i a b l e i n New Y o r k s p e e c h . F o r e x a m p l e , m o r e than o n e h u n d r e d and f o r t y w o r d s o f t h e M i d d l e E n g l i s h " s h o r t c " g r o u p o c c u r , b e c a u s e I was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d in s t u d y i n g i n d i v i d u a l p a t t e r n s in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e lo»b a c k v o w e l s . T h e r e i s an e v e n l a r g e r s e l e c t i o n o f w o r d s c o n t a i n i n g v o w e l s in t h e l o w - f r o n t r a n g e . These s e n t e n c e s will be f o u n d i n s e c t i o n 13.3. 2.5.

When

I

first

was

to

ten

repeating

I

have

made n o t e s

tion

as

on

completed,

I

versation,

of

of

two

full

that

it

their

made

brief

the

iat

rather

balked

they

would

be

learned

required.

ceeded

with

informants

the

As

majoritv

I have

of

indicated

test

after

an

in

close

the of

procedure

as

to

their

seemed or

flat,

and each

transcriphad

of

been

a short took

this,

people

eight

I

to

willing Τ began

case

In

what

the

least

found serve

to

hours

conselec-

at

as

assist of

me

their

recording

con v e rs a t i o n - - and

my i n f o r m a n t s . in

a

ofwhile

unrehearsed

of

a consequence,

method

interval,

usually

persuade

seven

my

sentences,

sentences

Because

first

that

the

the

and s o m e t i m e s

complete.

who a t

e v e r y th i n g - - s e n t e n c e s ,

when

recordings

difficult

A number

time

Then

story,

to

informants. when

sentence

The whole

afternoons

informants,

through

pronunciation

feasible.

sentences. was

interviewing

slowly

a particular

seemed

tion

began

them w o r k

so

pro-

listing

material

of

was

recorded. 2 . 6 . I a d o p t e d the method o f u s i n g w r i t t e n t e s t m a t e r i a l bec a u s e I do n o t know o f any o t h e r way i n w h i c h c e r t a i n aspects o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n can be con ven i er, 11 ν s t u d i e d . I t n i e h t s< eir t h a t t h e b e s t p r o c e d u r e w o u l d be t o r e c o r d n o t h i n e b u t u n r e h e a r s e d c o n v e r s a t i o n , p r e f e r a b l y in such a way t h a t t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t know t h a t a r e c o r d i n g was b e i n g made. P u t t h i s m e t h o d has t h e s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r may

14

INFORMANTS,

METHODS AND SYMBOLS

n o t happen t o u s e t h e w o r d s w h i c h t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n ; one m i g h t r e c o r d a p e r s o n ' s c o n v e r s a tion f o r s e v e r a l hours, f o r example, without p e t t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t number o f w o r d s i n t h e o i l - g r o u p t o make any j u d g ment c o n c e r n i n g them. In a s t u d y o f v o c a b u l a r y o r o f s e l e c t e d f e a t u r e s o f m o r p h o l o g y and s y n t a x , t h e b e s t p r o c e d u r e i s u n d o u b t e d l y t h a t e m p l o y e d by t h e linguistic Atlas w o r k e r s . But in an e x c l u s i v e l y p h o n o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , one may be i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many w o r d s t h a t c a n n o t be e a s i l y e l i c i t e d in d i r e c t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n . For t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e u s e o f s p e c i a l l y composed t e s t m a t e r i a l seems b e s t . As e v e r y o n e k n o w s , c e r t a i n d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r a l s p e e c h - p a t t e r n s o c c u r when a p e r s o n r e a d s . P e c a u s e o f t h i s f a c t , o b j e c t i o n s h a v e sometimes been r a i s e d t o the u s e o f w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l . These o b j e c t i o n s , I f e e l , are not p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n v i n c i n g , f o r the d i s t o r t i o n s t h a t appear in r e a d i n g a r e p r e t t y o b v i o u s and c a n be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t v a r i a t i o n from o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h i s in t h e f r e q u e n t l y a l t e r e d p a t t e r n o f i n t o n a t i o n and s t r e s s . (A s t u d y o f i n t o n a t i o n s b a s e d on an a n a l y s i s o f r e a d m a t e r i a l w o u l d a d m i t t e d l y be o f d o u b t f u l v a l u e . ) As a r e s u l t o f c h a n g e s i n s t r e s s , s t r o n g f o r m s w i l l o f t e n a p p e a r in p o s i t i o n s w h e r e t h e weak o n e s w o u l d be u s u a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , open j u n c t u r e between c o n s e c u t i v e s t o p s w i l l sometimes r e p l a c e the n o r m a l c l o s e j u n c t u r e , and t h e g l o t t a l s t o p w i l l o c c u r mo-re f r e q u e n t l y b e f o r e i n i t i a l vowels. A s s i m i l a t o r y changes w i l l n o t a p p e a r as f r e q u e n t l y . But the r e a d e r ' s p r a c t i c e in r e g a r d t o t h e s e m a t t e r s w i l l n e v e r be c o n s i s t e n t l y u n n a t u r a l and one can u s u a l l y d i s c o v e r w i t h o u t much d i f f i c u l t y w h a t h i s n a t u r a l habits are. In m o s t r e s p e c t s , t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n r e a d i n g do n o t d i f f e r from t h o s e t h a t may be o b s e r v e d i n o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n . In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a d e r may be a w a r e i n a g e n e r a l way t h a t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e n o t t h e same a s t h o s e o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s , he i s u s u a l l y n o t c o n s c i o u s o f t h e s p e c i f i c d i f f e r e n c e s . M o s t o f t h o s e New Y o r k e r s , for e x a m p l e , who s t r o n g l y a f f r i c a t e t h e s t o p o f time and return do n o t h e a r t h e a f f r i c a t e d s t o p and t h e m e r e l y a s p i r a t e d one as b e i n g a t a l l u n l i k e . And e v e n when a s p e a k e r i s c o n s c i o u s o f a p a r t i c u l a r d i f f e r e n c e , s a y b e t w e e n t h e g l o t t a l and t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p in bottle, and e v e n when he w i s h e s t o a v o i d h i s n a t u r a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n b e c a u s e i t h a s e x c i t e d r i d i c u l e , he i s o f t e n q u i t e u n a b l e t o do s o , e i t h e r in c o n v e r s a t i o n o r i n r e a d i n g . He i s n o t a p h o n e t i c i a n , a f t e r a l l , who h a s t r a i n e d h i m s e l f t o p r o d u c e a l l s o r t s o f s o u n d s a t w i l l . He may h a v e come t o d i s l i k e h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n [ ' b a ? | ] , b u t he u s e s i t w i l l y - n i l l y b e c a u s e he c a n n o t p r o n o u n c e t h e word in any o t h e r way. But i t sometimes happens t h a t a s p e a k e r i s a b l e to pron o u n c e a c c o r d i n g t o two d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s : o n e , t h e p a t t e r n he a c q u i r e d a s a c h i l d a n d , t h e o t h e r , t h e one he h a s come t o

INFORMANTS, METHODS AND SYMBOLS

15

p r e f e r . In this c a s e , his reading and his ordinary c o n v e r s a tion w i l l p r o b a b l y not be the same. The s u b s t i t u t i o n o f the p r e f e r r e d type w i l l be more frequent in reading, b e c a u s e he is m o r e c o n s c i o u s o f the speech - process then, and b e c a u s e he a c t u a l l y has the written symbols b e f o r e his eyes. P u t such s u b s t i t u t i o n s are usually easy to detect, again for the reason that the s p e a k e r is likely to make them in an i n c o n s i s t ent fashion. The e x t e m p o r a n e o u s m a t e r i a l also s e r v e s as a check on these c h a n g e s . Indeed, I have found that the comparison of a s p e a k e r ' s reading and his unrehearsed conversation often brings o u t i n t e r e s t i n g facts about his u s a g e . T h a t there is an e l e m e n t o f s p e l l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n , for i n s t a n c e , in m a n y N e w Y o r k e r s ' tendency to p r o n o u n c e / r / in the prec o n s o n a n t a l position is shown by the fact that the c o n s o n a n t often o c c u r s much m o r e frequently in records of read m a t e r i a l theft in those of c o n v e r s a t i o n . So also, one learns s o m e t h i n g about m e t r o p o l i t a n speech when he hears an informant read νhich as /hwitj"/ and then p r o n o u n c e it repeatedly in c o n v e r sation as /witJ/. 2.7. T h e phonemic

symbols

used

in

this study

ing: a) For 1.

Consonant

/p/ /b/ /t/ /A/ /k/ /q/ 2.

J.

4.

Phonemes

Stops Pit bid tell den keen give

Fr ic at ive s /f/ fill /v/ vane /Θ/ thin /?/ this /s/ soap /z/ zone /// ship /τ,/ vision /h/ hold Affricates /tjy

chip

/d.V

jar

Voiced

Frictionless

,'r / /I / ,w/

ride lift west

/j/

year

Consonants

are the

follow-

16

INFORMANTS, METHODS AND SYMPOLS 5.

t)

Nasals /m/ /n/ /q/

For

Vowel

mill nest sing and

Diphthong

1.

Vowels /i / /e/ /ae/ /a/ /u/ /λ/

2.

Diphthongs /ίϊ/ /el/ /al/ /r>l/ /3l/

of the peace wage fine noise third

[l] - s e r i e s

3.

Diphthongs /au/ /ou/ /uü/ /iü/

of the house road food new

[ü]-series

4. Diphthongs /is/ /e§/ /aes>/ /a§/ /aS/ /os/ /us/ /3§/ /λθ/

of the fear fair stand ask far war poor third occur

5.

That Do Not pit best bat pot push cut

Phonemes

Voroeis o/ Completely /θ/ soda

Occur

[5] -se

as

Word-finals

ries

Unstressed

Syllables

This t a b l e i s given c h i e f l y for purposes o f r e c o g n i t i o n , and t h e h e a d i n g s c o n s e q u e n t l y a r e n o t e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s . Thus /Θ/ and /8/ a r e l i s t e d m e r e l y a s f r i c a t i v e s , although i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many New Y o r k e r s t h e y have allophones that are dental or i n t e r d e n t a l stops or a f f r i c a t e s . C e r t a i n a l l o p h o n e s o f / τ , 1 , w, j / a r e v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e s . Among t h e phonemes l i s t e d as d i p h t h o n g s many, f o r e x a m p l e / i l / , /uü/, and t h o s e in group b 4 have monophthongal a l l o p h o n e s . A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f such v a r i a n t s w i l l be found in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t e phonemes.

INFORMANTS, M E T H O D S A N D S Y M B O L S

17

In the table above, twenty-five vocalic phonemes are listed. T h e reader should understand that not all o f them would appear in any given speaker's dialect. For example, a category / λ 3 / is included in order to describe the pronunciation of those who make a threefold distinction between a curd [a k3fd] , [a'luvSd, a'llA'd] , and α cud [s kAd]. In the speech occurred o f others, however, either a curd and occurred, or occurred and a cud are identical and the third category is unnecessary. T h e category / k ö / is not needed to describe the pronunciation o f most speakers, since they pronounce all the words in which it might appear either with /ufi/ or with the sequence /jutt/. Similarly, /8.S/ is a category w h i c h is not required in describing the speech of most N e w Yorkers. Even when such a qualification has been made, some phonologists will consider that twenty or so categories are about three times as many as are needed to set forth the vowelsystem of any form of English.' Put the conception of the long vowels and diphthongs as unitary phonemes still seems to me the soundest one. Analyzing them as sequences of " c h e c k e d " vowels plus consonants has little to recommend it except mere orthographic simplicity. Such an analysis involve? the forced collocation of such disparate sound-types that "phonetic similarity" becomes quite meaningless as a criterion of phonemic identity. I must confess that I have myself applied this criterion a bit loosely in several instances. In one case, I have followed Trager in assigning [?] in certain positions to /t/, β classification that some may object to, because the articulatory positions are so far apart. I have justified thi3, to myself at least, on the grounds that the similarity exists for those who speak in this fashion; that speakers who pronounce bottle as ['ba'|] and have never become conscious of this as a " d i f f e r e n t " pronunciation apprehend the glottal stop here as /t/ and would do so (I believe) even if they knew no spelling. Secondly, I have treated the unstressed vowels of running and of soda as allophones of the same phoneme--which is admittedly going rather far. Put such an analysis does serve to bring out clearly what I regard as one rather important characteristic of N e w York Fnglishr that unstressed [i] and [s] , so far as I can see, are not significantly opposed to each other, as they are in Southern British, but occur in a variation that is either free or determined by position. No such purpose is served, however, by the identification of the off-glide of the [5]-diphthongs with /h/. As Einar Haugen and. W. F. Twaddell have remarked,^ this analysis tells us nothing about English pronunciation which we did not know before. To underline my conviction that the diphthongs (and their monophthonea1 variants) are best conceived as unitary phonemes, I have written their second elements with symbols which are not used to represent any other phonemes, namely by [l] , [ίί] , and [5]. Τη other words, the /is/ of hear is not to

Ifl

INFORMANTS, METHODS A N D SYMBOLS

be interpreted as a sequence composed of the vocalic phoneme of hit followed bv the first vocalic phoneme of attempt. It is an indivisible unit. 2.B. For reasons of economy, Τ have not used an elaborate set of finely graded phonetic symbols, one for each allophone and for each of the diaphones of different dialects, although I have described such variants in a fairly detailed fashion. Of necessity, however, I have employed a small number of specifically phonetic symbols. These symbols, which do not occur in phonemic transcription, are the following: ά ) ['] is used for the glottal stop. b) Syllabic consonants are indicated by the usual modifier: [ij, 7], etc. c ) The hyphen is used to mark position in syllables. Initial position is indicated bv a following hyphen, final position by a preceding one. Ambisvllabic position is shown by two hyphens, thus: [—p-j. d) The mon oph thon pa 1 variants of the [3]-series of diphthongs are indicated bv the symbol for the first element followed by a raised period: li", β', 1'!, etc. e) The symbol [D] is used to indicate a lower low-back, rounded vowel. (In a few references to British Fnglish, it is used as a phonemic svmbol.) } ) The modifiers [i, τ, -ι, 1·] are used in the senses "raised, " " l o w e r e d , " "advanced, " " r e t r a c t e d , " respectively. The modifier [~] indicates nasalitv. 2.9. Only a few other comments on the use of symbols are necessary : a ) In direct quotation from other writers, Τ have of course .11 lowed their symbols to stand unaltered. b) In phonemic transcription, I have followed the practice of the Kenyon and Knott Dietionary in indicating what might be called "movable / r / " bv ,'tr/: /hi§(r/ here, ,/fa§(r/ far. For the reason advanced on page 133 • note 38, I do not consider that anything is gained hv analyzing the two forms of a word like far as phonemically equivalent, even though their occurrence is positionallv determined. I employ this device merely to avoid writing every word of this sort twice. c ) I have alreadv referred to the mixed pattern of many New Vork speakers in the matter of the occurrence of /τ/ in the preconsonan ta 1 position. In generalized transcriptions I have normally cited words in their " r - l e s s " form, thus: /bisd/ btari, /fp§!i/ fork Put all such transcriptions should be read in the light of the section devoted to /τ,'. d) As the reader will already have observed, I have adopted the device, employed by I'loch ar.d Tragfr, of enclosing sy:nhcls within square brackets when they were phonetic and within diagonals when they were to be interpreted as phonenic classnark^rs. ! η rnsny specific cases, of course, either device

INFORMANTS, METHODS AND SYMFOLS

19

m i g h t be u s e d w i t h e q u a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . T h u s , in s p e a k i n p o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the l o w - f r o n t vowels, one might say: " W i t h i n the word, / ε θ / does not occur b e f o r e / p , t , k / , " o r " W i t h i n the word, / ε § / does not occur b e f o r e [-p, - p - , - t , —t—, —k, —k—]." I n s u c h c a s e s , I h a v e o r d i n a r i l y e m p l o y e d d i a g o n a l s , a l t h o u g h I am n o t s u r e t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t find occasional inconsistencies.

THE

CONSONANTS THE

STOPS

3 . 1 . / p / . I n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : a) A v o i c e l e s s a s p i r a t e d s t o p o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y ^ in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s : pound, appoint. The p o s i t i o n a s s u m e d by t h e l i p s may b e i n f l u e n c e d t o some e x t e n t by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g p h o n e s : t h e y may b e p r o t r u d e d s l i g h t l y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e [p] o f paw and p o o r A f t e r t h e s t o p , t h e a l l o p h o n e s o f / 1 / (plaid), /τ/ ( p r o f i t ) , and / j / (pare) a r e r e g u l a r l y v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e s or begin as s u c h . b) When p r e c e d e d by / β / and f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l , u n l e s s an o n s e t of s t r e s s f a l l s between t h e c o n s o n a n t s , a lax u n a s p i r a t e d b i l a b i a l s t o p o c c u r s , whose phonemic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a s f r e q u e n t l y been d i s c u s s e d . A s i m i l a r problem a r i s e s in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e a l v e o l a r and v e l a r s t o p s and, as w i l l be s e e n , o f c e r t a i n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s a s w e l l . S i n c e t h e d i f f i c u l t y in a l l t h e s e c a s e s i s t h e same, I have chosen to d e a l with the e n t i r e matter here. ( E x c u r s u s : I t has o f t e n been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t in words l i k e spill, s t i l l , and skill p h o n e s a r e e m p l o y e d i n A m e r i c a n Engl i s h which a r e p h o n e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e i n i t i a l s t o p s o f p i l l , t i l l , and kill. From t h e e x a m p l e s u s u a l l y c i t e d , o n e might i n f e r t h a t phones of t h i s type occur only b e f o r e s t r e s s e d v o w e l s i n t h e same w o r d . T h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e , howe v e r , f o r s i m i l a r s t o p s may b e o b s e r v e d i n w o r d s l i k e whisper, boasting, and whiskers, and a l s o b e f o r e i n i t i a l v o w e l s when / s / p l u s a s t o p c o n s t i t u t e s a w o r d - f i n a l c l u s t e r in a word w h i c h i s p a r t o f a c l o s e l y k n i t p h r a s e : wisp of straw, cost of living, risk of death. F u r t h e r m o r e , p a r a l l e l e x a m p l e s may be o b s e r v e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a b i o - d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e s (sphere and s i m i l a r w o r d s ) and t h e p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e s ( q u e s t i o n and t h e l i k e ) . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e o p p o s i t i o n s / p / - / b / , / t / - / d / , / k / - / g / , / f / - / v / , a n d / t J / - / i Z / do n o t o c c u r . In t h e c a s e o f p a i r s l i k e disperse-disburse, discussed-disgust, w h i c h m i g h t seem t o p r o v i d e m i n i m a l c o n t r a s t s , e i t h e r t h e o n s e t o f s t r e s s i n disburse, disgust separ a t e s t h e c o n s o n a n t s , so t h a t t h e e x a m p l e s a r e n o t v a l i d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g an o p p o s i t i o n ; o r t h e s t r e s s - o n s e t p r e c e d e s o r f a l l s w i t h i n t h e f r i c a t i v e , and t h e p a i r s a r e homonymous. The f o r m e r t y p e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n , i n my o b s e r v a t i o n , i s a r t i f i c i a l a n d uncommon, and t h e w o r d s a r e u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e d a l i k e . W h e n e v e r an o p p o s i t i o n i s s u s p e n d e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n how o n e i s t o c l a s s i f y t h e p h o n e s a r i s e s . *

THE CONSONANTS

21

To l a b e l them a r c h i p h o n e m e s o r t o e s t a b l i s h a s e p a r a t e p h o nemic c a t e g o r y i n e a c h i n s t a n c e o f t h e s o r t i s u n d o u b t e d l y the p r o c e d u r e l e a s t open to a t t a c k . But most p h o n e t i c i a n s , d e s i r i n g f o r o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r t o work w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e number of c a t e g o r i e s , a s s i g n t h e p h o n e s in t h e pos i t i o n of s u s p e n s i o n t o o n e member o f t h e s u s p e n d e d p a i r . T h i s p r o c e d u r e s e e m s t o me d e f e n s i b l e e n o u g h so l o n g a s o n e r e c o g n i z e s i t a s a r b i t r a r y and m a k e s no e x a g g e r a t e d c l a i m s f o r i t s r i g i d l y s c i e n t i f i c c h a r a c t e r . In t h e c a s e of t h e s t o p s , a l m o s t a l l w r i t e r s a g r e e in a s s i g n i n g t h e p h o n e s in spill, s t i l l , and skill t o / p / , / t / , and / k / , respectively. I have f o l l o w e d t h e u s u a l p r a c t i c e h e r e , in p a r t a t l e a s t b e c a u s e I do n o t w a n t t o g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t m e t r o p o l i tan p r o n u n c i a t i o n d i f f e r s from o t h e r t y p e s o f American Engl i s h i n r e s p e c t t o t h i s m a t t e r . ' At t h e s a m e t i m e i t may be questioned whether the assumption t h a t t h e s e phones a r e a l ways v o i c e l e s s i s e n t i r e l y t r u e . In t r a n s c r i b i n g f r o m r e c o r d s , o n e may a t t i m e s be i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k t h a t t h e v o i c e s e t s i n before the f o l l o w i n g vowel, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the vowel i s u n s t r e s s e d . ^ P u t t i n g t h e m a t t e r a n o t h e r w a y , i t may be a s k e d w h e t h e r i n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h t h e r e i s r e g u l a r l y an o b s e r v a b l e p h o n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e between the s t o p s in whisper and slumber, o r b e t w e e n t h o s e i n poster a n d launder. Exami n i n g s u c h p h o n e s by i n s t r u m e n t a l m e t h o d s t o d i s c o v e r how o f t e n t h e o n e s c l a s s i f i e d a s / p / , / t / , and / k / w e r e v o i c e d m i g h t h a v e some i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . ) In t h e s e q u e n c e s / s p l , s p r , s p j / , u n l e s s t h e s t o p b e g i n s a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , f u l l y voiced a l l o p h o n e s of / I , r , j/ a r e u s u a l : split, spring, whispering (disyllabic), spew. c) A v o i c e l e s s b i l a b i a l s t o p , s o m e w h a t l e s s s t r o n g l y a s p i r a t e d t h a n t h e [ p ] o f pound, occurs as a w o r d - i n i t i a l b e f o r e u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s : Patricia, perhaps. In the a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n ( s l i p p e r , shopping), the a s p i r a t i o n i s weaker s t i l l and may b e a b s e n t . P u t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f v o i c e d s t o p s i n t h i s l a t t e r c a s e , which i s r e p o r t e d as o c c u r r i n g in c e r t a i n o t h e r types of American E n g l i s h , ^ I have n o t o b s e r v e d . d) I n f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e t h e r e i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n between 1. a v o i c e l e s s u n r e l e a s e d b i l a b i a l s t o p ; 2 . t h e s a m e , a c c o m p a n i e d by a s i m u l t a n e o u s g l o t t a l closu re; 3. an a s p i r a t e d s t o p ; 4. a s t o p w h i c h i s l i g h t l y r e l e a s e d w i t h o u t a n y r e a l explosive e f f e c t . e ) B e f o r e f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , b o t h r e l e a s e d and u n r e l e a s e d v a r i e t i e s of / p / occur. Before / l / , f o r example, a weak r e l e a s e i s u s u a l l y h e a r d , w h i l e b e f o r e s t o p s t h e r e i s n o r m a l l y n o e x p l o s i o n , a l t h o u g h a s t h e l i p s o p e n a weak r e l e a s e may s o m e t i m e s b e o b s e r v e d i f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o p i s n o t h o m o r g a n i c . When t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t i s a f r i c a t i v e , w h a t e v e r r e l e a s e m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e h e a r d i s a b s o r b e d . The

22

THE CONSONANTS

u n e x p l o d e d s t o p o r one whose r e l e a s e i s a b s o r b e d in a f o l l o w i n g f r i c a t i v e i s a l s o used in f i n a l c l u s t e r s : apt, lapse. l a b i o - d e n t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n may o c c u r b e f o r e /f/ and /v/, f o r example in cupful. f ) N a s a l r e l e a s e o c c u r s b e f o r e the s y l l a b i c v a r i a n t o f /τη/ which i s s o m e t i m e s h e a r d in r a t h e r n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n as a r e s u l t o f a s s i m i l a t i o n in words l i k e happen and open. The s t o p s in words l i k e Chapman, ripeness, whose a r t i c u l a t i o n D a n i e l J o n e s a l s o c l a s s i f i e s under t h i s head,® in New York E n g l i s h a r e b e t t e r c o n s i d e r e d as e x a m p l e s o f t h e u n r e l e a s e d t y p e r e f e r r e d to a b o v e . T h e r e i s n o r m a l l y so l i t t l e p r e s s u r e b e h i n d t h e c l o s u r e t h a t when t h e velum d r o p s , no p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t of nasal plosion is heard. The p r a c t i c e o f u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e a k e r s d o e s n o t d i f f e r , e x c e p t in minor p h o n e t i c r e s p e c t s , from t h a t a l ready d e s c r i b e d : o ) In t h e s p e e c h o f some, t h e a s p i r a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l s t o p b e f o r e a h i g h - s t r e s s e d vowel i s s o m e t i m e s h e a v i e r than i s o r d i n a r i l y t h e c a s e in c u l t i v a t e d E n g l i s h . O c c a s i o n a l l y an a f f r i c a t e d s t o p may be h e a r d ; but i t i s n e i t h e r so s t r i k i n g n o r so common as t h e a f f r i c a t e d a l l o p h o r . e o f /1/ ( s e e page 26 ) . 9 b) T h e r e i s s o m e t i m e s an i n c o m p l e t e l a b i a l c l o s u r e in t h e p o s i t i o n between a s t r e s s e d and an u n s t r e s s e d vowel ( s l i p p e r , s t o p i t ) and in t h e f i n a l c l u s t e r s /'ps/ and /ρθ/ (ships, depth). The l i p s come t o g e t h e r a t t h e s i d e s but do n o t q u i t e meet in t h e c e n t e r . Such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s may a l s o be h e a r d o c c a s i o n a l l y in t h e n e g l i g e n t s p e e c h o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d . 3 . 2 . /b/'. A v o i c e d b i l a b i a l s t o p o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y in s y l l a b l e s , in t h e a m h i s v l l a h i c p o s i t i o n , and in c e r t a i n i n i t i a l and f i n a l c l u s t e r s : buy, crab, robber, bray, blast, ribs, robbed, de Halb. The a l l o p h o n e s t h a t a r e used in t h e s e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r e o n l y a few b r i e f comments. Tn g e n e r a l , c u l t i v a t e d and u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s a r t i c u l a t e t h e s t o p in t h e same f a s h i o n . As in t h e c a s e o f t h e o t h e r s t o p s , both r e l e a s e d and u n r e l e a s e d v a r i e t i e s o f t h e f i n a l s t o p may be h e a r d b e f o r e a p a u s e . When « r e l e a s e i s h e a r d , i t i s o r d i n a r i l y very weak and v o i c e l e s s . P e f o r e f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , b o t h types a l s o occur, the u n r e l e a s e d stop being usual b e f o r e o t h e r s t o p s (though a b a r e l y a u d i b l e r e l e a s e may s o m e t i m e s be h e a r d in words l i k e subcommittee, subgroup). Pefore other c o n s o n a n t s , the r e l e a s e , i f i t i s heard a t a l l , i s a l s o v e r y weak. When t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t i s /f/ o r /V/, t h e s t o p i s s o m e t i m e s l a b i o - d e n t a l (cab fare, mob violence). N a s a l p l o s i o n o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c v a r i a n t o f /τη/ in the n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f words l i k e cabin-boy. Tn t h e s p e e c h o f t h o s e whose a r t i c u l a t i o n i s in g e n e r a l v e r y s l i p s h o d , t h e r e may be an i n c o m p l e t e l a b i a l c l o s u r e in

THE CONSONANTS

23

t h e p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n a s t r e s s e d a n d an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l ( c a b b a g e , rub i t ) , a n d i n t h e f i n a l c l u s t e r / b z / (ribs). The c o m p l e t e l o s s o f t h e s t o p i s uncommon. I h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y h e a r d a s u b s t a n d a r d p r o n u n c i a t i o n of submarine, in which t h e s t o p had been l o s t a s a r e s u l t of a s s i m i l a t i o n . For p r o 6 ably, / p r a b l i i / , with the loss of a s y l l a b l e , is rather f r e q u e n t on a l l l e v e l s ; i n u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n b o t h s t o p s may d i s a p p e a r : / p r a l i l / . 3 . 3 . / t / · In c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s mav b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : a ) A v o i c e l e s s a s p i r a t e d a l v e o l a r s t o p o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s : time, attain. The s t o p i s u s u a l l y somew h a t r e t r a c t e d in t h e c l u s t e r / t r / ( t r y ) . The a l l o p h o n e o f / r / which o c c u r s in t h i s p o s i t i o n , l i k e t h a t of / w / (tweed), i s a v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e or b e g i n s as such. b) When p r e c e d e d by / s / a n d f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l , u n l e s s an o n s e t of s t r e s s f a l l s between the c o n s o n a n t s , a lax u n a s p i r a t e d a l v e o l a r s t o p o c c u r s , which is here a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n e d t o / t / : s t i l l , misty, It cost a dollar. In t h e s e q u e n c e / s t r / u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s (string, mystery), a fully voiced a l l o p h o n e of / r / o c c u r s . c) A w e a k l y a s p i r a t e d v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r s t o p may o c c u r , i n i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h p h o n e s (a v o i c e d t a p o r a r a p i d v o i c e d s t o p ) t h a t I would a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n to / d / : 1) B e t w e e n a s t r e s s e d a n d an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l : city, courtesy. Let him g o . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , / d / may o c c u r i n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n to (5g/ That's vrong, /'WAS .goSsn 'αδη/ What's going on?, /,ίε 'djyvs ,WAd il 'wantB/ It's just what he wants. 5) Sporadic losses of the final stop occur before initial consonants, even when it is not part of a cluster: for example, in that and what (That doesn't matter; What does he want?), in let me, sit down, and in pocketbook. Except for / ' p a k a ( h u k / , these pronunciations may also be heard in cultivated use. 6 ) The voiceless stop may occur in a frequent pronunciation of hundred as /'hAllst/. (Another pronunciation of this word might also be mentioned here, namely /hAn/, which is not used in most contexts, but may o c c u r in phrases like 171st Street / ( h A n t twenii 'fats ^ t r i l t / . ) f) Pefore the syllabic form of /l/, the laterally ploded stop may be accompanied by a glottal closure, but more commonly the glottal stop o c c u r s in place of it: [' ba?|] bottle. The voiced stop (/d/) is also frequent. These varying pronunciations may all be used by the same speaker. g) Pefore the syllabic form of /n/ in words like kitten, cotton, the stop may be accompanied by a glottal closure, or the glottal stop may o c c u r in place of it. O r a l l y released [t], not uncommon in cultivated speech when certain consonants precede (Fulton, Boston), is less frequently employed; when it is, the stop may be affricated. h) The final cluster /t0/ does not occur in the speech o f many less cultivated speakers, the stop being lost. As a result, eighth rimes with faith. Finally before a following /β/ or /&/, [-t] may be glottalized, or the glottal stop may occur in place of it. For the appearance of /d/ in words like the and this when preceded by /t/, see page 37. 3.4. /d/. In cultivated pronunciation the following allophones may be distinguished: a) A voiced alveolar stop occurs initially in stressed and unstressed syllables: dime, adopt, decay, Ogden. In the cluster /dr/ (dry), the stop is often retracted to the back of the alveolar ridge and the allophone of /r/ that occurs in this position normally has some fricative quality. b) A voiced alveolar tap, in free variation with a voiced stop, appears between vowels unless the stress-onset precedes (as in adopt above): budding, radio, said it, salad oil. The occurrence o f the same phones, interchanging with allophones of /t/, in words which in certain other types of English are pronounced with /t/ alone, has already been discussed in the oreceding section. c) Finally in stressed and unstressed syllables, before a pause or a following initial consonant, both released and unreleased varieties of the voiced stop occur. When it is exploded before a pause, the release is usually voiceless. The unreleased stop is regular before other stops except in

28

THE CONSONANTS

c e r t a i n c a s e s w h e r e i t i s i n t u r n p r e c e d e d by a c o n s o n a n t , a s i n creamed potatoes. P u t f r o m many o f t h e s e f i n a l c l u s t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y / I d / and / n d / , t h e s t o p i s f r e q u e n t l y l o s t b e f o r e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s (cold cream, bandstand). I t may s i m i l a r l y d i s a p p e a r from t h e f i n a l c l u s t e r s / l d z / and / n d z / . d) A v o i c e d l a t e r a l l y r e l e a s e d a l v e o l a r s t o p o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c v a r i a n t o f / 1 / i n w o r d s l i k e paddle, medal and may o c c u r b e s i d e / t / i n rattle, metal and t h e l i k e . e) A v o i c e d n a s a l l y r e l e a s e d a l v e o l a r s t o p o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c v a r i a n t of / n / i n sudden, didn't, rod and gun, e t c . When t h e s t o p i s p r e c e d e d by a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t , b o t h n a s a l and o r a l r e l e a s e may b e h e a r d . The f o r m e r i s m o s t common i f t h e p r e c e d i n g c o n s o n a n t i s / i / ( B e i d e n , golden); after / n / i n London n a s a l r e l e a s e , t h o u g h i t o c c u r s , w o u l d s t r i k e some s p e a k e r s a s s l i p s h o d . A f t e r o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s (Ogden, loved and lost, gazed and gazed), o r a l r e l e a s e i s u s u a l in c a r e f u l u t t e r a n c e , t h o u g h t h e o t h e r t y p e may a l s o be h e a r d . f ) A v o i c e d d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l s t o p o c c u r s in the c l u s t e r / d 6 / ( b r e a d t h , width) and f i n a l l y b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g / Θ / o r / 5 / ( s a d thing, read this). F o r / t / i n breadth, width, hundredth, s e e p a g e 25 a b o v e . In u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n speech t h e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e p a t t e r n j u s t d e s c r i b e d p a r a l l e l t h o s e t h a t a p p e a r in t h e c a s e of / t / : a) I n p l a c e o f t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p , a d e n t a l i z e d b l a d e a r t i c u l a t e d a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e d s t o p may o c c u r i n i t i a l l y i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s (dime, adopt)·, in u n s t r e s s e d i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e s (decay, dessert) i t i s l e s s f r e q u e n t . The p r i m a r y c l o s u r e i s made b e t w e e n t h e b l a d e o f t h e t o n g u e and t h e gumr i d g e , w h i l e t h e t i p of t h e tongue i s u s u a l l y in c o n t a c t with t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e l o w e r f r o n t t e e t h . As t h e s t o p i s r e l e a s e d , the tongue p a s s e s momentarily through a p o s i t i o n somewhat l i k e t h a t o f t h e f r i c a t i v e , [z] . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e a f f r i c a t e d a l l o p h o n e o f / d / i s l e s s common t h a n t h a t o f / t / : many p e r s o n s w h o s e [ t - ] i n time i s s t r o n g l y a f f r i c a t e d pronounce a b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d b u t u n a f f r i c a t e d s t o p in dime. b) I n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y u n d e r the c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above, t h e v o i c e d t a p o c c u r s , in o c c a s i o n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h a f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d voiced s t o p . These a l l o p h o n e s a r e sometimes dent a l i z e d and b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d ( b u t s e e p a g e 136 > n o t e 1 7 ) . F o r / d / i n w o r d s l i k e c i t y , butter, see pages 23-24; f o r / d / i n t h o s e l i k e the, other, s e e pages 3 7 - 3 8 . c) F i n a l l y b e f o r e a pause or a following i n i t i a l consonant, a d e n t a l i z e d , b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p may o c c u r . I f t h e s t o p i s e x p l o d e d b e f o r e a p a u s e , i t may h a v e a v o i c e l e s s a f f r i c a t i o n . The l o s s o f t h e s t o p f r o m f i n a l c l u s t e r s i s more e x t e n s i v e t h a n i t i s i n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h : i t may o c c u r b e f o r e a p a u s e ( H e ' s my friend) o r b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l vowel ( a friend of mine). So a l s o a f t e r / n / i n t e r v o c q l i c a 1 l y w i t h i n t h e word (wonderful, fundamental, finding), t h e s t o p may b e weakened and i s o f t e n l o s t .

THE CONSONANTS

29

d ) P e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e of / 1 / , the l a t e r a l l y r e l e a s e d s t o p i s o f t e n d e n t a l i z e d and b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d . The o c c u r r e n c e o f / d / i n w o r d s l i k e little, metal, cattle is common, / d / i n t e r c h a n g i n g h e r e w i t h t h e g l o t t a l s t o p and a g l o t t a l i z e d , h l a d e - a r t i c u l a ted v o i c e l e s s s t o p ( s e e page 2 7 ) . e) B e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e o f / n / , a n a s a l l y p l o d e d b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p o c c u r s . N a s a l p l o s i o n may o c c u r i n t h e word modern, a pronunciation also used, at least occas i o n a l l y , by some e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s . C o n v e r s e l y , o r a l p l o s i o n may s o m e t i m e s o c c u r in w o r d s l i k e wooden and hidden, and i n t h e c o n t r a c t e d f o r m s didn't, couldn't, etc.20 f ) The f i n a l c l u s t e r / d 6 / d o e s n o t o c c u r in t h e s p e e c h o f many u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , t h e s t o p b e i n g l o s t . As a r e s u l t , breadth and breath, width and with a r e o f t e n homonyms ( i n t h e s p e e c h o f s o m e , width is / w i G / and with is /wit, w i d / - - s e e page 3 6 ) . As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t on p a g e 25, d e n t a l i z e d , b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p s a r e n o t u n i v e r s a l in t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h o f t h e c i t y . S o m e - - p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e o l d e s t g e n e r a t i o n - - p r o n o u n c e o r d i n a r y a l v e o l a r s t o p s t h a t do n o t d i f f e r in any n o t i c e a b l e way f r o m t h o s e e m p l o y e d in c u l t i v a t e d speech. 3 . 5 . A / · In c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : а ) A v o i c e l e s s a s p i r a t e d v e l a r s t o p o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s : kind, account. A f t e r the stop, the a l l o p h o n e s o f / τ / , / I / , /w/', and / ' j / (crew, claim, queen, cube) are r e g u l a r l y v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e s or begin as such. б ) When p r e c e d e d by / & / and f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l , u n l e s s an o n s e t of s t r e s s f a l l s between the c o n s o n a n t s , a lax u n a s p i r a t e d v e l a r s t o p o c c u r s , which i s h e r e a r b i t r a r i l y a s s i g n e d to A / : school, disgust, risky ( s e e p a g e s 2 0 - 2 1 ) . In t h e s e quence / s k r / under s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s , the v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e o f / r / d o e s n o t a p p e a r (scrawl, discretion). c) A v o i c e l e s s v e l a r s t o p , somewhat l e s s s t r o n g l y a s p i r a t e d t h a n t h e [ k ] o f kind, o c c u r s as a w o r d - i n i t i a l b e f o r e uns t r e s s e d v o w e l s ( c a n o e , compare). Elsewhere before u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s (maker, cookery, make i t ) , t h e a s p i r a t i o n i s w e a k e r s t i l l and may be a b s e n t . For t h e s p o r a d i c o c c u r r e n c e o f / g / i n t h e i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n in w o r d s u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h A / , see the next s e c t i o n . The v a r i e t i e s o f t h e s t o p so b r i e f l y l i s t e d in t h e s e t h r e e p a r a g r a p h s in a c t u a l f a c t c o m p r i s e a r a t h e r e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o f a l l o p h o n e s , a l t h o u g h i t w o u l d be i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o n o t e .••.hem s e p a r n t e l y . The d i f f e r e n c e r b e t w e e n t h e s e s*:ops d e p e n d on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o i n t on t h e s o f t p a l a t e ( o r t h e p o s t e r i o r h a r d p a l a t e ) a t w h i c h t h e o c c l u s i o n i s made v a r i e s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l . As i n o t h e r t y p e s o f E n g l i s h , t h e s t o p i s a r t i c u l a t e d f a r t h e r f o r w a r d b e f o r e a f r o n t vowel t h a n b e f o r e a b a c k v o w e l . To a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h e p o i n t of o c c l u s i o n

30

THE CONSONANTS

i s a l s o a f f e c t e d by p r e c e d i n g v o w e l s : t h e [k] i n maker may be s o m e w h a t more a d v a n c e d t h a n t h a t o f cookery. d) In f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e t h e r e i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n between 1) an u n r e l e a s e d v o i c e l e s s v e l a r s t o p ; 2 ) t h e s a m e , a c c o m p a n i e d by a s i m u l t a n e o u s g l o t t a l closure; 3 ) an a s p i r a t e d s t o p ; 4 ) a s t o p t h a t i s l i g h t l y r e l e a s e d w i t h o u t any r e a l e x plosive effect. e) When t h e s t o p i s f i n a l b e f o r e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , a r e lease i s normally not heard. If the following consonant is a f r i c a t i v e , the explosion occurs a f t e r the a r t i c u l a t i n g organs h a v e t a k e n t h e f r i c a t i v e p o s i t i o n and i t i s n o t a p p r e h e n d e d s e p a r a t e l y . Before o t h e r s t o p s , the u n r e l e a s e d type is regular. f ) Nas-al p l o s i o n may s o m e t i m e s b e h e a r d i n a r a t h e r n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m s l i k e taking and o f p h r a s e s l i k e chicken coop. For t h e q u e s t i o n of n a s a l p l o s i o n i n w o r d s l i k e Beekman and sickness, see the b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p a r a l l e l c a s e s o f / p / and / t / on p a g e s 2 1 a n d 1 3 5 , n o t e 12. The u s a g e o f u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s d o e s n o t d i f f e r much from t h a t which h a s j u s t been d e s c r i b e d , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e s are n o t phonemic: a) The a s p i r a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l s t o p i s s o m e t i m e s h e a v i e r in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h a n i s u s u a l l y t h e c a s e in c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n . When t h e s y l l a b l e i s h e a v i l y s t r e s s e d , a s o m e w h a t a f f r i c a t e d s t o p may o c c a s i o n a l l y be h e a r d . P u t s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e f a r l e s s f r e q u e n t than the a f f r i c a t i o n of t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p : many s p e a k e r s w h o s e [t—] b e f o r e a s t r e s s e d v o w e l i s s t r o n g l y a f f r i c a t e d p r o n o u n c e i n w o r d s l i k e kind and c a r t h e same m o d e r a t e l y a s p i r a t e d s t o p t h a t i s f o u n d i n t h e speech of t h e c u l t i v a t e d . b) T h o s e w h o s e a r t i c u l a t i o n i s i n g e n e r a l v e r y s l i p s h o d o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o n o u n c e i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s a v a r i e t y of / k / w i t h an i n c o m p l e t e c l o s u r e . ( I h a v e n o t i c e d t h i s c h i e f l y i n w o r d s l i k e action and lecture.)^ The f r i c a t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h i s phone i s v e r y weak. The s t o p i s f r e q u e n t l y l o s t i n a l e s s c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n of accessory a s / s ' s e s s r i l / , u s e d by some o f my i n f o r m a n t s . I h a v e s o m e t i m e s h e a r d a s i m i l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n of eccentric. 3 . 6 . / g / . A v o i c e d v e l a r s t o p o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , i n a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , and i n c e r t a i n i n i t i a l and f i n a l c l u s t e r s : g t t i e , leg, ragged, green, glare, rugs, dragged. The f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s a l l o p h o n e s may be m e n t i o n e d : As i n t h e c a s e o f / k / , t h e p o i n t on t h e s o f t p a l a t e ( o r t h e p o s t e r i o r h a r d p a l a t e ) a t w h i c h t h e o c c l u s i o n i s made v a r i e s

THE CONSONANTS

31

with t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l : t h e s t o p i s a r t i c u l a t e d f a r t h e r forward b e f o r e f r o n t v o w e l s t h a n b e f o r e b a c k . To a l e s s e r e x t e n t , t h e p o s i t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by p r e c e d i n g v o w e l s , t h e [ g ] of dig o f t e n b e i n g made s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r f o r w a r d than t h a t of dog. L i k e t h e o t h e r s t o p s , /g/ o c c u r s in both r e l e a s e d and u n r e l e a s e d v a r i e t i e s when i t i s f i n a l b e f o r e a p a u s e . When t h e stop i s e x p l o d e d i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e r e l e a s e i s n o r m a l l y very weak and v o i c e l e s s . S i m i l a r l y weak r e l e a s e s may sometimes be h e a r d b e f o r e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , but t h e u n r e l e a s e d stop i s common, and i s r e g u l a r b e f o r e o t h e r s t o p s . Nasal p l o s i o n may s o m e t i m e s be h e a r d in t h e n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n of p a r t i c i p i a l forms l i k e lagging, rigging, and of p h r a s e s i n which /]]/ r e p l a c e s /n/ a s a r e s u l t of a s s i m i l a t i o n (dog in the manger). For t h e q u e s t i o n of n a s a l p l o s i o n i n words l i k e dogma, signature, s e e t h e p a r a l l e l c a s e s on p a g e 22 and page 135, n o t e 12. The o c c u r r e n c e of /d/ i n p l a c e of / t / i n words s p e l l e d t o r tt, which' h a s been d i s c u s s e d a l r e a d y , i s o c c a s i o n a l l y p a r a l l e l e d in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of t h e v e l a r s t o p s . I h a v e sometimes h e a r d t h e v o i c e d s t o p i n package, ticket, Take it away, and a few o t h e r c a s e s . Put such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e s p o r a d i c and i n f r e q u e n t . For Look oat!, however, the p r o n u n c i a t i o n / j l u ' c j a ü t , i s - / i s v e r y common on a l l l e v e l s ( n o t e t h e s y l l a ble-division ). In n e g l i g e n t a r t i c u l a t i o n t h e r e i s s o m e t i m e s an i n c o m p l e t e c l o s u r e between t h e back of t h e t o n g u e and t h e roof of t h e mouth, so t h a t a w e a k l y f r i c a t i v e v a r i e t y of /g/ i s p r o d u c e d in words l i k e bigger and hugging. As i n o t h e r r e g i o n a l t y p e s of p r o n u n c i a t i o n , /g/ i s n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d from England and English. Other l o s s e s of the s t o p a f t e r /η/ o c c u r i n l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h in language, distinguish, extinguisher, and i t i s s o m e t i m e s v e r y weakly a r t i c u l a t e d a f t e r /g/ i n o t h e r c a s e s , f o r e x a m p l e in angry and single. Put t h e c o m p l e t e and r e g u l a r l o s s of /g/ a f t e r /g/ in finger, single, younger, etc. is a foreignism r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n f l u e n c e of German o r t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n languages, or o c c u r r i n g as a h y p e r c o r r e c t pronunciation in the s p e e c h of t h o s e who a r e a t t e m p t i n g w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t i n formation to a v o i d t h e f o r e i g n i n s e r t i o n of /g/ i n w o r d s l i k e s i n g e r and singing. The common u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n / ' r e k S j i i a i z / f o r recognize i s , of c o u r s e , n o t an i n s t a n c e of t h e l o s s of t h e s t o p , but a s u r v i v a l of o l d e r u s a g e . 3 . 7 . [ ' ] . The g l o t t a l s t o p may a p p e a r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s i t u ations : o) I t o f t e n o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y b e f o r e v o w e l s i n e m p h a t i c a l l y s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ( T h a t ' s ALL you'll get; I didn't say "thirty "--I said EIGHTY") and s e r v e s h e r e a s one of t h e components of what P l o o m f i e l d ^ c a l l s t h e s e c o n d a r y phoneme of loudest s t r e s s .

32

THE CONSONANTS

b) T t may a l s o o c c u r as a n o n d i s t i n c t i v e sound b e f o r e v o w e l s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f s y l l a b l e s w h i c h do n o t b e a r an e m p h a t i c s t r e s s . Many s p e a k e r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , p r o n o u n c e t h e s t o p b e f o r e e v e r y v o w e l t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be i n i t i a l a f t e r a p a u s e . W i t h i n t h e b r e a t h - g roup i t may s o m e t i m e s be u s e d in p l a c e o f t h e more u s u a l smooth t r a n s i t i o n , a f t e r f i n a l v o w e l s (the

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vowel

may

c) The v o i c e l e s s s t o p s [ p , t , k] when t h e y a r e f i n a l i n s y l l a b l e s a r e o f t e n p r o d u c e d w i t h a d o u b l e c l o s u r e , o n e o r a l and one g l o t t a l . These g l o t t a l i z e d s t o p s a r e in f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e s i m p l e o r a l s t o p s , and a r e m e r e l y a l l o p h o n e s o f / p , t , k/ d ) W i t h o u t any o r a l a r t i c u l a t i o n [ ' ] a l o n e may o c c u r a t t h e end o f s y l l a b l e s , c h i e f l y as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r s t o p . The c h i e f c a s e s a r e : 1)

Before

partment,

that

a following one,

what

initial boy,

nonsyllabic

But

look

consonant: etc.

here,

This

de-

use

may be o b s e r v e d i n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n in some c a s e s , but i s commoner on t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e levels. 2 ) B e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c f o r m o f /I/: metal, bottle, hospital. H e r e t h e use o f [ ' ] i s e x t r e m e l y w i d e s p r e a d on t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s o f New Y o r k s p e e c h . Indeed, p r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e [ ' m e ' ^ ] and [ ' b a ' J . 1 f o r netal and bottle h a v e become one o f t h e c h i e f s h i b b o l e t h s o f New Y o r k e s e . C u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s do n o t u s e the g l o t t a l i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . 3 ) B e f o r e the s y l l a b i c f o r m o f /'n/: b u t t o n , k i t t e n , mount a i n , and o f t e n l a n t e r n a l s o . H e r e some c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e s t o p s w i t h a d o u b l e c l o s u r e , a l v e o l a r and g l o t t a l . The c o m p l e t e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e g l o t t a l s t o p in w o r d s l i k e b u t t o n and kitten is uncultivated. 4) Occasionally Let's

go,

That's

after

a vowel

The

right.

before

glottal

here

/ s / in is

a

cases

^ort

of

like inter-

m e d i a t e s t a g e in t h e c o m p l e t e l o s s o f t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p ; pron u n c i a t i o n s l i k e / ' l e s ' g o u / and / , δ « 6 ' r a i t / may a l s o be h e a r d in n e g l i g e n t and u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . 5) you

Sometimes

leaving

at

tonight?,

the

end

He's

of gone

syllables

before

a pause:

Are

out.

fii) S o m e t i m e s , a l t h o u g h n o t commonly, a t t h e end o f a s y l l a b l e b e f o r e an i n i t i a l v o w e l : right answer, not only. I have o b s e r v e d t h i s c h i e f l y in r e a d i n g , and t h e a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t s , v o i c e d or v o i c e l e s s , a r e u s u a l l y employed in t h i s p o s i t i o n . One may n o t be a l t o g e t h e r c e r t a i n how t h e g l o t t a l s t o p i n t h e s e c a s e s s h o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d . Some w r i t e r s , in d i s c u s s i n g i t s o c c u r r c n c e u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s in o t h e r f o r m s o f E n e l i s h , do n o t c o n c e r n t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n , others t r e a t [ ? ] as an a l l o p h o n e o f , ' t / . Th i s l a t t e r a n a l y s i s w i l l p r o b a b l y s e r v e , a l t h o u a h one may c o n s i d e r i t a b i t strained

TOE CONSONANTS

33

to d e s c r i b e two s t o p s , one made at the a l v e o l a r r i d g e and one a t t h e g l o t t i s , as p h o n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r . The o c c u r r e n c e o f [ ? ] in p l a c e o f o t h e r v o i c e l e s s consonants ( w i t h the c o m p l e t e l o s s of the o r a l a r t i c u l a t i o n ) might make such an a n a l y s i s d i f f i c u l t i f i t were more common, but i t i s a c t u a l l y unusual and need h a r d l y he thought o f as a p a r t o f normal p r o n u n c i a tion. Ε. H. B a b b i t t h a l f a c e n t u r y ago r e p o r t e d t h a t the g l o t t a l s t o p was common in u n c u l t i v a t e d speech i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y in words l i k e letter and batter. In p r e s e n t - d a y p r o n u n c i a t i o n [ ' ] does n o t n o r m a l l y o c c u r in t h i s p o s i t i o n . THE

FRICATIVES

4 . 1 . / f / . In a l l p o s i t i o n s / f / i s a v o i c e l e s s l a b i o - d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , the l o w e r l i p a r t i c u l a t i n g a g a i n s t the upper i n c i s o r s . The f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in the a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , and in c e r t a i n i n i t i a l and f i n a l c l u s t e r s : f i l l , o f f i c i a l , c l i f f , r a f t e r , tougher, flame, free, c l i f f s , r a f t . As in t h e o t h e r forms o f E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n w i t h which I am f a m i l i a r , p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t s s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t i n c t from one a n o t h e r to r e q u i r e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n do n o t o c c u r . Nor a r e t h e r e many s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in the a r t i c u l a t i o n of the f r i c a t i v e between the v a r i o u s c l a s s d i a l e c t s o f the c i t y . In the sequence / f t / plus vowel some u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y accompany the l a b i o - d e n t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n w i t h a s i m u l t a n e o u s g l o t t a l s t o p . In f i f t y the lip-movement sometimes d i s a p p e a r s e n t i r e l y : one o f my i n f o r m a n t s pronounced [ f i ' t i i ' f 3 i s s t r i l t ] f o r Fif ty-f irs t Street. (I have not o b s e r v e d t h i s in o t h e r w o r d s . ) The o c c u r r e n c e o f / f / in p l a c e o f /v/ as a r e s u l t o f assimi l a t i o n to a f o l l o w i n g v o i c e l e s s consonant i s almost r e g u l a r in have b e f o r e the i n f i n i t i v e in the sense o f " m u s t . " 0 t h e r w i s e t h i s a s s i m i l a t o r y change i s unusual. The p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f thereof w i t h / f / i n s t e a d o f the now usual /v/, which i s r e c o r d e d as a v a r i a n t both by Jones and by Kenyon and K n o t t , i s used by one o f my o l d e r i n f o r m a n t s in a r e c o r d e d r e a d i n g o f the T w e n t y - f o u r t h Psalm. In rtephev / f / i s u s u a l , although a few c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s pronounce /v/, perhaps in c o n s c i o u s i m i t a t i o n of B r i t i s h u s a g e . I have n o t e d a spe 11 i n g - p ronun ci a t i on o f Stephen with / f / in the speech o f some u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , but /v/ i s g e n e r a l l y pronounced. As e l s e w h e r e , / { / i s l o s t from half in the c o l l o q u i a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f half-past two, -six, e t c . The omission occurs o n l y in t h i s p h r a s e . In words s p e l l e d w i t h -phthp r o n u n c i a t i o n s with / f 0 / and /p6/ both o c c u r , as they do in e t h e r forms o f E n g l i s h . The c o m p a r a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f the two p r o n u n c i a t i o n s depends in g e n e r a l on the f a m i l i a r i t y of the words. Thus in naphtha, a

34

THE CONSONANTS

h o u s e h o l d word, / f / i s uncommon and i t i s p r o b a b l y the l e s s f r e q u e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n in diphther ia; in diphthong, / f / occ u r s more o f t e n and in monophthong I have n e v e r heard / p / . Put in ophthalmology, ophthalmologist, ophthalmia, and exophthalmic, which a r e h a r d l y among t h e commonest words, / p / i s v e r y f r e o u e n t l y pronounced. 4 . 2 . / v / . A voiced l a b i o - d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e occurs i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in a m b i s y 1 l a b i c p o s i t i o n , and in a few f i n a l c l u s t e r s ' : village, obvious, live, savior, liver, lives, lived. L i k e t h e o t h e r v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e s , / v / has a p a r t i a l l y v o i c e l e s s a l l o p h o n e t h a t o c c u r s f i n a l l y b e f o r e a p a u s e ; but e x c e p t f o r t h i s t h e phones a p p e a r i n g in the v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s d i f f e r so s l i g h t l y t h a t t h e y do n o t need to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . Nor have I o b s e r v e d any d i f f e r e n c e s in the way t h e f r i c a t i v e i s a r t i c u l a t e d by c u l t i v a t e d and u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . As in the o t h e r r e g i o n a l t y p e s o f E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n , t h e f r i c a t i v e i s o f t e n l o s t in c o l l o q u i a l speech from the uns t r e s s e d form o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n of when i t i s f o l l o w e d by a c o n s o n a n t ( the top of the hill, ten pounds of potatoes). The same l o s s in have (I could have come) i s much l e s s f r e q u e n t in t h e u s a g e o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d , but a p p e a r s very commonly on o t h e r l e v e l s . The o m i s s i o n of the f r i c a t i v e when f i n a l a f t e r a s t r e s s e d vowel o c c u r s in u n c u l t i v a t e d speech in a few c a s e s : in g i v e me ( h e r e t h e l o s s may a l s o o c c u r in the n e g l i g e n t s p e e c h o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d ) and sometimes in c e r t a i n o t h e r v e r b s b e f o r e t h e pronoun me, f o r example in leave me alone; I have a l s o n o t i c e d t h e o m i s s i o n r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y in the numeral five (and twenty-five, thirty-five, e t c . ) , but o n l y when i t p r e c e d e d t h e word dollar(s) o r the word cent(s). 4 . 3 . / Θ / . In c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s in i n i t i a l and f i n a l p o s i t i o n , atnbisy 1 l a b i c a 1 l y , and in c e r t a i n i n i t i a l and f i n a l c l u s t e r s : thought, sympathetic, booth, mythical, thrill, thwart, depth, e t c . The a l l o p h o n e s t h a t a r e employed in t h e s e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s do n o t d i f f e r a p p r e c i a b l y from one a n o t h e r . B e f o r e / Θ / , t h e c o n s o n a n t s / t , d , n / , n o r m a l l y a l v e o l a r , u s u a l l y have d e n t a l a l l o p h o n e s and t h e a l l o p h o n e s o f / ε / and / z / o f t e n have a somewhat advanced p o s i t i o n . A f t e r / Θ / , / r / i s o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d by a t a p o r a reduced t r i l l . The f r i c a t i v e may be l o s t in a l l but the most c a r e f u l a r t i c u l a t i o n cf some o f the f i n a l c l u s t e r s : sixths is [sikss] v e r y f r e q u e n t l y and months i s o f t e n [ΤΕΛΠ( t ) s ] " Fven when t h e f r i c a t i v e i s n o t l o s t , i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n may be much reduced in t h e s e d i f f i c u l t c l u s t e r s . As in o t h e r t y p e s o f American E n g l i s h , both / Θ / and /Ö/ o c c u r in with. Some s p e a k e r s use both p r o n u n c i a t i o n s in an a p p a r e n t l y random f a s h i o n , o t h e r s pronounce o n l y / Θ / o r o n l y / * / . While t h e s t a t e m e n t in the Kenyon and Knott Die t lonary u n d e r with t h a t t h e v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e in t h i s word " i s

T H E CONSONANTS

35

clearly not substandard" is more or less valid as applied to metropolitan speech, there is, nevertheless, a strong tendency in cultivated pronunciation to prefer /5/, and a corresponding tendency in other types of metropolitan speech to use only the voiceless consonant. And it should be noted that the uncultivated pronunciation with /t/ and /d/ (see below) presumably is a development of [wϊθ] . Among cultivated speakers practice in regard to the pronunciation of the plurals baths, booths, laths, moths, mouths, troths, truths, wreaths, youths does oaths, paths, sheaths, not differ from that found elsewhere in the United States. Some plurals, for example baths and paths, have /3z/ almost exclusively, others vary between /?iz/ and /θε/. Put in the pronunciation of many cf the less cultivated, the cluster /8z/ occurs only in verbal forms and in the plurals of those nouns like lathe which have /8/ in the singular: in all plurals like baths, paths, moths such speakers use /0s/ only. Nor is this practice confined to that type of metropolitan speech which is at the farthest remove from cultivated English--it may often be observed on the intermediate levels, for example in the speech of many Columbia College freshmen. In a few words that occur infrequently in spoken English, /Θ/ is sometimes used in place of /S/> presumably as a sort of spelling-pronunciation. Many speakers say /'0i3s(r/ for thither. Several years ago, when Blithe Spirit was playing on Broadway, Τ noticed that the adjective was rather often pronounced /blai6/. Conversely, I have often heard /5/ in the verb froth, particularly in the participial form. Two other words require mention. In trough, /Θ/ was pronounced by several of my older informants, one of whom told me that this pronunciation was very common when she was a girl. In cultivated pronunciation /halt/ is rather generally used for height, but the variants /haitG/, /hai9/ are common in the speech of the less educated. For the absence of /t/ in /haiG/, as in eighth, see page 27 above. The equivalents of the Standard Fnglish fricative that occur in the speech of many New Yorkers have been frequently remarked and are a meng the more striking characteristics of the uncultivated speech of the city. In the literary representation of New York dialect, these equivalents are indicated by t or t': t'roo, toity-sixt', eighteent', and so forth. As will be seen below, such spellings are phonemically justifiable in a few cases, but not in most. There are a few situations, that is to say, in which /t/ appears in place of /Θ/ or in which the /Ϊ/-/Θ/ opposition found in cultivated Fnglish-v is absent; but in most positions the dental affricate or dental stop that the uncultivated speaker employs in place of the fricative is still distinct from the allophones of his /t/-phoneme. Initially before a stressed vowel following variants occur:

(thirty, authority),

the

36

THE CONSONANTS

a) A d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l v o i c e l e s s a f f r i c a t e . In a r t i c u l a t i n g i t , t h e t o n g u e - t i p makes c o n t a c t a g a i n s t t h e back s u r f a c e s o r t h e l o w e r e d g e o f t h e u p p e r t e e t h , irf t h e same p o s i t i o n a s t h a t t a k e n f o r t h e f r i c a t i v e of c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . But i n s t e a d of r e s t i n g l i g h t l y a g a i n s t t h e t e e t h , t h e tongue makes a c o m p l e t e c l o s u r e , which i s t h e n r e l e a s e d i n t o a weakl y a r t i c u l a t e d d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e . T h i s a f f r i c a t e d i f f e r s from t h e a f f r i c a t e d a l l o p h o n e of / t / t h a t o c c u r s in time n o t o n l y i n r e g a r d t o t h e p l a c e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n and t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e t o n g u e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e i t i s , r e l a t i v e l y , a l e n i s . Words l i k e thanks and tanks a r e n e v e r homonyms. b) A w e a k l y a r t i c u l a t e d d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l u n a s p i r a t e d v o i c e l e s s stop, i d e n t i c a l with the preceding v a r i a n t except f o r i t s l a c k o f any a p p r e c i a b l e f r i c a t i v e c o m p o n e n t . c) The v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e t h a t o c c u r s i n t h e v a r i o u s c u l t i v a t e d t y p e s of E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n . Very few u n c u l t i v a t e d speakers pronounce the d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e or stop with anything l i k e c o n s i s t e n c y ; more commonly, s u c h s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e a l l t h r e e t y p e s more o r l e s s a t r a n d o m . In t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r / Θ Γ / t h e same v a r i a n t s may o c c u r , b u t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n / Θ Γ / and / t r / seems o c c a s i o n a l l y t o d i s a p p e a r . One may s o m e t i m e s h e a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o f w o r d s l i k e three and thread t h a t s o u n d e x a c t l y l i k e t h e same s p e a k e r ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f tree and tread ( s e e my comments on t h e u s a g e of I n f o r m a n t s # 2 9 and # 3 0 ) . But i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o be c e r t a i n about the m a t t e r . I n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y b e f o r e an u n s t r e s s e d vowel w i t h i n t h e w o r d , t h e same v a r i a n t s - - a f f r i c a t e , s t o p , f r i c a t i v e - - o c c u r . Tn t h i s p o s i t i o n ( a s i n Arthur, ether, method), t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t t h e p h o n e s m u s t be a s s i g n e d t o / Θ / . Nothing, however, which in c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n h a s / Θ / i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y , i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h o f t e n r i m e s w i t h button, being pronounced w i t h a £ l o t t a l i z e d b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p or w i t h the glottal stop. The v a r i a n t s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a l s o o c c u r when / Θ / i s f i n a l in t h e s y l l a b l e , a s i n path, booth, birth, wealth, e t c . But t h e r e a r e o n e o r two e x c e p t i o n s . The word with f r e q u e n t l y has / t / , r e p l a c e d by / d / b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l : with a o f t e n r i m e s w i t h bitter and bidder; i n with you, / t j " / i s p r o n o u n c e d , j u s t a s i t i s i n meet you. I h a v e a l s o o b s e r v e d / t / a number o f t i m e s i n Catholic, p r o n o u n c e d as a d i s y l l a b l e ( d e n t a l i z e d , b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p with a simultaneous g l o t t a l c l o s u r e , t h e same a r t i c u l a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s i n Butler, Scotland, at last, and t h e l i k e . Or t h e r e may be a c o m p l e t e s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e g l o t t a l s t o p . ) 4 . 4 . / δ / . In c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a v o i c e d d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , i n t h e a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , and in a few f i n a l c l u s t e r s : this, smooth, mother, bathed. F i n a l l y b e f o r e a pause or a following v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t , t h e f r i c a t i v e may end v o i c e l e ^ s l y . I n i -

THE CONSONANTS

37

t i a l l y i n weak s y l l a b l e s t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n i s o f t e n v e r y much r e d u c e d and v e r y weak v a r i a n t s o f /Ö/ may a l s o be h e a r d i n the f i n a l c l u s t e r s / 8 z / and / Ö d / . P u t e x c e p t f o r t h e s e m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s , t h e p o s i t i o n a l a l l o p h o n e s o f / 8 / do n o t d i f f e r n o t i c e a b l y f r o m one a n o t h e r . B e f o r e /Ö/ t h e c o n s o n a n t s w h o s e articulation i s normally a l v e o l a r are usually dentals, just as t h e y a r e b e f o r e / θ / : / i g ' · ' them, hide them, etc. In n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n , t h e i n i t i a l f r i c a t i v e i s s a n e t i m e s a s s i m i l a t e d t o c e r t a i n p r e c e d i n g c o n s o n a n t s . In p h r a s e s l i k e all the men, on that corner, Who's there, miss the train, / I 1 , η η , ζ ζ , s ζ (ε ε ) / may r e p l a c e / I δ , η δ , ζ 8 , ε 8 / , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The d o u b l e c o n s o n a n t s t h a t r e s u l t a r e s o m e t i m e s s i m p l i f i e d . These a s s i m i l a t i o n s appear r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . Perhaps as a r e s u l t o f such a s s i m i l a t i o n s , c e r t a i n words have v a r i a n t f o r m s w i t h o u t t h e f r i c a t i v e w h i c h may o c c u r e v e n when n o t p r e c e d e d by / I , η , ε , ζ / . Thus f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e /set, aed/ o c c u r b e s i d e /8®t, 8aed/. T h i s v a r i a n t i s r a r e that, l y u s e d in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h e x c e p t j o c u l a r l y ('Attaboy, etc.). The p r o n u n c i a t i o n /sn, n / f o r than, not i n f r e q u e n t l y heard from u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , i s uncommon i n c u l t i v a t e d u s e , a t l e a s t among a d u l t s . A s i m i l a r l o s s o f / 8 / i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n may s o m e t i m e s be o b s e r v e d i n c e r t a i n o t h e r w o r d s ( I h a v e n o t i c e d i t i n this, these, those, but not in the). The o c c u r r e n c e i n u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f a d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e or d e n t a l s t o p i n s t e a d o f the v o i c e l e s s fricative o f thank, method i s p a r a l l e l e d r a t h e r e x a c t l y i n t h e c a s e o f /8/. U s u a l l y in f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h the f r i c a t i v e , the f o l l o w i n g may a p p e a r : a) A voiced dental or i n t e r d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e , d i s t i n c t acoust i c a l l y and i n i t s manner o f f o r m a t i o n from t h e a f f r i c a t e d a l l o p h o n e o f / d / w h i c h may o c c u r i n t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f w o r d s l i k e dime and adopt. b) A v o i c e d d e n t a l s t o p , d i f f e r i n g f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a n t o n l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f any n o t i c e a b l e f r i c a t i v e c o m p o n e n t . T h i s s t o p , l i k e t h e d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e , may a p p e a r i n any p o s i t i o n , b u t i s most common i n i t i a l l y . T h e s e a l l o p h o n e s a r e i n d i c a t e d i n d i a l e c t w r i t i n g by t h e s p e l l i n g d: de, dis, dose, e t c . The p e r s o n who d o e s n o t p r o nounce them h i m s e l f h e a r s them a s p h o n e s r e s e m b l i n g o r i d e n t i c a l w i t h h i s own / d / . B u t i n t h e d i a l e c t s p e a k e r ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h e y a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m and o p p o s e d t o / d / . T h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c a s e s , however, in which such s p e l l i n g s are phonemic a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e . In o t h e r w o r d s , a l o n g s i d e t h e d e n t a l s t o p and a f f r i c a t e , p h o n e s may o c c u r w h i c h must be a s s i g n e d t o t h e /d/-phoneme ( t i p - o r b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d s t o p o r t a p ) . In i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n / d / may a p p e a r a t l e a s t o c c a s i o n a l l y i n a l l t h e common w o r d s , b u t most f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e word the p r e c e d e d by an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l ( t o the, of the) o r by / t / o r / d / (at the movies, He heard the whistle). M e d i a l l y , I have observed /d/

38

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i n other ( m a k i n g i t a homonym o f utter end udder when t h e s e w o r d s a r e p a r t o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y ) and o c c a s i o n a l l y in brother and mother, b u t n o t in most o t h e r c a s e s : i t d o e s not o c c u r , f o r e x a m p l e , i n p a r t i c i p l e s l i k e bathing, i n northern, southern ( n e v e r a homonym o f sudden), either, further, and s o f o r t h . Nor h a v e I o b s e r v e d / d / in p l a c e o f / 9 / in w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n : breathe a n d breed are never i d e n t i c a l , nor a r e bathe-blade r i m e s in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . P u t smooth-rude, f o r / d / i n with b e f o r e a vowel, see the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n . As h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , t h e a f f r i c a t e and d e n t a l s t o p a l l o p h o n e s o f / f t / ( a n d / Θ / ) o c c u r in f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e f r i c a t i v e , and t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f / d / (and / t / ) i s a l s o n e v e r r e g u l a r l y c a r r i e d t h r o u g h . Such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o c c u r v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s p e e c h o f many New Y o r k e r s , b u t I h a v e n o t o b s e r v e d a n y s p e a k e r who d i d n o t u s e t h e f r i c a t i v e s a l s o , e t l e a s t o c c a s i o n a l l y . On t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s o f New York s p e e c h , . i t f r e q u e n t l y h a p p e n s t h a t a s p e a k e r w i l l in m o s t p o s i t i o n s pronounce f r i c a t i v e s i d e n t i c a l with those o f c u l t i vated E n g l i s h , but w i l l sometimes pronounce the v a r i a n t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e p a r a g r a p h s i n with and i n w o r d s in w h i c h / f t / i s i n i t i a l ( the, this, that, etc.).25 One f u r t h e r f a c t a b o u t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e a f f r i c a t e and d e n t a l s t o p a l l o p h o n e « o r o f / t / and / d / i n p l a c e o f t h e f r i c a t i v e s i s t h a t s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a p p e a r f a r m o r e comm a t l y i n t h e s p e e c h o f men and b o y s t h a n i n t h a t o f women and g i r l s . T h i s comes o u t r a t h e r c l e a r l y i n t h e s p e e c h o f my l e s s c u l t i v a t e d i n f o r m a n t s and may i n f a c t b e o b s e r v e d on e v e r y side. 4 . 5 . / ε / . A v o i c e l e s s b l a d e - a l veo l a r f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , i n a m h i s y l l a h i c p o s i t i o n , and i n a l a r g e n u m b e r o f i n i t i a l and f i n a l c l u s t e r s : seal, miss, message, spin, slight, blast, risk, else, once, e t c . When t h e f r i c a t i v e p r e c e d e s / Θ / o r / Ö / ( e s t h e t i c , miss the t r a i n ) , t h e t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n i s o f t e n somewhat a d v a n c e d . The d e n t a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t s t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s o much o f t h e s p e e c h o f t h e c i t y o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e s . The t i p of the tongue, i n s t e a d of b e i n g r a i s e d c l o s e to t h e u p p e r g u m - r i d g e , i s h e l d a g a i n s t t h e l o w e r f r o n t t e e t h . In h i s a c count of Southern B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n , Jones d e s c r i b e s a v a r i e t y of [ s ] made w i t h t h e t o n g u e - t i p h e l d i n a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n , b u t a d d s t h a t i t i s h a r d l y to he d i s t i n g u i s h e d a c o u s t i c a l l y f r o m t h e m o r e common t y p e . 2 ® Kenyon a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e f r i c a t i v e by some s p e a k e r s w i t h t h e t o n g u e a g a i n s t t h e back o f t h e lower t e e . t h , but s a y s n o t h i n g o f any r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in a c o u s t i c q u a l i t y . 2 ' In l i k e f a s h i o n , t h e i r t i c u l » t i o n o f t h e f r i c a t i v e may be o b s e r v e d t o v a r y s o m e w h a t in t h e s p e e c h of t h e c u l t i v a t e d i n New York C i t y . P u t t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n v a r i e t y i s t o he d i s t in ευ i s h e d f r o m t h e t y p e s m e n t i o n e d by Tones and

THE CONSONANTS

39

K e n y o n , b e c a u s e t h e h i s s i s d e c i d e d l y m o r e p r o m i n e n t and a l s o u s u a l l y s e e m s l o v e r i n p i t c h . The d i f f e r e n c e p e r h a p s d e p e n d s i n p a r t on a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f e x p i r a t o r y f o r c e , b u t i s c h i e f l y t h e r e s u l t , I b e l i e v e , of a w i d e r a p e r t u r e between t h e b l a d e o f t h e t o n g u e and t h e g u m - r i d g e . In J o n e s ' palatog r a m s o f t h e f r i c a t i v e , ^ ® f i r s t a s i t i s made w i t h t h e t i p r a i s e d , then w i t h i t l o w e r e d , t h e r i l l in t h e l a t t e r c a s e i s only s l i g h t l y wider than in the f o r m e r . In E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n g e n e r a l l y , i t q u i t e c o m m o n l y h a p p e n s t h a t / z / i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n e n d s v o i c e l e s s l y when i t occurs b e f o r e a pause or a f o l l o w i n g v o i c e l e s s consonant. If a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t p r e c e d e s , t h e f r i c a t i v e may b e v o i c e l e s s t h r o u g h o u t i t s e n t i r e l e n g t h . The / s / - / z / o p p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e c a s e s i s n o r m a l l y p r e s e r v e d as a d i s t i n c t i o n between f o r t i s and l e n i s . T h e r e a r e some New Y o r k e r s , h o w e v e r , who o f t e n u n v o i c e t h e f i n a l f r i c a t i v e and a t t h e same t i m e make i t r a t h e r f o r t i s . As a r e s u l t , / ε / may s p o r a d i c a l l y r e p l a c e / z / b e f o r e a p a u s e . S i m i l a r f o r t i s u n v o i c i n g s may b e h e a r d b e f o r e f o l l o w i n g v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s ( D o c t o r s ' Hospital, he was caref u l , e t c . ) . Some c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o n o u n c e i n t h i s f a s h i o n , b u t I h a v e o b s e r v e d t h e u n v o i c i n g m o r e comm o n l y on t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s . The s u b s t i t u t i o n i s a l w a y s s p o r a d i c - - I h a v e n o t h e a r d a n y o n e who r e g u l a r l y a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o n o u n c e d / s / in t h e s e c a s e s . Such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e , o f c o u r s e , t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e few c a s e s l i k e used to (= " w a s a c c u s t o m e d t o " ) , w h e r e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f /e/ i s u n i v e r s a l , a n d l i k e has lo ( - " m u s t " ) and n e w s p a p e r , w h e r e i t i s e x t r e m e l y common. 4.6. / z / . A voiced b l a d e - a 1 veo1ar f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in t h e a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , a n d i n a n u m b e r o f f i n a l c l u s t e r s : zeal, raise, visit, raised, builds, runs, e t c . P a r t i a l l y o r w h o l l y v o i c e l e s s a l l o p h o n e s o c c u r in f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a pause or a following v o i c e l e s s consonant. P e f o r e / ' θ / and / 3 / , t h e t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n of t h e f r i c a t i v e may be s o m e w h a t a d v a n c e d . O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e a r e no a p p r e c i a b l y d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s t h a t m u s t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . L i k e / ε / , the v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e i s o f t e n a r t i c u l a t e d by l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s with the t i p of the tongue h e l d a g a i n s t the lower f r o n t t e e t h and p e r h a p s w i t h a s o m e w h a t w i d e r a p e r t u r e b e t w e e n t h e b l a d e o f t h e t o n g u e and t h e g u m - r i d g e . In a l l t y p e s o f E n g l i s h , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f w o r d s t h a t v a r y i n t h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o n b e t w e e n / s / a n d / z / . In some c a s e s , b o t h v a r i a n t s a r e f o u n d v e r y w i d e l y i n A m e r i c a and i n England; in o t h e r s , a p r o n u n c i a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in one c o u n t r y i s r a r e i n t h e o t h e r o r i s n o t h e a r d a t a l l . With r e s p e c t t o most of t h e w o r d s in q u e s t i o n , m e t r o p o l i t a n u s a e e does n o t d i f f e r from t h a t of America g e n e r a l l y . For t h e s a k e o f b r e v i t y , t h e r e f o r e , I s h a l l e n u m e r a t e o n l y t h o s e few w o r d s whose p r o n u n c i a t i o n I h a v e o b s e r v e d t o d i f f e r i n some way from t h a t r e c o r d e d i n t h e Kenyon a n d K n o t t D i c t i o n a r y :

40

THE CONSONANTS

Adhes ivt, exclusive, explosive, persuas ive, and t h e l i k e h a v e v a r i a n t s w i t h /z/; so a l s o d o e s the word illusory. These p r o n u n c i a t i o n s are perhaps s u r v i v a l s , perhaps a n a l o g i c a l r e f o r m a t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t o f adhesion, exclusion, e t c . They a r e n o t c o n f i n e d t o u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e seems t o be commoner in some words than in o t h e r s : Τ have h e a r d i t , f o r e x a m p l e , more o f t e n in adhethan in exclusive. sive Because i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y pronounced w i t h / ε / on t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s . Many p e r s o n s u s e both / ε / and /z/, a p p a r e n t l y a t random. Business in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f some u s u a l l y l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s i s / ' b i z n a z / , which may be a s u r v i v a l o f an o l d e r p r o n u n c i a t i o n now r a t h e r g e n e r a l l y g i v e n up. In casserole I have s o m e t i m e s h e a r d /z/. Desolate and desolation o c c a s i o n a l l y have / z / in l e s s c u l tivated pronunciation. Dis-: Disaster has both /β/ and / z / . Kenyon and K n o t t r e c o r d / z / as a v a r i a n t in disable, disarm, disdain, disgust, dishonest, dishonor, dismay, disorder, and disovn. I have not o b s e r v e d / z / in t h e s e words in m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . Fricassee has a v a r i a n t w i t h / z / . Jesus i s s o m e t i m e s / ' d j i l z e z / on the l e s s c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s . has a r a t h e r common v a r i a n t w i t h / ε / , which I have Joseph heard c h i e f l y on the l e s s c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s . Resource and resourcefu I f r e q u e n t l y have / z / ( a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e ) . T h i s v a r i a n t i s n o t c o n f i n e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d speech. 4 . 7 . ///· A v o i c e l e s s l i p - m o d i f i e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r fricative o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in t h e a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , in t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r / J r / and t h e f i n a l c l u s t e r / J t / : shine, insure, dish, mission, shrill, mashed. In t h e s p e e c h o f t h o s e who p r o n o u n c e / τ / in t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a 1 p o s i t i o n , the c l u s t e r / r j / a l s o a p p e a r s . The d e g r e e o f l i p - m o d i f i c a t i o n may v a r y in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t s p e a k e r s f r o m none a t a l l t o m o d e r a t e r o u n d i n g and p r o t r u s i o n . ® T h e r e i s a l s o some t e n d e n c y to round the c o n s o n a n t more s t r o n g l y b e f o r e a s t r e s s e d v o w e l than i n o t h e r p o s i t i o n s . E x c e p t f o r t h i s minor matter, however, n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t allophones of the f r i c a t i v e do not o c c u r . In u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , the f r i c a t i v e i s s o m e t i m e s a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h a t t y p e o f d e n t a l i z a t i o n which has a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d in p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s : the t i p o f the t o n g u e , t h a t i s t o s a y , may be h e l d a g a i n s t the back o f the l o w e r f r o n t t e e t h . T h i s t y p e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n , which i s n o t n e a r l y so common as t h e den t a 1 i za t ion o f [ β ] , r e s u l t s in a somewhat " t h i n n e r " and more ί ε ΐ - l i k e sound. F a t h e r r e g u l a r l y , as in o t h e r t y p e s o f F n p l i s h , /// r e p l a c e s /β/ when f i n a l b e f o r e / ' / i n i t i a l in the f o l l o w i n g s y l l a b l e : a c l o s e shave, tortoise-shell, this shocking story. The

THE CONSONANTS

41

d o u b l e c o n s o n a n t s w h i c h r e s u l t a r e s o m e t i m e s s i m p l i f i e d . In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h e same a s s i m i l a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l o s s o f [ t ] m e d i a l l y in w o r d s l i k e question, suggestion: / ' k w e f f a n , 'kwe/an/, etc. S p o r a d i c a l l y / / / ( o r / f j / ) a l s o o c c u r s by a s s i m i l a t i o n f r o m / ε j / (this year, Is this yours?, e t c . ) . This assimilat i o n and t h e p a r a l l e l o c c u r r e n c e o f / (or / 3 j / ) for / z j / ( a s you know, close your eyes) a r e s o m e w h a t l e s s common t h a n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f / t / / and / ( I 3 / i n I've caught you and Let me read you the letter (see pages 4 3 - 4 4 ) . 3 0 In t h e p h o n e t i c a n d l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / / / , m e t r o p o l i tan speech does not d i f f e r from American E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y ; d i f f e r e n c e s from S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h i n v o l v e o n l y a small number o f w o r d s , f o r e x a m p l e , issue and tissue, which r e g u l a r l y have / J / , and ftrii«, w h i c h r e g u l a r l y h a s / g / . Asia u s u a l l y h a s / j / , a l t h o u g h some o f my o l d e r i n f o r m a n t s p r o n o u n c e / / / . T h e word » u r s t and i t s c o m p o u n d s r e q u i r e p a r t i c u l a r m e n t i o n : b e s i d e / m S a e t j w r s t / , u s e d by many, e s p e c i a l l y among t h e m o r e e d u c a t e d , t h e r e i s a l s o a v e r y common p r o n u n c i a t i o n / w u / t / , i n w h i c h t h e vowel and t h e / f / a r e p r e s u m a b l y t a k e n f r o m t h e German d i a l e c t s and Y i d d i s h . A p r o n u n c i a t i o n / w u s t / i s a l s o u s e d by some. I h a v e n o t h e a r d * / w 3 i e t / . 4.8. / 3 / . A voiced l i p - m o d i f i e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e occ u r s i n i t i a l l y i n s y l l a b l e s w h i c h do n o t b e g i n w o r d s : l u x u r i o u s , regime ( a s a w o r d - i n i t i a l / j / may a p p e a r o n l y i n a few l e a r n e d w o r d s l i k e g e n r e w h i c h a r e p r o n o u n c e d i n a more o r l e s s F r e n c h i f i e d f a s h i o n ) ; in t h e ambisy11abic p o s i t i o n : p l e a s u r e , v i s i o n ; f i n a l l y : c o r s a g e , rouge (but see below); and i n t h e f i n a l c l u s t e r / 3 d / : rouged. As i n t h e c a s e o f / / / , t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e l i p s a r e r o u n d e d and p r o t r u d e d v a r i e s somewhat b u t i s u s u a l l y n o t g r e a t . The a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n s o n a n t by u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s w i t h t h e t i p o f t h e t o n g u e h e l d a g a i n s t t h e l o w e r f r o n t t e e t h may s o m e t i m e s b e o b s e r v e d . On t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s , / τ / o f t e n d o e s n o t o c c u r as a w o r d - f i n a l in most of t h e words of f a i r l y r e c e n t F r e n c h o r i g i n l i k e camouf läge, corsage, garage, massage, rouge, /(I3/ b e i n g pronounced i n s t e a d . U s u a l l y t h i s r e p l a c e ment i s n o t r e g u l a r l y c a r r i e d t h r o u g h : a s p e a k e r w i l l p r o n o u n c e /d%/ i n some w o r d s ( f o r e x a m p l e , camouflage, garage) and / 3 / in some ( f o r e x a m p l e , beige and r o u g e ) . As i n o t h e r p a r t s of America, / d j / i s o c c a s i o n a l l y h e a r d in e d u c a t e d s p e e c h i n some o f t h e s e w o r d s , b u t t h e r e i s a w i d e s p r e a d p r e j udice a g a i n s t such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s . As a w o r d - f i n a l , q u i t e commonly r e p l a c e s / z / b e f o r e / J / i n i t i a l in t h e n e x t word i n p h r a s e s J i k e a s she said, he's sure. The o c c u r r e n c e o f /J5/ in c a s e s l i k e as you know, close your eyes h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n . The l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of / % / d o e s n o t d i f f e r f r o m t h a t f o u n d g e n e r a l l y i n A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h . P u t an o d d o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e c o n s o n a n t i s f o u n d i n t h e name Loeser (a well-known P r o o k -

42

THE CONSONANTS

lyn department s t o r e ) , which i s pronounced / ' l o u j s ^ / . I have, f u r t h e r m o r e , heard / g / pronounced by a few s p e a k e r s in misery and miserable, 4 . 9 . / h / . A g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y in s y l l a b l e s . As in o t h e r t y p e s of English p r o n u n c i a t i o n which c o n t a i n t h i s phoneme, t h e r e a r e s t r i c t l y speaking as many a l l o p h o n e s of t h e consonant as t h e r e a r e vowels, s i n c e the tongue- and l i p p o s i t i o n of each vowel i s approximated d u r i n g the a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e p r e c e d i n g f r i c a t i v e . But no purpose i s served by distinguishing these v a r i e t i e s . D i f f e r e n c e s in t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of / h / by c u l t i v a t e d and u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s do not o c c u r . So f a r as i t s p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n i s concerned, m e t r o p o l i t a n speech d i f f e r s from t h a t of much of America in t h a t t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r /hw/ (in words l i k e when and white) does not occur in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of most New Y o r k e r s , who say /wen, w a i t / (see page 5 2 ) . Furthermore, t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r / h j / (in words l i k e huge and humorous) i s very f r e q u e n t l y l a c k i n g αϊ the u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s : /juud.3, ' j u u m e r a s / (see page 54). I f words in which these c l u s t e r s may occur a r e l e f t out of cons i d e r a t i o n , the l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the f r i c a t i v e i s in g e n e r a l t h e same on a l l l e v e l s and does not d i f f e r from t h a t found in the o t h e r v a r i e t i e s of American E n g l i s h . P l a c e - and family-names in -ham, when they do not have s p e l l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s with /Θ/ or / f / (Ifaltham, Wicke rsham), have no / h / i f they a r e of two s y l l a b l e s (Chatham, Fordham, Bingham, Burnham), but they a r e pronounced with / h / i f they a r e longer (Birmingham, Nottingham, Sydenham). 31 When the longer names, however, a r e a p p l i e d to B r i t i s h p l a c e s and p e r s o n s , t h e B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s may be used by t h o s e among t h e more educated who know them. S i m i l a r l y , Amherst and Haverhill a r e pronounced /'aemsst/ and / ' h e i v a r a l / by t h o s e t o whom t h e y a r e f a m i l i a r , but s p e l l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s may a l s o be h e a r d . Of t h o s e words in which ( /tl/ i s normally not pronounced between a s t r e s s e d and an u n s t r e s s e d vowel, I have not heard i t i n s e r t e d in annihilate, Graham, nihilism, vehement; in vehicle i t i s not i n f r e q u e n t l y pronounced by l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s ; f o r rehabilitate and prehistoric both p r o n u n c i a t i o n o c c u r . Of words in which o r t h o g r a p h i c h i s preceded by ex-, exhale i s / ^ k s ' h e i l / and I have never heard / s g ' z e l l / , but / h / does not occur in the o t h e r words (exhaust, exhort, exhibit, etc.). Usage in regard to the omission of / h / in the u n s t r e s s e d forms of he, his, him, her^ have, has, had does not d i f f e r from t h a t found e l s e w h e r e . In a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e / h / i s f r e q u e n t l y l o s t in Come here / ( k A ' n i i s ( r , k s - / . In a few words in which / h / i s o f t e n not pronounced in Southern P r i t i s h E n g l i s h , I have not heard i t omitted in New York speech: historical, horizon, hotel, the second s y l l a b l e of hedgehog and household, and the phrase at home.

THE CONSONANTS

43

hour, honor, honest, O r t h o g r a p h i c h i s " s i l e n t " i n heir, and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s , as i n o t h e r d i a l e c t s . F o r humble, I have h e a r d o n l y / hAinbsl/. Herb has b o t h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s . I n homage^ and hostler, w h i c h a r e b o o k - w c r d s t o many, i t i s perhaps o n l y t h e d i c t i o n a r y e n t r i e s t h a t k e e p t h e o l d e r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s w i t h o u t /h/ i n u s e a t a l l . THE

AFFRICATES

5.1. / t j / . A v o i c e l e s s p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r a f f r i c a t e occurs i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in t h e a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , and i n c e r t a i n f i n a l c l u s t e r s : chin, fracture, ditch, butcher, reached, branch, filch. H i e l i p s may be h e l d in a n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n o r may be s l i g h t l y rounded and p r o t r u d e d . In u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o nunciation, the a f f r i c a t e i s sometimes a r t i c u l a t e d with the t o n g u e - t i p in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l o w e r f r o n t t e e t h . In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , t h e s t o p - c o m p o n e n t o f t h e a f f r i c a t e i s s p o r a d i c a l l y weakened o r l o s t i n c e r t a i n c a s e s w h e r e c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n p r e s e r v e s i t . Thus a f t e r / s / ( q u e s tion, suggestion), /p/ (rupture), /k/ actual, fracture, lecture), t h e f r i c a t i v e a l o n e may o c c u r , s o t h a t , f o r examp l e , action and actual c o n t a i n t h e same c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e . F i n a l l y a f t e r a v o w e l , t h e s t o p may s o m e t i m e s a l s o be w e a k ened and i s s p o r a d i c a l l y l o s t , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t much may o c c a s i o n a l l y be p r o n o u n c e d l i k e mush and search so as t o r i m e w i t h the name Kirsch. A f t e r /η, 1/, as i n o t h e r f o r m s o f Engl i s h , t h e r e i s r e a l l y no / t / / - / / / o p p o s i t i o n ( b r a n c h , filch): the s t o p - c o m p o n e n t i s s o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t , s o m e t i m e s a b s e n t , a l t h o u g h , as e l s e w h e r e i n A m e r i c a , t h e l o s s i s n o t as f r e quent as i n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . Put t h e s t o p i s n e v e r h e a r d i n the u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f w o r d s l i k e conscious and ancient i n w h i c h /n/ i s r e p r e s e n t e d m e r e l y by a s t r o n g n a s a l i z a t i o n of the p r e c e d i n g vowel ( s e e page 5 5 ) . The a f f r i c a t e f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t s f r o m t h e r e c i p r o c a l a s s i m i l a t i o n o f / t / and a f o l l o w i n g / j / i n c a s e s l i k e meet you and caught you. The a s s i m i l a t i o n i s a v o i d e d by some s p e a k e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y by t h o s e who a s p i r e t o s p e a k w e l l and a r e at t h e same t i m e v e r y u n c o n f i d e n t o f t h e i r own n a t u r a l u s a g e ) but i s v e r v common on a l l l e v e l s . T h e r e i s a l s o t h e same v a r i a t i o n between / t j / and the s e q u e n c e / t j / , i n some w o r d s l i k e literature and congratulate, w h i c h i s t o be f o u n d i n o t h e r t y p e s of E n g l i s h . L i k e A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y , metropolitan usage d i f f e r s f r o m B r i t i s h in t h e c a s e o f a f e w w o r d s , / t j " / being o r d i n a r i l y p r o n o u n c e d in aperture, overture, bestial, celestial, Christian. Furthermore, c e r t a i n words which f r e q u e n t l y h a v e /dz,/ i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h ( o s t r i c h , sandwich, spinach, and p l a c e - n a m e s l i k e Greenwich and Norwich) are regu l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / t J / i n New Y o r k . 5.2. /άτ,/. A v o i c e d p a l a t o - a l v e o l a r ly and f i n a l l y , i n the a m b i s y l l a b i c

affricate position,

occurs and i n

initialseveral

44

THE CONSONANTS

f i n a l c l u s t e r s : job, majestic, cage, Dodgers, edged, lunge, bulge, L i k e / t j " / , t h e v o i c e d a f f r i c a t e may be a r t i c u l a t e d by some s p e a k e r s w i t h a c e r t a i n r o u n d i n g and p r o t r u s i o n o f t h e l i p s . A d e n t a l i z e d v a r i e t y may s o m e t i m e s be o b s e r v e d i n unc u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . When f i n a l b e f o r e a pause o r a f o l l o w i n g v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t , t h e f r i c a t i v e component may be p a r t l y or e n t i r e l y v o i c e l e s s . O r d i n a r i l y , t h i s v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e phone i s a l e n i s , b u t some s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e w o r d s l i k e college w i t h what m i g h t be w r i t t e n [dj*] . T h i s t y p e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n , w h i c h a p p e a r s i n t h e s p e e c h o f s e v e r a l o f my i n f o r m a n t s ( s e e s e c t i o n 1 3 . 1 ) , I h a v e o b s e r v e d most f r e q u e n t l y i n l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , but i t may o c c u r as an i n d i v i d u a l p e c u l i a r i t y on a l l l e v e l s . The s u b s t i t u t i o n o f the e n t i r e l y v o i c e l e s s a f f r i c a t e i s always, I think, a f o r e i g n i s m . P a r a l l e l i n g / t J V , /άτ,/ v e r y f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t s f r o m t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f /d/ and a f o l l o w i n g / j / i n c a s e s l i k e Would you mind?, I heard you, e t c . W i t h i n t h e word t h e r e i s t h e u s u a l v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n /d.3/ and t h e s e q u e n c e / d j / i n w o r d s l i k e educate and procedure. As i n A m e r i c a r a t h e r g e n e r a l l y , /d^/ i s v e r y commonly p r o nounced by l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s i n a number o f w o r d s o f F r e n c h o r i g i n t h a t i n e d u c a t e d E n g l i s h have exclusively o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y : barrage, garage, massage, and t h e l i k e (see page 41). F o r t h e a b s e n c e o f a /d:?/-/^/ o p p o s i t i o n a f t e r /n, 1/ (fringe, bulge), see the p a r a l l e l c a s e in the p r e c e d i n g s e c tion. VOICED FRICTIONLESS CONSONANTS WITH VOICELESS FRICATIVE VARIANTS33 6. 1. / r / . The f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s o f the c o n s o n a n t may be distinguished: a) I n i t i a l l y b e f o r e s t r e s s e d v o w e l s and as a w o r d - i n i t i a l b e f o r e u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s (red, arrange, resign), a voiced p o s t - a l v e o l a r or a l v e o l a r l i p - m o d i f i e d f r i c t i o n l e s s consonant o c c u r s . The s i d e s o f t h e t o n g u e a r e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a t e r a l g u m - r i d g e s and w i t h t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e u p p e r mol a r s . The t o n g u e - p o i n t i s r a i s e d , u s u a l l y o p p o s i t e t h e back o f t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e , a l t h o u g h more a d v a n c e d v a r i e t i e s o c c u r ; i t i s n o t t u r n e d back i n t o t h e p a l a t a l a r c h , as o f t e n seems t o happen i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n s p e a k e r s . As a r e s u l t o f t h e r a i s i n g o f t h e s i d e s and p o i n t , t h e b l a d e i s h e l d i n a somewhat c o n c a v e p o s i t i o n . Accompanyi n g t h i s a c t i o n of the tongue, t h e r e i s u s u a l l y a secondary l i p - a r t i c u l a t i o n : t h e l i p s a p p r o a c h e a c h o t h e r , c l o s i n g at e i t h e r s i d e , w i t h o u t b e i n g markedly protruded. In t h e s p e e c h o f some l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , / r / i n t h i s p o s i t i o n i s a r t i c u l a t e d in a manner a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t w h i c h has a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d i n t h e a c c o u n t o f / t / and / d / . The p o i n t o f t h e t o n g u e r i s e s v e r y l i t t l f e , i f at a l l , and may

THE CONSONANTS

45

be h e l d a g a i n s t the lower f r o n t t e e t h ; t h e b l a d e i s h i g h e r than the p o i n t . When a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n , the c o n s o nant would g i v e no p a l a t o g r a m , f o r the s i d e s of the tongue touch the m o l a r s but do not make c o n t a c t w i t h the l a t e r a l g u m - r i d g e s . P e r h a p s a s a compensation f o r t h i s weakened t o n g u e - a c t i o n , the a c t i o n of the l i p s i s o f t e n r a t h e r pronounced. ( T h i s s e c o n d a r y a r t i c u l a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y l a b i o d e n t a l . ) T h i s k i n d of a r t i c u l a t i o n i s by no means u n i v e r s a l in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d speech--many p e r s o n s a r t i c u l a t e the consonant in a manner no d i f f e r e n t from t h a t found i n the pronunc i a t i o n of the c u l t i v a t e d . 6) When p r e c e d e d i n the same s y l l a b l e by o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s , a l l o p h o n e s of /r/ occur t h a t e x h i b i t m o d i f i c a t i o n s of the same b a s i c tongue and l i p a r t i c u l a t i o n . A f t e r the v o i c e l e s s s t o p s , / r / may be r e p r e s e n t e d e i t h e r by a v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e or by an a l l o p h o n e t h a t b e g i n s v o i c e l e s s l y . But when t h e s e s t o p s a r e in t u r n p r e c e d e d by /s/, a s i n spring, street, scrawl, the v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e does not a p p e a r . A f t e r /d/ a l s o , a s i n draw and drill, the c o n s o n a n t t e n d s to be a f r i c a t i v e , but i n t h i s c a s e i s a l w a y s v o i c e d . Flapped a r t i c u l a t i o n may o c c u r in the i n i t i a l c l u s t e r /ΘΓ/ (three, thrifty), as the t o n g u e - p o i n t moves s m a r t l y back from the t e e t h and s t r i k e s the p o s t e r i o r a l v e o l a r r i d g e . In / f r / and / J r / (free, shrill) t h e r e may be some s l i g h t i n i t i a l u n v o i c i n g , but i n g e n e r a l the o t h e r c l u s t e r s show no n o t i c e a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . Some u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s employ i n t h e s e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r s the same t y p e of a r t i c u l a t i o n w i t h reduced p o i n t - a c t i o n which has a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d . In the word tray, f o r e x a m p l e , the t o n g u e - p o i n t may be h e l d a g a i n s t the lower f r o n t t e e t h throughout the e n t i r e word. The l o s s of the consonant from i n i t i a l c l u s t e r s in uns t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s may be observed i n a few c a s e s , c h i e f l y i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n /'hAnQt/, r e f e r r e d t o on page 27, i s h a r d l y an example of such l o s s , f o r i t i s und o u b t e d l y the l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e o l d e r m e t a t h e s i z e d form. But from when u n s t r e s s e d i s o f t e n /fem/, and t h e l o s s may o c c a s i o n a l l y occur in the i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e s of words l i k e pre pared, prescription (pronounced w i t h o u t the consonant by Informant §39). In t h e s e l a t t e r c a s e s , however, the o m i s s i o n i s v e r y p o s s i b l y due to a c o n f u s i o n of p r e f i x e s ; the o p p o s i t e tendency a p p e a r s i n /pra'hseps/, one p r o n u n c i a t i o n of perhaps. c) Within the word between a s t r e s s e d and an u n s t r e s s e d vowel or between two u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s (Sarah, very; watering), a v o i c e d f r i c t i o n l e s s consonant o c c u r s , the tongue g l i d i n g up and away from the p o s i t i o n d e s c r i b e d in α above. Some s p e a k e r s , however, a r t i c u l a t e t h e consonant in t h i s pos i t i o n in the f a s h i o n d e s c r i b e d by T h o m a s , ^ i n which the point of the tongue r e m a i n s low, w h i l e t h e body a r c h e s up c l o s e to the p o s t e r i o r hard p a l a t e . The l i p - m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h i s a l l o p h o n e i s reduced or ent i r e l y a b s e n t in the u s a g e of the c u l t i v a t e d ; but in some

46

THE CONSONANTS

uncultivated metropolitan speech it occurs here also in a pronounced form. Such speakers, in uttering the word very, for example, may raise the lower lip for the [r] as vigorously as they do for the [v] . (Here again, Informants #20 and #30 may serve as illustrations. ) In the articulation of this phone, the tongue-point may remain in contact with the lower front teeth. Flapped articulation of the consonant in intervocalic position is rarely heard in metropolitan speech. I have observed it chiefly in the professional dialect of elocutionists and it is without doubt an acquired pronunciation. Within the word, the consonant is stable jti the ambisyllabic position and the tendency, observable in certain types of Coastal Southern speech, to omit it in words like very, carry, and Carolina, is not found in metropolitan usage. ^ There are several cases, to be sure, in which /r/ may not be present between vowels: temperature is often /' temps f t J"u§ (r, -t/s(r/ in negligent and less cultivated speech and a similar pronunciation of literature may sometimes be heard. Veterinary often suffers the same loss, even in educated pr^tiunciation. The omission of the consonant in these words, however, is hardly a phonetic phenomenon, but is probably the result of analogical re-formation on the pattern of armature, furniture, dictionary, seminary, and the like. .Among the forms in which the consonant occurs between vowels are aren't /'aSrsnt / and weren't /'wArsnt/. In addition, daren't is usually read by students as /'deSrsnt/, although this form is hardly part of their everyday usage. Such pronunciations are regular on the less cultivated levels; they may also frequently be heard from cultivated speakers, although some use the monosyllabic pronunciations that are usual in other types of Fnglish. d ) In the more common types of New York City pronunciation, there is a regular alternation, like that of Southern British Fnglish, between word-final sequences containing /r/ and those that lack it. When a word like here or car is followed by another beginning with a vowel, the consonant appears; it does not occur, however, when such a word stands before a pause or before a word beginning with a consonant. The alternations are as follows: /is-i§r/ (hear), /8§-6§r/ (share), /aS-asr/ ( f a r ) , /o5-0§r/ (war), /u§-u§r/ (poor), /3§-3§r, 38 A-AT, Ae-Asr/ ( f u r ), 3 7 /s-sr/ (whisper). So also / r/ appears before suffixes beginning with a vowel: hearing, fairest, starry. In this type of pronunciation, as in Southern British Fnglish, /r/ in the word-final position is very commonly omitted even before an initial vowel in words like emperor, horror, and terror, in which the final vowel is in turn preceded by /r/. Unlike the Fritish practice,® however, the omission is not usual unless the final vowel is unstressed: it would not ordinarily be made in closely knit phrases like rare example and rear admiral.

THE CONSONANTS

47

E l s e w h e r e the t e n d e n c y to omit the w o r d - f i n a l v a r i e t y of / r / b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l i s common e n o u g h , a l t h o u g h n o t s o f r e q u e n t a s i n C o a s t a l S o u t h e r n s p e e c h . When t h e o m i s s i o n i s made, t h e t r a n s i t i o n i s sometimes smooth ( a s i s u s u a l l y t h e c a s e in t h o s e v a r i e t i e s o f C o a s t a l S o u t h e r n which I have o b s e r v e d ) ; b u t o f t e n t h e s e c o n d v o w e l i s p r e c e d e d by a g l o t tal stop. As i n t h e s o u t h o f E n g l a n d and t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e New E n g l a n d s t a t e s , s o i n New Y o r k C i t y many s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e loafer, / r / b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , n o t on l v i n w o r d s l i k e dear, car, and lore, b u t a l s o in t h o s e o f t h e t y p e o f sofa, idea, Utah, and Ι α » , i n w h i c h / r / n e v e r a p p e a r s i n G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . Put a n o t h e r way, in t h e s p e e c h of such p e r s o n s the s e q u e n c e s / a / p l u s v o w e l , / i s / p l u s vowel, / a s / p l u s v o w e l , and /r>5/ p l u s v o w e l o r d i n a r i l y do n o t o c c u r . Th i s ph en an en on, w h i c h i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d " i n t r u s i v e r , " a term h a r d l y w a r r a n t e d in d e s c r i p t i v e p h o n e t i c s , i s n o t c o n f i n e d , o f c o u r s e , t o u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f s u c h w o r d s w i t h / r / i s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l on t h e l o w e r l e v e l s ; but t h e r e a r e a l s o many among t h e c u l t i v a t e d who p r o n o u n c e in t h i s f a s h i o n . * ® In h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h , .(ones r e f e r s to t h e f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / in p h r a s e s l i k e china and glass, a vanilla ice, the sonata in F, b u t t h e n a d d s t h a t " t h e u s e o f i n t r u s i v e r" in w o r d s l i k e Shah a n d lav " i s n o t v e r y common among e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s . One m i g h t make a n o t e n t i r e l y d i s s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t a b o u t m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n : some c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s who w o u l d o f t e n p r o n o u n c e / r / in w o r d s l i k e china, vanilla, and s o n a t a w o u l d r a r e l y do s o in t h o s e l i k e Shah and l a m P u t in t h e s p e e c h o f t h e c i t y as a w h o l e , t h e o c c u r r e n c e of / r / in p h r a s e s l i k e Utah is the home of the Mormons and the laic of the land i s v e r y common. The u s u a l o m i s s i o n o f / r / a t t h e e n d o f w o r d s a f t e r an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l t h a t i s in t u r n p r e c e d e d bv / r / (emperor, horror) has been r e f e r r e d to a b o v e . S i m i l a r l y , I h a v e n o t h e a r d / r / p r o n o u n c e d a s a w o r d - f i n a l i n camera, Clara, Dora, orchestra, Sinatra, and t h e l i k e . T h e a l l o p h o n e s t h a t o c c u r in w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l a r e t h e same as t h o s e t h a t a p p e a r i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e w o r d : t h e t o n g u e - p o i n t may g l i d e up t o w a r d s and a w a y f r o m t h e b a c k o f t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e , o r t h e body o f t h e t o n g u e may move up t o w a r d s and away f r o m t h e p o s t e r i o r h a r d p a l a t e . F l a p p e d a r t i c u l a t i o n o c c u r s as an o c c a s i o n a l a f f e c t a t i o n . ^ T h e u n c u l t i v a t e d v a r i a n t « , d i s c u s s e d in c a b o v e a l s o a p p e a r i71 t h i s p o s i t i o n . When / r / o c c u r s i n w o r d s l i k e planner and steeper, two s l i e h t l y d i f f e r i n g t v p e s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n inav be o b s e r v e d , one r e s e m b l i n g t h e S o u t h e r n P r i t i s h , the o t h e r the G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n . T h a t i s t o s a v , one s o m e t i m e s h e a r s a s e q u e n c e c o m p o s e d o f an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l p l u s [ r ] ; but in e t h e r u t t e r a n c e s , t h e t o n g u e moves s o r a p i d l v t o t h e [ r ] - p o s i t i o n t h a t no v o w e l i s s e p a r a t e l y perceived.

48

TOE CONSTANTS

e ) In t h e s p e e c h o f t h o s e whose u s a g e we have been c o n s i d e r i n g so f a r , / r / d o e s n o t occur in t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e w o r d , j u s t as i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r in the w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t or speared·, b e f o r e a p a u s e . Thus, / r / d o e s n o t o c c u r i n beard, scarce, cares; sharp, cars; port, shores; cares, poorly; third, furs; custard, glittered. This type of pronunciation i s s t i l l in mv o b s e r v a t i o n the most common one in t h e speech o f t h e c i t y . * * I t i s n o t t h e o n l y t v p e , h o w e v e r , heard from n a t i v e r e s i d e n t s o f New Y o r k . Some s p e a k e r s - - n o t v e r y many-p r o n o u n c e / r / in t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n as r e g u l a r l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y as do s p e a k e r s o f G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n . In t h e i r s p e e c h the [ r ] - a r t i c u 1 at i o n b e f o r e c o n s o n a n t s and pauses i s o f t e n somewhat w e a k e r than in G e n e r a l American p r o n u n c i a t i o n and s t r o n g r e t r o f l e x i o n o r o t h e r " r - c o l o r i n g " o f t h e p r e c e d i n g v o w e l i s uncommon. The v o w e l s b e f o r e / r / , f u r t h e r m o r e , a r e l i k e l y t o k e e p t h a t l e n g t h which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the c i t y ' s s p e e c h : sharp, t h a t i s t o s a y , i s [ / α τ ρ ] , n o t [J"arp] . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n of a v e r y l a r g e number of New Y o r k e r s e x h i b i t s a p a t t e r n in t h e s e words t h a t m i g h t most a c c u r a t e l y be d e s c r i b e d as t h e c o m p l e t e absence o f any p a t t e r n . Such s p e a k e r s s o m e t i m e s pronounce / r / b e f o r e a c o n s o n a n t o r a pause and sometimes o m i t i t , in a t h o r o u g h l y h a p h a z a r d f a s h i o n . In many cases t h i s i r r e g u l a r i t y i s a r e s u l t of the conscious attempt, o n l y p a r t l y s u c c e s s f u l , of o r i g i n a l l y " r - l e s s " speakers to pronounce the c o n s o n a n t because t h e y f e e l t h a t i t i s more " c o r r e c t " to do s o . But o f t e n no c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t i s i n v o l v e d The s p e a k e r h e a r s both t y p e s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n about him a l l t h e t i m e , both seem a l m o s t e q u a l l y n a t u r a l t o him, and i t i s a m a t t e r o f pure chance which one comes f i r s t to h i s l i p s . When /r/ i s pronounced in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n , the a r t i c u l a t i o n may r e s e m b l e e i t h e r o f t h e two t y p e s d e s c r i b e d in c a b o v e . The t o n e u e - p o i n t may be r a i s e d t o w a r d s t h e back of the a l v e o l a r r i d g e , o r the body o f t h e tongue may r i s e t o w a r d s the p o s t e r i o r hard p a l a t e . T h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of / r / as a w o r d - f i n a l in lam, sofa, and t h e l i k e o c c u r s s o m e t i m e s b e f o r e a pause ( O b e y the l.a1», They sat on the sofa) or b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l consonant (law school, sofa cushion).** Such o c c u r r e n c e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e f r e q u e n t l y i r r e g u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f words l i k e sore and loafer. A p e r s o n whose u s a g e i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f the " r - l e s s " t y p e , but who n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e t i m e s p r o nounces / r / in loafer and sore b e f o r e a pause o r an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t may t r e a t sofa and saw in e x a c t l y the same f a s h i o n . Another rather i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t o f the mixture o f d i a l e c t t y p e s r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e i s the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of / r / i n words l i k e sofa and saw by s p e a k e r s who h a v e come t o p r o n o u n c e words w i t h o r t h o g r a p h i c r more o r l e s s c o n s i s t e n t l y in the G e n e r a l American f a s h i o n . I have come a c r o s s a number of und e r g r a d u a t e s from the c i t v who, w h i l e r e a d i n g the / l a t - s e l e c t i o n as p a r t o f the freshman epeech t e s t , have managed to p r o n o u n c e /γ/ t h r e e t i m e s ir. saw Arthur.

THE CONSONANTS

49

T h o s e New Y o r k e r s who r e g u l a r l y o r f r e q u e n t l y p r o n o u n c e / r / i n arm, court, and t h e l i k e a l s o commonly p r o n o u n c e w o r d s s u c h a s f i r s t and turn i n a f a s h i o n l i k e t h a t o f G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n , w i t h t h e t o n g u e - p o i n t t u r n e d t o w a r d s t h e b a c k of t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e o r t h e body of t h e t o n g u e l i f t e d t o w a r d s t h e p o s t e r i o r h a r d p a l a t e and i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a t e r a l g u m - r i d g e s . When t r e a t i n g s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , phoneticians d i f f e r o n l y s l i g h t l y o r n o t a t a l l in t h e i r a c c o u n t o f t h e p h o n e t i c f a c t s . They a r e n o t i n t h e same a g r e e m e n t , h o w e v e r , r e g a r d i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e f a c t s o r t h e way i n w h i c h t o r e p r e s e n t such s y l l a b l e s in t r a n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t are i n t e n d e d as p h o n e m i c . Kenyon s p e a k s o f a " r e t r o f l e x v o w e l " and h a s d e v i s e d a w i d e l y u s e d s p e c i a l symbol f o r i t . P l o c h and T r a g e r a n a l y s e t h e same p r o n u n c i a t i o n a s a s e q u e n c e c o m p o s e d of t h e v o w e l i n cup p l u s / r / . B l o o m f i e l d c o n c e i v e s o f t h e s y l l a b i c i n s u c h w o r d s a s an a l l o p h o n e ο f / v / ( t h e o n l y r e g u l a r c a s e i n E n g l i s h of a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t ) and t r a n s c r i b e s [ t y n ] , [ f ^ e t ] , e t c . Kenyon ' s method of t r a n s c r i p t i o n s e e m s t o me u n f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e i t o b s c u r e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s y l l a b i c of turn a s p r o n o u n c e d in t h e G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n m a n n e r and t h e i n i t i a l p h o n e o f red, a c o n n e c t i o n t h a t e v e n an i l l i t e r a t e s p e a k e r w o u l d , I b e l i e v e , be a w a r e o f . The a n a l y s i s of B l o c h and T r a g e r i s a n e c e s s a r y p a r t of t h e i r a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t a l l E n g l i s h s y l l a b l e s c o n t a i n one o r a n o t h e r o f a v e r y l i m i t e d n u m b e r of v o w e l s . I f o n e c o n s i d e r s t h i s a t t e m p t i n g e n e r a l u n c o n v i n c i n g , a s I d o , he w i l l f e e l u n d e r no c o m p u l s i o n t o a d o p t t h e i r p r a c t i c e in t h i s c a s e I m y s e l f p r e f e r P l o o m f i e I d ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s e p h o n e s , and h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; t h e y h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f n e a t n e s s and s i m p l i c i t y , and t h e y f u r t h e r m o r e b r i n g o u t p l a i n l y t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b a s e d on p h o n e t i c s i m i l a r i t y , b e t w e e n t h e p h o n e s o c c u r r i n g a s s y l l a b l e s in t h e s e w o r d s and t h o s e p h o n e s t h a t o c c u r i n red, very, and t h e l i k e . / r / may a l s o o c c u r a s a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b i c i n t h e s p e e c h o f many who do n o t o t h e r w i s e p r o n o u n c e i t i n t h e p r e c on son an t a l p o s i t i o n . Mv own u s a g e i s o f t h i s s o r t : I p r o n o u n c e / b i S d / beard, / k e 5 d / cared, / h o l d / hard, /kr>5t/ c o u r t , / k j u ä d / cured, b u t / t r n / turn. So a l s o do s e v e r a l o f my i n f o r m a n t s , a s I h a v e n o t e d in s e c t i o n s 1 3 . 1 and 1 3 . 2 . T h i s p r a c t i c e i s t h e same a s t h a t m e n t i o n e d by Kenyon a s o c c u r r i n g i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s of t h e S o u t h ; * ' i t a l s o r e s e m b l e s in p a r t t h e u s a g e of some B r i t i s h s p e a k e r s r e f e r r e d t o bv J o n e s . 6 . 2 . / 1 / . In m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a s i n t h e o t h e r r e g i o n a l v a r i e t i e s o f E n g l i s h , t h e phoneme / 1 / c o m p r i s e s a whole s e r i e s of phones t h a t d i f f e r from each o t h e r c h i e f l y •is a r e s u l t c f t h e d i f f e r e n t s h i p e a s s u m e d by t h e body o f t h e t o n g u e . A f a i r l v s i m p l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e p h o n e s may b e a r r i v e d a t by g r o u p i n g t o g e t h e r a l l t h o s e t h a t a r e s i m i l a r a c o u s t i c a l l y and i n t h e i r m a n n e r of f o r m a t i o n . In c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s may be d i s t i n guished :

50

THE CONSONANTS

α ) The s o - c a l l e d c l e a r v a r i e t i e s of / l / : 1) A v o i c e d a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l c o n s o n a n t w i t h f r o n t - v o w e l r e s o n a n c e o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y in s y l l a b l e s and in t h e initial c l u s t e r s / b 1/ and / g l / : l i f t , load, relation, deeply, blame, glass. The p o i n t and b l a d e o f t h e t o n e u e a r t i c u l a t e aeainst the a l v e o l a r r i d g e , w h i l e the forward p a r t of the s i d e s makes c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a t e r a l g u m - r i d g e and w i t h t h e m o l a r t e e t h . The f r o n t o f t h e t o n g u e i s r a i s e d s o m e w h a t t o w a r d t h e h a r d p a l a t e . The " c l e a r n e s s " of t h i s a l l o p h o n e i s of c o u r s e a r e l a t i v e m a t t e r . Compared, sav, to the [l] of Stockholm Swedish, t h e c o n s o n a n t even in t h i s p o s i t i o n i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y " d a r k , " and i t o f t e n seems " d a r k e r " t o o t h a n t h e i n i t i a l [ l] of Southern B r i t i s h . F u r t h e r m o r e , as in o t h e r t y p e s of F n g l i s h , t h e t o n p u e - p o s i t i o n t e n d s t o accommodate i t s e l f somewhat to t h a t o f a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , s o t h a t t h e c o n s o n a n t may h a v e a " c l e a r e r " reeonance b e f o r e h i g h - f r o n t than before low-bark vowel s. 2) A v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l f r i c a t i v e w i t h t h e t o n g u e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e c e d i n g a l l o p h o n e o c c u r s in t h e initial c l u s t e r s / p i / ' a n d / k l / : play, apply, clear, acclaim. Often, u n l e s s the s y l l a b l e i s heavily s t r e s s e d , only the f i r s t part of the consonant i s unvoiced. After o t h e r v o i c e l e s s conson a n t s i n t h e s a m e s v l l a b l e (flame, sleep), some s l i g h t init i a l u n v o i c i n g may a l s o o c c u r . 3) A voiced a l v e o l o p a 1 a t a l l a t e r a l consonant occurs f i n a l ly b e f o r e i n i t i a l [ j ] i n w o r d s l i k e William a n d bullion. It. also r e p l a c e s the w o r d - f i n a l " d a r k " [l] before i n i t i a l [j] i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d : I f i l l you go?, Bill Young.*9 Its articu l a t i o n r e s e m b l e s t h a t of t h e i n i t i a l a l l o p h o n e , b u t t h e c o n t a c t a l o n g t h e m i d - l i n e of t h e t o n g u e e x t e n d s somewhat f a r t h e r b a c k on t h e r o o f o f t h e m o u t h . The e m p l o y m e n t of t h i s t y p e o f [ l ] i s n o t u n i v e r s a l . Some p e r s o n s p r o n o u n c e i n William, uill you, a n d t h e l i k e t h e " d a r k " [ l ] o f will and bold; o t h e r s a p a r t i a l l y v o c a l i z e d [ l ] by f a i l i n g t o r a i s e t h e t i p and b l a d e h i g h e n o u e h t o make c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r o o f of t h e mouth. Sometimes the consonant d i s a p p e a r s e n t i r e l y : ['wijsn] I f i Z i i a n [ ' t e j u ö ] tell you. Such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e l y or even p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o n f i n e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . T h e y mav o c c u r on a n y l e v e l and i n f a c t o c c u r s o f r e q u e n t l y t h a t a d e s c r i p t i v e p h o n e t i c i a n i s somewhat l o a t h t o l a b e l them m i s a r t i c u 1 a t i o n s in t h e u s u a l s e n s e . b) The s o - c a l l e d d a r k v a r i e t i e s o f /1/: 1) A v o i c e d a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l c o n t i n u a n t w i t h b a c k - v o w e l r e s o n a n c e o c c u r s f i n a l l y in s y l l a b l e s , a s t h e f i r s t member o f many f i n a l c l u s t e r s , a n d i n m e d i a l i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n b e f o r e an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l : bell, pole, feeble, culture, valve, f i e l d , bulb, telephone, collar. The p o i n t and b l a d e a r t i c u l a t e a g a i n s t t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e . Th«· f o r w a r d p e r t of t h e s i d e s t o u c h e s t h e l a t e r a l g u m - r i d p e and t h e m o l a r t e e t h , but t h i s c o n t a c t H o e s n o t e x t e n d a s f a r b a c k a s in t h e c a s e of t h e " c l e a r " [ 1 ] . The c e n t r a l bodv o f t h e t o n g u e i s l o w . The

THE CONSONANTS

51

back i s r a i s e d and in the speech of some seems t o make a s e c ond c o n t a c t a l o n g i t s m i d - l i n e a g a i n s t the velum. In the t y p e of S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h d e s c r i b e d by J o n e s , the " d a r k " [ l ] does not o c c u r i n t e r v o c a l i c a 1 l y in words l i k e te lephone and collar, a " c l e a r " v a r i e t y of the c o n s o n a n t bei n g used i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h the " c l e a r " [ l ] r e p l a c e s the " d a r k " in words l i k e tell and f i l l b e f o r e a c l o s e l y l i n k e d f o l l o w i n g vowel ( a s i n tell it and f i l l u p ) . " In New York s p e e c h , on t h e o t h e r hand, a l though the i n t e r v o c a l i c [ l ] i s o f t e n not q u i t e so " d a r k " a s f i n a l [ 1 ] , t h e d e f i n i t e l y " c l e a r " v a r i e t i e s t h a t a r e used by many P r i t i s h s p e a k e r s and t h a t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r i n S o u t h e r n American speech a r e not h e a r d , e x c e p t as an o c c a s i o n a l a f f e c t a t i on. 2) In the f i n a l c l u s t e r /1Θ/ (health, filth) and f i n a l l y b e f o r e /Θ/ and / 8 /

(all

things,

healthy,

sell

them),

the

area

of c o n t a c t u s u a l l y e x t e n d s f a r t h e r f o r w a r d : the t o n g u e - p o i n t may a r t i c u l a t e a g a i n s t t h e back of t h e upper i n c i s o r s . These a l l o p h o n e s o f t e n o c c u r i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h o t h e r , v o w e l - l i k e v a r i e t i e s of / l / , i n the a r t i c u l a t i o n of which the t i p and b l a d e of the tongue r i s e somewhat, but do n o t make c o n t a c t w i t h the a l v e o l a r r i d g e . Sometimes the back of t h e tongue seems to a r t i c u l a t e a g a i n s t the velum, sometimes t h e r e i s not c o n t a c t of any s o r t . Such p a r t i a l l y v o c a l i z e d phones a r e common in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of many p e r s o n s and a r e not c o n f i n e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The d e n t a l i z e d b l a d e - a r t i c u 1 at ion of the a l v e o l a r s t o p s t h a t o c c u r s in u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d . A s i m i l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n of the l a t e r a l may o f t e n be o b s e r v e d . The t i p of the tongue r e s t s a g a i n s t the lower f r o n t t e e t h , w h i l e t h e b l a d e r i s e s to make c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e . I n i t i a l l y and i n i n i t i a l c l u s t e r s , the [ l ] t h a t i s so produced i s o f t e n q u i t e " d a r k " ; f i n a l l y and i n f i n a l c l u s t e r s , t h e r e i s o f t e n no a l v e o l a r c o n t a c t . 6 . 3 . /w/. In m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n on a l l l e v e l s , the f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s of t h i s consonant may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : a) I n i t i a l l y in s t r e s s e d and u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a v o i c e d l a b i o - v e l a r f r i c t i o n l e s s consonant o c c u r s , t h e l i p s o r d i n a r i l y moving from a rounded, and the tongue from a h i g h - b a c k p o s i t i o n to t h a t of a f o l l o w i n g vowel. As i n o t h e r forms of E n g l i s h , the d e g r e e of l i p - r o u n d i n g and t h e h e i g h t to which the back of the tongue i s r a i s e d a r e in g e n e r a l dependent on the n a t u r e of the vowel t h a t i s p r e c e d e d bv /w/. That i s t o s a y , the l i p s a r e n o r m a l l y more c l o s e l y rounded and the i n i t i a l t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n h i g h e r i n words l i k e woo and wool, which c o n t a i n a h i g h - b a c k rounded vowel, than i n t h o s e l i k e wash and wax, whose s y l l a b l e s a r e unrounded and l o w e r . In n e g l i g e n t s p e e c h , the l i p - a r t i c u l a t i o n i s o f t e n v e r y much reduced and may be e n t i r e l y a b s e n t , r e s u l t i n g in v a r i a n t s whose movement b e g i n s at the p o s i t i o n of a h i g h - b a c k unrounded v o w e l .

52

THE CONSONANTS

In p l a c e o f t h e u s u a l f r i c t i o n l e s s c o n s o n a n t , one o f my i n f o r m a n t s (#7) r e g u l a r l y u s e s a weakly a r t i c u l a t e d v o i c e d v e l a r i z e d b i l a b i a l f r i c a t i v e . The g e n e r a l l y o l d - f a s h i o n e d q u a l i t y of t h i s p e r s o n ' s s p e e c h l e a d s o n e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i n h e r u s a g e a t y p e of p r o n u n c i a t i o n s u r v i v e s w h i c h o n c e may have been r a t h e r c o m m o n . ^ I have n o t , however, o b s e r v e d t h i s f r i c a t i v e in t h e s p e e c h o f o t h e r New Y o r k e r s . S p e l l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n has r a t h e r g e n e r a l l y r e s t o r e d /w/ to t h o s e p l a c e - and f a m i l y - n a m e s i n w h i c h i t o n c e was l o s t b e f o r e an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l . B r i t i s h p l a c e - n a m e s l i k e Norwich, Harwich, and Berwick a r e p r o n o u n c e d i n t h e B r i t i s h f a s h i o n by t h o s e among t h e e d u c a t e d t o whom t h e y a r e f a m i l i a r . O t h e r s p r o n o u n c e them a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e l l i n g . In s i m i l a r American place-names the s p e i l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s are general. Greenwich (Village , Avenue) i s an e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e , b e i n g v e r y commonly p r o n o u n c e d / ' g r e n a t / / , a l t h o u g h / ' g r i i n , w i t / / may a l s o be h e a r d , even f r o m e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s . 6 ) When p r e c e d e d i n t h e same s y l l a b l e by / t / (twin, between) , a v o i c e l e s s l a b i o - v e l a r f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s . In e m p h a t i c u t t e r a n c e , a s i m i l a r f r i c a t i v e may be u s e d a f t e r / k / i n w o r d s l i k e queen and quick, and some i n i t i a l u n v o i c i n g may be o b s e r v e d i n t h e c l u s t e r s / s w / and / Θ * / (sweet, thwart). After / d / (dwarf, dwindle), t h e c o n s o n a n t may a l s o h a v e some f r i c a t i v e q u a l i t y under h i g h - s t r e s s , but in t h i s c a s e i s always voiced. In w o r d s o f t h e t y p e o f whale, wheel, when, t h e c l u s t e r / h w / 5 3 may o c c u r , b u t t h e m o s t common p r o n u n c i a t i o n s on a l l l e v e l s of m e t r o p o l i t a n speech a r e / w e l l , w i l l , wen/, e t c . S p e a k e r s who emplov / h w / c o n s i s t e n t l y i n a l l t h e w o r d s of t h i s h i s t o r i c a l c l a s s a r e r a t h e r r a r e . " In u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , / w / i s u n i v e r s a l ; on t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e and c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s , / h w / may n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y be h e a r d , b u t i t s u s e more o f t e n t h a n n o t i s s p o r a d i c - - t h e s p e a k e r w i l l employ i t o n l y i n a r e s t r i c t e d number o f w o r d s or w i l l p r o n o u n c e t h e same word now i n one way and now i n t h e o t h e r . C. K. Thomas' t a b u l a t i o n s ® ' show a m a j o r i t y o f / w / - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s i n a l l b u t one m i n o r i n s t a n c e , and o n e s u s p e c t s e v e n s o t h a t t h e s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e f i g u r e s f o r t h e o t h e r t y p e would be s m a l l e r i f t h e d o w n s t a t e c o u n t i e s o u t s i d e t h e c i t y were e x c l u d e d . T h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e / h w / - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e f o r t h e most p a r t c o n s c i o u s l y adopted o n e s , a d o p t e d b e c a u s e of t h e w i d e s p r e a d n o t i o n t h a t p r o n o u n c i n g whale and wail, whet and wet a s homonyms i s " i n c o r r e c t . " 5 ® New Y o r k e r s of I r i s h b i r t h u s u a l l y employ / h w / o r some v a r i a n t of i t i n t h e s e w o r d s , b u t t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n r a r e l y s u r v i v e s i n t h e s p e e c h o f t h e s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n . H e r e i t may be a d d e d p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y t h a t , d e s p i t e t h e o f t e n a l l e g e d c l a n n i s h n e s s of I r i s h - A m e r i c a n s and t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a numb e r of p r e d o m i n a n t l y I r i s h n e i g h b o r h o o d s , I r i s h s p e e c h - w a y s d i s a p p e a r v e r y q u i c k l y i n New Y o r k . In s u c h n e i g h b o r h o o d s , o n e may h e a r I r i s h a c c e n t s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i f h e l i s t e n s t o

TOE CONSONANTS a d u l t s , but purest ray.

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53 s p e a k New Y o r k e s e

of

6 . 4 . / j / . In a l l c l a s s - d i a l e c t s t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o p h o n e s o f t h i s c o n s o n a n t may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : a) I n i t i a l l y i n s t r e s s e d and u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a v o i c e d p a l a t a l f r i c t i o n l e s s c o n s o n a n t o c c u r s : yes, unit, population, accurate, communist, o n i o n , v a l u a b l e . The f r o n t o f t h e t o n g u e i s r a i s e d t o w a r d s t h e h a r d p a l a t e and t h e s i d e s t o u c h t h e l a t e r a l g u m - r i d g e s and t h e m o l a r t e e t h . The s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e t o n g u e and t h e r o o f of t h e mouth i s n a r r o w e s t when / j / p r e c e d e s a h i g h - f r o n t v o w e l a s i n y e a s t , yield; b e f o r e lower vowels t h e t o n g u e - f r o n t o r d i n a r i l y d o e s n o t r i s e so h i g h . An u n h i s t o r i c a l / j / a p p e a r s i n a few c a s e s . As i n o t h e r t y p e s o f E n g l i s h , February i s f r e q u e n t l y pronounced / ' f e b j u i l , e r i l / on t h e a n a l o g y o f January. (I have a l s o sometimes heard / ' f e b u u f e r i l / . ) C h i e f l y in l e s s educated speech, / ' k a l j s r n / may o c c u r f o r column. The l o s s of / j / , on t h e o t h e r yeast. hand, a p p e a r s in t h e o c c a s i o n a l v a r i a n t / l i s t / f o r At t h e b e g i n n i n g of u n s t r e s s e d m e d i a l s y l l a b l e s , i t s o m i s s i o n i s r a r e - - i t may s o m e t i m e s b e l o s t i n regular and particular, but i s g e n e r a l l y p r e s e r v e d in o t h e r w o r d s . A few words l i k e garrulous and virulent, however, in which t h e c o n s o n a n t would be p r e c e d e d by / r / , a r e a s p e c i a l c a s e : h e r e / j / i s v e r y commonly o m i t t e d . The same f r i c t i o n l e s s c o n s o n a n t i s e m p l o y e d i n i n i t i a l c l u s t e r s t h e f i r s t member o f w h i c h i s o n e o f t h e v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t s / b , v , m/ beauty, view, mute ) and a l s o i n t h e c l u s t e r s / d j , g j , z j , n j , l j / (due, gubernatorial, resume, new, lunacy) when t h e s e o c c u r ( s e e b e l o w ) . B u t some f r i c t i o n may be a u d i b l e a f t e r / d / i n due, dubious, e t c . The g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d by beauty i n c l u d e s carburetor and r e l a t e d w o r d s i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f some e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s ; m o r e c o m m o n l y , however, / j / is omitted. b) When p r e c e d e d i n t h e same s y l l a b l e by / p / o r / k / (pure, cube), a v o i c e l e s s p a l a t a l f r i c a t i v e occurs. If the s y l l a b l e i s not h e a v i l y s t r e s s e d , only the f i r s t p a r t of t h e c o n s o n a n t i s v o i c e l e s s . When t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r / t j / o c c u r s i n w o r d s l i k e tube and Tuesday (see below), the a s p i r a t i o n a l s o t e n d s t o u n v o i c e t h e p a l a t a l t o some e x t e n t . P u t t h e r e i s u s u a l l y n o t a s much f r i c a t i v e q u a l i t y o b s e r v a b l e i n t h i s c a s e a s i n w o r d s l i k e tree and twin, probably because speakers unc o n s c i o u s l y avoid a p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h a t would r e s e m b l e [ t j ] . When t h e s t o p s a r e i n t u r n p r e c e d e d by / s / (spew, student, obscure), the voiceless f r i c a t i v e does not occur. A f t e r o t h e r v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s i n t h e same s y l l a b l e , an a l l o p h o n e w i t h some s l i g h t i n i t i a l u n v o i c i n g may a l s o a p p e a r , f o r ex.ample i n few, and s i m i l a r l y i n enthusiasm and suitable i f / j / i s p r o n o u n c e d i n s u c h w o r d s . The same t y p e o f c o n s o n a n t o c c u r s a f t e r / h / i n huge, humidor, Huron, and t h e l i k e . In t h e s e w o r d s t h e r e i s much l e s s t e n d e n c y Jthan i n S o u t h e r n

54

THE CONSONANTS

B r i t i s h t o r e p l a c e t h e c l u s t e r by a s i n g l e f r i c a t i v e p h o n e . On t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s of New York speech t h e c l u s t e r / h j / very o f t e n does n o t o c c u r , a l l words l i k e huge b e i n g p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / j / a l o n e . ( S u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e v e r y common i n t h e s p e e c h o f C o l u m b i a u n d e r g r a d u a t e s who come f r o m t h e c i t y . ) The d i s t i n c t i o n r e c o r d e d in o u r d i c t i o n a r i e s b e t w e e n / j / a s a v a r i a n t i n humor and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s , and / h j / a l o n e i n t h e o t h e r w o r d s o f t h i s g r o u p a p p e a r s in t h e s p e e c h o f I n f o r m a n t s # 2 , #6, # 1 1 , # 1 5 , and # 2 5 . But more commonly New Y o r k e r s a r e c o n s i s t e n t in p r o n o u n c i n g a l l t h e s e words with / h j / or a l l w i t h / j / . V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e o c c u r r e n c e of / j / i n i n i t i a l c l u s t e r s i n w o r d s of t h a t c l a s s w h i c h in E a r l y Modern E n g l i s h c o n t a i n e d t h e d i p h t h o n g / i u / may b e summed up i n t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l s tatemen t s : 1. A f t e r / p , b , m, f , v , k / (pew, beauty, mute, feud, view, cubic), / j / i s r e g u l a r on a l l l e v e l s . But pubic, puberty and r e l a t e d words a r e e x c e p t i o n a l in t h a t they have v a r i a n t pron u n c i a t i o n s t h a t l a c k t h e c o n s o n a n t : / ' p u u b a k / , e t c . , may be h e a r d r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y , even from e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s . Simil a r l y , / j / i s o f t e n n o t p r o n o u n c e d i n recuperate. Words in w h i c h / g j / m i g h t o c c u r a s a c l u s t e r i n i t i a l in s y l l a b l e s a r e uncommon; p e r h a p s a s a r e s u l t / j / i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d f r o m gubernatorial and lugubrious. Conversely, the group repr e s e n t e d by cubic o f t e n i n c l u d e s coupon: the pronunciation / ' k j u u j p a n / i s w i d e s p r e a d i n l e s s e d u c a t e d u s e and i s a l s o e m p l o y e d by some c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . In percolate and percolator t h e f a i r l y f r e q u e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f / j / i s p e r h a p s due t o t h e a n a l o g y of circulate. 2. A f t e r / 1 , d , n / (tube, duty, new), / j / does not appear on t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l : / t u u b , ' d u u d i l ( ' d u ü t i l ) , n u ü / . The u s a g e of more c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s i s d i v i d e d and o f t e n v e r y i r r e g u l a r . Some p e r s o n s p r o n o u n c e / j / c o n s i s t e n t l y i n w o r d s o f t h i s c l a s s , o t h e r s n e v e r d o . Very f r e q u e n t l y a s p e a k e r ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n w i l l v a r y b e t w e e n t h e two t y p e s ; he w i l l p r o n o u n c e / j / i n some w o r d s b u t n o t i n o t h e r s , o r w i l l p r o n o u n c e t h e same word d i f f e r e n t l y i n s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s . T h i s i r r e g u l a r i t y , w h i c h i s v e r y common i n t h e s p e e c h of my i n f o r m a n t s , i s presumably evidence t h a t the p r o n u n c i a t i o n s with / j / are o f t e n acquired ones. " 3. A f t e r /θ, B, z / (enthusiasm, suit, resume), / j / does not o c c u r on t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s , n o r i s i t s u s e v e r y f r e q u e n t i n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . Many who p r o n o u n c e / j / r e g u l a r l y o r r a t h e r o f t e n a f t e r / t , d , n / r a r e l y o r n e v e r do s o a f t e r t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s . I t s o c c u r r e n c e i s more f r e q u e n t i n some w o r d s t h a n i n o t h e r s : I h a v e o b s e r v e d i t more o f t e n , f o r e x a m p l e , i n suit t h a n i n superintendent, and h a v e n e v e r h e a r d i t in Susan. 4. The i n i t i a l c l u s t e r / l j / i n w o r d s l i k e lewd, lunatic, and absolutely i s uncommon: / l u ü d , ' l u u n s ^ i k / , e t c . a r e r e g u l a r i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h and a r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y t h e more common p r o n u n c i a t i o n s i n t h e s p e e c h of t h e more c u l t i v a t e d .

THE CONSONANTS

55

5. A f t e r / r , J , t / , d g / (rule, chute, chew, June), and a f t e r / ! / p r e c e d e d by a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t (fluid, glue), / j / does n o t a p p e a r on any l e v e l . The o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e d i p h t h o n g / i u / i n some o f t h e a b o v e words i s d i s c u s s e d on p a g e s 7 2 - 7 3 . THE NASALS 7 . 1 . /m/. A v o i c e d b i l a b i a l n a s a l o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , i n a r a b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , i n t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r /Em/, and i n a f e w f i n a l c l u s t e r s : mill, clam, hammer, smooth, glimpse, warmth, brooms, climbed. When t h e c o n s o n a n t i s f o l lowed by / f / , as i n comfort, emphasis, triumph,it i s somet i m e s 1 a b i o - d e n t a l , but e x c e p t f o r t h i s , d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e n a s a l i n v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s may be i g n o r e d . In n e g l i g e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n , /m/ may s o m e t i m e s o c c u r in p l a c e o f /n/ by a s s i m i l a t i o n t o a p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g / p / o r /b/, o r t o a f o l l o w i n g /m/ (open, cabin, by-and-by, standpoint, on Monday), and t h e l a b i o - d e n t a l a l l o p h o n e may somet i m e s be h e a r d in w o r d s l i k e oven and seven. In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , t h i s a s s i m i l a t i o n may a l s o a p p e a r i n t h e p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m s o f v e r b s e n d i n g i n /p/, /b/, o r / v / (slipping, rubbing, leaving) and i n one p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e word something, /'SAmpm/. One o f my u n c u l t i v a t e d i n f o r m a n t s p r o n o u n c e d the word seventy as [ ' s e m n i f ] . The a b r u p t c u t t i n g o f f o f n a s a l r e s o n a n c e b e f o r e t h e l a b i a l c l o s u r e i s r e l e a s e d when /m/ p r e c e d e d a v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t , as a r e s u l t o f w h i c h /p/ has been added t o empty, glimpse, Sampson, some thing, warmth, and the l i k e , may s o m e t i m e s be h e a r d i n l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h when /m/ i s f i n a l i n t h e w o r d . I h a v e h e a r d i t most f r e q u e n t l y b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g / t / , for e x a m p l e i n home town, I came to Columbia. 7 . 2 . /n/. A v o i c e d a l v e o l a r n a s a l o c c u r s i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y , in t h e a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , i n t h e i n i t i a l c l u s t e r /sn/, and i n c e r t a i n f i n a l c l u s t e r s : new, win, runner, snail, since, tent, bind. B e f o r e /Θ/ and /Ö/ (month, on Thursday, clean them), the a r t i c u l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y d e n t a l o r i n t e r d e n t a l , and a s i m i l a r a l l o p h o n e may a p p e a r a f t e r t h e s e f r i c a t i v e s , as in Nathan and heathen. The t o n g u e - t i p i s n o r m a l l y w i t h d r a w n t o t h e back o f t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e when t h e c o n s o n a n t i s f o l l o w e d by / r / , as in enrage, row on row. But e x c e p t f o r t h e s e m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p h o n e s o c c u r r i n g in t h e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a r e s l i g h t and mav be i g n o r e d . L i k e the o t h e r consonants t h a t a r e a l v e o l a r in c u l t i v a t e d E n g l i s h , t h i s n a s a l i s o f t e n d e n t a l i z e d and b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t e d in u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . The t i p o f t h e t o n g u e i s in c o n t a c t w i t h the t e e t h (most o f t e n the l o w e r t e e t h ) , w h i l e the b l a d e r i s e s t o the g u m - r i d g e . When t h e n a s a l o c c u r s i n c e r t a i n before c e r t a i n i n i t i a l consonants,

f i n a l clusters or i s f i n a l particularly voiceless

56

THE CONSONANTS

f r i c a t i v e s , many l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s o f t e n f a i l t o make t h e a l v e o l a r c o n t a c t and s t r o n g l y n a s a l i z e t h e p r e c e d i n g v o w e l . A n u m b e r o f s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o c c u r on my r e c o r d s and I h a v e o b s e r v e d them f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s p e e c h o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n w o r d s l i k e conference, confidence, in fact; conversation; length, strength ( s e e b e l o w ) ; ancient, conscious; friendly, kindly, only, Stanley; sandwich. As i n o t h e r r e g i o n a l t y p e s of E n g l i s h , / n / i s o f t e n p r o n o u n c e d i n p l a c e o f / g / i n v e r b a l and n o m i n a l f o r m s l i k e feeling, reading, going, a n d i n a n y t h i n g , everything, nothing, somethingAmong t h e c u l t i v a t e d , p r o n u n c i a t i o n s of t h e s e w o r d s w i t h / n / a r e n o t v e r y common, a l t h o u g h many u s e t h e m o c c a s i o n a l l y . In u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , t h e y o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y . Less c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s a l s o o f t e n pronounce / n / i n s t e a d of / η / i n length, w h i c h may be [ ΐ β η θ ] , [ ΐ β ϊ η θ ] , o r [ΐβϊθ] ( f o r t h i s l a s t pronunciation, see the preceding parag r a p h and f o r t h e a l l o p h o n e s of / Θ / i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n , s e e p a g e 36 a b o v e ) . S i m i l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o c c u r f o r strength, lengthen, and strengthen. 7 . 3 . / η / . A v o i c e d v e l a r n a s a l o c c u r s in a m b i s y l l a b i c p o s i t i o n , f i n a l l y , and i n c e r t a i n f i n a l c l u s t e r s : hanger, ring, length, sings, hanged. As i n E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y , t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e c o n t a c t i s made b e t w e e n t h e t o n g u e and t h e r o o f o f t h e mouth may v a r y s o m e w h a t , d e p e n d i n g on t h e t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e c e d i n g v o w e l . B u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s l i g h t , and i t i s not n e c e s s a r y to d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e s e v a r i o u s a l l o p h o n e s . Nor a r e t h e r e n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e n a s a l i n c u l t i v a t e d and u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e f r e q u e n c y of i t s o c c u r r e n c e on t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e much g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y of u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s t o u s e / n / i n t h e p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m s . I n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h o s e who c u s t o m a r i l y a r t i c u l a t e w i t h a very narrow j a w - a n g l e ( s e e page 2 5 ) , t h e t o n g u e - f r o n t may s o m e t i m e s make c o n t a c t b e h i n d t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e a t t h e same t i m e t h a t t h e b a c k o'f t h e t o n g u e r i s e s t o t h e v e l u m ; b u t t h i s v a r i a n t d o e s n o t make t h e imp r e s s i o n on t h e e a r o f a p a l a t a l n a s a l . The p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e n a s a l d o e s n o t d i f f e r f r o m t h a t found i n o t h e r r e g i o n a l v a r i e t i e s of American F n g l i s h . So f a r a s t h e l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e i s a l s o l i t t l e t h a t r e q u i r e s m e n t i o n . In r e g a r d t o t h e a l t e r n a t i o n b e t w e e n / n / and / η / b e f o r e t h e v e l a r s t o p s , m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , l i k e A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y , shows a s o m e what g r e a t e r p r e f e r e n c e f o r / n / than does Southern B r i t i s h , although the d i f f e r e n c e s are not very important. Concourse, Congreve, conquest, idiosyncrasy, f o r example, which J o n e s r e c o r d s a s b e i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / r | / , more o f t e n h a v e / n / i n New Y o r k C i t y . In l i k e m a n n e r , / n / o f t e n o c c u r s i n w o r d s l i k e synchronize and syncopate, in which Jones records only / η / . There is also l e s s tendency to assim-

THE CONSONANTS ilate the nasal to the positio itial syllables (conclusion, e like). The assimilation of /n/ to a sionally be heard in negligent bacon fat, taken sick.

57

ι of the stop in unstressed inigagement, inclosure, and the preceding velar stop may occapronunciation in cases like

THR

VOWF.LS AND

DIPHTHONGS

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STRFSSF.D

VOWELS THAT DO NOT OCCUR AS

SYLLABLES

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8 . 1 . / i / . I n h i t , hid, big, and t h e l i k e t h e s y l l a b i c i s a somewhat r e t r a c t e d l o w e r h i g h - f r o n t v o w e l . Even in t h e s p e e c h of m o s t c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , t h e p o s i t i c n i s u s u a l l y s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r b a c k t h a n t h a t o f t h e c o r r e s ρ aid in g vowel in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h ; ' and i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , t h e r e t r a c t i o n o f t e n r e a c h e s t h e l o w e r h i g h - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n ^ Many s p e a k e r « u s e n o t i c e a b l y more c e n t r a l i z e d v o w e l s b e f o r e / 1 / , as in b i l l , until, t h a n e l s e w h e r e . As a r e s u l t , o f t h p r e t r a c t i o n , t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n / i / and / u / i s s o m e w h a t d i m i n i s h e d : I h a v e s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v e d l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s who p r o n o u n c e d Willie a n d wooly a l m o s t a s homonyms. P e f o r e / r / , the phonemic p a t t e r n i s n o t verv r e g u l a r , the o l d e r o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n / i / (mirror, de lirious) and / i § / (Vera, mysterious) h a v i n g p a r t i a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d . For the det a i l s , t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r / i S / on pages 73-7 5 . Except b e f o r e / r / , where m e t r o p o l i t a n pronunciation d i f f e r s f r o m G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n on t h e o n e h a n d and f r o m S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h on t h e o t h e r , t h e p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p h o n e m e i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i s t h e same a s in t h e s e o t h e r t v p e s . The l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a l s o r e q u i r e s l i t t l e c o m m e n t . In t h e s t r e s s e d f o r m o f can, / i / o f t e n o c c u r s on t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l . F o r Schermerhorn ( f a m i 1 ν - η a m e , s t r e e t - n a m e in R r o o k l v n ) , / ' s k i m a ! hr>9n/ may be h e a r d b e s i d e t h e m o r e u s u a l / ' s k e m a h o s n / · ( S p e l l i n g - p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h i s name a r e a l s o f r e q u e n t , e v e n i n t h e s p e e c h o f some n a t i v e New Y o r k e r s . ) Ano t h e r s t r e e t - n a m e , C o e n f e s (Slip, Alley), was o n c e p r o n o u n c e d / ' k w i n s i l / a c c o r d i n g t o two o f mv o l d e r i n f o r m a n t s , h u t t h e s p e 1 1 i n e - p r o n u n c i a t i o n / , k o ü ' e n t i l z / i s now g e n e r a l . In t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f engine, engineer, mav be p r o n o u n c e d bv u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s ; i n get i t o c c u r s verv f r e q u e n t l y . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n / ' d s ' r i d i s h g i / f o r lirigible, w h i c h Kenvon and K n o t t l i s t , m e r e l y a s a B r i t i s h v a r i a n t , i s e x t r e m e l y common i n t h e c i t y . F o r a f e w w o r d s in w h i c h · Ί / ' and / i i / mav b o t h be h e a r d , s e e p a g e > carrier and period, ntid t h o s e o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d p r e t ' i v e * s p e l l e d J e - , pre-, re-, e r e . a r e d e a l t w i t h un p a ^ e !)"'. Fol t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f l o w e r h i g h - f r o n t v o w e l s and o f v o w e l s a p p r o a c h i n g t h a t p o s i t i o n i n o t h e r u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ai>d fo>- t h e i r p h o n e m i c r l s s s i f i c a t i o n , s t e p a g e s .Ή3-Ί0.

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59

8 . 2 . / e / . T h e h e i g h t o f t h e v o w e l i n w o r d s l i k e bet, bed, and beg v a r i e s s o m e w h a t i n t h e l o w e r m i d - f r o n t r a n g e . As i n the c a s e of / i / , t h e d i r e c t i o n of v a r i a t i o n i s c h i e f l y backward t o w a r d a more c e n t r a l p l a c e m e n t . Again a s in t h e c a s e o f / i / , t h e r e t r a c t i o n i s g r e a t e s t and m o s t f r e q u e n t i n u n cultivated speech.' The p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of / e / i s l i k e t h a t found in S o u t h e r n P r i t i s h ; m e t r o p o l i t a n p r a c t i c e d i f f e r s from G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n ( o r f r o m some t y p e s o f G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n ) i n i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e / β / - / ε δ / and t h e / e / - / s / o p p o s i t i o n s h e f o r e / r / . So f a r as t h e l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d , a few w o r d s m u s t be m e n t i o n e d . In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , orchestra o f t e n has / e / under secondary s t r e s s : / ( k e s t r s i / , and i n t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e of vanilla, / e / i n s t e a d of / i / i s common. In mar shma I low, / e / i n s t e a d o f /«e / i s t h e m o r e common v o w e l , e v e n i n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h ( i t i s u s e d by a l l b u t a few o f mv i n f o r m a n t s ) . F o r err and erring, which a r e b o o k - w o r d s t o m a n y , / e r / and / ' e r a n / a r e f r e q u e n t , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e of t h e a n a l o ^ v of error. ( I t may be n o t e d t h a t / e r / i s a c o m p l e t e a n o m a l y i n New Y o r k s p e e c h , n o o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f t h i s w o r d - f i n a l s e q u e n c e o c c u r r i n g . ) In measure, treasure, e g g s , keg, leg, t h e u s e o f / e / i s g e n e r a l . * In a g a i n and against, a f e w am o n e t h e e d u c a t e d p r o n o u n c e / e l / , b u t / e / i s t h e u s u a l v o w e l . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n / ' r e d s J / f o r radish may s o m e t i m e s b e h e a r d , b u t / e / i s much l e s s common t h a n / « / . 5 Catch i s g e n e r a l l y / k e t / / in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d u s a g e , n o r i s t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n unknown i n t h e f a m i l i a r speech of the c u l t i v a t e d . In c e r t a i n w o r d s m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , l i k e t h e o t h e r t y p e s of American F n g l i s h , has / e / under secondary acc e n t w h e r e S o u t h e r n P r i t i s h h a s an u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l : accent, convent, nonsense, Somerset. In object, subject (nouns), /e/ o f t e n o c c u r s , a l t h o u g h / θ / may a l s o b e h e a r d a n d i s p r o b a b l y t h e more f r e q u e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . In actuary, cemetery, customary, dictionary, and t h e l i k e , where S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h has l o s t the secondary s t r e s s , m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , l i k e American E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y , ret a i n s i t . The B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y i m i t a t e d , b u t u s u a l l y o n l y i n o n e o r two w o r d s of t h e g r o u p . I n r e l a t e d words, in which secondary s h i f t s to primary s t r e s s , /eS/ may o c c u r , e . g . , i n arbitrarily, honorarium, secretariat. For t h e o c c u r r e n c e of l a b l e s ( e x c e p t , exhibit, n o t e 6.

/ e / in weakly s t r e s s e d i n i t i a l s y l endanger, e t c . ), s e e page Ι4ή,

P. 3. / m ! • The v o w e l i n cap, back, match i s i n t e r m e d i a t e lowf r o n t . I t n o r m a l l y h a s a somewhat l o w e r and more r e t r a c t e d p o s i t i o n t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h vowel a n d , when it. v a r i e s , d o e s s o t o w a r d a s t i l l l o w e r and m o r e r e t r a c t e d placement., r a t h e r than toward [e] as in Southern P r i t i s h . This tendency is c a r r i e d to a r a t h e r grotesque

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VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

e x t r e m e i n t h e s p e e c h o f some i n d i v i d u a l s : t h u s i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f some of my s t u d e n t s t h e v o w e l s i n s u c h w o r d s a s c a p and match v a r y a t t i m e s t o [ a ] and e v e n [ a " 1 ] . (And s e e , f o r a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , t h e c o m m e n t s on t h e u s a g e of I n f o r m a n t s # 3 9 , p a g e 1 2 4 · ) ® The v o w e l i s f r e q u e n t l y n a s a l i z e d , e s p e c i a l l y in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f /ae/ i n t h e u s a g e of many m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e a k e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e lower l e v e l s , d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y from t h a t found in c e r t a i n o t h e r r e g i o n a l types of E n g l i s h . Only under c e r t a i n p h o n e t i c c o n d i t i o n s d o e s /ae/ o c c u r i n e v e r y o n e ' s s p e e c h ; i n o t h e r p o s i t i o n s i t i s r e p l a c e d in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of many, r e g u l a r l y o r s p o r a d i c a l l y , by t h e p h o n e m i c a l l y d i s t i n c t / e S / ( o r / « 3 / ) . T h i s r e p l a c e m e n t , w h i c h was f i r s t d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l by T r a g e r , 7 and t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n New York p r o n u n c i a t i o n a r e d e a l t w i t h b e l o w on p a g e s 75-791 I s h a l l n o t a n t i c i p a t e t h e t d i s c u s s i o n h e r e , b u t m e r e l y i n d i c a t e t h a t /a?/ i s f o u n d r e g u l a r l y before / p / , / 1 / (including the / 1 / that interchanges w i t h / d / i n w o r d s l i k e batter), / k . / , / t j " / , / l / , / r j / , / r / when i n t e r v o c a l i c in words n o t d e r i v e d from o t h e r s in w h i c h i t i s f i n a l , / S / e x c e p t i n p l u r a l s l i k e paths, and / g / [cap, sat, lack, match, shal lor, anger, carry, gather, azure). Before o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s , /ae/ i s r e g u l a r u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a n d / e S / may be u s e d e l s e w h e r e . A s i d e f r o m t h i s m a j o r v a r i a t i o n f r o m t h e p a t t e r n o f some o t h e r d i a l e c t s , t h e r e a r e a few w o r d s t h a t m i g h t be s p e c i a l l y m e n t i o n e d . F o r radio, / ' r a e d i l j O u / may be h e a r d on t h e u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l a l t h o u g h i t i s n o t , I t h i n k , s o common a s i t w a s a few y e a r s a g o . Radiator, however, is s t i l l o f t e n pron o u n c e d w i t h /ae/ by u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . Faucet u s u a l l y has / o a / , b u t /ae/ ( a n d / e a / ) s o m e t i m e s o c c u r s i n o l d - f a s h i o n e d , and i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . F o r combatant, the most u s u a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n on a l l l e v e l s i s / k a m ' b a e t n t / ; I h a v e r a r e l y h e a r d t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n s r e c o r d e d in t h e d i c t i o n a r i e s . C e r t a i n w o r d s w i t h l o n g L a t i n α v a r y b e t w e e n / a t / and / e f / a s t h e y do g e n e r a l l y i n America, f o r e x a m p l e , apparatus, data, status, stratum. In ration a l s o , b o t h / ® / and / e i / a r e h e a r d , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g p r o b a b l y more f r e q u e n t t h a n i t i s in c e r t a i n o t h e r p a r t s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 8 . 4 . / a / . The v o w e l i n stop, not, rock, as such words a r e m o s t commonly p r o n o u n c e d , i s a d v a n c e d l o w e r l o w - b a c k , u n r o u n d e d . In t h e s p e e c h of many, i t s q u a l i t y i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e m o n o p h t h o n g a l v a r i a n t of / α δ / , l e n g t h a l o n e o f t e n s e r v i n g t o d i s t i n g u i s h c o t f r o m c a r t , s h o p f r o m sharp, goggles f r o m gargles, and toddy f r o m tardy. This is not the case h o w e v e r , i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h o s e whose /aS/ i s of t h e r e t r a c t e d v a r i e t y d i s c u s s e d on p a g e ,79. I n l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h e vowel i s o f t e n n a s a l i z e d . Tbe o c c u r r e n c e of / a / i n m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s l e s s e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h a t of t h e c o r r e s p a i d i n g l o w e r l o w - b a c k .

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VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

rounded vowel of Southern British English. As in other types of American English, /oa/ occurs in several groups of words that have /o/ in Southern British; but also, in many other other cases, /aa/ may appear, resulting in homonyms like codcard, lodge-large, bobbed-barbed. A detailed account of the distribution, phonetic and lexical, of / a j and /as»/ is given later in this study. Here it will suffice merely to state that in the so-called " s h o r t ο w o r d s , " /a/ regularly occurs before /p/ (stop, copper, hop-toad), /t/ (including the /t/ which interchanges with /d/: got, hotly, rotten, motto), watch), /I/ /k/ (to*, knock, oxen),6 /t// (botch, Hotchkiss, (except in doll, which frequently has /a5/; but /a/ is found in collar, Molly, olive, pollen), and /r/ intervocalic in words not derived from others in which it is final (foreign, horrible, sorry, torrid).' Before other consonants, /a/ occurs in some words, while others have either /a%/ or /oa/· For the details the reader is referred to the discussion of those phonemes. Several words often pronounced with /a/ in New York City must be specially mentioned. On the lower and intermediate levels of metropolitan pronunciation, the vowel is almost universal in the final syllable of paramount. This pronunciation is not to be interpreted as an example of the occasional monophthongization of /au/ referred to on page 71, but is probably due to the analogy of Belmont, Larchmont, etc. Many New Yorkers know the word chiefly as the name of two moviehouses in the city. In the second syllable of lilacs, /a/ is very frequently pronounced, even in the usage of the cultivated. On, which is generally recorded in the dictionaries as having no distinctive weak form, may have /a/ when unstressed, /aa/ when stressed, the latter form riming with barn. (There is also an occasional weak form without a vowel.) For forehead, a not uncommon pronunciation among uncultivated speakers i s / fa,hed/, which is presumably a blend of /'farad/ and /'foa.hed/. The words in which /a/ has been replaced by /a/ as a result of spelling-pronunciation are in general the same as in other types of American English. I cite here only those words in which I have noted that the usage of some New Yorkers differs from that recorded in the Kenyon and Knott Dictionary. In compass, the vowel in cultivated use is /λ/, but /a/ is almost regular on other levels. Monger often has /a/ even in educated speech. The distinction between /a/ in constable (common n o u n ) and / Δ / in Constable (family-name) recorded by Kenyon and Knott I have not observed in metropolitan speech-the latter also has /a/(in Arnold, Constable, the name of a well-known store, I have never heard /λ/). In comfort and comfortable, /a/ may sometimes be used by less cultivated speakers . 10 The use of /a/' instead of / λ / in the negative prefix

un-

6?

VO»ELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSFD SYLLABLES

(unsafe, unsure, e t c . ) , found in c e r t a i n American d i a l e c t s , I have h e a r d a few t i m e s in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , but i t i s q u i t e uncommon. None o f my i n f o r m a n t s p r o n o u n c e in t h i s fashion. P a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e more c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l s o f New York p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a l o w - b a c k rounded vowel l i k e t h a t o f S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h may sometimes be h e a r d . I t s employment i s u n d o u b t e d l y in p a r t a m a t t e r o f c o n s c i o u s i m i t a t i o n o f B r i t i s h o r " E a s t e r n " u s a g e . A few s p e a k e r s pronounce i t r a t h e r o f t e n , n o t o n l y in p l a c e o f t h e more u s u a l /a/ o f rock, stop, but a l s o o f /r>3/ (broth, l o f t ) and in t h o s e words in which /aS/ may a p p e a r (lodge, wash). T h i s type o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a d v o c a t e d in some manuals o f e l o c u t i o n u s e d in New York s c h o o l s , i s n o t e x t r e m e l y common. Those who p r o n o u n c e in t h i s manner, m o r e o v e r , a r e r a t h e r i r r e g u l a r in t h e i r u s a g e , n o t c a r r y i n g t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n s through c o m p l e t e l y . B u t t h e i m i t a t i o n of B r i t i s h or " F a s t e r n " p r a c t i c e i s hardly the s o l e c a u s e o f t h e employment o f t h i s rounded v o w e l . S o m e t i m e s i t i s p r o b a b l y a b l e n d , t h e r e s u l t o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f /a/ and /r>§/ in words in which b o t h phonemes may o c c u r . F o r examp l e , b e f o r e /r/ t h e r e i s some c o n f u s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l c l a s s e s , coral, moral, and a few o t h e r s o f t e n h a v i n g t h e /o§/ o f Dora, storage, w h i l e Lawrence i s o f t e n pronounced with / a / . In my own s p e e c h and in t h a t o f some o t h e r s whom I have o b s e r v e d , a vowel l i k e t h e S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h one i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y to o c c u r h e r e . I t i s a l s o common in c e r t a i n words in which many s p e a k e r s have come to f e e l t h a t / o s / i s i n e l e g a n t , b u t i n which /a/ o r /aS/ would seem r a t h e r u n n a t u r a l , f o r e x a m p l e in c o f f e e , o f f i c e , o f f i c e r ; dog; choco late. There i s no t e n d e n c y to p r e f e r t h e rounded vowel in t h o s e words in which i t i s p r e c e d e d by /w/, such a s wallet, w a f f l e s , swamp. I am n o t a l t o g e t h e r c e r t a i n how one s h o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h i s [Tal p h o n e m i c a l l y . In t h e s p e e c h o f some·, i t p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n s m e r e l y a s a nond i s t in c t i ve f r e e v a r i a n t o f /a/; in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f o t h e r s , one can s o m e t i m e s f i n d o p p o s i t i o n s w i t h /a/ and /pS/, a l t h o u g h n o t minimal c o n t r a s t i n g s e t s (orange, orator, oral; chock, chocolate, chalk). In such c a s e s , I s u p p o s e , one has to c o n s i d e r [D] as a s e p a r a t e phoneme o f r a t h e r l i m i t e d o c c u r r e n c e . In s e c t i o n s 1 3 . 1 and 1 3 . 2 , I have n o t e d t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l o f my i n f o r m a n t s employ t h i s rounded vowel r a t h e r f r e quently. 3 . 5 . /Λ/. The vowel in cut, blood, s t u n i s advanced l o w e r m i d - b a c k , unrounded. The d i r e c t i o n o f v a r i a t i o n i s c h i e f l y f o r w a r d : in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h one may s o m e t i m e s h e a r a vowel t h a t I would d e s c r i b e as lower m i d - c e n t r a 1 , f a i r l y w e l l a d v a n c e d . N o t i c e a b l y lowered v a r i e t i e s l i k e t h o s e o f t e n h e a r d in London FngJ i s h and in some t y p e s o f E a s t e r n M a s s a c h u s e t t s s p e e c h do r o t o c c u r . " T h e r e a r e c e r t a i n p e c u l i a r i t i e s in t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e phoneme. T h r e e c l a s s e s o f words must be c o n s i d e r e d :

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63

α ) In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h , / A / can o c c u r in f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e , s o t h a t f o r t h i s type o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n i t r e a l l y does not b e l o n g in t h i s g e n e r a l c l a s s o f v o w e l s a t a l l . The words in which / A / may a p p e a r a s a word-final

are

blur,

her

(stressed),

purr,

stir,

all

the

words t h a t rime w i t h t h e s e in G e n e r a l American and S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h , and the s t r e s s e d form o f for. In an e a r l i e r a r t i c l e , ^ I i n d i c a t e d t h a t the vowel in t h e s e words d i f f e r e d p h o n e t i c a l l y from t h a t o f c u t , b e i n g s l i g h t l y f r o n t e d , r a i s e d , and d i p h t h o n g a l . That i s sometimes the c a s e , b u t in the u s a g e o f many the vowel i s i d e n t i c a l with the [A] u s e d e l s e w h e r e . I t may be q u i t e s h o r t and w i t h o u t any g l i d e , s o t h a t the word stir in S t i r the soup sounds e x a c t l y l i k e stuck w i t h o u t the f i n a l s t o p . T h e same vowel a p p e a r s in paradigmatic d e r i v a t i v e s before f i n a l consonants: stirs, blurred. A b l e n d - f o r m / Λ Γ / may a l s o be heard in t h e s e w o r d s , which may a p p e a r even in the s p e e c h o f t h o s e who do not o r d i n a r i l y pronounce / r / b e f o r e a c o n s o n a n t o r a p a u s e . b)

In d e r i v a t i v e s

before

/τ/

(stirring,

stirrer,

furry,

occurrence, w e r e n ' t ) , ^ /A/ a l s o o c c u r s and may be u s e d by t h o s e who in s f t r and stirs pronounce / 3 § / o r / r / . c ) B e f o r e / r / in words t h a t a r e n o t d e r i v a t i v e s o f stir, spur, and t h e l i k e , / A / i s the u s u a l vowel on a l l l e v e l s : courage,

current,

hurry,

nourish.

In g e n e r a l

the

vowel

oc-

c u r s in the same words h e r e a s in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h ; but i t i s f r e q u e n t a l s o in stirrup and squirrel ( i n the f o r m e r / i / may a l s o be h e a r d , in t h e l a t t e r I have not o b s e r v e d i t ) ; and i t o f t e n d o e s not o c c u r , on the o t h e r hand, in Durham, which many pronounce with t h e / u S / o f during. A s i d e from t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s from the p r a c t i c e found in o t h e r r e g i o n s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / A / e x h i b i t s o n l y one o r two p e c u l i a r i t i e s . For donkey, the o l d e r / ' d A g k i . l / o c c u r s f a r more f r e q u e n t l y than i t a p p e a r s t o do in o t h e r p a r t s o f America. In pulpit, I have heard / A / r a t h e r o f t e n from u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . In the s t r e s s e d forms o f from, of, ttas (wasn't) «hat, in which Kenyon condemns / A / a s not h a v i n g " a t t a i n e d to good u s a g e , " t h e vowel i s c e r t a i n l y not unknown in the p r a c t i c e o f many o f the c u l t i v a t e d in the c i t y . 3 . 6 . / u / . In c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , the vowel in full, foot, stood i s lower h i g h - b a c k , u s u a l l y o n l y weakly r o u n d e d . Among l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , i t i s sometimes advanced and the l i p - r o u n d i n g may d i s a p p e a r c o m p l e t e l y . The f a c t t h a t t h e i n t e r v a l between t h e more advanced v a r i e t i e s o f / u / and t h e more r e t r a c t e d v a r i e t i e s o f / i / i s sometimes v e r y s m a l l h a s a l r e a d y been mentioned on page 53. Those whom I have obs e r v e d to u s e t h i s f r o n t e d , unrounded vowel have done so s p o r a d i c a l l y : the s p e a k e r would f i r s t pronounce a vowel i d e n t i c a l with my own and t h e n , sometimes in the same word, would u s e one t h a t s t r u c k my e a r a s markedly d i f f e r e n t . So f a r a s the o c c u r r e n c e o f / u / and / u u / in words o f the

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VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSFD SYLLARLES

g r o u p r e p r e s e n t e d by room i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s d i a l e c t s do n o t e x h i b i t any s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . In broom, groom, and room, / u ü / i s u s u a l and I h a v e o b s e r v e d no t e n d e n c y t o t r e a t room d i f f e r e n t l y when i t i s t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f c o m p o u n d s . B e f o r e / n / (noon, soon, spoon), I h a v e n o t h e a r d / u / . B e f o r e / p / , / u / seems t o be m o r e common t h a n / u ü / i n hoop; i n coop, the opposite is decidedly ( s e v e r a l o f my o l d e r i n f o r m t r u e ; / u ü / i s u s u a l i n Cooper a n t s p r o n o u n c e d / u / i n Cooper, and o n e o f them t o l d me t h a t t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n was common when s h e was a young g i r l ) ; i n whooping cough, both p r o n u n c i a t i o n s are f r e q u e n t ; whoopee u s u a l l y h a s / u / . B e f o r e / t / , / u t t / i s u s u a l i n root, uncommon i n soot ( I have not h e a r d / λ / ) . B e f o r e / f / , / u / i s prepond e r a n t l y u s e d in hoof, / u ü / i n roof. The s l a n g word boogiewoogie u s u a l l y h a s / u / i n b o t h s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . As f o r words in which t h e s p e l l i n g i s n o t oo, / u / a l o n e o c c u r s in batcher and i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y p r o n o u n c e d i n bosom ( t h e r e i s a l s o a j o c u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n / b s zuumz/, o r d i n a r i l y p l u r a l ) . In t h e word cuckoo in t h e s e n s e of " c r a z y , " / u ü / i s u s u a l l y h e a r d ; t h e name o f t h e b i r d i s a l s o so p r o n o u n c e d , b u t many educated speakers use / u / . The f a c t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d on p a g e 41 t h a t / u / may o c c u r i n a f r e q u e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f wurst. Similarly, the v o w e l may a p p e a r i n frankfurter, w h i c h i s v e r y commonly p r o nounced / ' f r a e r ) k ( f u t s ( r , - f u d s ( r / . DIPHTHONGS OF THE

[Ϊ]-SERIES

9 . 1 . / i Ϊ / . In see, seed, seat, a d i p h t h o n g o c c u r s whose s t a r t i n g - p o i n t i s l o w e r h i g h - f r o n t , o f t e n somewhat r e t r a c t e d . The g l i d i n g movement i s t o w a r d a c l o s e r p o s i t i o n . The g l i d e i s a b r i e f o n e , o f c o u r s e , and c o m p l e t e l y m o n o p h t h o n g a l phones o c c u r , b u t even b e f o r e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s , where / i l / i s n o r m a l l y s h o r t e s t , t h e g l i d e may o f t e n b e h e a r d . The r e t r a c t i o n of t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t " i s most marked in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . P a r t i c u l a r l y when i t s t a n d s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e ( a s i n Give it to me), o n e may s o m e t i m e s h e a r i n u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n a v a r i e t y whose s t a r t i n g - p o i n t i s a lower h i g h - c e n t r a l v o w e l . ^ The p h o n e t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / i l / i n h i g h - s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s does n o t d i f f e r from t h a t found i n G e n e r a l American and S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h . In o p e n s y l l a b l e s u n d e r s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s b e f o r e a h i g h - s t r e s s e d v o w e l ( c r e a t i v e , neologism, piano, Peoria, reaction, reality), the p r a c t i c e of p h o n e t i c i a n s r e c o r d i n g o t h e r t y p e s o f E n g l i s h d i f f e r s , some w r i t i n g / i / , o t h e r s / i l / . T h e r e i s no o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two phonemes i n t h i s p o s i t i o n a n d t h e a c t u a l p h o n e t i c q u a l i t y may v a r y . I w r i t e t h e s e vowels in phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n as / i l / , which i s p h o n e t i c a l l y most a c c u r a t e f o r m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n a s a w h o l e . I® F o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f / ί ϊ / i n weak s y l l a b l e s a n d f o r

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

65

c e r t a i n v a r i a t i o n s in t h e u s a g e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s d i a l e c t s , s e e page 8 7 . So f a r as t h e l e x i c a l o c c u r r e n c e o f / i l / i s c o n c e r n e d , m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n h a r d l y d i f f e r s from t h a t o f America g e n e r a l l y . In d e a f , / i l / s u r v i v e s to some e x t e n t in o l d f a s h i o n e d and in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h ; in creek, i t i s by f a r the more f r e q u e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n ; in chic, b o t h / i l / and / i / o c c u r ; and in clique t h e same v a r i a t i o n o c c u r s ( / k l i k / i s t h e most common p r o n u n c i a t i o n among u n d e r g r a d u a t e s ) . B e s i d e s t h e u s u a l / i l / i n eagle, / i / may o c c u r , a l t h o u g h r a r e l y ( I have heard t h e name o f t h e B r o o k l y n d a i l y newspaper so pronounced by s e v e r a l r a t h e r w e l l - e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s ) . Negro i s / ' n i i ^ r o u / and / n i g ( r o 3 / , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g f a i r l y common and in no s e n s e d e r o g a t o r y . As Thomas n o t e s , / i l / i s o f t e n pronounced i n t h e h i g h - s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s o f Patricia and initiate·, it may be added t h a t many who would use i t in t h e former word would look upon i t as e x t r e m e l y u n c u l t i v a t e d in t h e l a t t e r . For cerebral, / s s r i l b r s l / i s f a r more f r e q u e n t than t h e d i c tionary pronunciation. 9 . 2 . / e f / . The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g in say, same, state i s i n t e r m e d i a t e o r l o w e r m i d - f r o n t , u s u a l l y n o t much h i g h e r than t h e [e] o f pet and o f t e n i d e n t i c a l w i t h i t . In u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t may sometimes be q u i t e low. But v a r i a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t i s c h i e f l y toward a r e t r a c t e d p o s i t i o n , and n o t i c e a b l y r e t r a c t e d v a r i e t i e s may o f t e n be h e a r d from u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . (The o c c a s i o n a l o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h t h e more advanced v a r i e t i e s o f t h e d i p h t h o n g in hurt and f i r s t i s m e n t i o n e d below on page 6 3 . ) The upward g l i d i n g movement i s u s u a l l y q u i t e p e r c e p t i b l e even b e f o r e voiceless stops. The p h o n e t i c and l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / e l / does not d i f f e r e x c e p t in minor ways from t h a t found in G e n e r a l American and S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h . The r e p l a c e m e n t o f / e i / by / e s / b e f o r e / l / in sail, daily, failure and t h e l i k e ( a c t u a l l y a s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n ) in t h e s p e e c h o f some New Y o r k e r s i s d e a l t with under / s § / on page 7 5. As in American E n g l i s h g e n e r a l l y , / e l / under s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s o c c u r s in holiday; the same p r o n u n c i a t i o n may f r e q u e n t l y be h e a r d in yesterday and the names o f t h e days o f t h e week. For moire, / moS,reI, (tD09 r e i , inwa, r e i / a r e common, even among e d u c a t e d women, and I have r a r e l y h e a r d t h e o t h e r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s r e c o r d e d in t h e d i c t i o n a r i e s . In lingerie, not only i s t h e r e v a r i a t i o n between [äs] and [ä] in t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e , but / e l / may o c c u r in t h e f i n a l one, even sometimes on t h e c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l . An o l d s t r e s s - p a t t e r n s u r v i v e s in / , θ ΐ ϊ e i d s ( r / theater, which i s f a i r l y common in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . A number o f my i n f o r m a n t s pronounced / e i / in forbade; t h i s pronunciation i s very f r e q u e n t l y used by u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , t o whom forbade, oddly enough p e r h a p s , i s n o t a v e r y f a m i l i a r word. K e n y o n ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t in America g e n e r a l l y nouns and

66

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

a d j e c t i v e s i n -ative r e t a i n / e t / under secondary s t r e s s ' 7 h a r d l y a p p l i e s t o m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . I n New York C i t y t h e t e n d e n c y to d r o p t h e s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s and r e d u c e t h e d i p h t h o n g o p e r a t e s as i t has o p e r a t e d in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h , a l t h o u g h n o t q u i t e s o many w o r d s a r e a f f e c t e d . Among t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e l o s s o f s t r e s s i s common a r e appreciative, cooperative, cumulative, decorative, imaginative, initiat ive, n o m i n a t i v e , remunerative. I n some o f t h e s e w o r d s , f o r e x a m p l e i n coope rat ive, I have r a r e l y heard / - ^ l t s v , -^ldsv/· 9 . 3 . / a i / . In c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h , t h e d i p h t h o n g i n high, ride, vhite b e g i n s a t an a d v a n c e d l o w - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . I t s g l i d i n g movement i s upward and f o r w a r d to a h e i g h t l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e e n d - p o i n t o f / e i / . The q u a l i t y o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t may v a r y s o m e w h a t f r o m s p e a k e r t o s p e a k e r a n d f r o m u t t e r a n c e t o u t t e r a n c e : i t may b e a d v a n c e d a l i t t l e a n d r a i s e d ; i t may b e r e t r a c t e d a s f a r a s t h e [ a ] o f pot; and i t may b e s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y t o w a r d m i d - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n ( b u t I have n o t h e a r d in t h e s p e e c h of t h e c i t y v a r i e t i e s l i k e t h o s e u s e d i n N o r t h e r n E n g l a n d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n some p a r t s o f u p p e r New Y o r k S t a t e o r i n t h e P r o v i n c e o f O n t a r i o , w h o s e f i r s t elements are d e f i n i t e l y mid-central). V e r y commonly i n t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h o f t h e c i t y t h e b e g i n n i n g of the g l i d e i s r e t r a c t e d low-back. This r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t i s n o t s t r i k i n g when t h e d i p h t h o n g i s f o l l o w e d by v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s : w o r d s l i k e pipe, kite, k n i f e may b e p r o n o u n c e d a b o u t a s t h e y a r e by c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . But b e f o r e v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t s and f i n a l l y , t h e g l i d e o f t e n b e g i n s a t a n e x t r e m e l y low and r e t r a c t e d p o s i t i o n , which c o i n c i d e s with t h a t of the r e t r a c t e d monophthongal d i a p h o n e o f / a s / ( s e e p a g e 7 9 ) . O f t e n t h e u p w a r d movement i s slow and t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t a p p e a r s l o n g e r t h a n i s t h e c a s e in cultivated pronunciation. Nasalization is frequent. On t h e l e v e l o f l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , i t i s g e n e r a l l y t r u e t h a t t h e s t r o n g r e t r a c t i o n of the f i r s t e l e m e n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g i n high a n d t h e u s e o f a r e t r a c t e d v o w e l o r o f a> d i p h t h o n g t h a t b e g i n s v e r y f a r b a c k i n hard go t o g e t h e r . A p e r s o n who r e t r a c t s i n t h e o n e c a s e w i l l n o r m a l l y do i t i n the o t h e r a l s o . Those c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , however, mentioned in t h e s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h / a a / a s u s i n g a r e t r a c t e d vowel o r d i p h t h o n g i n hard, march, e t c . , o r d i n a r i l y p r o n o u n c e in ride a n d high t h e d i p h t h o n g d e s c r i b e d in the f i r s t p a r a g r a p h of t h i s s e c t i o n . In m o n o s y l l a b l e s c o m p o s e d o f t h e f i r s t p e r s o n s i n g u l a r p r o n o u n p l u s a n u n s t r e s s e d v e r b a l f o r m , / a i / may b e r e p l a c e d b y / a / ( n o t / a 5 / ) . "Πιϊβ p r o n j n c i a t i o n i s v e r y common i n I ' l l ( i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f o l i v e ) , a n d I'm (ident i c a l w i t h t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f omelet); and i t may be h e a r d i n I've a n d I ' d , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e s e s y l l a b l e s a r e u n stressed. In t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f I n f o r m a n t s # 3 2 a n d # 3 3 , t h e s e c o n d

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

67

element o f the diphthong when f i n a l or f o l l o w e d by a v o i c e d consonant i s o f t e n reduced o r l o s t e n t i r e l y . But t h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o n , which in t h i s r e s p e c t r e s e m b l e s t h a t heard in many p a r t s o f the South, i s h e r e c o m p l e t e l y u n t y p i c a l . Nor does the Southern B r i t i s h s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a monophthong f o r the sequence / a i a / in words l i k e empire and science have any c o u n t e r p a r t in m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . 9 . 4 . / ο ϊ / . The diphthong in joy, join, joint in c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n b e g i n s a t a h i g h e r low-back rounded p o s i t i o n and g l i d e s upward and forward. The f i r s t element i s o r d i n a r i ly i d e n t i c a l in q u a l i t y with the monophthongal v a r i a n t o f / o s / · The diphthong o c c u r s in the same words in which t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g one i s used in G e n e r a l American and Southern and B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . In a d d i t i o n , i t i s pronounced in lawyer the family-name Sawyer, which in Southern B r i t i s h a r e n o t e x a c t rimes o f employer and destroyer. " The p r a c t i c e o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s v a r i e s . On a l e v e l i n t e r m e d i a t e between c u l t i v a t e d speech and the e x t r e m e s o f u n c u l t i vated p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a diphthong f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s t h a t i s phonemically e q u i v a l e n t to the one j u s t d e s c r i b e d , but d i f f e r s from i t p h o n e t i c a l l y . I t s f i r s t element i s more s t r o n g l y rounded, r e t r a c t e d , and s l i g h t l y h i g h e r ; the rounding may i n volve a marked p r o t r u s i o n o f the l i p s . Those who pronounce in t h i s f a s h i o n commonly employ phones o f the same k i n d , t h a t i s r e t r a c t e d and overrounded, in words l i k e law and court. But in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s the words in which / ο ϊ / o c c u r s in the s t a n d a r d forms o f F n g l i s h f a l l i n t o two groups. In one, the s m a l l e r , the u s u a l d i p h thong i s the one mentioned in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h . In t h e o t h e r group, /r>l/ may a l s o o c c u r , but a l o n g s i d e i t a r e : ( a ) diphthongs with a m i d - c e n t r a l f i r s t element i d e n t i c a l with those which o c c u r in third and turn; (6) / r / , although t h i s i s not as common as the p o p u l a r s p e l l i n g s pernt and jern would s u g g e s t ; ( c ) a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e two, namely an [ l ] -diphthong whose f i r s t element i s [ij·] . The d e t a i l s a r e given in the n e x t s e c t i o n . 9 . 5 . / 3 Ϊ / . Under t h i s r u b r i c , I b r i n g t o g e t h e r a r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e s e t o f diphthongs which may appear in two l a r g e groups o f words r e p r e s e n t e d by curl and coil, respectively.'" The v a r i a t i o n e x h i b i t e d here in m e t r o p o l i t a n speech i s cons i d e r a b l e and the d i f f e r e n t c l a s s - d i a l e c t s o f the c i t y a r e in some r e s p e c t s s h a r p l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from one a n o t h e r in t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e g r o u p s . Furthermore, the usage o f many i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s i s h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r , f o l l o w i n g now one p a t t e r n and now a n o t h e r even in t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f a s i n g l e word. 2 0 The c l a s s e s which we must c o n s i d e r a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : Group A. Those words which in Southern B r i t i s h F n g l i s h cont a i n a m i d - c e n t r a l s t r e s s e d vowel f o l l o w e d by an,y consonant

63

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

( e x c e p t / r / ) t h a t does not c o n s t i t u t e an i n f l e c t i o n a l turpentine, s u r f , serve, stern, curl,

curb, shirt, uord, irk, berth, further, purse, etc.^'

Ferguson, church, Jersey, Persia,

ending: urge, firm,

Group B. Those words which i n Southern B r i t i s h E n g l i s h cont a i n the d i p h t h o n g / ο ϊ / , w i t h c e r t a i n e x c e p t i o n s . These e x c e p t i o n s v a r y somewhat from s p e a k e r to s p e a k e r , but a l w a y s i n c l u d e the words in which the d i p h t h o n g i s f i n a l (boy, joy, toy, e t c . and u s u a l l y i n c l u d e the d e r i v a t i v e s of such words

(boyish,

destroyer,

enjoyable,

enjoyed,

toys),

the

words n o i s e and poise (when the l a t t e r i s used a t a l l ) , p l u s a few o t h e r s in which the d i p h t h o n g i s f o l l o w e d by a vowel (loyal,

royal,

lawyer,

Sawyer).

For t h e d e t a i l s ,

see

below.

As I have i n d i c a t e d , the p h o n e t i c q u a l i t y of the d i p h t h o n g s t h a t may be h e a r d v a r i e s . The f i r s t element i s o r d i n a r i l y some k i n d of m i d - c e n t r a l vowel, advanced or r e t r a c t e d , h i g h e r or l o w e r , sometimes rounded. But the e x t r e m e s of v a r i a t i o n e x t e n d beyond the l i m i t s of the m i d - c e n t r a l a r e a . On the one hand, the g l i d e may b e g i n f a r t h e r back; on the o t h e r , i t sometimes b e g i n s a t a p o s i t i o n t h a t i s lower m i d - f r o n t r e t r a c t e d , in which c a s e t h e r e may be an o c c a s i o n a l o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h / e i / · 2 3 Not i n f r e q u e n t l y the more advanced and the more r e t r a c t e d t y p e s may be u s e d by the same s p e a k e r . 2 * The e x t e n t of t h e g l i d e and t h e prominence of the second element may also vary. As i s w e l l known, t h e o c c u r r e n c e of / 3 l / in the words of Group A i s not l i m i t e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d u s a g e . On the c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l of m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h , p r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e / 0 3 l d / third and / b 3 l 6 t / burst may be h e a r d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h younger s p e a k e r s a r e l i k e l y not to u s e them. One may o f t e n o b s e r v e t h a t , in a p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y , / 3 l / a p p e a r s in the speech of t h e o l d e r members, w h i l e t h e younger ones pronounce /r/ or /3§/. Mixed p a t t e r n s a r e not uncommon on the c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s : among my i n f o r m a n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , some employ both / 3 l / and /3§/, o t h e r s / 3 l / and / r / . The c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e s e l a s t two r e s u l t s in a diphthong [lj-ϊ] , which may be h e a r d r a t h e r f requen11 y. The v a r i a t i o n in the q u a l i t y of the d i p h t h o n g s c o m p r i s i n g /31/ i s i n p a r t a m a t t e r of c l a s s - d i a l e c t . I t would p e r h a p s be d a n g e r o u s to a s s e r t i t a s a h a r d - a n d - f a s t r u l e , but in g e n e r a l the s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s h i g h e r and more advanced in the speech of t h o s e c u l t i v a t e d p e r s o n s who employ t h e s e d i p h thongs, and the movement not so pronounced. Sometimes one may h e a r a m i d - c e n t r a l vowel w i t h o n l y a s l i g h t upward and f o r ward g l i d e . In u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , on the o t h e r hand, the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t i s l i k e l y to be l o w e r and f a r t h e r back and the g l i d e much more p r o m i n e n t . I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t /3Ϊ/ n e v e r a p p e a r s i n c e r t a i n t y p e s of words which a r e pronounced w i t h a s t r e s s e d m i d - c e n t r a l vowel i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h : i t does not o c c u r in fur, stir, and a l l r i m e - w o r d s , nor in d e r i v a t i v e s of such words

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS O F STRESSED SYLLABLES {furs, furry, pronunciation

occurrence, stirred, stirring, etc.).26 For o f t h e s e types, see p a g e s 63, 85, a n d 86.

69 the

In G r o u p B, the c u l t i v a t e d do n o t e m p l o y the d i p h t h o n g s d i s c u s s e d in this s e c t i o n , but / ο ϊ / . 2 7 T h e r e f o r e , e v e n w h e n / 3 Ϊ / a p p e a r s in t h e i r speech in curl, earl, learn, s u c h w o r d s are n o t h o m o n y m s o f coil, oil, and loin. T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tween t h e s e two c l a s s e s is a l s o fairly w e l l m a i n t a i n e d o n the i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s o f N e w Y o r k p r o n u n c i a t i o n and the e m p l o y m e n t , in w o r d s s p e l l e d w i t h oi, oy, o f the d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / is thus m u c h less e x t e n s i v e than a r e c e r t a i n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s tics o f less c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . 2 ® W h e n d i p h t h o n g s d i s t i n c t p h o n e t i c a l l y from [οϊ] are u s e d in the w o r d s o f G r o u p B, their e x a c t q u a l i t y v a r i e s j u s t as d o e s the q u a l i t y o f t h o s e u s e d by the s a m e s p e a k e r s in G r o u p A. Coil-cur I, oil-earl, loin- learn a r e h o m o n y m s . T h e i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n / 3 Ϊ / on the o n e h a n d , and / r / (and the b l e n d [l^l] ) on the o t h e r , w h i c h m a y b e o b s e r v e d in G r o u p A, may c o n s e q u e n t l y s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r in the w o r d s o f G r o u p Β also, r e s u l t i n g in p r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e [k^l] o r [dgyln] for coil and Join." To find a c l e a r p a t t e r n in the v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n [3l] and [οϊ] in the oi-words is r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t . T h e g r o u p o f w o r d s in w h i c h [3Ϊ] n e v e r o c c u r s is n o t the s a m e in the u s a g e o f d i f f e r e n t s p e a k e r s . In my e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e d i p h thongs I listed as w o r d s a l w a y s p r o n o u n c e d w i t h [f>l] the following: " A l l w o r d s in w h i c h the d i p h t h o n g is final, as for e x a m p l e , toy, boy, enjoy, destroy, annoy, a n d the d e r i v a t i v e s o f such w o r d s ; loyal, royal; poise, noise; exploit, loiter, goiter." This list r e q u i r e s some' c o r r e c t i o n . In the f i r s t place, the w o r d s in w h i c h the d i p h t h o n g is f o l l o w e d by / t / (interchanging with /d/) should not have been included: I h a v e since o b s e r v e d d i p h t h o n g s like [3ϊ] a n u m b e r o f t i m e s in loiter and goiterand, f u r t h e r m o r e , the n a m e Hoyt (for e x a m p l e , in Hoyt Street, B r o o k l y n ) is s ö m e t i m e s [h3lt, h A l t ] . S e c o n d l y , d i p h t h o n g s like [31] m a y s o m e t i m e s b e u s e d in loyal and royal, p a r t i c u l a r l y if the u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s are s y n c o pated ( a l t h o u g h I h a v e n e v e r h e a r d [ij·] in t h e s e w o r d s ) . W i t h the o n e m i n o r e x c e p t i o n m e n t i o n e d in n o t e 2 2 , p a g e 1 4 1 , [31] does not o c c u r when the d i p h t h o n g is a w o r d - f i n a l , n o r h a v e I h e a r d [γ] in t h i s p o s i t i o n . As for the d e r i v a t i v e s , [31] (or [r] ) does not o c c u r b e f o r e / z / in forms l i k e boys, employs, o r when followed by a vowel that is n e v e r s y n c o p a t e d ( b o y i s h , employer). B u t in the p a s t t e n s e forms enjoyed, destroyed, etc., d i p h t h o n g s like [31] m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y be u s e d . T h e w o r d noise is p r o n o u n c e d [ηΛ··Τζ] by o n e o f my i n f o r m a n t s , but t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n is r a t h e r u n u s u a l . B e h i n d all the v a r i a t i o n in the i n d i v i d u a l u s a g e o f u n c u l tivated s p e a k e r s , it m a y be that t h e r e is a p a t t e r n , u s u a l l y d i s t o r t e d at o n e p o i n t o r a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s by the i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r c l a s s - d i alects, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h [3I] and [oi] a r e m e r e l y v a r i a n t s o f the same p h o n e m e . In a few i n s t a n c e s , the o c c u r r e n c e o f [of] is p o s i t i o n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , that i s , in

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VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n o r b e f o r e an u n s y n c o p a t e d v o w e l . In most p o s i t i o n s , the q u a l i t y of the d i p h t h o n g may v a r y more o r l e s s at random. For what i t i s worth as e v i d e n c e , I submit the o b s e r v a t i o n that many u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s appear u n a b l e to h e a r the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e d i p h t h o n g s - - t h e y " s o u n d the same" to them. In working w i t h s t u d e n t s who used t h e s e unc u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , I have o f t e n found t h a t they would f o r example, say [ b o i - ΐ ] f o r boy and [ b 3 l l ] f o r boil and t h i n k t h a t they were p r o n o u n c i n g the same d i p h t h o n g in both words. F r e q u e n t l y some r a t h e r i n t e n s i v e e a r - t r a i n i n g i s r e q u i r e d b e f o r e such s t u d e n t s can be made to h e a r the d i p h t h o n g s as d i f f e r e n t ones. In a s t u d y i n t e n d e d f o r r e a d e r s f a m i l i a r w i t h the h i s t o r y o f American E n g l i s h , i t seems u n n e c e s s a r y to add t h a t the " D u t c h o r i g i n " t h e o r y o f the New York / 3 Ϊ / i s r i d i c u l o u s . So f a r as I know t h i s t h e o r y has n e v e r been a c c e p t e d by any comp e t e n t l i n g u i s t , but i t s t i l l c r o p s up e v e r y so o f t e n in popu l a r a r t i c l e s . Those who e n t e r t a i n i t seem unaware t h a t in many p a r t s o f the South words l i k e third and burst are pronounced w i t h an a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l d i p h t h o n g . As f o r words l i k e coil and join, i t i s f a r s i m p l e r to assume t h a t u n c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n speech p r e s e r v e s in somewhat a l t e r e d form a d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t was g e n e r a l in F a r l y Modern E n g l i s h . DIPHTHONGS

OF THE

[3]

-SERIES

1 0 . 1 . /au/. The d i p h t h o n g in how, sound, house, v a r i e s cons i d e r a b l y in m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t may be any one o f a numbe o f low v o w e l s i n the range a p p r o x i m a t e l y s e t by the [ae] of hat^ and the [ a ] o f hot. Variants w i t h a m i d - c e n t r a l f i r s t element do not o c c u r . The f i r s t element may vary n o t i c e a b l y in l e n g t h ; t h a t i s , the g l i d e may s t a r t q u i c k l y o r the i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n may be h e l d f o r a time b e f o r e the upward movement b e g i n s . Hie l i p - m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the second element r a r e l y i n v o l v e s any r e a l p r o t r u s i o n o f the l i p s ; more commonly t h e r e i s m e r e l y a d e c r e a s e , as the g l i d e p r o g r e s s e s , in the d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g them. D i f f e r e n c e s between the c l a s s - d i a l e c t s are in p a r t a m a t t e r o f the p o i n t at which the diphthong b e g i n s , the more advanced v a r i e t i e s b e i n g uncommon in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . But a l s o imp o r t a n t a r e the r e l a t i v e l e n g t h o f the f i r s t element and the p r e s e n c e o r absence o f n a s a l i z a t i o n . Thus on both the c u l t i v a t e d and the u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l , the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t may be about [ a ] , but in the l a t t e r type o f speech i t may be drawn out b e f o r e the tongue b e g i n s i t s r i s e and the whole g l i d e may be s t r o n g l y n a s a l i z e d . W r i t i n g about t h i s d i p h t h o n g in the 1 8 9 0 ' s , B a b b i t t s a i d t h a t t h e r e was "much v a r i a t i o n in the f i r s t c o m p o n e n t , " but w i t h o u t any f r o n t i n g o f the vowel " t o [ a e ] o r a mixed vowel n e a r [ae] " and t h a t " w h a t i s heard i s g e n e r a l l y a r e g u l a r [a] o r something a p p r o a c h i n g [ n ] . T h i s i s h a r d l y a v e r y good

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71

description of uncultivated usage today, but it is very possible that there has been a change in the quality of the diphthong in the intervening years. While I have not observed anything like [DU] , I have found that, even on the uncultivated level, elderly speakers rarely begin the glide from a markedly fronted position and that their pronunciation in this respect is often the same as my own (in my speech the first element usually lies between [a] and [a] ). Among my informants and among New Yorkers generally, diphthongs like [aeü] occur chiefly in the speech of younger persons. The Southern British replacement by a monophthong of the sequence /aiis/ in words like power, tower, devouring, naw-adaysis not paralleled in metropolitan pronunciation. Monophthongization may be observed occasionally in a few words, for example in how and now (Informant #30: [,ha· d^s'me^ik i h t] How did you make it?). The substitution of /a/ for /au/ in the last syllable of paramount, which is not an instance of monophthongization, is briefly discussed on page 61 above. But in our (and ours), /a§/ often occurs, making the word a rime of car rather than of power. This pronunciation, which appears on all levels, may have developed in unstressed position originally, but it is used under stress also and many speakers do not employ /au/ in this word at all. 10.2. /oil/. In go, rode, boat a diphthong occurs whose quality varies somewhat, although the variation is not so considerable as that heard in the case of /aö/. Most commonly it begins at an intermediate mid-back position, slightly higher and farther back than the [Λ] of cut. Normally the "rounding" of the diphthong does not involve any lip-protrusion: the lips come together at the corner, then as the glide progresses, the space between them narrows. In cultivated speech, one may sometimes hear, especially from women, a diphthong whose starting-point is advanced to a mid-central position, the result being very similar to one Southern British variant, of which it is possibly an imitation. (Such a diphthong is used, for example, by Informant §32.) A third variant, heard in less cultivated pronunciation, has a first element that is also advanced, but at the same time is lowered and without any lip-modification. Tlie phonetic distribution does not differ from that found in Southern British English and the lexical distribution only in regard to a few words. Many less cultivated speakers pronounce forward as /'foüwgd/, almost as / ' o u ^ o u s t , - mous/, and always as /'oi^weiz/. Words like fellow, marshmallow, piano, window have /on/ in cultivated speech (the variant used here often being short and with little or no glide); ^ in uncultivated pronunciation such words are leveled with soda, collar, etc. For /oö/ and /uü/ in won't, see the next section. The phoneme does not occur in the group of words represented

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VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

by hoarse, mourning, a l t h o u g h o n e may o c c a s i o n a l l y h e a r / o ü / i n w o r d s l i k e story and oral, in w h i c h i t i s f o l l o w e d by / τ / . F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s g r o u p , s e e p a g e 8 3 . 1 0 . 3 . / u ü / . The d i p h t h o n g i n shoe, moon, boot b e g i n s a t a l o w e r h i g h - b a c k p o s i t i o n , somewhat a d v a n c e d , and g l i d e s s l i g h t l y t o w a r d a c l o s e r p o s i t i o n . The d i p h t h o n g i s r o u n d e d in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e l i p s a r e c l o s e d a t t h e c o r n e r s and f a i r l y n e a r to each o t h e r at the m i d - l i n e , the d i s t a n c e bet w e e n them d e c r e a s i n g t o w a r d t h e e n d - - t h e r e i s o r d i n a r i l y l i t t l e o r no p r o t r u s i o n . When / j / p r e c e d e s , a s in pew, acute, o r o n e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f new, t h e d i p h t h o n g b e g i n s a t a more a d v a n c e d p o s i t i o n ; b u t t h e e x t r e m e f r o n t i n g h e a r d i n some p a r t s o f t h e S o u t h d o e s n o t o c c u r on a n y l e v e l o f m e t r o p o l i tan speech. One may o b s e r v e two o p p o s i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t may be a d v a n c e d and l o w e r e d , t h e g l i d e s t a r t i n g f r o m an u n r o u n d e d h i g h e r m i d - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . Or o n e may s o m e t i m e s h e a r a f u l l y r e t r a c t e d h i g h - b a c k vowel w i t h l i t t l e g l i d e and no p a r t i c u l a r l i p - m o d i f i c a t i o n , The d i s t r i b u t i o n , p h o n e t i c and l e x i c a l , o f / u ü / i s s i m i l a r to t h a t found in S o u t h e r n R r i t i s h e x c e p t in so f a r as a s e p a r a t e p h o n e m i c c a t e g o r y m u s t be p o s i t e d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h a t k i n d o f s p e e c h i n w h i c h / j / d o e s n o t o c c u r i n new, tune, and t h e l i k e , b u t i n w h i c h a t t h e same t i m e s u c h words a r e n o t r i m e s o f do and Boone. (For t h i s m a t t e r , see the next sect i o n . ) In o p e n s y l l a b l e s u n d e r s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s b e f o r e a h i g h s t r e s s e d vowel ( f l u i d i t y , fruition), I employ / u ü / i n p h o nemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n ; the s i t u a t i o n i s p a r a l l e l to t h a t of / i l / i n creative, piano d i s c u s s e d on p a g e 6 4 . A few w o r d s r e q u i r e p a r t i c u l a r m e n t i o n . In won't, /oü/ i s u s e d by some e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s ; o t h e r s p r o n o u n c e / u ü / and t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s a l s o g e n e r a l l y u s e d by t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d . The d i p h t h o n g o c c u r s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n manure, w h i c h t h e n r i m e s w i t h doer and viewer r a t h e r t h a n w i t h pure. Goal o f t e n h a s / u ü / i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , and t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n may a p p e a r in t h e t h e s p e e c h o f c h i l d r e n on a l l l e v e l s . The same d i p h t h o n g i s a l s o common i n c h i l d r e n ' s s p e e c h i n t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e o f las so. F o r t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f w o r d s l i k e roof and hoop, in w h i c h b o t h / u ü / and / u / may be h e a r d , s e e p a g e 6 4 . 1 0 . 4 . / i ü / . As I h a v e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n s o n a n t / j / , t h e p r a c t i c e o f many m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e a k e r s i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of t h e c l a s s e s o f w o r d s r e p r e s e n t e d by new, tune, duty, enthusiasm, assume, resume i s i r r e g u l a r . On t h e c o m p l e t e l y u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s n o t c o m p l i c a t e d : / u ü / , n o t p r e c e d e d by / j / , i s a s r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c l a s s e s as i n noon, tool, doom, zoo, loot, and t h e l i k e . Among t h e c u l t i v a t e d and t o some e x t e n t on t h e i n t e r -

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

73

m e d i a t e l e v e l s , such r e g u l a r i t y i s l e s s commonly f o u n d , and u s a g e may b e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e i n d e e d . Some s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e the sequence / j u u / , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r / t , d, n/, r a t h e r cons i s t e n t l y ; some do s o i n c e r t a i n w o r d s b u t n o t i n o t h e r s o f t h e same c l a s s ; a n d many p r o n o u n c e t h e s a m e w o r d now in o n e way and now i n a n o t h e r . In t h i s k i n d o f s p e e c h , when / j / i s n o t p r o n o u n c e d , t h e s e w o r d s may h a v e / u S / o r a d i p h t h o n g d i s t i n c t from / u u / , t h a t i s , w i t h a more a d v a n c e d f i r s t e l e m e n t . I h a v e o b s e r v e d few s p e a k e r s who p r o n o u n c e t h i s d i p h t h o n g w i t h any r e g u l a r i t y in t h e c l a s s e s r e f e r r e d t o above (none o f my i n f o r m a n t s d o ) . U s u a l l y i t s o c c u r r e n c e i s s p o r a d i c . A f t e r / ε / , f o r e x a m p l e , o n e o f my c u l t i v a t e d i n f o r m a n t s p r o n o u n c e d / f r Q / i n assume, b u t / u i l / i n suitable and superintendent. One f a c t o r i n i t s u s e , I t h i n k , i s t h e f e e l i n g t h a t a f t e r c e r t a i n c o n s o n a n t s / j u f f / i s a f f e c t e d and / u Q / " n o t c o r r e c t , " t h e l a t t e r n o t i o n o f t e n b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m t h e Webs t e r i a n r e s p e l l i n g s , w h i c h o n l y p h o n e t i c i a n s u n d e r s t a n d . In the speech of a person with such a t t i t u d e s , / i ü / i s l i k e l y to a p p e a r r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y a s a c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s compromise . B a b b i t t , d i s c u s s i n g u n c u l t i v a t e d speech in t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s , d e s c r i b e d a d i p h t h o n g t h a t h e w r o t e a s [ i u ] , " w i t h s t r e s s on t h e f i r s t c o m p o n e n t . " " He a d d e d t h a t i t t e n d e d t o b e r e p l a c e d by [Q] ( h i s s y m b o l f o r t h e s y l l a b i c o f boot) after " d e n t a l s " i n Tuesday, new, rule, e t c . I assume he meant t h a t s u c h a d i p h t h o n g , a n d n o t t h e s e q u e n c e / j u f l / , w a s common i n w o r d s l i k e mute, beauty, cube. This i s c e r t a i n l y not the case today. DIPHTHONGS THEIR

OF THE [S)-SERIES

UONOPHTHONGAL

AND

VARIANTS

1 1 . 1 . / i S / . The d i p h t h o n g i n spear a n d here b e g i n s a t a p o i n t a s h i g h a s o r u s u a l l y s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t h a n t h e [ i ] o f pit and then g l i d e s toward a m i d - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n , which i s n o r m a l l y h i g h e r and f a r t h e r f o r w a r d t h a n t h e e n d - p o i n t o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i p h t h o n g i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . The f i r s t e l e m e n t i s n o r m a l l y r a t h e r l o n g , t h e s e c o n d b r i e f . The d i p h t h o n g i s a l w a y s a f a l l i n g o n e : t h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y f o r t h e second e l e m e n t t o become t h e s y l l a b i c peak and p r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e t h o s e t h a t J o n e s r e c o r d s a s v a r i a n t s ( [ h j s : * ] hear, [/ja:*] sheer, [ j a : * ] year)^ do n o t o c c u r . B e f o r e c o n s o n a n t s t h e second element is o f t e n very s h o r t and, i f the f o l l o w i n g consonant i s i n t e r v o c a l i c , completely monophthongal pronunciat i o n s w i t h a f a i r l y l o n g v o w e l a r e e x t r e m e l y common ( f o r e x a m p l e iti hearing, piercing, theater, nearly, near it). In u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , t h e t e n d e n c y t o m o n o p h t h o n g i z a t i o n g o e s f u r t h e r and a f f e c t s even t h o s e o c c u r r e n c e s in which t h e d i p h t h o n g i s f i n a l b e f o r e a p a u s e . P r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e [ b i \ b i i ] t e e r , [ h i · , h i t ] here, [,α*ϊ'άϊ·, -'ditl idea

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESS Ft) SYLLABLES a r e f r e q u e n t . Even when m o n o p h t h o n p i z a t i o n i s n o t c o m p l e t e , t h e s t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g p o s i t i o n s may be v e r y c l o s e t o e a c h other. For t h e most p a r t , t h e d i p h t h o n g or i t s monophthonga1 v a r i a n t may o c c u r w h e r e v e r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i p h t h o n g i s f o u n d in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . F.xamples in a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e a l r e a d y c i t e d a r e real, really ( b u t s e e b e l o w ) ; leer, sneer; ear, heard, clear, fear; fierce, Pierce; here, mere, austere}^ There are c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s , however, between the Southern B r i t i s h p a t t e r n and t h a t of m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . In t h e t y p e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n e x h i b i t e d i n J o n e s ' Dictionary the opposit i o n b e f o r e / r / o f t h i s phoneme and t h e l o w e r h i g h - f r o n t m o n o p h t h o n g / i / s e e m s t o be q u i t e s t a b l e . In New York C i t y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n / i / i n mirror, spirit a n d /i§/ in series, serious, experience often disapp e a r s . As a r e s u l t , tlelirinus and mys (c r l o u s a r c o r d i n a r i l y r i m e s , a s a r e Syria and Algeria, myriad a n d period. The l e n g t h o f t h e v o w e l s may v a r v in b o t h g r o u p s b u t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n u s u a l l y a r i s e s from a l e n g t h e n i n g of t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y s h o r t v o w e l . T h e c o a l e s c e n c e o f t h e two p h o n e m e s b e f o r e / r / , howe v e r , i s n o t c o m p l e t e : we a r e , i t w o u l d s e e m , i n t h e m i d s t o f a s o u n d - c h a n g e . Thus a p a r t i c u l a r s p e a k e r who w i l l r e g u l a r l y r i m e my s t er ious and d e l i r i o u s may j u s t a s r e g u l a r l y p r e s e r v e a c l e a r o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n / i s / and / i / i n Vera and mirror. One may a t t i m e s h e a r q u i t e s h o r t v o w e l s i n some w o r d s l i k e series a n d seriously, w h i c h do n o t h a v e r e l a t e d f o r m s i n w h i c h / i g / i s a w o r d - f i n a l . But s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e v e r y u n u s u a l i n c learer , hearing, and t h e l i k e . In t h e r e p l a c e m e n t by / i s / o f t h e s e q u e n c e / ί ϊ θ / , New Y o r k p r a c t i c e l i e s b e t w e e n t h a t of G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n and t h a t o f S o u t h e r n o r i t i s h , a l t h o u g h i t i s c l o s e r t o t h e f o r m e r . In some w o r d s l i k e Theodore a n d diarrhea, which Kenyon and K n o t t r e cord w i t h the e q u i v a l e n t of / ί ϊ ? / , m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t e n h a s / i s / . B u t I h a v e n e v e r h e a r d / i § / i n many o f t h e w o r d s i n w h i c h J o n e s r e c o r d s i t , f o r e x a m p l e in Crimean, European, ·" Galilean, lyceum, and Medea. C e r t a i n o t h e r w o r d s m u s t be m e n t i o n e d p a r t i c u l a r l y . The " d a r k " [ l ] i n w o r d s l i k e feel and steal i s o f t e n p r e c e d e d by a n o t i c e a b l e g l i d e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The r e s u l t i n g s e q u e n c e may be r e p l a c e d by a d i p h t h o n g p h o n e t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e o n e in near. The d i p h t h o n g i s common, e v e n in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , in t h e f o r m s he'll, we'll, she'll. The two w o r d s reel a n d real, n o r m a l l y kept a p a r t in t h e c a r e f u l p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d , b e c o m e homonyms i n t h e s p e e c h o f o t h e r s . The word really in the s p e e c h of most c u l t i v a t e d p e r s o n s h a s / i S / ( n o r m a l l y monoph t h o n g a l [ i i ] ) a n d r i m e s w i t h t h e " r - l e s s " p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f nearly. In l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , i t i s a l s o p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / i l / and a t h i r d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , which I have o c c a s i o n a l l y h e a r d , r i m e s w i t h silly.

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLUBLES

7S

A l a r g e number o f New Y o r k s p e a k e r s pronounce / r / a t l e a s t s p o r a d i c a l l y in words l i k e fears, feared, fierce, clearness, and in t h o s e l i k e fear, pier b e f o r e a pause o r a f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t . See pages 4 8 - 4 9 . 1 1 . 2 . /eS/. The d i p h t h o n g in fare and h e i r o r d i n a r i l y b e g i n s a t a p o i n t somewhat l o w e r than the p o s i t i o n o f the [ e ] in pet and then g l i d e s t o a m i d - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n , which as in the c a s e o f / i 5 / i s h i g h e r and f a r t h e r f o r w a r d than in Southern B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . B e f o r e consonants that are not i n t e r v o c a l i c , the second e l e m e n t may be v e r y s l i g h t and b e f o r e i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t s , as in fairer, fairness, fairly, dairy, Sarah, share it, a c o m p l e t e l y monophthongal v a r i a n t i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d . In u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , monophthongs o r d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a v e r y much r e d u c e d g l i d e may o c c u r e v e n b e f o r e a pause: [ k e - ] care, [ h e * ] hair, e t c . The u n c u l t i v a t e d d i a p h o n e s a r e o f t e n produced w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f t e n s e n e s s . The p a r t i a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f the / i / - / i § / o p p o s i t i o n b e f o r e / r / i s not p a r a l l e l e d in t h e c a s e o f /e/ and /e5/: ferryfairy, merry-Mary, very-vary are always d i s t i n g u i s h e d . (But f o r t h e p a r t i a l l o s s o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n w i t h /as/ b e f o r e / r / , s e e the n e x t s e c t i o n . ) For the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f / r / b e f o r e a pause o r a c o n s o n a n t in fair, fairs, shared, Laird, e t c . , see pages 48-49. The d i p h t h o n g o r i t s monophthongal v a r i a n t a l s o o c c u r s r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y on the u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s b e f o r e / I / , in words in which / e l / a p p e a r s in the s t a n d a r d forms o f E n g l i s h : ale, pale, sail, daily, sailor, failure. In t h i s t y p e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n , daily and the f a m i l y - n a m e Daly rime w i t h the " r - l e s s " p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f fairly. (Actually t h i s is another s u s p e n s i o n . ) In a t h i r d g r o u p o f w o r d s , f a r more numerous than e i t h e r o f t h o s e so f a r d i s c u s s e d , / e s / ( d i p h t h o n g o r monophthong) may a l s o be heard in the s p e e c h o f many New Y o r k e r s . The e x i s t e n c e o f v o w e l s h i g h e r and l o n g e r than [ χ ] in words l i k e stand and ask has been n o t e d by a number o f w r i t e r s and the p h c n e t i c c o n d i t i o n s under which /e5/ m i g h t o c c u r in v a r i o u s t y p e s o f American E n g l i s h have been s e t f o r t h by G e o r g e L . T r a g e r in a s e r i e s o f p a p e r s . ' 9 The p a t t e r n d e s c r i b e d by T r a g e r i s found in m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h v e r y w i d e l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y though n o t e x c l u s i v e l y on the l o w e r and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s . The s i t u a t i o n i s c o m p l i c a t e d , h o w e v e r , not o n l y by the a n a l o g i c changes t h a t he m e n t i o n s , but a l s o bv the d e l i b e r a t e a v o i d ance o f / s s / on the p a r t o l many s p e a k e r s . M e t r o p o l i t a n u s a g e consequently i s extremely v a r i a b l e , d i f f e r i n g considerably from one s o c i a l g r o u p t o a n o t h e r and d i f f e r i n g from p e r s o n to p e r s o n w i t h i n what i s r o u g h l y the same g r o u p . And the p r a c t i c e o f a s i n g l e s p e a k e r w i l l o f t e n show a g r e a t d e a l o f v a r i a t i o n in s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s o f the same word. L e a v i n g a l l o f t h e s e c o m p l i c a t i o n s o u t o f a c c o u n t f o r the moment, l e t us f i r s t p r o c e e d t o d e f i n e the c o n d i t i o n s under which /ε5/ may a p p e a r . They a r e as f o l l o w s :

76

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

B e f o r e t h e v o i c e d s t o p s , v o i c e d a f f r i c a t e , v o i c e l e s s and v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e s , b i l a b i a l and a l v e o l a r n a s a l s ( / b , d , g , d j , f , θ, s , V, S , Z, Til, η / ) when t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s a r e f i n a l in w o r d s o r when t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d by s u f f i x e d e l e m e n t s of any s o r t . Thus i n t h e t y p e of p r o n u n c i a t i o n h e r e b e i n g d e s c r i b e d , / e s / may o c c u r i n drab, drabness, stab, stabs, stabbing; bad ( o f t e n a homonym o f bared), shad ( o f t e n = shared), Dad, Daddy, mad, madly, madder ( a d j . ) , maddest, sad, sadden; r brag, b ragging, ag, ragged, bag, three-bagger; badge, badges, Madge; laugh, laughable, laughter, photograph, photographic; bath, baths (/— QB/) , path; grass, grassy, mass, masses, massing;41 cash, cashable; salve, salves; baths (/-9s/) ; jazz ( o f t e n an e x a c t r i m e o f shares), jazzing; ham, hams, ram, ramming, Sam, Sammy; Ann, Annie, fan, fanning, manly, mannish. The s t r e s s e d f o r m s o f have, has, had, hath, an, as, can, and, am a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g e n e r a l r u l e and h a v e /ae/, a l t h o u g h / s s / may o c c a s i o n a l l y be h e a r d i n t h e l a s t two w o r d s . Nor d o e s / s 3 / o c c u r b e f o r e t h e / d / t h a t i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h / t / i n w o r d s l i k e batter and fatter. B e f o r e t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s , when t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d by s e q u e n c e s t h a t do n o t c o n s t i t u t e r e g u l a r s u f f i x e s , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a b i t more i n v o l v e d : a) B e f o r e t h e v o i c e d s t o p s and a f f r i c a t e , / s e / d o e s n o t o c c u r i n m o s t w o r d s . Some, a l t h o u g h n o t a l l , o f t h e e x c e p t i o n s a r e p r e s u m a b l y a n a l o g i c a l . I t would n o t n o r m a l l y be u s e d i n w o r d s l i k e Abbot, Aberdeen, absolutely, cabbage, fabric, habit, rabbit, vocabulary; academy, Addison, advertise, ^ caddy, ladder, Madeleine, saddle; aggravate, agony, haggard ( s o m e t i m e s w i t h / e S / ) , magazine ( / s § / o c c u r s r a t h e r o f t e n in w a g o n ) ; adjective, gadget, exaggerate (the frequent occurr e n c e o f / s S / i n a few w o r d s l i k e imagine can h a r d l y be a n a l o g i c a l ). b) Before the v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e s : 1 ) I n t h e c a s e o f / f / , / ε § / may a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e m e d i a l and f i n a l s e q u e n c e / f t / ( a f t e r , graft, rafters) and d o e s n o t n o r m a l l y o c c u r i n o t h e r c a s e s . I t would n o t b e h e a r d i n a f fectation, Africa, r a f f l e , sapphire (but t a f f y i s o f t e n /'tsSfii/). 2 ) In t h e c a s e o f / Θ / , / 8 9 / d o e s n o t a p p e a r : /ae/ i s u s u a l i n Athens, athlete, Catherine, mathematics (but n o t e t h a t the s h o r t f o r m , math, i s a word t h a t may h a v e / ε § / ) . 3 ) In t h e c a s e o f / ε / and / / / , / e § / may o c c u r , no m a t t e r what f o l l o w s : acid, ask, asphalt, Astor, cascade, castle, fasten, gasoline, gasp, gasping, Massachusetts, mast, plastic, sarsaparil la; Cashman, cashier, fashion, passionate. c) B e f o r e t h e v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e s , / e § / d o e s n o t u s u a l l y a p p e a r , /ae/ b e i n g r e g u l a r i n w o r d s l i k e gravel, savage, Savarin ( a l t h o u g h / s § / i s f r e q u e n t i n avenue); gather, lather (of s o a p ) ; hazard, Lazerus, plasma, spasm. Nor d o e s / B S / o c c u r before in azure, casual.

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VOtELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

d ) B e f o r e t h e n a s a l s / m / a n d / n / , when t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d by v o w e l s , s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t s o r / j / , / e 3 / d o e s n o t o c c u r , e x c e p t a s i t may be s p o r a d i c a l l y i n t r o d u c e d by a n a l o g y . Words l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g n o r m a l l y h a v e / « / : Amityville, camel, damage, grammar;** banner ( f l a g ) , Canada, channel, Indiana, manual. B u t / e a / may o c c u r i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s : ampere, camp, family ( / ε 3 / a r i s e s h e r e in the d i s y l l a b i c p r o n u n c i a t i o n , w h e r e t h e n a s a l i s n o t f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l ) , ramble, stampede; band, bandage, candy, commandment, dandruff, circumstance, dancing, fancy, Francis, Mansfield, transfer, pansy, slant, Atlantic, Stanley, mansion, branch. In t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s a n u m b e r o f w o r d s h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d which b e l o n g s t r u c t u r a l l y t o t h e / a e / - g r o u p b u t in which / e S / r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s . I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t in some of t h e s e c a s e s t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n i s a n a l o g i c a l , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of words of s i m i l a r a p p e a r a n c e . Thus t h e o p p o s i t i o n s f o u n d in manning ( p a r t i c i p l e ) a n d Manning o r in fanning a n d Fanning may n o t o c c u r i n t h e s p e e c h o f many who l e a r n t h e f a m i l y - n a m e s f r o m t h e w r i t t e n form and p r o n o u n c e them w i t h / e 5 / b e c a u s e t h e y look l i k e t h e p a r t i c i p l e s . ( T h e r e i s no c o n s c i o u s r e a s o n i n g a b o u t t h e m a t t e r , o f c o u r s e . ) So a l s o a w o r d l i k e dagger, which i s not a d e r i v a t i v e but which i s s o m e t i m e s p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / e 5 / , may be i n f l u e n c e d i n some o b s c u r e f a s h i o n by w o r d s l i k e nagger and three-bagger. A s e c o n d f a c t o r a d d u c e d by T r a g e r a s a f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e o c c a s i o n a l i r r e g u l a r o c c u r r e n c e s o f /eS/ i s t h a t of d i a l e c t b o r r o w i n g . I t may b e n o t e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f c e r t a i n o t h e r a r e a s o f New York S t a t e t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e o n l y o n e vowe1 - p h o n e m e , n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n q u a l i t y f r o m t h e New York C i t y / e § / , i n a l l t h e " s h o r t a" w o r d s . S p e a k e r s f r o m t h e s e a r e a s u s e t h i s h i g h e r v o w e l in hammer a s w e l l a s i n ham a n d i n cap a s w e l l a s i n cab. A word t h a t would n o r m a l l y h a v e /ae/ in m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h m i g h t f i r s t b e l e a r n e d by a New Y o r k e r f r o m s u c h a s p e a k e r . I f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t were one b e f o r e which both vowels were p o s s i b l e i n h i s own s p e e c h , he m i g h t t h e n p r o n o u n c e t h e word w i t h / e S / . I t s e e m s t o me u n l i k e l y , h o w e v e r , t h a t d i a l e c t borrowing from a r e a s o u t s i d e the c i t y i s a very f r e q u e n t c a u s e of t h e s e irregularities. For o t h e r p a t t e r n s in t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , see the next

pronunciation section.

of

the words

under

1 1 . 3 . /ae£>/. ( I n t h i s s e c t i o n , a s t h e r e a d e r w i l l s e e , I am a c t u a l l y d e a l i n g w i t h two c a s e s , t h a t of /ap5/ a s a p h o n e m e d i s t i n c t f r o m /eS/ and t h a t o f [aeS, ap" ] a s f r e e v a r i a n t s o f /BS/.)

The d i p h t h o n g b e g i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e [ae] o f hat and g l i d e s t o w a r d m i d - c e n t r a l . D i p h t h o n g a l and monophthonga1 v a r i a n t s a p p e a r under c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r to t h o s e d e s c r i b e d in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f f z S / . The o c c u r r e n c e s are as f o l l o w s :

VOWFLS

AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESS H )

SVLUBLES

α ) In w o r d s like flare and stairs, [aeS, ae" ] a p p e a r s s p o r a d ically a l o n g s i d e [ε§, ε']; it is q u i t e c o m m o n b e f o r e / r / in Cary, Gary, parent, Sarah, vary, variation, and v a r i o u s . In these l a t t e r c a s e s , the 1 e n g t h - d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the vowel and the [ae] o f c a r r y o f t e n d i s a p p e a r s , so that Cary and carry a r e p r o n o u n c e d as h o m o n y m s . T h i s type o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n is not h e a r d in the m o r e c u l t i v a t e d forms of N e w Y o r k s p e e c h . * 5 b ) W h e r e c u l t i v a t e d F n g l i s h has / e l / b e f o r e /1 / in w o r d s like ale, sail, sailor, daily, failure, [ae§, ae'] m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r b e s i d e [ε3, ε"] in u n c u l t i v a t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n . jazz, w h i c h h a v e c ) In w o r d s o f t h e t y p e o f glad, stand, b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , [aeS, 8B" ] is also very c o m m o n . H e r e s e v eral t y p e s of p r o n u n c i a t i o n may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . In t h e u s age o f m a n y c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s , [e5, 6 " ] H o e s not o c c u r in these w o r d s a t a l l , or o c c u r s only in r a r e i n s t a n c e s . 4 ® In their s p e e c h [aeS, ae'] n o r m a l l y a p p e a r s b e f o r e /b, d , g, d ^ , e z n > J> v > ; / » h e n these c o n s o n a n t s a r e w o r d finals o r the f i r s t m e m b e r s o f final c l u s t e r s . (The s t r e s s e d forms o f have, has, e t c . a r e e x c e p t i o n a l b e c a u s e t h e i r v o w e l s a r e s h o r t e r , a l t h o u g h of the same q u a l i t y . ) E l s e w h e r e , for e x a m p l e in baggage. Daddy, ragged, passing, ransom, stampede, ,/ae/ a p p e a r s o r d i n a r i l y , It w o u l d c e r t a i n l y m a k e a n e a t e r form u l a t i o n to c l a s s i f y [aeS, ae'] in this kind o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n m e r e l y a s a p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t o f /ae/; but s i n c e a s a r e s u l t o f this d i f f e r e n c e in l e n g t h had and sad, has and jazz (or has [haes] and mass), and an and ham a r e not rimes, s u c h a classification seems hardly possible. M a n y N e w Y o r k e r s - - a n d this is p e r h a p s the c o m m o n e s t p a t t e r n of a l l , e s p e c i a l l y on the i n t e r m e d i a t e levels o f m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h - - p r o n o u n c e [ε3, ε " , aeS, ae'] in w o r d s like glad, stand, in an e x t r e m e l y h a p h a x a r d f a s h i o n . 4 7 O f t e n t h e y w i l l jazz, p r o n o u n c e the h i g h e r and the lower v a r i e t i e s in s u c c e s s i v e u t t e r a n c e s o f the s a m e w o r d , and " c o m p r o m i s e " p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o f all p o s s i b l e i n - b e t w e e n q u a l i t i e s are also c o m m o n in t h e i r s p e e c h . 4 ® T h i s k i n d o f v a r i a t i o n is no d o u b t in p a r t d u e to a not w h o l l y s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t to avoid [ε§, ε'], as b e i n g " u g l y " and " i n c o r r e c t " ; but it may a l s o be o b s e r v e d v e r y freq u e n t l y in the s p e e c h o f t h o s e to w h o m such n o t i o n s a r e n o t l i k e l y to h a v e o c c u r r e d . O f t h o s e w h o s e u s a g e v a r i e s in this f a s h i o n , m a n y a l s o p r o n o u n c e , at l e a s t o c c a s i o n a l l y , d i p h t h o n g s w h o s e s t a r t i n g p o i n t is l o w e r l o w - f r o n t r e t r a c t e d (or the c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o n o p h t h o n g ) . A s T h o m a s h a s s u g g e s t e d , 4 ' such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e p r o b a b l y d u e to t h e " o v e r - c o r r e c t i o n " o f [s§, e ' ] . T h e h i g h ly i r r e g u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f m a n y s p e a k e r s m i g h t p e r h a p s b e s t be d e s c r i b e d a s e x h i b i t i n g free v a r i a t i o n , in a l l the w o r d s in q u e s t i o n , t h r o u g h o u t the e n t i r e range o f l o w - f r o n t quality. 11.4. /as/. O n e o f the m a t t e r s d e a l t w i t h s e c t i o n was 8 c o m m o n type o f m e t r o p o l i t a n

in the p r e c e d i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n in

VO»FLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSFD SYLLABLES

79

w h i c h t h e s y l l a b l e s o f w o r d s l i k e ask, f l a g , g lad, stand v a r i e d w i d e l y and a t random b e t w e e n t h e l i m i t s o f [ e s , ε ' ] and a * ] . We may d i s t i n g u i s h f r o m t h i s a n o t h e r t y p e i n which [ a s , a ' ] 3 o e s n o t a p p e a r in words l i k e f l a g , glad, stand, but i s r e s t r i c t e d to the asfe-group, t h a t i s , to those words not c o n t a i n i n g o r t h o g r a p h i c r t h a t are f r e q u e n t l y pron o u n c e d i n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n by s p e a k e r s i n E a s t e r n New E n g l a n d . As i n New E n g l a n d , t h e g r o u p s o p r o n o u n c e d by a n y i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r o f t e n does not i n c l u d e a l l the words r e s p e l l e d with t h e svmbol f o r t h e " i n t e r m e d i a t e v o w e l " in o u r d i c t i o n a r i e s . Among my i n f o r m a n t s , £ 3 ? i s t h e o n e who p r o n o u n c e s in t h i s f a s h i o n w i t h t h e n e a r e s t a p p r o a c h t o c o n s i s t ency . In t h o s e p a r t s o f New E n g l a n d w h e r e t h i s k i n d o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s i n d i g e n o u s , i t may b e h e a r d on a l l l e v e l s . In New Y o r k C i t y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e emp l o y e d o n l y by a m i n o r i t y o f m o r e o r l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s . I n my o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e y a r e f a r m o r e f r e q u e n t i n t h e s p e e c h o f women t h a n o f m e n . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t they a r e n o t p a r t of t h e i n h e r i t e d speech-ways of t h e a r e a . 1 1 . 5 . / a s / . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e two v a r i e t i e s of t h e d i p h t h o n g t h a t o c c u r s i n hard a n d f a r . One h a s a s i t s first e l e m e n t an a d v a n c e d l o w - b a c k u n r o u n d e d v o w e l , m o r e o r l e s s i d e n t i c a l i n q u a l i t y w i t h t h e m o s t u s u a l v o w e l i n hot, from which p o i n t i t g l i d e s , o f t e n o n l y s l i g h t l y , toward midc e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . T h e f i r s t e l e m e n t may v a r y t o some e x t e n t t o w a r d a s t i l l m o r e a d v a n c e d p o s i t i o n a n d a few s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o n o u n c e w o r d s l i k e far in a f a s h i o n which a p p r o x i m a t e s t h a t of E a s t e r n New F n g l a n d s p e e c h . B u t t h e s e e x t r e m e l y f r o n t e d v a r i a n t s a r e r a r e , and I have n e v e r o b s e r v e d a n y New Y o r k e r who u s e d t h e m r e g u l a r l y . The s e c o n d t y p e o f t h e d i p h t h o n g t h a t i s common i n m e t r o p o l i t a n speech d i f f e r s from t h e f i r s t in t h a t i t b e g i n s at a much r e t r a c t e d l o w - b a c k p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , a l t h o u g h n o t i n m o s t c a s e s , i t i s a c c o m p a n i e d by a s l i g h t r o u n d i n g o f t h e 1 ips. I t c a n n o t be s a i d w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t h e more c u l t i v a t e d , and t h e s e c o n d t h e l e s s c u l t i v a t e d t y p e . To be s u r e , t h e r e t r a c t e d v a r i e t y i s f r e q u e n t l y h e a r d f r o m u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s a n d i s a l s o v e r v common on the i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s . I t i s not unknown, however, in the s p e e c h o f p e r s o n s o f c u l t i v a t i o n , a s may b e s e e n f r o m my comments in s e c t i o n s 1 3 . 1 and 1 3 . 2 . The p r o n u n c i a t i o n of some s p e a k e r s , i t m i g h t be a d d e d , o f t e n v a r i e s n o t i c e a b l y b e tween t h e more advanced and t h e more r e t r a c t e d positions. Alongside the diphthong a monophihonga1 type [q", Q·], occ u r s . The m o n o p h t h o n g i s r a r e in f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e , b u t i s u s u a l b e f o r e i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t s ; in monos y l l a b l e s b e f o r e f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s both t y p e s vary at random.

30

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

The classes of words in which /a§/ may occur are the following: a ) Words with orthographic r that are pronounced with the corresponding low-back unrounded vowel in Southern British English: car, sharp, cart, lark, card, argue, harsh, and the like. 5 1 b) A fairly large group of words that do not contain orthographic r, but which have the spellings a, ah, al: almond Bali, calm, Chicago, khaki,^ Nevada,^^ Omaha, pajamas, Shah, tomato,Utah are examples. c ) Words of the asfe-group that are pronounced according to the pattern of Southern British English by a small minority of speakers, most of them women. Frequently /as/ occurs in only a few words of the sort, the rest being pronounced with the more usual low-front v o w e l s . " Some speakers (Informant # 4 is an example) pronounce both [aS, a'] and [&S, a'] in these words. In rather /as/ occurs rather often in the speech of those who do not employ it in other words of this group. To a lesser extent this is also true of the word aunt. d) Words that in Southern British English contain the lowback rounded vowel (/D/) before certain consonants and consonant clusters. The occurrence in American English of rather long vowels in words like job, god, and doll, which has been noted by several writers, seems in the type of General American recorded by Kenyon not to involve any phonemic disturbances, the longer vowel being merely a positional variant of /a/· In New York City, on the contrary, the long vowels or diphthongs that may occur in such words cannot be assigned to /a/, since both [a] and [αθ, α· ] may occur contrastingly under the same phonetic conditions, as will be seen below. The use of this longer vowel, or diphthong, together with the absence of /τ/ in the preconson anta 1 position brings about an extensive homonymy in the speech of many persons (gob-garb, godguard, lodge-large, doll-Dahl, etc.) which is one of the striking characteristics of metropolitan pronunciation. The conditions under which /a§/ may occur are as follows: 1. Before the voiced stops when they are final in words or are followed by regularly suffixed sequences (with the qualifications noted below). Thus /as/ may appear in bob (often = barb), Bob, bobbed, gob (often = garb), job, jobber, cod (often = card), god (often = guard), ungodly, pod; eggnog, hog, hoggish, log, logging, togs. The occurrence of /as/ is complicated, however, in several ways. In the first place, /as/ may or may not appear in the derived forms of more than one syllable. A speaker who pronounces /q§/ in job, hog, fog may use a shorter vowel in jobber, hoggish, and foggy. In some extended forms, for example in Bobbie, /a/ is regular. Furthermore, some of the monosyllables may have /a/ when they are the first elements of compounds. Thus a speaker to whom cod and card are homonyms may nevertheless pronounce codfish

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRF-SSfD SYLLABLES

81

as / ' k i d , f i J Y end card-triek as / ' k a a d , t r i k / . S i m i l a r l y , the h i g h - s t r e s s e d v o w e l s in bobcat, hod carrier, and cogwheel are n o r m a l l y / a / . S8 Words in which the s t o p s a r e f o l l o w e d by s e q u e n c e s t h a t do n o t c o n s t i t u t e r e g u l a r s u f f i x e s a r e n o r m a l l y pronounced w i t h /a/: cobbler, gobble ( c o n t r a s t s w i t h garble), lobster, lobby, Robert; body, modern, toddy ( c o n t r a s t s w i t h tardy), toddle; goggles ( c o n t r a s t s w i t h gargles), geography, photographer. But an i r r e g u l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n w i t h /aS/ o c c u r s in toboggan, making t h e word homonymous w i t h t h e " r - l e s s " p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f to bargain. 2 . B e f o r e /d^/ when i t i s f i n a l o r f o l l o w e d by r e g u l a r l y s u f f i x e d e l e m e n t s : lodge ( o f t e n « large), dodge, dodged. Dodgers, dodging. Cut a s in t h e c a s e o f t h e v o i c e d s t o p s , /a/ may a l s o o c c u r in the d e r i v a t i v e s even when the s p e a k e r p r o nounces the u n d e r l y i n g f o r m w i t h /(i3/: Dodgers may o r may n o t r i m e w i t h enlargers. When t h e a f f r i c a t e i s f o l l o w e d by s e q u e n c e s t h a t are not r e g u l a r s u f f i x e s , /a/ i s u s u a l : Blodgett, homogeni ze, Rogers. 3. B e f o r e /J/ in a f e w words under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s : gosh, squash, wash ( r i m i n g w i t h harsh): but a s p e a k e r who s a y s /wa5// may p r o n o u n c e /a/ in the compound washc loth. In t h e words bosh and josh and in t h e p l a c e - n a m e Oshkosh, I have h e a r d o n l y /(l/. In Mosholu ( a s t r e e t - n a m e in t h e B r o n x ) , /a/ i s r e g u l a r , and i t i s u s u a l in Washington. 4. B e f o r e v o i c e d f r i c a t i v e s , / a s / may o c c u r in bother (rimi n g w i t h father), but e l s e w h e r e /a/ i s u s u a l : novel, Ovid, and one p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f grovel, hovel, hover; Boswell, Mosrosin, and one p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f wasn't. lem, Oswald, 5. B e f o r e /I/', /aS/ may o c c u r in doll, making i t a homonym o f t h e f a m i l y - n a m e Dahl, b u t /a/ i s u s u a l e l s e w h e r e , e v e n in the m o n o s y l l a b l e s : loll, Sol (Solomon), dissolve; dolphin, revolver, solvent; Bollard, collie, demolish, dolly, folly ( c o n t r a s t s w i t h Farley), holloa, jollity, lollipop, olive, policy, solid. Oliver, 6. B e f o r e t h e n a s a l s /m/ and /n/, when t h e y a r e f i n a l o r f o l l o w e d by s u f f i x e d e l e m e n t s , / a § / may a p p e a r , but t h e r e i s a good d e a l o f i r r e g u l a r i t y : bomb ( o f t e n a homonym o f balm and a r i m e f o r harm), bombed, bomber, Tom ( b u t Tommie a l w a y s has / a / ) , John ( b u t Johnnie has / a / ) , on (when s t r e s s e d ; t h e u n s t r e s s e d form has / a / ) , swan, wan. The s h o r t e r v o w e l o c c u r s in Don ( l i k e Donald, but o c c a s i o n a l l y l e n g t h e n e d ) , don, bonbon, bonfire. Conn ( u s u a l l y c o n t r a s t s w i t h Kahn; but t h e r e a r e some who p r o n o u n c e t h e s e names a l i k e ) . F l s e w h e r e , /aS/ d o e s not u s u a l l y o c c u r , / a / i s r e g u l a r in atomic, comical, comma, Dominic, hominypomp, romp, rompers, swamp ( I have h e a r d /aai/ a f e w t i m e s in t h i s w o r d ) : pompadour, compass ( u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / a / r a t h e r than w i t h / λ / in l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h ) : honest, monotone, tonic; bond, bondage, fond; Constance, continent. 7.

Before

/r/,

/as/ does

not u s u a l l y occur

in

the

"short

VOHFLS A M

D I P H T H O N G S O F STRF.SSED

SYLLABI.FS

ο " » o r d s , but s p o r a d i c l e n g t h e n i n g m a y a p p e a r in less c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , as a r e s u l t of w h i c h sorry and starry sometimes r i m e . In a u t h o r i t y , borrow, Florence, foreign, forest, horrible, horrid, Morrill, Morris, Oregon, origin, quarantine, quarrel, quarry, sorrow, tomorrow, Warren, warrant, the m o s t u s u a l v o w e l is /a/. For the f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e of / n 5 / in s o m e w o r d s (coral, moral, orator), s e e p a g e 6 ? and p a g e 34; for [t>], s e e p a g e 62. T h e o b s e r v a n t r e a d e r w i l l p e r h a p s h a v e n o t i c e d t h a t in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s I h a v e a l w a y s been c a r e f u l to say t h a t /O.S/ may o c c u r u n d e r the c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d . For in truth t h e r e is a g r e a t deal o f v a r i a t i o n . T h e long v o w e l or d i p h t h o n g is very c o m m o n and is h e a r d on all l e v e l s o f m e t r o p o l i tan s p e e c h - - / l a S d j / lodge a n d /baSni/ bomb are n o t p r o n u n c i a t i o n s that a r e c o n f i n e d to u n c u l t i v a t e d u s e / 0 But o f t e n in s u c h w o r d s one will h e a r p h o n e s that are r a t h e r s h o r t and definitely monophthongal. The consistent use of vowels dist i n c t l y s h o r t e r than / a s / is n o t c o m m o n ; ® ' but v e r y f r e q u e n t ly a s p e a k e r w i l l p r o n o u n c e bobbed, for e x a m p l e , as a h o m o n y m o f barbed and then p r o n o u n c e job w i t h a m u c h s h o r t e r v o w e l . O r he w i l l p r o n o u n c e t h e s a m e w o r d f i r s t w i t h w h a t is i n d u b i t a b l y /as/, and then w i t h w h a t is p r e s u m a b l y / a / . A n d , as o n e m i g h t e x p e c t , all s o r t s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e p h o n e s m a y a l s o b e h e a r d . P a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e s p e a k e r ' s / a / and /a.3/ a r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y the s a m e (so that shop and sharp a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by vowel l e n g t h a l o n e ) , t h e o b s e r v e r is o f t e n l e f t in c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t w h e t h e r the s p e a k e r is r i m i n g wash-harsh, Tomharm, e t c . , or n o t . (I h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d this d i f f i c u l t y even w h e n t r a n s c r i b i n g from r e c o r d s , w h e r e the w o r d s could be rep e a t e d again and a g a i n . ) It is p r o b a b l e that the f r e q u e n t or r e g u l a r o c c u r r e n c e of the s h o r t e r vowel in e x t e n d e d forms, c o m p o u n d s , and r e l a t e d w o r d s ( b o m b i n g , Johnnie, hog-tied, washcloth, goddess) o p e r a t e s to d i s t o r t a p a t t e r n w h i c h m i g h t otherwise exhibit more regularity. 1 1 . 6 . /θθ/. In c u l t i v a t e d m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h , the d i p h t h o n g in law and fraud b e g i n s at a h i g h e r l o w - b a c k p o s i t i o n , w i t h the l i p s s o m e w h a t r o u n d e d , and m o v e s t o w a r d m i d - c e n t r a l . T h e f i r s t e l e m e n t is not q u i t e so h i g h as the c o r r e s p o n d i n g S o u t h ern B r i t i s h type, but at t h e s a m e t i m e is h i g h e r than the v a r i e t i e s h e a r d in m a n y r e g i o n s o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e g l i d i n g m o v e m e n t is n o r m a l l y s l i g h t a n d the m o n o p h t h o n g a l v a r i a n t is very c o m m o n , o c c u r r i n g r e g u l a r l y b e f o r e i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t s a n d f r e q u e n t l y in all o t h e r p o s i t i o n s e x c e p t finally before a pause. A p h o n e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t y is very c o m m o n in the l e s s c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h o f the c i t y . T h e first e l e m e n t , m a d e at a p o s i t i o n that is s o m e w h a t h i g h e r ^ than t h a t d e s c r i b e d in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h , is v e r y m u c h r e t r a c t e d , p r a c t i c a l l y to a p o i n t b e y o n d w h i c h it is n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to p r o d u c e a vowel o f this h e i g h t . 6 3 The l i p s are well r o u n d e d , o f t e n w i t h

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYILABLES

33

c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o t r u s i o n . I n t h e s p e e c h o f many p e r s o n s , the d i p h t h o n g a l g l i d e i s very marked, even b e f o r e v o i c e l e s s S t o p s . I t may b e n o t e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e d i p h t h o n g a l t y p e in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h i s a t v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e more e x t e n s i v e u s e of monophthonga1 a l l o p h o n e s of /i5/ a n d / e S / in t h e s a m e t y p e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n . T h i s v a r i a t i o n in t h e p h o n e t i c q u a l i t y o f / r > s / i n t h e u s a g e of d i f f e r e n t m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e a k e r s i s more s t r i k i n g t h a n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n i t s l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . To s o m e e x t e n t i n m o r e c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h t h e l o w e r l o w - b a c k r o u n d e d v o w e l [D] o c c u r s in some o f t h e g r o u p s d i s c u s s e d b e l o w . ( F o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h i s v o w e l s h o u l d b e c l a s s i f i e d p h o n e m i c a 1 1 y , s e e page 6 ? . ) F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n words in which u s a g e v a r i e s m a r k e d l y , c h i e f l y b e t w e e n / a / a n d / r > § / . B u t on t h e w h o l e t h e r e i s a good d e a l o f u n a n i m i t y r e g a r d i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r w o r d s and t h e w o r d - c l a s s e s in w h i c h /r>5/ a p p e a r s . The l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e phoneme i s a s f o l l o w s : a) I t i s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d i n t h o s e w o r d s c o n t a i n i n g o r t h o g r a p h i c au, aui, al, oup/i i n w h i c h G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n n o r m a l l y h a s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l : almost, always,August, Austria, author, auto, because, bought, caught, daub, Jaunt, f a l s e , faucet, gaunt, haunted, launch, laundry, Laura, l a u r e l l a w , paunch, paw, salt, sauce, saunter, sausage , In cauliflower, small, Valdorf, walnut, Walsh, Walter, Kaitz. /a/ i s m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n / o S / . Maurice may h a v e / a / o r [ D ] , b u t i s a l s o v e r y commonly p r o n o u n c e d in a F r e n c h i f i e d f a s h i o n a s /m& r i t b / . bj I t i s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d i n w o r d s t h a t i n G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n c o n t a i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l f o l l o w e d by / τ / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l o r f i n a l p o s i t i o n : absorbent, border, born, California, corner, f o r , f o r t y , Gordon, horse, Mormon, morning, Norma, north, orchestra, ordered, orphan, quart, short, Waldorf, war, warbler, ward. c) I t i s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d i n w o r d s i n w h i c h many G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e / o i l / f o l l o w e d by / r / : boarder, chorus, door, Dora, force, four, hoarse, lavatory, more, porch, pork, sore, worn. T h e d i s t i n c t i o n p r e s e r v e d i n some r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d of t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o p r e c e d i n g g r o u p s d o e s n o t e x i s t in m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . A s m a l l n u m b e r o f c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s p r o n o u n c e / o ü / b e f o r e / r / in a few w o r d s o f t h e t y p e o f chorus, oral, a n d story, but even s u c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e n o t common, a n d I h a v e y e t t o d i s c o v e r a s i n g l e n a t i v e New Y o r k e r who c o n s i s t e n t l y distinguished b e t w e e n w o r d s o f t h e t w o t y p e s . In t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e a k e r s on a l l levels, for ( s t r e s s e d ) a n d four, horse a n d hoarse, morning and mourning a r e e x a c t homonyms. d ) I t o c c u r s i n many o f t h e w o r d s w i t h o r t h o g r a p h i c ο o r wa t h a t in t h e p r e v a i l i n g t y p e of S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n h a v e / D / · The l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / o S / in t h e s e w o r d s

34

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

differs in some respects from that found in other types of American English. 1) Before stops, /r>§/ occurs only in chocolate, dog, and water, fa./ or /αθ/ appearing elsewhere. But many persons consider /r>S/ inelegant in the first two of these words and replace it with [d] . In doggerel, a less common word, /n§/ may occur, but /a/ and [ό] are also frequent. 2) Before the voiceless fricatives /f, Θ, s/, both and /a/ occur, the former being used in the monosyllables, with a few exceptions, and in a not very large number of the other words. Fxamples with /oS/: off, cough, loft, soft, offer, office, officer, often, coffee, coffin; boss, loss, broth, moss, Hoss, toss, cost, frost, lost, Boston, Foster; cloth, froth, moth. With /a/: doff, scoff, profit, waffles; apostle, costume, docile, fossil, gospel, hospital, McClosMass erman; apothecary, Goth, key, possible, prosecutor, Gothic, Gotham. Some words vary in pronunciation between /f>3/ and /a/, for example, glossy, ostrich, and wasp. In such words and in a few like coffee and office, where /p§/ has come to seem uncultivated to many speakers, the use of [u] is rather common. 3) Before the nasal /r]/, /oS/ occurs in along, belong, long, song, strong, wrong, but /a/ is usual in elongate, gong, prong, thong, throng, tongs. Bronx, Congo, ding-dong, Before /n/, the usual vowels are /&/ and / α § / (see page 31). The pronunciation of gone varies: /?§/ predominates, but /d§/ is also frequent, particularly in less cultivated speech, and some uncultivated speakers pronounce a rather anomalous long vowel, which differs from their /a§/ because of its more advanced placement. Shone has only /ou/. Before /π/, /r>S/ does not occur; see page R1. 4) 3efore /τ/ in the intervocalic position /οδ/ is not normally heard in the " s h o r t o" words, but a few (coral, moral, oracle, orator) have in the usage of many speakers gone over into the group represented by chorus and Dora. Warrior is more often than not pronounced according to the analogy of war. In such words of varying pronunciation, [d] is especially common. In the still predominating " r - l e s s " type of metropolitan pronunciation, the homonyms morning-mourning are exact rimes of awning and dawning, and horse -hoarse are exact rimes of cross and loss. Sought and sort, sauce and source, laud and lord are homonymous. It should be understood that there is no greater tendency to employ the diphthongal variant in words containing orthographic r than in those that lack it. In both groups the diphthongal and the monophthongal types appear in a variation that is partly free and partly determined by position. For this reason, the practice followed in Kenyon and Knott's Dictionary of indicating a diphthong in the " E a s t e r n " pronunciation of words like horse and source, but not in those like cross and sauce is not valid in so far as it applies to metropolitan speech.

VOWFLS AND DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED

SYLLABLES

35

T h e s e q u e n c e /oil/ p l u s u n s t r e s s e d vowel in w o r d s like blotter, lower ( a d j . ) , rower, sower, Samoa is n o r m a l l y n o t l e v e l e d u n d e r /r>§/, as it s o m e t i m e s is in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h . 6 9 An e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e is Noah, w h i c h is v e r y c o m m o n l y p r o n o u n c e d as a h o m o n y m o f gnaw.^° 1 1 . 7 . /uS/. T h e d i p h t h o n g in poor and sure b e g i n s at a l o w e r h i g h - b a c k p o s i t i o n , at the h e i g h t o f the [u] in book or s o m e w h a t h i g h e r , and g l i d e s toward m i d - c e n t r a l . O r d i n a r i l y t h e g l i d e does n o t end at so low a p o i n t as it d o e s in the c a s e of the corresponding diphthong of Southern British English. T h e l i p - m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the first e l e m e n t is a c c o m p a n i e d in the p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f s o m e u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s by an exaggerated protrusion. B e f o r e i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t s in the s a m e w o r d (Moorish, poorly, sureness, curious), monophthongs occur rather regul a r l y on all l e v e l s of m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . T h e y also a p p e a r w i t h i n p h r a s e s in c a s e s like poor example and sure indication. B e f o r e final c o n s o n a n t s , for i n s t a n c e in cures and cured, the g l i d e may be m u c h s l i g h t e r than in S o u t h e r n B r i t ish, but c o m p l e t e l y m o n o p h t h o n g a l v a r i a n t s are u n c o m m o n . N o r d o e s the m o n o p h t h o n g a 1 v a r i a n t o c c u r in final p o s i t i o n b e f o r e a p a u s e , e v e n in u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . In this r e s p e c t , / u S / is n o t on all f o u r s w i t h /iS/ and /ea/. B e f o r e /r/, for h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s , a c l e a r / u / - / u 3 / o p p o s i t i o n does n o t e x i s t . T h e p h o n e t i c s i t u a t i o n is as f o l l o w s : in surer, poorer, curing, and t h e like, w h i c h a r e p a r a d i g m a t ic d e r i v a t i v e s of w o r d s in w h i c h / r / m a y a p p e a r as a w o r d final, rather long vowels are normal: a pronunciation like [' k j u r i n ] w o u l d s o u n d u n n a t u r a l to a N e w Y o r k e r ' s e a r . In o t h e r cases, in c u r i o s i t y , durable, insurance, M u r i e l , p u r i ty, s e c u r i t y , e t c . , the vowel l e n g t h v a r i e s b e t w e e n [u] a n d [u· < u + ) ] . C e r t a i n o t h e r v a r i a t i o n s from the p r a c t i c e found in S o u t h ern B r i t i s h E n g l i s h m a y be n o t e d . In the first p l a c e , t h e s e q u e n c e / u u / p l u s u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l is leveled u n d e r / u 5 / o n l y in the c a s e o f you're; this d i p h t h o n g does n o t o c c u r in bluer, brewer, chewer, doer, fewer, truer. ^ N o r is it e m p l o y e d in Stewart, steward, or in cruel, jewel,™ and their d e r i v a t i v e s . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e is no t e n d e n c y in N e w Y o r k p r o n u n c i a t i o n to r e p l a c e / u S / by o t h e r d i p h t h o n g s w h o s e first e l e m e n t s are m i d - b a c k o r h i g h e r l o w - b a c k . In poor, sure, curious, and t h e l i k e , / o § / d o e s n o t o c c u r . On p a g e fi3 a b o v e the fact is noted that the n a m e Durham is o f t e n p r o n o u n c e d , n o t w i t h / Λ / , but with the vowel o f during, 11.3. birth, ers^' and a tion,

/33./. In w o r d s o f the t y p e r e p r e s e n t e d by stir, stern, a not i n c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f c u l t i v a t e d N e w Y o r k pronounce a diphthong with a mid-central starting-point m i n i m a l g l i d e to a m o r e o p e n p o s i t i o n . (In my o b s e r v a w o m e n a r e m o r e l i k e l y to p r o n o u n c e in this f a s h i o n t h a n

36

VOWELS ANP DIPHTHONGS OF STRESSED SYLLABLES

m e n ; t h e l a t t e r , i f t h e y do n o t e m p l o y t h e a n c e s t r a l / 3 Ϊ / i n a n d birth, a r e more l i k e l y to p r o n o u n c e / τ / . ) The g l i d stern i n g m o v e m e n t i s m o s t a p p a r e n t when w o r d s l i k e i h r a n d fur a r e f i n a l b e f o r e a p a u s e ; t h e m o n o p h t h o n g a 1 v a r i a n t i s common e l s e w h e r e . T h e d u a l i t y mav b e a b o u t t h a t o f t h e m o s t u s u a l S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h t v p e o r may h a v e a m o r e a d v a n c e d a n d s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n . The l i p s a r e s o m e t i m e s slightly r o u n d e d . I h a v e n o t h e a r d f r o m New Y o r k e r s t h o s e m a r k e d l y ret r a c t e d v a r i e t i e s ( p r a c t i c a l l y in t h e b a c k - v o w e l r a n g e ) t h a t a r e e m p l o y e d b y s o m e s p e a k e r s i n E a s t e r n New E n g l a n d . The o c c u r r e n c e of / 3 5 / i s o f t e n r a t h e r i r r e g u l a r : i t may a p p e a r b e s i d e / 3 l / in t h e s p e e c h o f t h e same p e r s o n , t h e two t y p e s i n t e r c h a n g i n g a t r a n d o m ; o r i t may i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h /r/. One m i g h t v e n t u r e t h e comment a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t in m e t r o p o l i t a n speech reasonably " c o n s i s t e n t " d i a l e c t s are found c h i e f l y o n t h e e x t r e m e l y u n c u l t i v a t e d l e v e l . T h o s e t o whom q u e s t i o n s of p r o p r i e t y and " c o r r e c t n e s s " have any m e a n i n g a t a l l a r e l i k e l y t o be r a t h e r s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r r e g i o n a l t y p e s . As e x a m p l e s in a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t o n e , I would c i t e t h e o f t e n v e r y i r r e g u l a r o c c u r r e n c e of / Γ / in t h e ρ r e c o n s o n art t a 1 p o s i t i o n , t h e f r e q u e n t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s p e e c h o f m a n y b e t w e e n / j u O / , / i d / , a n d / u 5 / i n w o r d s l i k e new a n d duty, and t h e d i s t u r b e d p a t t e r n s in t h e l o w - f r o n t v o w e l r a n g e t h a t i s d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n 11.3. In t h e s p e e c h o f t h o s e who e m p l o v / 3 § / , i t s p h o n e t i c a n d l e x i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s p r a c t i c a l l v t h e same a s in S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h . But t h e r e a r e a few d e v i a t i o n s . I n c l u d e d in t h e g r o u p , o f c o u r s e , a r e t h o s e w o r d s , Berkeley, Berkshire, clerk, derby, Jervis, Kerr, in which t h e B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f / a a / e i t h e r do n o t o c c u r a t a l l o r a r e m e r e l y o c c a s i o n a l a f f e c t a t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t may b e n o t e d t h a t s o m e o f t h o s e who p r o n o u n c e / ? § / i n s t i r , f u r , a n d spur employ / a / in t h e d e r i v a t i v e s in which / r / i s i n t e r v o c a l i c , so t h a t a n d hurry a r e r i m e s , as i s n o t t h e c a s e in S o u t h e r n furry Bri t i s h . 1 1 . 9 . /AS/· As i s n o t e d b e l o w on p a g e 1 1 1 , n o t e 1 ? , i t is n e c e s s a r y to s e t up a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y t o d e s c r i b e adequatel y t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h o s e who h a v e a t h r e e f o l d o p p o s i t i o n i n a curd, a cud, a n d occurred. Some o f my i n f o r m a n t s , for e x a m p l e , p r o n o u n c e / 3 Ϊ / i n t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e , / Λ / in t h e s e c o n d , and in t h e t h i r d a d i p h t h o n g w i t h a s l i g h t g l i d e ( o r a m o n o p h t h o n g l o n g e r t h a n [ λ ] ) . T h e f i r s t e l e m e n t may b e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r a n d f a r t h e r f o r w a r d t h a n t h e [ λ ] o f cut, but t h e d i p h t h o n g does not resemble p h o n e t i c a l l y the one d i s c u s s e d in t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h of t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n . Its o c c u r r e n c e is r e s t r i c t e d to w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n ( s t i r , occur) a n d t o p a r a d i g m a t i c f o r m s w i t h iz/ and / d ' ( s t i r s , stirred).

THE

VOWELS O F

WEAK

SYLLABLES

12. 1. / i Γ / . In t h e i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e s o f t h e g r o u p s o f w o r d s r e p r e s e n t e d by election, eternal, evasive; because, believe, betray; declare, defend, department; prefer, prepare, preselective, / i t / may o c tend; reduce, regret, report; seduce, c u r , a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h / s / . ( F o r t h e p h o n e t i c q u a l i t y of t h e vowels brought t o g e t h e r under the r u b r i c / 3 / , see the next s e c t i o n . ) F v e r y s p e a k e r s e e m s t o v a r y , t o some d e g r e e a t l e a s t , in h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e s e s y l l a b l e s , b u t i n g e n e r a l i t may b e s a i d t h a t / & / i s m o r e common in c u l t i v a t e d t h a n i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h . The v e r y f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e of / i t / , w i t h t h e s y l l a b l e p r o n o u n c e d so t h a t a s l i g h t s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s o f t e n s e e m s t o r e s t on i t , i s a r a t h e r n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e o f t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f many l e s s c u l t i v a t e d speakers. O c c a s i o n a l l y / i l / may a p p e a r in t h e i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e s o f c e r t a i n o t h e r words which a r e not h i s t o r i c a l l y members of t h e g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t e d a b o v e . As e x a m p l e s o n e m i g h t c i t e e f f e c tive, e f ficient, essential; divine, neglect. In f i n a l s y l l a b l e s , e i t h e r o p e n , o r c l o s e d by p a r a d i g m a t i c / z , d / , / i i / o c c u r s : carry, valley; carries, Lucy's; carr led. The vowel i n t h e s e s y l l a b l e s i s r a r e l y d i p h t h o n g a l ( t h o u g h i f a w o r d l i k e c a r r y o r valley i s f o l l o w e d by an i n i t i a l v o w e l , o n e may o f t e n h e a r a s l i g h t [ j ] - g l i d e ) ; and t h e h e i g h t may v a r y . Dut a l t h o u g h a v o w e l r e s e m b l i n g t h e s t r e s s e d o n e in pit may s o m e t i m e s b e h e a r d in c o n n e c t e d s p e e c h , / i l / i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e p r o p e r r u b r i c f o r New York E n g l i s h a s a w h o l e , ^ s i s i n d i c a t e d on p a g e 1 4 1 , n o t e 16, New Y o r k e r s a r e o f t e n p u z z l e d by t h e u s u a l d i c t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g t h e same s y m b o l in b o t h s y l l a b l e s o f w o r d s l i k e c i t y and silly. In m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , bandied, Lucy's, posies are o r d i n a r i l y n o t homonymous w i t h banded, looses, poses, e v e n when t h e l a t t e r are pronounced with [i]. S i m i l a r l y , / 1 1 / a p p e a r s in t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e of c l a s s i c a l n a m e s l i k e Circe, Melpomene, Thucydides; and in w o r d s l i k e aborigine, acme, species, crises. In m e d i a l s y l l a b l e s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e a n o t h e r v o w e l , weak o r s t r e s s e d , / i l / i s u s u a l : carrier, chariot, dreariest, dubious, hurrying, radium; periodic, radiator variation. In m e d i a l s y l l a b l e s b e f o r e c e r t a i n s u f f i x e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h c o n s o n a n t s , t h e / i l / o f an u n d e r l y i n g f o r m i s r e t a i n e d : penniU'Si, happiness, loneliness. B e f o r e t h e s u f f i x - '.y, / a / r e p l a c e s / i t / i n easily, happily, luckily, and t h e l i k e . B e f o r e t h e s u f f i x - f u l , t h e / i t / o f an u n d e r l y i n g form i s r e p l a c e d by / & / in c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h : beautiful, p i t i f u l . In t h e s e words u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s very f r e q u e n t l y pronounce / i l / : /'hjuudiifsi./.

33

VOWELS OF WEAK SYLLABLES

The u n s t r e s s e d f o r m s o f be, he, me, she, we, a n d o f the b e f o r e a v o w e l f a l l i n t o t h e same c a t e g o r y . The v o w e l s of t h e s e f o r m s d i f f e r from t h o s e of t h e s t r e s s e d f o r m s c h i e f l y in l e n g t h . B e f o r e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l s a s l i g h t [ j ] - g l i d e may o f t e n be o b s e r v e d . 12.2. / Θ / . In E n g l i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n g e n e r a l l y , t h e r e i s a good d e a l of v a r i a t i o n in s y l l a b l e s t h a t a r e c o m p l e t e l y u n s t r e s s e d between lower h i g h - f r o n t vowels, m i d - c e n t r a l vowels, and v o w e l s of i n t e r m e d i a t e q u a l i t y . J o n e s o f t e n i n d i c a t e s s u c h v a r i a n t s i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h , ^ and o t h e r w r i t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h t h a t f o r m o f E n g l i s h make comments o f a l i k e n a t u r e . ^ American p r o n u n c i a t i o n as a whole e x h i b i t s even more v a r i a t i o n s of t h i s s o r t , which a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to in t h e Kenyon a n d K n o t t DictionaryWith a few e x c e p t i o n s , t h e v a r i a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d by t h e s e w r i t e r s i n v o l v e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c e n t r a l v o w e l s i n c a s e s w h e r e [ l ] i s more f r e q u e n t , o r i s f o r some o t h e r r e a s o n t h o u g h t t o b e t h e n o r m . The v a r i a t i o n i n t h e v o w e l s o f c o m p l e t e l y u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s w h i c h may be o b s e r v e d i n m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h g o e s f a r beyond a n y t h i n g t h a t I have found in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s of o t h e r f o r m s o f E n g l i s h . In New York p r o n u n c i a t i o n n o t o n l y do v o w e l s o f c e n t r a l q u a l i t y v e r y commonly o c c u r i n s u c h u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s as t h o s e r e f e r r e d t o i n n o t e but cont r a r i w i s e , [ i ] may o f t e n b e h e a r d i n p l a c e of v o w e l s of c e n t r a l q u a l i t y in s y l l a b l e s in which i t i s r a r e l y o r n e v e r r e c o r d e d by w r i t e r s d e s c r i b i n g o t h e r d i a l e c t s . The m o s t s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e o f t h i s l a t t e r phenomenon i s t h e f r e q u e n t a p p e a r a n c e of [ i ] o r of vowels a p p r o a c h i n g [ i ] in q u a l i t y in s y l l a b l e s t h a t in G e n e r a l American c o n t a i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b i c [γ]. The r a n g e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e v o w e l s o f c o m p l e t e l y u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s may v a r y i n m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h i s s o m e w h a t r e s t r i c t e d . A New Y o r k e r , l i s t e n i n g i n t e n t l y t o S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h E n g l i s h , i s l i k e l y t o b e s t r u c k by two f a c t s : f i r s t , t h a t t h e u n s t r e s s e d [ i ] i s , i n t e r m s o f h i s own p r o n u n c i a t i o n , o f t e n " c l e a r e r , " t h a t i s , m o r e d i s t i n c t l y a d v a n c e d ; and s e c ond, t h a t t h e S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h [ s ] , e s p e c i a l l y in f i n a l open s y l l a b l e s , i s o f t e n n o t i c e a b l y l o w e r . The New York u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s a l l l i e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . Even t h e m o s t o p e n v o w e l s do n o t h a v e any s u g g e s t i o n o f t h a t [ a ] - l i k e q u a l i t y t h a t A m e r i c a n s s o m e t i m e s h e a r i n t h e S o u t h e r n 3 r i t i s h [θ] o f w o r d s l i k e over, sofa, and picture. ® Within t h i s range v a r i a t i o n i s sometimes f r e e , sometimes m o r e o r l e s s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p h o n e t i c s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h e r e i s f r e e v a r i a t i o n , f o r example, in f i n a l c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s b e f o r e /tf d , Θ, S, Z, d g / . H e r e l e t u s c o n s i d e r two g r o u p s of w o r d s . The f i r s t c o m p r i s e t h o s e i n w h o s e f i n a l s y l l a b l e s Jones r e c o r d s [i] as t h e u s u a l Southern B r i t i s h vowel: closet, gadget, graduate ( n o u n ) , hatchet, p r o f i t , wallet; appointed, arrested, hoisted, planted, torrid; walketh; careless,

VOWELS OF WEAK SYLLABLFS

89

duchess, Francis; dentist, greatest; cabbages, molasses, offices, raises; average, college, damage, Talmadge. The s e c o n d g r o u p i s made u p o f t h o s e w o r d s t h a t i n S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h h a v e [a] and i n G e n e r a l A m e r i c a n have [s] o r : Charlotte, Connecticut, desert ( n o u n ) a n c h o r e d , captured, custard, fractured, Leonard; mammoth; anxious, b o i s t e r o u s , compass; ancestors, feathers, o f f i c e r s , prisoners. T h e s e two g r o u p s a r e n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r by a n y r e c u r r e n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i r u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s . As i n many o t h e r p a r t s of America, t h e vowels in t h e f i r s t group i n c l u d e a l l p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s b e t w e e n [ i ] a n d [ θ ] . B u t s o do t h e v o w e l s i n t h e s e c o n d g r o u p of w o r d s . The o c c u r r e n c e of [ i ] o r of v o w e l s c l o s e t o [ i ] i n t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e s o f Connecticut, captured, August, bois te rous, o f f i c e r s , a n d t h e l i k e s e e m s t o me, in f a c t , to be one of t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of metropolitan English. In c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s t h i s k i n d o f v a r i a t i o n d o e s n o t a p p e a r , [ i ] o r [θ] a l o n e b e i n g f o u n d o r a t l e a s t o v e r w h e l m i n g l y f a v o r e d . Thus [g] d o e s n o t o c c u r b e f o r e / q / and [ i ] d o e s not o r d i n a r i l y a p p e a r b e f o r e / m / o r / 1 / : reading, knowing; system, album; pencil, projectile, seasonal. B e f o r e / k / , t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f some s p e a k e r s s h o w s an o p p o s i t i o n o f a s o r t , b u t i t i s a f l e e t i n g and u n s u b s t a n t i a l o n e . In t h i s p o s i t i o n [j.] i s t h e f a v o r e d v o w e l a n d p r e d o m i n a t e s in atomic, m u s i c , tonic, and t h e l i k e . I t i s a l s o v e r y f r e q u e n t in w o r d s l i k e barracks, hammock, Lenox, a n d s tomach. The u s e o f [ i j i n some o f t h e s e w o r d s i s o c c a s i o n a l l y r i d i c u l e d by s p e l l i n g s l i k e stummick, a n d some e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s may c o n s c i o u s l y a v o i d [ i ] i n c e r t a i n c a s e s . B u t when t h e q u e s t i o n of p r o p r i e t y h a s n e v e r been r a i s e d , t h e s e words and t h o s e l i k e a t o m i c form a s i n g l e g r o u p . In i n i t i a l u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s t h e s a m e . In c e r t a i n s u r r o u n d i n g s [ i ] , [ a ] , a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e v o w e l s o c c u r in f r e e v a r i a t i o n ; in o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e i t h e r [ i ] o r [ θ ] i s d e c i d e d l y f a v o r e d . In an i n i t i a l s y l l a b l e c l o s e d by /M./, t h e r e i s t h e s a m e p r e f e r e n c e f o r [ i ] a s in f i n a l s y l l a b l e s ; and t h i s v o w e l i s a s l i k e l y t o a p p e a r in accept a s in except, i n accessory a s i n e x c e s s i v e . 8 In an o p e n s y l l a b l e b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g / m / , [s] i s t h e f a v o r e d v o w e l , a s w e l l in imagine as in among.9 In m e d i a l s y l l a b l e s a l s o , [ i ] and [ s ] a r e n o t o p p o s e d t o e a c h o t h e r . The f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t may h a v e some e f f e c t on t h e o c c u r r e n c e of v a r i a n t s : f o r example, t h e h i g h e r , more a d v a n c e d v o w e l s may s o m e t i m e s b e h e a r d in hurricane, but are q u i t e u n u s u a l o r n o n e x i s t e n t i n easily. In g e n e r a l , [s] i s t h e more common v o w e l . Nor i s t h e s i t u a t i o n a n y d i f f e r e n t when we c o n s i d e r t h e weak f o r m s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s , p r o n o u n s , a n d t h e l i k e . It-at, inan, is-as, f o r e x a m p l e , w h o s e weak f o r m s c o n s t i t u t e m i n i m a l c o n t r a s t i n g p a i r s i n some t y p e s o f F n g l i s h , a r e n o t so k e p t a p a r t in m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o n u n c i a t i o n . T h e i r v o w e l s may v a r y

90

VOWELS OF WF.AK SYLLABLFS

t h r o u g h t h e same r a n g e f r o m [ i ] t o [ s ] ; and b o t h i n a n d an may b e p r o n o u n c e d [ij] a f t e r c e r t a i n c o n s o n a n t s . The n a t u r e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t i s n o t t h e o n l y f a c t o r t h a t may a f f e c t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f v a r i a n t s . A p r e c e d i n g p a l a t a l , f o r i n s t a n c e , seems t o f a v o r t h e h i g h e r , more adv a n c e d v o w e l s . T h u s [ i ] a n d [ i · · ] a r e q u i t e common i n w o r d s l i k e genius and A u s t r a l i a n , where t h e p r e c e d i n g c o n s o n a n t i s / j / . A g a i n , i n u n c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , [ / i d ] may b e h e a r d f o r should, b u t I h a v e n e v e r h e a r d any s i m i l a r p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f would and could. C o n t r a r i w i s e , the c e n t r a l vowels are favored when t h e " d a r k " a l l o p h o n e o f / I / p r e c e d e s , a s in valid and salad. In t h e f o r e g o i n g p a r a g r a p h s I h a v e n o t d e a l t w i t h a l l t h e p h o n e t i c s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e s e v o w e l s may o c c u r . But an e x a m i n a t i o n o f e v e r y s e p a r a t e c a s e w o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e same c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d : The d i f f e r i n g v o w e l s t h a t may b e o b s e r v e d in c o m p l e t e l y u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a bi e s - - r a n g i n g in q u a l i t y from [ i ] t o [a] - - a r e n o n d i s t i n c t i v e v a r i a n t s , t h e i r v a r i a t i o n b e i n g p a r t l y f r e e and p a r t l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e p h o n e t i c s u r r o u n d i n g s . They a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y o p p o s e d t o e a c h o t h e r , b u t a r e members of t h e same phoneme, which I have l a b e l e d / θ / . I say "phoneme" because I think t h a t / s / is b e s t conceived a s a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y , d i s t i n c t from t h e vowe1-phonemes of s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . The c o n t r a r y v i e w , f i r s t a d v a n c e d by B l o o m f i e l d and a d o p t e d by some o t h e r w r i t e r s , i s t h a t a l l t h e vowels of u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s are merely p o s i t i o n a l variants o f s t r e s s e d v o w e l s . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r , r e q u i r e s one t o a s s i g n i d e n t i c a l p h o n e s o c c u r r i n g in t h e same s u r r o u n d i n g s now t o t h i s p h o n e m e , now t o t h a t - - w h i c h i s a r a t h e r d u b i o u s p r o c e d u r e . A c t u a l l y t h e s i t u a t i o n h e r e r e s e m b l e s t h a t of t h e s t o p s a f t e r / s / o r of t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p s in t h e t y p e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n t h a t d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h bitter f r o m bidder. The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t i n t h o s e c a s e s an o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n two p h o n e m e s i s suspended, whereas here the suspension is a m u l t i p l e one. On p a g e 21 i t was s t a t e d t h a t a s s i g n i n g t h e s t o p s i n s p i l l , · s t i l l , a n d skill t o / p / , / t / , and / k / was l e g i t i m a t e e n o u g h i f o n e made i t p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e w s s an a r b i t r a r y o n e . In t h i s c a s e , w h e r e so many o p p o s i t i o n s a r e s u s p e n d e d , i t s e e m s t o me m o r e r e a s o n a b l e t o s e t u p a d i s t i n c t category.

APPENDIX A 13.1.

PRIMARY

INFORMANTS1

§ 1. Woman, a g e a b o u t l i 5 . B o r n i n B r o o k l y n , e d u c a t e d a t P a c k e r C o l l e g i a t e I n s t i t u t e . A c t i v e in l o c a l women's c l u b s . Has s p e n t a n u m b e r o f s u m m e r s i n New E n g l a n d . H u s b a n d a t e a c h e r . F b o r n in B r o o k l y n , s p e n t two y e a r s in e a r l y l i f e i n u p p e r New Y o r k S t a t e a n d f i v e i n C o n n e c t i c u t ; a b u s i n e s s m a n . Patern a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n i n u p p e r New Y o r k S t a t e ; PGF a l a w y e r . MGF b o r n i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . ; an i n v e n t o r . ΜGM b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : Rat s e l e c t i o n , extempore conversation. The i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . The c o n s o n a n t i s not i n f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d f i n a l l y b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g vowel, in which c a s e t h e vowel i s l i g h t l y g l o t t a l i z e d ; b u t / r / o c c u r s s e v e r a l t i m e s i n w o r d s l i k e Panama a n d law. W o r d s l i k e when a n d whistle have / h w / ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r in t h o s e l i k e huge. H e r p r a c t i c e i n t h e m a t t e r o f w o r d s l i k e duty, new, tube, studio is not c o n s i s t e n t : / j / sometimes appears, sometimes i s a b s e n t . T h e r e i s no b1 a d e - a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r s , nor i s t h e r e a n y t e n d e n c y t o a f f r i c a t e [t—] a n d [d—] . T h e i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t i n w o r d s l i k e elevated a n d later is voicel e s s more o f t e n than n o t . /Q, 5 / have o n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s . The a r t i c u l a t i o n i s i n g e n e r a l c r i s p a n d f i r m ; final stops are frequently exploded before a pause. O n l y i n o n e o r t w o w o r d s l i k e thirty i s t h e r e any s u g g e s t i o n of t h e / 3 l / - t y p e , and even in t h e s e t h e g l i d e t o w a r d h i g h - f r o n t i s b a r e l y p e r c e p t i b l e . O r d i n a r i l y words of t h i s g r o u p a r e p r o n o u n c e d w i t h / 3 § / , a s a r e t h o s e l i k e occur, preferred. W o r d s l i k e choice a n d ointment have / ο ϊ / , with a r a t h e r h i g h and w e l l - r o u n d e d f i r s t e l e m e n t . H i e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n ride, time, e t c . T h e d i p h t h o n g / ε § / i s r e s t r i c t e d t o w o r d s l i k e care and square. Rather h a s / a s / , b u t o t h e r w o r d s of t h e a s f c - g r o u p a r e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e l i k e f l a p a n d stand: they a l l h a v e v o w e l s o f t h e q u a l i t y o f [as], w i t h s o m e l e n g t h e n i n g a n d d i p h t h o n g i z a t i o n in f i n a l s y l l a b l e s ( p h o n e m i c a l 1 y /ae/ and /aeS/) . The q u a l i t y o f t h e a l l o p h o n e s of / a § / v a r i e s s o m e w h a t , but i s n e v e r markedly r e t r a c t e d . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / ο θ / ( h a 11, o f f , thought, warm, etc.) The p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f long, strong, wrong i s u n u s u a l in t h a t t h e y h a v e w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e / a s / . In down, house, town, etc. t h e d i p h t h o n g b e g i n s w e l l b a c k and t h e f i r s t . e l e m e n t o f t e n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e [ a ] o f hot. T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f / ο ί ί / i n home, pole, road, etc. ;

92

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INFORMANTS

here, as in school, too, etc., the lip-rounding is rather strong, in keeping with her rather vigorous articulation. Centralized varieties of /i/ and /e/ do not occur. In foggy, trolley, watched, and the like, the vowel is normally unrounded, although there are a few occurrences of [t>], $2. Woman, age 50-55. Born in Manhattan, now lives there. Wadleigh High School, N e w York Training School for Teachers; a teacher of art in the city schools. F born in Manhattan of a well-to-do family, educated in the city (the informant was uncertain about the details); lost most of his wealth as the result of unfortunate investments. POF born in Manhattan, lived upstate for some years; his father was born in Massachusetts. PGM born either in New York City or upstate of a family also originally from New England; an unusually welleducated woman for her generation. Μ born in Manhattan of a socially prominent family, which had been here in the city since about 17 00. MCF, a businessman, and MGM were from different branches of this family; both were born in Manhattan. Part of material recorded: all sentences, the Bat story, extempore conversation. The " r - l e s s " pattern predominates, though there are some occurrences of the consonant in words like barge, Calvert, shared, tardy, and also those like third and blurred. The consonant does not occur in Panama, law, etc. /hw/ appears in one word; the others have /«/· The cluster /hj/ is regular except in humor. /j/ is common but not regular after /n, t, d / (new, tube, etc.). There is no tendency toward bladearticulation, n o r is there any affrication of [t—, d—]. / & , 8/ have only fricative allophones. Despite the occasional reduction of final clusters, the articulation is generally clear and distinct. There are no retractions in the front-vowel range. In the the third-group, no regular pattern occurs: /3l/ occurs in a few cases, usually with a minimal glide, /r/ is common, and /3§/ also appears. Similarly, words like blurred and preferred vary between /v / and /3§/. Words such as dared, fairly, Sarah have only [ε§, ε'] (sometimes [SJ-S] ) ; those like aunt, crab, dam, fast vary considerably: [e§, S*, ae§, ae', aET] . Lengthening in the " s h o r t o" words is irregular: for example, bomb, hog, rod have /aS/, while god, squash, Tom have /a/. Occasional retractions may be observed in the case of /as/ (harbor, hog) and /o§/ (bought), but they are not very marked. There is no retraction of the first element of the diphthong in five, pie, etc. In choice, ointment, and the like, the quality varies somewhat, but there is no suggestion of the /3l/-type. The starting-point of the diphthong in words like pound and house is usually about [a]; varieties like [aeu, se u] do not occur. In words like collie, got, profit, Scotch, the vowel is regularly unrounded.

PRIMARY INFORMANTS

93

# 3 . Man, age (SB- Born i n u r o o k l y n , e d u c a t e d a t a p r i v a t e academy, a p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , C i t y C o l l e g e , and t h e Columbia S c h o o l o f M i n e s . A f t e r g r a d u a t i o n he s p e n t a b o u t f o u r y e a r s away from t h e c i t y , c h i e f l y i n t h e Far W e s t . The r e s t o f h i s a d u l t l i f e h a s b e e n s p e n t a s an e d i t o r on t h e s t a f f o f an e n g i n e e r i n g j o u r n a l p u b l i s h e d in New Y o r k . In r e c e n t y e a r s he has l i v e d i n a s u b u r b a n town in N a s s a u C o u n t y , but he commutes t o h i s o f f i c e in M a n h a t t a n . F born i n B r o o k l y n , s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , a b u s i n e s s m a n . PGF born i n B r i d g e p o r t , C o n n e c t i c u t ; a M e t h o d i s t clergyman with c h a r g e s in S u f f o l k County and B r o o k l y n ; t h e a u t h o r o f s e v e r a l b o o k s d e s c r i b i n g h i s t r a v e l s t o t h e Holy L a n d . PGM born i n B r o o k l y n . Μ i s Informant §1; see below. P a r t o f m a t e r i a l recorded: a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Bat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n . The i n f o r m a n t ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h i s g e n e r a l l y o f t h e " r - l e s s " type, with the exception that t h e r e are rare o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e c o n s o n a n t i n words l i k e hair and hard and t h a t [jj*] i s common i n Germans, turnips, e t c . ( b u t s e e b e l o w ) . In t h e t e s t s e n t e n c e s the f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c o n s o n a n t in t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n shows a marked i n c r e a s e . ( T h i s i s a m a t t e r o f c o n s c i o u s a 1 t e r a t i o n - - t h e s p e a k e r b e l i e v e s t h a t one " s h o u l d p r o n o u n c e t h e r ' s . " ) T h e r e a r e no o c c u r r e n c e s on t h e s e r e c o r d s o f / r / i n words l i k e law and Panama. The c l u s t e r / h w / a p p e a r s s e v e r a l t i m e s i n r e a d i n g , but i s n o t p a r t o f h i s n a t u r a l p a t t e r n ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r . In Dewey, enthusiastic, new, studio, and t h e l i k e , / j / i s f r e q u e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n s c i o u s s p e e c h . The / i u / - t y p e a p p e a r s i n a few w o r d s . T h e r e i s no a f f r i c a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r s t o p s and no o c c u r r e n c e o f [ ' ] i n Seattle, e t c . The i n t e r v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t in gratifying, sort o f , e t c . i s commonly v o i c e d in c o n v e r s a t i o n , /θ, δ / have only f r i c a t i v e allophones. The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / , w h i c h i s r e g u l a r i n t h e third-group in t h e s p e e c h o f h i s m o t h e r , a p p e a r s i n a few words b e s i d e t h e more common / r / ; t h e g l i d e t o w a r d h i g h - f r o n t i s r a t h e r s l i g h t . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n [ ^ ϊ ] . In choice, ointment, e t c . , / 3 1 / n e v e r a p p e a r s . The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / i s n e v e r r e t r a c t e d , n o r i s t h e r e any n o t i c e a b l e r e t r a c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / a © / and / θ θ / . In some o f t h e " s h o r t o " words / a § / a p p e a r s , b u t t h e r e i s no r e g u l a r p a t t e r n : hog, f o r e x a m p l e , has t h e d i p h t h o n g , w h i l e bobbed h a s a s h o r t vowIn a number o f words e l and i s n o t homonymous w i t h barbed. l i k e avenue, drastic, g l a s s , handle, t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e vowel o r d i p h t h o n g c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h a t h e a r d i n cares and scarce, but t h e l o w e r v a r i e t i e s a r e v e r y f r e q u e n t : [grae§s] grass, [ p s e n t r i i ] pantry, [ ' B r a e j i r ) ] thrashing. T h e r e a r e no o c c u r r e n c e s o f /as/ i n t h e a s f c - g r o u p , n o r d o e s / a s / a p p e a r in h i s s p e e c h . The d i p h t h o n g in pounds, now, e t c . i s o f t e n [aü] and t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t i s n e v e r m a r k e d l y f r o n t e d . T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y to c e n t r a l i z e t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / o i l / and / u ü / . In college, Donald, popular, tonic, wandered, e t c . , t h e vowel i s u n r o u n d e d ; thongs i s [ θ ^ η ζ ] , but t h i s i s u n u s u a l .

94

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# 4 . Woman, a g e 5 0 - 5 5 . Born i n M a n h a t t a n . A t t e n d e d p u b l i c s c h o o l , H o r a c e Mann, New Y o r k T r a i n i n g S c h o o l f o r T e a c h e r s . Now a t e a c h e r in t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s . F b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , e d u c a t e d in t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s , i n b u s i n e s s as an i m p o r t e r . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h b o r n and e d u c a t e d i n t h e c i t y ; PGF a b u s i n e s s m a n . F a m i l y h a s l i v e d i n t h e c i t y a t l e a s t s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a v i n g come h e r e o r i g i n a l l y f r o m n o r t h e r n New E n g l a n d . Μ b o r n and e d u c a t e d in t h e c i t y . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h b o r n i n E n g l a n d , came t o New Y o r k b e f o r e t h e C i v i l War. MGF a p h y s i c i a n . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Rat s t o r y , e x tempore c o n v e r s a t i o n . The i n f o r m a n t ' s p a t t e r n i n r e g a r d t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a 1 p o s i t i o n i s m i x e d : i n t h e Bat story, f o r example, i t i s pronounced in about t w o - f i f t h s o f the p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e s , and i t o c c u r s n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y i n h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s m i x t u r e , t h e c o n s o a n t i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e w o r d cob. Words l i k e church and sunburn r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y h a v e /τ/ ( a l t h o u g h i n a s m a l l numb e r o f w o r d s / 3 s / a p p e a r s ) . In w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n b e f o r e an i n i t i a l v o w e l , t h e c o n s o n a n t i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y l o s t and t h e v o w e l i s p r e c e d e d by t h e g l o t t a l s t o p . Words l i k e wheel and whistle v a r y b e t w e e n /hw/ and /w/; t h e c l u s t e r / h j / i s r e g u l a r i n huge, humor, and t h e l i k e . In due, enthus ias t ic, news, studio, tubes, Tuesday, e t c . , / j / r e g u l a r l y appears. There a r e no a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e s o f / t , d / ; i n w o r d s l i k e better and city, t h e c o n s o n a n t i s u s u a l l y v o i c e l e s s . In Seattle, but n o t in o t h e r words o f the t y p e , [ ' ] is substituted for [t] ; i n some o t h e r c a s e s , f i n a l - [ t ] i s a c c o m p a n i e d by a s i m u l t a n e o u s g l o t t a l s t o p . O n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f /Θ, 8/ o c c u r . The i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s i n g e n e r a l m o d e r a t e l y r a p i d , the a r t i c u l a t i o n c a r e f u l and p r e c i s e . C o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r s a r e v e r y r a r e l y s i m p l i f i e d , s t o p s in a b s o l u t e f i n a l p o s i t i o n u s u a l l y e x p l o d e d . There are a few examples o f r a t h e r unnatural " o v e r a r t i c u l a t i o n , " such a s t h e o p e n j u n c t u r e b e t w e e n s t o p and a f jury and o r a l p l o s i o n i n saddened. f r i c a t e i n grand The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / d o e s n o t o c c u r . T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / . The d i p h t h o n g i n house, pound, e t c . s o m e t i m e s b e g i n s a t a s l i g h t l y a d v a n c e d p o s i t i o n , but n e v e r v a r i e s as f a r as [FFIÜ] . The o c c u r r e n c e o f /ΕΘ/ i s i n g e n e r a l r e s t r i c t e d t o w o r d s l i k e square and scarce; such w o r d s as mantle, thrashing; lamb, plaid o r d i n a r i l y have d e f i n i t e l y lower vowels or d i p h t h o n g s which begin at a lower p o i n t ( p h o n e m i c s i t u a t i o n : /aes/ in f i n a l s y l l a b l e s , /ae/ e l s e w h e r e ) . The i n f o r m a n t ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f words o f t h e askg r o u p i s n o t c o n s i s t e n t : i n many, b u t by no means a l l o f t h e m , t h e / a s / - and / a s / - t y p e s a p p e a r . In w o r d s such a s atomic, college, got, sorry, squash, warrant, b o t h r o u n d e d and u n r o u n d e d v o w e l s a p p e a r ; i n hog, John, wash, e t c . , the v o w e l s a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e s h o r t and t h e r e a r e o n l y one o r two c a s e s which s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be a s s i g n e d to /αθ/.

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§ 5 . Young man, age 22. Born in B r o o k l y n . S t . F r a n c i s X a v i e r , P o l p P r e p , one and a h a l f y e a r s at a p r i v a t e s c h o o l in New Haven; two y e a r s in the N a v y ; summer s e s s i o n at 3rown U n i v e r s i t y ; now a p r e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t at Columbia. F born in B r o o k l y n . S t . A u g u s t i n e ' s , Fordham Law S c h o o l ; a t a x c o n s u l t a n t . PGF born in B r o o k l y n . P o l y P r e p , R e n s s e l a e r ; an e n g i n e e r w i t h o f f i c e s in B r o o k l y n . PGM born in B r o o k l y n . S e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . Μ born in B r o o k l y n . S t . F r a n c i s , A d e l phi C o l l e g e , Columbia Graduate S c h o o l . MGF born in B r o o k l y n . Grammar s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ; a businessman. MGM born in B r o o k l y n . Secondary school e d u c a t i o n . Informant b e l i e v e s that a l l h i s g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s were born in I r e l a n d . P a r t o f m a t e r i al r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , the fiat s t o r y , extempore c o n v e r sation . So f a r as the o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / i s c o n c e r n e d , the s p e a k e r ' s usage i s o f t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d on page 49: the consonant o c curs r e g u l a r l y as the s y l l a b i c in words l i k e church and heard but i s o t h e r w i s e a b s e n t , w i t h i n s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e p t i o n s in r e a d i n g , from t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . The c l u s t e r tubes, /hw/ does not o c c u r ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r . In words l i k e Dewey, new, / j / does not o c c u r ( s e e t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h ) . In some o c c u r r e n c e s t h e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s in i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n a r e r a t h e r h e a v i l y a s p i r a t e d and t h e r e i s some a f f r i c a t i o n o f [ t — ] ; ^ i n t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y , in words l i k e forty and university, the consonant i s n o r m a l l y v o i c e d . /Θ, 8/ have o n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s . The i n f o r m a n t ' s speech i s " d e f e c t i v e " in two r e s p e c t s : [—f] i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y s u b s t i t u t e d f o r [—θ] (bath, withand a f r o n t - p a 1 a t a l n a s a l i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r [—r|] in u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ( s e e page 139, n o t e 6 2 ) . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / does n o t o c c u r : words l i k e church have o n l y / r / , t h o s e l i k e coil o n l y / p i / . There i s no r e t r a c t i o n o f the f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / . The d i p h t h o n g in out, pound, e t c . o r d i n a r i l y b e g i n s at about [ a ] ; markedly advanced v a r i e t i e s do not o c c u r . In words l i k e road, the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t i s o f t e n c e n t r a l i z e d . Words l i k e new, Dewey and t h o s e l i k e coop, zoo form a s i n g l e g r o u p ; in both c a s e s the f i r s t e l e m e n t o f the d i p h t h o n g i s o f t e n advanced, sometimes t o the h i g h - c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . In the l o w - f r o n t range the f o l l o w i n g phonemes o c c u r : /sS/ (scarce, square), /aes/ ( f a s t i jazz, plaid), /ae/ (after, master, pantry, thrashing; cat, Catholic, fragile, hammer, has, hatchet). T h i s p a t t e r n i s d i s t o r t e d in a few c a s e s by l o w e r i n g in the f i r s t g r o u p : [hae§] hair, [st®9z] stairs.^ The c a t e g o r y / a s / does not appear in h i s s p e e c h . There i s o f t e n a s t r o n g r e t r a c t i o n o b s e r v a b l e in the c a s e o f /aS/, not o n l y in words l i k e part and barge, but a l s o in many m o n o s y l l a b l e s o f the t y p e o f bombed and John, in which t h i s phoneme f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s . In words l i k e continent, dollars, popular, sorry, waffles, wallet, rounded v o w e l s do n o t appear. §(i.

Man, age about 60.

Born in

the Bronx,

attended

public

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s c h o o l t h e r e , g r a d u a t e d from C i t y C o l l e g e . A t e a c h e r of a r t i n a New Y o r k C i t y h i g h s c h o o l . F a t h e r ' s f a m i l y o f New Y o r k Dutch d e s c e n t . F born in Brooklyn, a t t e n d e d p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , t h e n a p r i v a t e academy in M a n h a t t a n ; a s a l e s m a n f o r S c r i b n e r ' s p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e . PGF b o r n i n B r o o k l y n o r M a n h a t t a n ; an i n v e n t o r a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r ( o n e o f t h e f i r s t i n t h e c i t y ) . PGM, o f F r e n c h and E n g l i s h d e s c e n t , s p e n t h e r c h i l d h o o d i n New R o c h e l l e , t h e n moved t o t h e c i t y . Μ b o r n i n Mamaroneck, as a s m a l l c h i l d t a k e n t o W i s c o n s i n , where f a m i l y s t a y e d f o r a b o u t a y e a r . E d u c a t e d a t a p r i v a t e s c h o o l in t h e B r o n x . MGF, b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , an a r t i s t , member o f t h e N a t i o n a l Academy o f D e s i g n . MGM's b i r t h p l a c e n o t known. P a r · , o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Rat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e conversation. With i n s i g n i f i c a n t e x c e p t i o n s , / r / d o e s n o t o c c u r b e f o r e c o n s o n a n t s o r p a u s e s . I t i s p r o n o u n c e d i n law a n d saw b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g vowel ( t h o u g h i n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f a s i m i l a r s o r t i t i s a b s e n t ) . The c l u s t e r / h w / d o e s n o t o c c u r . Humor i s / ' j u u m o i r / but a l l o t h e r words of t h i s group have / h j / . / j / a p p e a r s i n new, knew, studio, b u t o t h e r w i s e d o e s n o t o c c u r on t h e s e r e c o r d s a f t e r a l v e o l a r e . Hie a l v e o l a r s t o p s a r e not a f f r i c a t e d ; i n auto, city, loitering, e t c . , the i n t e r v o c a l i c consonant i s n o r m a l l y v o i c e d . /Θ, 8 / are always f r i c a t i v e s . I n t h e third-group / 3 l / i s r e g u l a r , but t h i s diphthong neve r a p p e a r s i n choice, f o i l , e t c . There i s no r e t r a c t i o n of t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / , an o c c a s i o n a l s l i g h t r e t r a c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / θ ϊ / ( b o i l e d , Boyd, e t c . ) . Words l i k e crab, grass, lamb, plaid; master, tamper, pantry vary considerably: S - ] ( v e r y common), [®θ, ae * ] i n t h e m o n o s y l l a b l e s , and u s u a l l y s h o r t e r m o n o p h t h o n g s w i t h t h e same q u a l i t a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e l o n g e r w o r d s . E x c e s s i v e l y low v o w e l s do n o t o c c u r i n t h e s e w o r d s . The c a t e g o r y / & § / d o e s n o t a p p e a r , n o r d o e s / a § / o c c u r i n t h e a s f e - g r o u p . T h e r e i s some r e t r a c t i o n i n many w o r d s l i k e guard a n d party ( / a S / ) , w h i l e in t h o s e l i k e lobster a n d toddy t h e v o w e l ( i s o f t e n a d v a n c e d . In w o r d s o f t h e l a t t e r g r o u p ( S c o t c h , Molly, orator, atomic, w a f f l e s ) , there i s n o r o u n d i n g . The vowel o r f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t i n cost, corner, hoarse, e t c . (/oS/) o f t e n has a somethat r e words i s t r a c t e d p o s i t i o n . L e n g t h e n i n g i n t h e " s h o r t o" v a r i a b l e : bomb, god, hog, f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e r a t h e r s h o r t vowe l s ( / a / ) , w h i l e dodge, squash, Tom h a v e l o n g e r v o w e l s o r diphthongs. T h e r e i s a good d e a l of n a s a l i z a t i o n . # 7 . Woman, a g e 8 9 . B o r n i n B r o o k l y n , e d u c a t e d a t a p r i v a t e a c a d e m y . Of E n g l i s h , I r i s h , F r e n c h , a n d D u t c h d e s c e n t . F o r m e r l y a c t i v e i n P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h w o r k . H u s b a n d was a b u s i n e s s m a n . F b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n ; a t h e a t r i c a l m a n a g e r . PGF b o r n e i t h e r in Brooklyn o r in M a s s a c h u s e t t s ; a b u s i n e s s m a n in B r o o k l y n . PGM's b i r t h p l a c e n o t known, b u t s h e g r e w u p i n B r o o k l y n . MGF, a w e l l - k n o w n f i g u r e i n B r o o k l y n a h u n d r e d

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y e a r s ago, born in Newburgh, came t o B r o o k l y n as a young man in 1 8 2 6 ; a p r i v a t e b a n k e r , r e f o r m e r , w r i t e r f o r t h e o l d B r o o k l y n Star. MGM born i n B r o o k l y n . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : t h e Bat s t o r y , r e a d i n g s from t h e P s a l m s , and a s e l e c tion of sentences. The i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f / r / from t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . I t i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d a t t h e end o f words b e f o r e an i n i t i a l vowlaw, Panama, e l , which i s p r e c e d e d by t h e g l o t t a l s t o p ; Anna, Utah a r e p r o n o u n c e d in s i m i l a r f a s h i o n b e f o r e v o w e l s , b u t t h e r e i s one o c c u r r e n c e o f / τ / in idea. The c l u s t e r /hw/ d o e s n o t o c c u r : b o t h in words l i k e whisper and t h o s e l i k e went, she u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e s a v o i c e d , v e l a r i z e d b i l a b i a l fricative ( s e e page 5 2 ) . The c l u s t e r / h j / i s r e g u l a r . / j / d o e s n o t o c c u r in words l i k e Dewey, new, tubes. T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o a f f r i c a t e [ t - , d—]: t h e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s in f i n a l p o s i t i o n a r e f r e q u e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e d by a g l o t t a l c l o s u r e and [—?] i s o f t e n s u b s t i t u t e d f o r [—t] . Only f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f / θ , δ/ o c cur. A l l words o f t h e third-group are pronounced with /3Ϊ/, but t h i s d i p h t h o n g n e v e r a p p e a r s in t h o s e l i k e coil and ointment. T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / . The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f /Ol/ v a r i e s t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e and i s sometimes q u i t e low; i n s e v e r a l o c c u r r e n c e s t h e d i p h t h o n g r e s e m b l e s t h e S o u t h e r n B r i t i s h d i a p h o n e [ υ ϊ ] . The d i p h t h o n g i n house, pound s t a r t s a t [ a ] o r f a r t h e r b a c k . In cold, hopeless, e t c . , t h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t . A few words l i k e Dewey and knew c o n t a i n d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t more advanced than t h a t h e a r d in words l i k e cool; in o t h e r s t h i s f r o n t i n g d o e s n o t a p p e a r . The s y l l a b l e s in words l i k e hand, handle, pad, task v a r y in h e i g h t , t h e h i g h e r o n e s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h o s e in hair and stairs (glass and scarce, f o r e x a m p l e , a r e r i m e s ) . The c a t e g o r y / a s / d o e s n o t o c c u r , n o r t h e / a S / - t y p e a p p e a r i n any words o f t h e askg r o u p . In many o c c u r r e n c e s o f / a § / t h e r e i s a marked f r o n t i n g o f a s o r t u n u s u a l i n t h e New York a r e a ( s e e p a g e 7 9 ) . The d i p h t h o n g o c c u r s o c c a s i o n a l l y i n words l i k e hog, but s h o r t v o w e l s a r e more common. The vowel o r f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l e l e ment in words l i k e board, north, walk v a r i e s in q u a l i t y : it i s n e v e r r e t r a c t e d and o v e r r o u n d e d , b u t i s s o m e t i m e s l o w e r t h a n i s u s u a l in t h e c i t y . TTie c a t e g o r y /AS/ a p p e a r s r e g u l a r l y in words l i k e fur and stirred; t h e l a t t e r word, f o r examp l e , has a vowel n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t in q u a l i t y from t h e [ Λ ] o f stud and blood, b u t l o n g e r . The v o w e l s in words l i k e borrow, lock, novel, shopping, swallow, w a f f l e s are normally not rounded; b u t s t r o n g l y rounded v o w e l s o c c u r in watch, wash. A number o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o c c u r New Y o r k E n g l i s h . As I have s t a t e d f r i c a t i v e i n went, whispered, etc. There are a l s o p r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e Cooper, / ' f a e s s t / faucet (corrected

t h a t a r e o l d - f a s h i o n e d in on page 5 2 , t h e b i l a b i a l i s perhaps a s u r v i v a l . /kup/ coop, / kups(r/ t o / fr>9S9t/) , /ίΐ3ΪΘ/

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hearth ( t h i s s h e v o l u n t e e r e d , s a y i n g t h a t s h e u s e d i t as a g i r l b u t now s a i d / h a 3 6 / ) , / ' s o S s p s n / saucepan, and / , 3 ε § Γ ' a f / the reof. # 8 . Woman, a g e a b o u t 50. Born i n M a n h a t t a n , e d u c a t e d a t p u b l i c s c h o o l s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Fordham. P r i n c i p a l of a g i r l s ' j u n i o r high s c h o o l . F born in M a n h a t t a n , s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , owner of a r e s t a u r a n t . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born i n I r e l a n d , came t o New Y o r k b e f o r e t h e a g e o f ? 0 ; PGF a s u g a r d e a l e r . Μ born in Manhattan, a t t e n d e d t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s , g r a d u a t e d f r o m w h a t i s now H u n t e r C o l l e g e . MGF b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n . I n f o r m a n t knows n o t h i n g of h i s s c h o o l i n g a n d o c c u p a t i o n ; he d i e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e b i r t h of h e r m o t h e r . MOM b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s a p p a r e n t l y a l l born in I r e l a n d . P a r t of m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Rat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e conversation. The i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s g e n e r a l l y o f t h e " r - l e s s " t y p e with the exception t h a t the consonant occurs r e g u l a r l y as the s y l l a b i c i n w o r d s l i k e third, and s o m e t i m e s o c c u r s ( a l o n g w i t h / A § / ) i n t h o s e l i k e fur a n d preferred. There are in add i t i o n a few o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . In w o r d s l i k e idea, law, Utah, / r / does not occur. I n many c a s e s t h e c o n s o n a n t i s n o t i c e a b l y l a b i a l i z e d . ^ Wheel, which, whisper, e t c . a l l h a v e / h w / ( t h i s s p e a k e r , # 1 , and # 3 4 a r e t h e o n l y o n e s among my i n f o r m a n t s who e m p l o y t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t l y ) . The c l u s t e r / h j / i s r e g u l a r i n huge, humor, e t c . T h e r e a r e no a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e s o f / t , d / ; b e t w e e n v o w e l s i n w o r d s l i k e matter and gravity, the consonant i s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y v o i c e l e s s , /θ, ä / have only f r i c a t i v e a l lophones, with the exception that a voiceless dental stop t w i c e o c c u r s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n when f o l l o w e d by [5—] ( w i t h the c a l f , Al Smith the Happy Warrior). The u n v o i c i n g b e f o r e a p a u s e o f t h e f i n a l c o n s o n a n t i n matches, thongs, feathers, woods, a n d many s i m i l a r w o r d s i s f o r t i s , r a t h e r t h a n l e n i s , a s i s a l s o t h e c a s e i n college and Dodge. In g e n e r a l t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n i s t o n s c i o u s l y p r e c i s e and c a r e f u l . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n h e r s p e e c h . T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f / a l / and / Ο Ϊ / . In a few w o r d s t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g / a t ! / a p p r o a c h e s [ae] , b u t t h i s i s u n u s u a l . The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / o 2 / i n road, zone, e t c . i s o f t e n a d v a n c e d t o c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and t h e r e i s a p a r a l l e l f r o n t i n g i n t h e c a s e o f w o r d s l i k e afternoon and do, new a n d student (some of t h e l a t t e r words have / j / ) . Words l i k e fast and plaid r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y have long vowels o r d i p h t h o n g s ( / s e § / ) d i s t i n c t f r o m t h o s e o f scarce and square; i n w o r d s o f m o r e t h a n o n e s y l l a b l e ( p l a s t e r , thrashing), the vowel i s / a s / . The / a § / - t y p e o c c u r s i n a few w o r d s o f t h e askg r o u p b u t i s u n u s u a l . The q u a l i t y o f t h e vowel o r f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t i n w o r d s l i k e part and barn v a r i e s , b e i n g q u i t e r e t r a c t e d i n some o c c u r r e n c e s . Some o f t h e " s h o r t o "

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m o n o s y l l a b l e s c o n t a i n t h i s same phoneme ( f o r e x a m p l e job and Tom), o t h e r s h a v e r a t h e r s h o r t v o w e l s . In w o r d s l i k e atomic, Lawrence ( s e e p a g e 145, n o t e 6 7 ) , popular, quarantine, the vowel i s n o r m a l l y u n r o u n d e d . # 9 . Young man, a g e 19. Born i n Q u e e n s , e d u c a t e d i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s t h e r e , now a C o l u m b i a u n d e r g r a d u a t e . F b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , p u b l i c s c h o o l s , New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y ; an a u d i t o r . Μ b o r n in Queens; p a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l . PGF b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n ; an a s s i s t a n t t o a t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c e r . PCM b o r n i n P e n n s y l v a n i a , came t o t h e c i t y a t t h e a g e o f 18. MGF b o r n i n G e r m a n y , was b r o u g h t h e r e a s a s m a l l c h i l d ; t h e o w n e r o f a p i c k l i n g f a c t o r y . MCM b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n . The i n f o r m a n t was u n c e r t a i n a s t o how many o f h i s g r a n d p a r e n t s had had a h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ; none of them went t o c o l l e g e . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Rat s t o r y , e x tempore c o n v e r s a t i o n . The c o n s o n a n t / r / o c c u r s r e g u l a r l y a s t h e s y l l a b i c i n t h e third-group and t h e s t i r - g r o u p , b u t i s o t h e r w i s e a b s e n t i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a 1 p o s i t i o n ; t h e r e a r e two e x c e p t i o n a l o c c u r r e n c e s ( m o t h e r , years) in t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l p a s s a g e , a f e w more i n r e a d i n g . T h e r e a r e no i n s t a n c e s of i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n Anna, idea, law, Panama, saw, Utah. The c l u s t e r /hv»/ o c c u r s in wheat and whistied, b u t n o t in t h e o t h e r words of t h i s group; / h j / i s r e g u l a r . A f t e r / n , t , d / , / j / a p p e a r s in most o f t h e w o r d s l i k e news, Tuesday, due, and t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e / i u / - t y p e ; i n o n e way o r t h e o t h e r , t h e s e w o r d s seem a l w a y s t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e l i k e noon, two, doom; t h e / i u / - t y p e a l s o a p p e a r s i n suit. T h e r e i s no b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t i o n , no a f f r i c a t i o n of [ t - , d - ] ; b e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e o f / l / , [ - ? ] i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r [—t] i n bottle, b u t in t h e o t h e r words of t h i s g r o u p t h e s t o p i s o r a l , voiced or v o i c e l e s s . I n t e r v o c a l i c a l ^ y the cases l i k e shutters (= shudders), t h e consonant i s u s u a l l y v o i c e d . Only f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f / Θ , 5 / o c c u r ( t h e word through i n right through the rock i s e x c e p t i o n a l ) . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / d o e s n o t a p p e a r a t a l l ; t h e r e i s n o r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f / a i / and / r > l / . The s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n around, house, e t c . i s in most c a s e s m a r k e d l y a d v a n c e d and [aeil] i s f r e q u e n t ; p a r t i c u l a r l y b e f o r e / n / (around, pounds), the diphthong i s o f t e n n a s a l i z e d . V a r i e t i e s o f / o u / and / u ü / w i t h a c e n t r a l i z e d f i r s t e l e m e n t do n o t o c c u r . T h e r e i s a r a t h e r s t a b l e p a t t e r n i n t h e l o w f r o n t r a n g e : / e § / i n f a i r , f a i r l y , scarce, e t c . ; / ® S / i n monos y l l a b l e s l i k e grass, lamb, plaid; and /ae/ e l s e w h e r e . P r o n u n c i a t i o n s l i k e [de T Sin] dam a r e v e r y u n u s u a l . The w o r d s o f t h e a s f c - g r o u p a r e n e v e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e l i k e lamb. The q u a l i t y of / a § / v a r i e s , being sometimes r e t r a c t e d ; t h e d i p h t h o n g o f t e n a p p e a r s i n m o n o s y l l a b l e s l i k e hog, job, Tom; d e r i v a t i v e s l i k e bombing, foggy, robber have s h o r t vowels. There i s no r e t r a c t i o n o r o v e r r o u n d i . n g in t h e c a s e of / O s / .

100

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In w o r d s like collie, population, tonic, waffles, t h e vowel is not r o u n d e d ; v o w e l s a p p r o a c h i n g [o] o c c u r in a few w o r d s b e f o r e / r / ( f o r e x a m p l e in torrid) and a l s o a p p e a r a n u m b e r o f t i m e s b e f o r e v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e s in w o r d s l i k e Boston, faucet. Boss, sausage, »asp; coffin, office, w h e r e the s p e a k e r is p e r h a p s c o n s c i o u s l y a v o i d i n g / o S / . ^ 1 0 . W o m a n , age 70-7 5. B o r n in M a n h a t t a n . A t t e n d e d p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and w e n t to n o r m a l s c h o o l for two y e a r s , but did not b e c o m e a t e a c h e r . H u s b a n d a r e a l - e s t a t e b r o k e r and i n s u r a n c e a g e n t . F b o r n in M a n h a t t a n , e d u c a t e d in the p u b l i c s c h o o l s ; a w h o l e s a l e l i q u o r d e a l e r . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born in A u s t r i a . Μ born in M a n h a t t a n ; p u b l i c s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n in G e r m a n y . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : the flat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d a s e l e c t i o n of s e n tences. T h e c o n s o n a n t / r / o c c u r s in w o r d s of t h e t h i r d - g r o u p a few times b e s i d e the u s u a l / 3 Ϊ / and a p p e a r s in t h e s t i r - g r o u p in the c o n t a m i n a t i o n [ Λ Γ , Α · Γ ] . W i t h t h e s e m i n o r e x c e p t i o n s , h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h is c o n s i s t e n t l y o f t h e " r - l e s s " t y p e ; in r e a d i n g t h e r e a r e a few m o r e i n s t a n c e s o f / V / in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . T h e c o n s o n a n t s o m e t i m e s o c c u r s in w o r d s l i k e i4nna and law, a l t h o u g h there are n o e x a m p l e s in the read m a t e r i a l . T h e c l u s t e r / h w / a p p e a r s in a few w o r d s in r e a d i n g , but is o t h e r w i s e a b s e n t ; / h j / is r e g u l a r . In w o r d s like n e w , / j / o c c u r s a l m o s t r e g u l a r l y in r e a d i n g , but is tubes, Dewey, r a r e in h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n . T h e r e is no t e n d e n c y to a f f r i c a t e [t—, d — ] ; b o t h v o i c e l e s s and voiced c o n s o n a n t s o c c u r in w o r d s l i k e city and later. O n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f / Θ , 8 / o c cu r. T h e d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / a p p e a r s r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y in the thirdgroup, the g l i d e t o w a r d s h i g h - f r o n t s o m e t i m e s b e i n g r a t h e r s l i g h t . It n e v e r o c c u r s in coil, ointment, etc. In w o r d s l i k e dime and five, t h e r e is no r e t r a c t i o n o f the f i r s t e l e m e n t . T h e long v o w e l s and d i p h t h o n g s in w o r d s l i k e c a n (sb.), gas, grass, lamb ( [ae· , , aeTa] ) a r e d i s t i n c t from those o f fair and scarce; w o r d s o f m o r e than o n e s y l l a b l e l i k e master, pantry, thrashing h a v e the vowel o f hat. T h e r e is o c c a s i o n a l ly s o m e s l i g h t r e t r a c t i o n o b s e r v a b l e in the c a s e o f /α§/, n o n e in the c a s e o f /r>5/. T h e f o r m e r p h o n e m e a p p e a r s in s o m e o f the m o n o s y l l a b l e s like doll and John. In s o m e w o r d s (anchored, Danny, drastic, had, rat) very low and r e t r a c t e d v a r i a n t s of /m/ o c c u r . T h e vowel in college, congress, quarry, Vermont, Warren, etc. is n o r m a l l y n o t r o n n d e d ; v o w e l s l i k e [u] a p p e a r c h i e f l y b e f o r e / r / ( L a w r e n c e , Oregon, warrior). # 1 1 . Y o u n g m a n , a g e ?4. Born in M a n h a t t a n , n o w lives in Q u e e n s . P a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s ; o n e year at F o r d h a m , then at C o l u m b i a in the N a v y ' s V - l ? p r o g r a m , g r a d u a t e d from C o l u m b i a . F born in J e r s e y C i t y , w h e r e he went to the p u b l i c s c h o o l s ;

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g r a d u a t e o f a t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l i n N e w a r k ; moved t o t h e c i t y , w h e r e he i s now an e n g i n e e r a t t h e B e l l T e l e p h o n e L a b o r a t o r i e s . PGF b o r n i n H o b o k e n , a t t e n d e d s c h o o l s t h e r e a n d i n J e r sey C i t y ; a j e w e l e r . Iiis p a r e n t s were F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g immig r a n t s f r o m A l s a c e - L o r r a i n e . PCM b o r n i n S w i t z e r l a n d , b r o u g h t t o New York a t t h e a g e o f 7 . Μ b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , p a r o c h i a l h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e . MGF b o r n i n B o s t o n , a t t e n d e d s c h o o l t h e r e , came t o t h e c i t y a t t h e a g e o f ? 1 , w h e r e h e was i n t h e p r o d u c e b u s i n e s s . H i s p a r e n t s w e r e b o r n i n I r e l a n d . MGM b o r n i n t h e c i t y . M a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Bat story, extempore c o n v e r s a t i o n . The o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / b e f o r e c o n s o n a n t s and p a u s e s i s q u i t e i r r e g u l a r : in t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l p a s s a g e , i t a p p e a r s in s l i g h t l y more t h a n o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e s ; in r e a d i n g i t i s p r o n o u n c e d more t h a n o n e - h a l f t h e t i m e . I t i s r e g u l a r i n t h e third-group and t h e s t i r - g r o u p . I n Panama, lau, and t h e l i k e , i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r on t h e s e r e c o r d s . T h e c l u s t e r / h w / d o e s n o t o c c u r ; / h j / i s p r o n o u n c e d in a l l w o r d s l i k e huge w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f humor. In n e w , tube, Dewey, enthus ias t ic, e t c . , / j / d o e s n o t a p p e a r . The a l v e o l a r e a r e p o i n t - a r t i c u l a t e d a n d t h e r e i s n o a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t—, d - ] . In w o r d s l i k e city, theater, credits, the voiced i n t e r v o c a l i c consonant sometimes p r a c t i c a l l y d i s a p p e a r s , although h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n i n g e n e r a l i s r e a s o n a b l y d i s t i n c t . The g l o t t a l s t o p d o e s n o t o c c u r i n w o r d s l i k e bottle, a l t h o u g h h e t o l d me t h a t he o n c e p r o n o u n c e d in t h i s f a s h i o n . / Q , 8 / h a v e o n l y fricative allophones. The d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / d o e s n o t o c c u r a t a l l . T h e r e i s n o r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f / a l / and / o l / . T h e s t a r t i n p p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n house and pounds i s sometimes f r o n t e d , b u t n o t s o f a r a s t o r e a c h t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e v o w e l in hat. The f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f / o 3 / and / u 3 / ( b o t h i n w o r d s l i k e room and t h o s e l i k e t u b e ) a r e n o t a d v a n c e d . The p a t t e r n i n w o r d s l i k e grass, lamb, sash; master, planning is f a i r l y r e g u l a r : i n m o n o s y l l a b l e s and f i n a l s y l l a b l e s [®S, 3 5 ' ] . e l s e w h e r e t h e v o w e l o f hat. In daily, nailed, tale, the s y l l a b l e s a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e i n fair and hair. In w o r d s l i k e bomb and job, /aS/ occurs q u i t e frequently; a moderate r e t r a c t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v a b l e . T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n in t h e c a s e o f / r > 3 / ; o f t e n , a s t h e r e s u l t of a c o n s c i o u s c h a n g e , t h e t o n g u e - p o s i t i o n i s l o w e r t h a n i s u s u a l in New Y o r k . Words l i k e horrible, popular, w a f f l e s have vowels t h a t a r e not rounded. § 12. Young m a n , a g e 19. B o r n in t h e B r o n x . P a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , B r o n x H i g h S c h o o l o f S c i e n c e , now an u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t Columbia. F born in the Bronx. P u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , p a r o c h i a l h i g h s c h o o l , F o r d h a m , F o r d h a m Law S c h o o l ; a l a w y e r i n t h e o f f i c e o f t h e C i t y C o m p t r o l l e r . PGF b o r n i n t h e B r o n x , h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ; a p a i n t i n g c o n t r a c t o r . PGM born in t h e B r o n x , s c h o o l i n g n o t known. Μ born in M a n h a t t a n ;

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parochial elementary and high schools, then a teachers' training school; a teacher of remedial reading. MGF born in Germany, brought to New York as a small child; high school education; a hardware dealer. MGM born in Jersey City, went to school there, came to the Bronx before her marriage. Part of material recorded: all sentences, the Rat story, extempore conversation. In the informant's conversational speech, /r/ occurs regularly as the syllabic in the third-group (words like her and preferred show tlie contamination [ΛΓ, Λ·Γ] ) and appears in tours on one record, but is not otherwise pronounced before consonants and pauses; in reading, the consonant occurs in the preconson anta1 position a number of times. It is pronounced in law and in one utterance of saw. Hie clusters /hw/ and /hj/ do not occur, /j/ does not appear in words like news, tubes, due, whose syllables are not distinguished from those of noon, two, do. There is no affrication of [t—, d—], but the initial voiceless stops are often rather heavily aspirated before stressed vowels. Words like little vary: [ batj] bottle, [ bae'].] battle. A dental stop occurs in one of three utterances of Arthur, but except for this, /Θ, 8/ have only fricative allophones.® The words coin and Hoyt are pronounced with diphthongs that seem to be contaminations of the /οΓ/- and /3l/-types; other words of the group have /οϊ/. In several words the first element of /al/ is retracted, but this is unusual. The startingpoint of the diphthong in house, pounds, etc. is never markedly advanced; varieties of /ou/ and /uü/ with a centralized first element do not occur. In words like bad, grass, land; jamboree, master, pantry, the vowels or first diphthongal elements vary a good deal in height, the higher ones coinciding with those in f a i r and shares; the lower varieties are more common. There is little tendency to retract in the case of /as/ and /o§/. The phoneme /as/ appears in some but not all of the words like hog and squash. In block, horrible, not, p r o f i t , rosin, wandered and the like, the vowels are not rounded and are often rather advanced. $13. Woman, age 70. Born on Staten Island, family moved back to Manhattan when she was a small child. Educated in public schools and a private academy to the age of 16. Active in Protestant church work. Husband was an actuary. F born in Manhattan, went to a private academy; the owner of a furniture store. PGF born in Manhattan; a cabinetmaker. PGM, of Dutch descent, born in Brooklyn. Μ born in Manhattan; elementary schooling at a private academy. MGF born in Manhattan; a ship's chandler. His parents were German. MGM born in Manhattan. Part of material recorded: the Bat story, extempore conversation, and a selection of sentences. The speaker's usage is completely consistent in the absence of /r/ from the preconsonantal position; in reading at least,

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the c o n s o n a n t i s a l s o v e r y f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d a t t h e end o f words b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l . I d i d n o t o b s e r v e any o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e c o n s o n a n t i n words l i k e Anna, law, and Utah. The c l u s t e r /hw/ d o e s n o t o c c u r ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r . / j / d o e s n o t a p p e a r in words l i k e news, tubes, Dewey, suit, enthusiastic, in which t h e s y l l a b l e s a r e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e o f cool and noon. In one o r two i n s t a n c e s [t—] i s a f f r i c a t e d in h i g h - s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , but t h i s i s u n u s u a l ; t h e r e i s no b l a d e - a r t i c u l a t i o n . Words l i k e little vary: [-tl] Seattle, [ - d j ] little, and [—'.J.] petals. T h e r e a r e no a f f r i c a t e o r s t o p a l l o p h o n e s o f / θ , Ö/. The d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / i s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d i n t h e third-group; the f i r s t element i s sometimes p l a c e d r a t h e r f a r back, for e x a m p l e in ['ΒΛΠ b A i n ] sunburn. In words l i k e boil and ointment, /31/ n e v e r a p p e a r s . The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / i s n o t r e t r a c t e d . The d i p h t h o n g i n house, pounds, e t c . v a r i e s between the l i m i t s o f [ a u ] and [ α ΰ ] ; n o t h i n g r e s e m b l i n g [aeu] o c c u r s . T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f /ou/ and /uu/. R a i s e d v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a r a i s e d f i r s t e l e ment a r e common i n w o r d s l i k e grass, lamb, master, pantry; the h i g h e r o n e s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e i n fair and s t a i r s . The q u a l i t y o f / a s / v a r i e s somewhat, b e i n g i n some c a s e s r a t h e r s t r o n g l y r e t r a c t e d . In m o n o s y l l a b l e s ( b o b b e d , bomb, cod, doll, John, on, Tom), / α θ ) i s f r e q u e n t . ( I t m i g h t be n o t e d t h a t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f / a s / in such words and the more o r l e s s p a r a l l e l o c c u r r e n c e o f / ε § / in w o r d s l i k e man, plaid, rag do n o t seem t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y r e c e n t i n n o v a t i o n s in m e t r o p o l i t a n s p e e c h . ) T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n o b s e r v a b l e in t h e c a s e o f /O§/. The c a t e g o r y / Λ § / a p p e a r s in words l i k e her (stressed) and preferred. In w o r d s l i k e block, foreign, novel, profit, wallet, Warren, r o u n d e d v o w e l s do n o t o c c u r . $ 1 4 . Woman, age 7 3 . Born in Manhattan ( G r e e n w i c h V i l l a g e s e c t i o n ) . Went t o a p u b l i c s c h o o l f o r a s h o r t t i m e ; then s e n t t o a p r i v a t e t u t o r . Has l i v e d in M a n h a t t a n and in t h e B r o n x . The e a r l y d e a t h o f her f a t h e r l e f t the f a m i l y i n d i f f i c u l t circ u s s t a n c e s , and she has s u p p o r t e d h e r s e l f d u r i n g most o f h e r a d u l t l i f e as a p r a c t i c a l n u r s e . P a r e n t s b o t h b o r n i n downtown M a n h a t t a n ; e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ; F a d e s i g n e r and p r i n t e r o f c l o t h . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born in t h e N o r t h o f I r e l a n d , m a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s in S c o t l a n d ; a l l came t o New Y o r k a f t e r m a r r i a g e . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : t h e Rat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n , and a s e l e c t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s . The s p e a k e r ' s u s a g e in r e g a r d t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / i s in g e n e r a l o f t h e t y p e m e n t i o n e d on page 49: the c o n s o n a n t a p p e a r s r e g u l a r l y as t h e s y l l a b i c i n t h e third-group and monos y l l a b l e s o f t h e s t i r - g r o u p (purring, stirring h a v e / Λ / ) , but i s o t h e r w i s e a b s e n t , w i t h some e x c e p t i o n s , f r o m t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . I t i s p r o n o u n c e d i n the words Anna, law, Panama, saw b e f o r e v o w e l s . The c l u s t e r /hw/ o c c u r s a f e w t i m e s in r e a d i n g , b u t i s r a r e ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r . Words l i k e

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new, tubes, due a r e p r o n o u n c e d in i r r e g u l a r fashion, w i t h and w i t h o u t /j/. T h e r e is no a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t-, d—], no occ u r r e n c e of the g l o t t a l a l l o p h o n e o f / t / in w o r d s like bottle. I n t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y in w o r d s l i k e city, both v o i c e l e s s and voiced c o n s o n a n t s a p p e a r , /θ, δ / h a v e only f r i c a t i v e allophon es. T h e c a t e g o r y / 3 1 / d o e s n o t o c c u r . T h e r e is no r e t r a c t i o n o f the first e l e m e n t of /ai/. In w o r d s like boy and choice the first e l e m e n t is o f t e n rather h i g h and wel1 - r o u n d e d , w i t h o u t r e t r a c t i o n , a p p r o a c h i n g [01]. R a i s i n g o c c u r s in m a n y w o r d s like branch, crab, dam, grass, pasture, but o r d i n a r i l y is s l i g h t so that t h e r e is n o c o a l e s c e n c e w i t h the g r o u p represented by fair a n d scarce. T h e / a § / - t y p e o c c u r s in a few w o r d s of the asfc-group. T h e r e is no r e t r a c t i o n in the c a s e o f / a s / and / o § / ; the v a r i a n t s of the f o r m e r in a few c a s e s , in fact, a r e r a t h e r f r o n t e d , / a s / o c c u r s in a n u m b e r of m o n o s y l l a b l e s l i k e doll, fob, John. In g e n e r a l , h e r v o w e l s in the lower b a c k r a n g e a r e o f t e n u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the c i t y and not e a s i l y a r r a n g e d in any s y s t e m of o r d e r l y c a t e g o r i e s : to c h o o s e a few e x a m p l e s o u t of m a n y , I t r a n s c r i b e d [a*] in belongs, wrong, [oT] in Austria, chorus, floor, loft, long, song, [fi^S] in door, hoarse, horse. Perhaps her pronunciation here h a s been d i s t o r t e d by the i n f l u e n c e of her g r a n d p a r e n t s ' s p e e c h , or p e r h a p s this is m e r e l y an i n s t a n c e of that s o r t of p e r s o n a l i d i o s y n c r a s y which a p p e a r s every so o f t e n to b e d e v i l the d i a l e c t g e o g r a p h e r . # 1 5 . W o m a n , age 55. B o r n in B r o o k l y n , g r e w u p in M a n h a t t a n . P u b l i c s c h o o l s t h r o u g h h i g h school, then a t t e n d e d a b u s i n e s s s c h o o l . S e c r e t a r y to the p r e s i d e n t of a s h i p p i n g c o m p a n y . F born in B r o o k l y n ; p u b l i c school e d u c a t i o n ; an e x e c u t i v e in a d r u g m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n y . P G F born in M a n h a t t a n of G e r m a n born p a r e n t s ; the o w n e r of a g r o c e r y s t o r e . PGM born in G e r m a n y , b r o u g h t h e r e a s a child. Μ born in M a n h a t t a n ; e l e m e n tary s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h born in G e r m a n y ; M G F w a s a b u i l d i n g c o n t r a c t o r . P a r t of m a t e r i a l rec o r d e d : all s e n t e n c e s , the Bat story, e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n . B o t h in c o n v e r s a t i o n and in r e a d i n g , the s p e a k e r ' s u s a g e is c o n s i s t e n t l y o f the " r - l e s s " type. The o n l y e x c e p t i o n s are that the c o n s o n a n t s o m e t i m e s o c c u r s as the s y l l a b i c in the t/iirJ-group b e s i d e the m o r e u s u a l / 3 l / and s o m e t i m e s in the s t i r - g r o u p (but preferred rimes w i t h cud). T h e c o n s o n a n t o c c u r s in law and saw; in o t h e r w o r d s o f a s i m i l a r sort w h i c h o c c u r r e d in the test m a t e r i a l , / r / did not a p p e a r and the f o l l o w i n g vowel w a s p r e c e d e d by the g l o t t a l s t o p . The c l u s t e r / h w / o c c u r s s p o r a d i c a l l y ; the i n f o r m a n t v o l u n t e e r e d that she tried to p r o n o u n c e in this fashion b e c a u s e s h e had been taught to do so in s c h o o l , / h j / is r e g u l a r except in humor. In w o r d s like new, tubes, due, / j / a p p e a r s i r r e g u l a r l y . T h e r e is no a f f r i c a t i o n of [t-, d - ] , o n l y [-t] b e f o r e /I / in little, Scotland, e t c . ; in w o r d s like pretty and senator, the c o n s o -

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n a n t i s o f t e n v o i c e l e s s . In a b o u t h a l f a d o z e n u t t e r a n c e s /Θ, S / a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by d e n t a l s t o p s a n d a f f r i c a t e s ( t h r o u g h , at the, with); i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s f r i c a t i v e s o c c u r . The a r ticulation is generally rather precise. The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / o c c u r s a s t h e m o s t u s u a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n w o r d s l i k e third and a p p e a r s i n o n e u t t e r a n c e o f t h e word choice. T h e r e i s no r e t r a c t i o n of t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / . The d i p h t h o n g i n house, pounds, e t c . i s o f t e n [qu], and a l l o p h o n e s w i t h any m a r k e d f r o n t i n g o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t do n o t o c c u r . T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t s o f / c m / a n d / u u / . Words l i k e bag, f a s t , planning, plastic have s y l l a b l e s of v a r y i n g h e i g h t ; the h i g h e r ones c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e i n fair a n d scarce, b u t [seS, 36·] a r e common i n t h e m o n o s y l l a b l e s , [ae] i n t h e l o n g e r w o r d s . The c a t e g o r y / a § / d o e s n o t o c c u r and / a s / d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n a n y word l i k e ask. T h e r e i s n o r e t r a c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / a § / a n d / r > § / . Some o f t h e m o n o s y l l a b l e s l i k e bombed a n d John h a v e / a § / , b u t t h e s h o r t vowel i s a l s o f r e q u e n t and i s r e g u l a r in d e r i v e d f o r m s o f m o r e t h a n o n e s y l l a b l e . In w o r d s l i k e collie, orator, popular, t h e v o w e l s o r d i n a r i l y a r e n o t r o u n d e d ; v o w e l s l i k e [t>] o c c u r i n a few w o r d s ( f o r e x a m p l e i n o f f , sorry, waffles). § \ ( i . Young man, a g e 9 0 . B o r n i n F l u s h i n g , i n t h e b o r o u g h o f Q u e e n s . A t t e n d e d p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l t h e r e , t h e n Fordham P r e p a r a t o r y i n t h e Bronx; an u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t C o l u m b i a . F b o r n in Yonkers, went t o e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t h e r e ; M a n h a t t a n P r e p a r a t o r y , Columbia C o l l e g e , Columbia School of E n g i n e e r i n g ; a c i v i l e n g i n e e r . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s both born in Yonkers; e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n ; PGF a s h o e s a l e s m a n . Μ b o r n i n B r o o k l y n ; p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , a t e a c h e r s ' t r a i n i n g s c h o o l ; was a t e a c h e r b e f o r e her m a r r i a g e . Maternal g r a n d p a r e n t s both born i n B r o o k l y n ; e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ; MGF a p r i n t e r . M o s t of g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s were born in I r e l a n d . P a r t of m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Rat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a tion . The s p e a k e r ' s u s a g e i s g e n e r a l l y o f t h e " r - l e s s " t y p e w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t w o r d s o f t h e third-group are regularly pronounced with [r] (in s e v e r a l cases t h e r e i s a s l i g h t g l i d e t o w a r d h i g h - f r o n t ) . In t h e s t i r - g r o u p , preferred rimes with cud, her s t r e s s e d b e f o r e a p a u s e i s [ h A r ] . In t h e r e a d mat e r i a l t h e r e a r e a few o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n . The c o n s o n a n t i s r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y p r o n o u n c e d i n w o r d s l i k e law and Panama. The c l u s t e r s / h w / and / h j / do n o t o c c u r . / j / i s n o t p r o n o u n c e d i n neui, tubes, due, enthusiastic, suit, and t h e l i k e . The a l v e o l a r s t o p s a r e n o t a f f r i c a t e d ; [—?] i s f r e q u e n t l y p r o n o u n c e d i n w o r d s l i k e bot( b u t little h a s [ - d ] ) ; in t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y in tle and Seattle w o r d s l i k e city, the consonant is rather r e g u l a r l y voiced. /Θ, 5/ h a v e o n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s . The v o i c e l e s s f r i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n p l u r a l s l i k e baths, mouths. In o n e o r two w o r d s o f t h e coil-group, a diphthong occurs

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t h a t s e e m s t o b e a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e / 3 l / - and / r > l / - t y p e s . The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / i s s o m e w h a t r e t r a c t e d b e f o r e v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t s . In w o r d s l i k e house. and pounds, the s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i s a d v a n c e d , o f t e n a s f a r a s [ae] ; p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d of n a s a l c o n s o n a n t s , t h e d i p h t h o n g i s s t r o n g l y n a s a l i z e d . ( T h e r e i s a good d e a l of n a s a l i z a t i o n in h i s s p e e c h g e n e r a l l y . ) Hie f i r s t e l e m e n t s of / ο ί ί / and / u u / a r e n o t c e n t r a l i z e d . In w o r d s l i k e g l a s s , sand; master, pantry, t h e p a t t e r n of r a i s i n g i s c a r r i e d t h r o u g h w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e of r e g u l a r i t y . (The i n f o r m a n t s p e a k s a v e r y c o n s i s t e n t d i a l e c t , on t h e w h o l e ; a f t e r l i s t e n i n g t o a h u n d r e d o r s o s e n t e n c e s , t h e o b s e r v e r c a n p r a c t i c a l l y p r e d i c t w h a t he w i l l s a y i n any s u c c e e d i n g o n e . ) T h e r e i s some r e t r a c t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / a s / a n d / o § / . I n w o r d s l i k e bombed, fog, John, lodge, /a§/ i s v e r y f r e q u e n t . Rounded v o w e l s do n o t o c c u r i n college, popular, w a f f l e s , and t h e l i k e . # 1 7 . Young man, a g e 2 3 . Born i n B r o o k l y n , w h e r e he a t t e n d e d p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s . C o l u m b i a g r a d u a t e . D u r i n g t h e w a r , h e was i n t h e Navy f o r a s h o r t t i m e a s an e n s i g n . F b o r n i n B r o o k l y n , g r a d u a t e o f New York U n i v e r s i t y ; a l a w y e r . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s p r o b a b l y b o r n i n G e r m a n y , b r o u g h t t o New York a s s m a l l c h i l d r e n ; PGF a c a r p e n t e r a t t h e B r o o k l y n Navy Y a r d . Μ born in B r o o k l y n ; h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n i n I r e l a n d , b r o u g h t h e r e a s c h i l d r e n ; MGF a m a c h i n i s t . P a r t of m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , e x t e m p o r e conversation. The c o n s o n a n t / r / o c c u r s r e g u l a r l y a s t h e s y l l a b i c i n t h e third-group; w o r d s l i k e her ( s t r e s s e d ) and preferred are pron o u n c e d w i t h [ΛΓ]; t h e r e a r e i n a d d i t i o n r a r e o c c u r r e n c e s o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n i n o t h e r w o r d s . At t h e e n d o f w o r d s b e f o r e an i n i t i a l v o w e l , t h e c o n s o n a n t i s o f t e n o m i t t e d ; and t h e r e a r e no e x a m p l e s o f i t i n w o r d s l i k e law and Utah on t h e s e r e c o r d s . The c l u s t e r s / h w / a n d / h j / a r e a b s e n t ; / j / d o e s n o t o c c u r i n w o r d s l i k e new, tubes, due. There i s no a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t—, d—]; a g l o t t a l i z e d v o i c e l e s s s t o p a p p e a r s i n Seattle, b u t in most words of t h i s g r o u p t h e s t o p i s v o i c e d . Only f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s of /Θ, S/ o c c u r . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / d o e s n o t a p p e a r . The f i r s t e l e m e n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g i n w o r d s l i k e five and pie i s s o m e t i m e s m o d e r a t e l y r e t r a c t e d . The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n houie, pounds, e t c . v a r i e s t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , b u t [aei£] d o e s n o t o c c u r . T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s of / o i l / a n d / u d / . R a i s e d v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a r a i s e d f i r s t e l e m e n t o c c u r w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e r e g u l a r i t y in words l i k e g l a s s , land; Astor, pantry; the r a i s i n g i s not always s u f f i c i e n t t o make t h e m c o i n c i d e w i t h t h o s e o f t h e f a i r , scarce-group. M o d e r a t e r e t r a c t i o n i s o b s e r v a b l e i n some o f t h e w o r d s l i k e harm a n d pork, / a s / i s q u i t e common i n t h e " s h o r t o" m o n o s y l l a b l e s and s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r s i n d e r i v a t i v e s o f more t h a n o n e s y l l a b l e , / o s / o c c u r s b e f o r e / r / i n coral,

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immoral, orator, Oregon. There vowels in w o r d s l i k e continent,

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is no t e n d e n c y to round the horrible, lobster, waffles.

#13. Y o u n g m a n , age 21. Born in B r o o k l y n , e d u c a t e d in the public s c h o o l s , now a C o l u m b i a u n d e r g r a d u a t e . F born in Oueens, high school e d u c a t i o n ; an o f f i c e r in the Fire D e p a r t m e n t . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h born in the city; P G F had a high school e d u c a t i o n , a m i n o r e x e c u t i v e in a p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e . T h i s side o f the family o r i g i n a l l y from I r e l a n d . Μ born in C r o o k l y n , h i g h school e d u c a t i o n . M O F born in C o n n e c t icut, came to N e w Y o r k when he was a b o u t 20; an i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i s t (the i n f o r m a n t was u n c e r t a i n as to w h e t h e r he had gone to c o l l e g e ) . Μ Γ Μ born in M a i n e , came here b e f o r e m a r riage. Part of m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : all s e n t e n c e s , e x t e m p o r e conversation. The i n f o r m a n t ' s u s a g e is r a t h e r c o n s i s t e n t l y " r - l e s s " w i t h the r e g u l a r e x c e p t i o n of the w o r d s in the f h i r J - g r o u p ; as for the s t i r - g r o u p , preferred has [λγ] , her s t r e s s e d b e f o r e a pause is [Ιίλ] . T h e c o n s o n a n t is f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d as a w o r d - f i n a l b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , in w h i c h c a s e the vowel is u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d by a light g l o t t a l stop; n o r is it p r o n o u n c e d on these r e c o r d s in Asia, law, Panama, Utah, etc. The c l u s t e r / h w / does not o c c u r ; / h j / a p p e a r s o n l y in Hughes, not in the o t h e r w o r d s o f this g r o u p . In w o r d s like new, tubes, due, / j / does not o c c u r . I n i t i a l l y in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s the v o i c e l e s s stops have a fairly h e a v y a s p i r a t i o n ; [t—] is often s o m e w h a t a f f r i c a t e d , a l t h o u g h this is n o t very m a r k e d . In int e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n in w o r d s like auto and heating both voiced and v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s o c c u r ; Seattle and bottle have v o i c e l e s s oral stops. O n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f / Θ , 6/ o c c u r . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / d o e s n o t o c c u r . T h e first e l e m e n t of the d i p h t h o n g in w o r d s like buy and dime is s o m e t i m e s s l i g h t l y r e t r a c t e d . The first e l e m e n t of the d i p h t h o n g in house, pounds, etc. is o f t e n a d v a n c e d . There is no t e n d e n c y to cent r a l i z e the first e l e m e n t o f the d i p h t h o n g in w o r d s like road. The v o w e l s or first d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t s in w o r d s like flag, glass, pantry, thrashing, a l t h o u g h o f t e n raised somewhat, are u s u a l l y d i s t i n c t from those in careless, fair, scarce. Daily rimes with fairly. T h e r e is s o m e t i m e s s o m e retraction in the case o f /a§/, but not of /f>§/; / a s / o c c u r s in m a n y of the " s h o r t o " m o n o s y l l a b l e s . In foreign, Johnny, popwandered, warrant, etc., the vowel is n o t ular, profit, rounded. Y o u n g man, age 20. Born on Staten Island and has a l w a y s lived there. P u b l i c s c h o o l s , n o w an u n d e r g r a d u a t e at C o l u m b i a . F born on Staten Island, a t t e n d e d p u b l i c s c h o o l s t h e r e , C o lumbia g r a d u a t e , a w h o l e s a l e r of p l u m b i n g s u p p l i e s . P G F b o r n in Ireland, came to S t a t e n Island as a young m a n , p r o b a b l y had no more than e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n ; a p l u m b e r . PGM born on

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S t a t e n Island, e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . Μ born on S t a t e n Island; high s c h o o l g r a d u a t e , attended a b u s i n e s s school in M a n h a t t a n . M G F born on S t a t e n Island (his p a r e n t s w e r e born in G e r m a n y ) ; a c l e r i c a l w o r k e r for a u t i l i t y c o m p a n y (as a y o u n g m a n had b e e n a b u t c h e r ) . M O M b o r n on S t a t e n Island (of her p a r e n t s o n e w a s born there, the o t h e r p r o b a b l y in I r e l a n d ) ; e l e m e n tary s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . Part o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : all sent e n c e s , the Rat story, e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n . In the i n f o r m a n t ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h , / r / o c c u r s o c c a s i o n a l l y in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n ; in r e a d i n g , the freq u e n c y i n c r e a s e s to a b o u t o n e - q u a r t e r of the p o s s i b l e c a s e s . The c o n s o n a n t a p p e a r s in law and saw b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g vowel and in asthma b e f o r e a p a u s e . T h e c l u s t e r / h w / is a b s e n t , but / h j / is r e g u l a r . In new, tubes, due, e t c . , / J / is n e v e r pron o u n c e d . T h e a l v e o l a r stops a r e not a f f r i c a t e d ; in the interv o c a l i c p o s i t i o n in cases like bought a barge, butter, the c o n s o n a n t r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y is v o i c e d , as it is in w o r d s like Seattle. B e s i d e the m o r e u s u a l f r i c a t i v e v a r i e t i e s o f /θ, δ/, t h e r e a r e o c c a s i o n a l o c c u r r e n c e s o f dental s t o p s and a f f r i c a t e s . T h e i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h is rapid; the a r t i c u l a t i o n is o f t e n r a t h e r lax, and the loss o f c o n s o n a n t s is very f r e q u e n t . W o r d s like Curtis, first, terminal vary: / 3 l / is f r e q u e n t , / r / o c c a s i o n a l ; o f t e n the c o n t a m i n a t i o n [γϊ] a p p e a r s . In words like choice, foil, his p r o n u n c i a t i o n is s i m i l a r l y v a r i able, s o m e w o r d s b e i n g p r o n o u n c e d w i t h a c o n t a m i n a t i o n of the /31/- and /r>l/-types. The first e l e m e n t o f / a i / is s o m e t i m e s r e t r a c t e d , a l t h o u g h not m a r k e d l y so. In down, pounds, and a few o t h e r w o r d s , the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of the d i p h t h o n g approxim a t e s [ae] ; in o t h e r w o r d s it b e g i n s lower and f a r t h e r b a c k . T h e r e is n o f r o n t i n g in the c a s e o f / o ü / and /uu/. T h e i n f o r m ant's s p e e c h is e x t r e m e l y c o n s i s t e n t in its d i s t r i b u t i o n of / s s / and /ae/ in w o r d s like ask, crash, pantry on the o n e hand; habit, hammer on the o t h e r . It is r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e that in the s e n t e n c e " A n a d d e r is a p o i s o n o u s s n a k e , " he first p r o n o u n c e d / e s d s r / (that is, " o n e who a d d s " ) , then w h e n he had g r a s p e d the m e a n i n g of the w h o l e s e n t e n c e , c o r r e c t e d it to / sedsr/. In the asfe-group, the /a5/- and / a s / - t y p e s do not occur. In large, part, etc., a r e t r a c t e d v o w e l o r a d i p h t h o n g w i t h a r e t r a c t e d s t a r t i n g - p o i n t is c o m m o n . M o n o s y l l a b l e s like bomb, god, hog n o r m a l l y h a v e /λθ/; in atomic bomb, for example, t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s d i f f e r m a r k e d l y not o n l y in l e n g t h , but in q u a l i t y . The vowel in Bobby, foggy, foreign, horrible, want, e t c . is r e g u l a r l y u n r o u n d e d . T h e r e is a good deal o f n a s a l i z a t i o n . ff20. Y o u n g m a n , age 20. 3orn in M a n h a t t a n , n o w lives in the B r o n x . P a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s ; at p r e s e n t a C o l u m b i a u n d e r g r a d u a t e . F born in M a n h a t t a n , p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , two years at F o r d h a m ; the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of an o m n i b u s c o m p a n y . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r ents b o t h born in M a n h a t t a n , p a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y school educ a t i o n ; P C F an e m p l o y e e of a s t r e e t r a i l w a y c o m p a n y . G r e a t -

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109

g r a n d p a r e n t s a l s o b o r n i n New Y o r k o f I r i s h f a m i l i e s . Μ b o r n in M a n h a t t a n , p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s ; a l s o a t t e n d e d s c h o o l f o r a s h o r t t i m e i n N y a c k , where h e r f a m i l y l i v e d b r i e f l y . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n in M a n h a t t a n ; t h e i r p a r e n t s w e r e I r i s h i m extempore migrants. Part of material recorded: a l l sentences, conversation. T h e r e a r e a few o c c u r r e n c e s o f / r / i n t h e p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n i n words l i k e Gordon, shared, tardy and t h e c o n s o n a n t a l s o a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y in t h e th i /"(/-group b e s i d e / 3 l / ( t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e two t y p e s a l s o o c c u r s ) . The c o n s o n a n t i s p r o n o u n c e d a s a w o r d - f i n a l b e f o r e v o w e l s in Asia, law, Panama, Patricia, saw. O f t e n t h e [ r ] - a r t i c u l a t i o n h a s a s t r o n g 1 i p - m o d i f i c a t ion ( o f t h e d i a l e c t a l , not t h e s p e e c h d e f e c t i v e s o r t ) ; i n t e r v o c a 1 i c a l 1 y in words l i k e very and carry, i t i s q u i t e s t r i k i n g . The c l u s t e r s /hvi/ and / h j / do n o t o c c u r , and / j / i s a b s e n t from Dewey, enthusiastic, news, studio, suit, and t h e l i k e . In many words [t—] i s n o t i c e a b l y a f f r i c a t e d , a s i s [d—] i n s e v e r a l c a s e s ; i n t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y i n words l i k e better and forty, the consonant i s r e g u l a r l y voiced; before / 1 / , [ — o c c u r s in battle, bottle, Seattle, Scotland, [-] , s o m e t i m e s l i e s b e t w e e n [ o ] and [ λ ] . In some c a s e s t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g in time and buy i s r e t r a c t e d , and t h e r e i s some t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t s o f / i t y and / e f / . The d i p h t h o n g in house, pounds, e t c . v a r i e s t o w a r d s [aeü] ; t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / o u / i s s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e t e l y u n r o u n d e d . N e i t h e r in words l i k e news n o r in t h o s e l i k e room i s t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f / u u / c e n t r a l i z e d ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , r e t r a c t i o n i s o b s e r v a b l e i n c e r t a i n o c c u r r e n c e s . Words l i k e glass, flag, planning have vowels o r diphthongs t h a t vary c o n s i d e r a b l y , between the l i m i t s o f [ s § j 6 · ] and [ae T S, seT] . No words o f t h e a s f c - g r o u p a r e t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y from t h o s e l i k e flag. R e t r a c t i o n a p p e a r s i n some, b u t by no means a l l t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f / α θ / and / o § / . In words l i k e bog and rod, / a s / i s f r e q u e n t . Of the s t i r - g r o u p , her ( s t r e s s e d ) h a s [ λ θ ] ι preferred r i m e s w i t h cud, occurred h a s [ij*] · In some w o r d s , f o r e x a m p l e in back, v e r y low and c e n t r a l i z e d v a r i e t i e s o f /ae/ a p p e a r . Hospital, popular, quarry, w a f f l e s , and t h e l i k e h a v e u n r o u n d e d v o w e l s ; in some i n s t a n c e s I have t r a n s c r i b e d [a**]. §21. Young man, a g e 1 9 . B o r n on S t a t e n I s l a n d and a t t e n d e d p u b l i c s c h o o l s t h e r e ; now an u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t C o l u m b i a . F b o r n in E l i z a b e t h , b r o u g h t t o M a n h a t t a n a t t h e a g e o f 10; d i d

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not complete high school; a s t a t i o n a r y engineer. P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n i n I r e l a n d and were m a r r i e d t h e r e , came t o t h i s c o u n t r y i n a d u l t l i f e . P G F ' S o c c u p a t i o n n o t known; PGM a c o o k i n a c o n v e n t . Μ b o r n on S t a t e n I s l a n d , d i d n o t comp l e t e h i g h s c h o o l . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n on S t a t e n I s l a n d ; MGF d i e d when i n f o r m a n t ' s m o t h e r was a s m a l l c h i l d and h e knows v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t h i m . P r e c e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n b o r n i n I r e l a n d . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Bat s t o r y , extempore conversation. The c o n s o n a n t / r / o c c u r s r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y i n w o r d s l i k e heard and Hearst ( t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l e x c e p t i o n a l i n s t a n c e s of / 3 l / and w o r d s o f t h e s t i r - g r o u p u s u a l l y h a v e t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n [λγ]). Except for t h i s , t h e i n f o r m a n t ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s p e e c h i s o f t h e " r - l e s s " t y p e . In r e a d i n g , t h e r e a r e a numb e r o f o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e c o n s o n a n t i n w o r d s l i k e garment and yours. In saw / r / a p p e a r s a s a w o r d - f i n a l , b u t i n t h e t e s t s e n t e n c e s w o r d s of t h i s t y p e w e r e o r d i n a r i l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s o n a n t a n d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l p r e c e d e d by t h e g l o t t a l s t o p . The c l u s t e r s / h w / and / h j / a r e a b s e n t ; / j / i s n e v e r p r o n o u n c e d i n news, tubes, due, and t h e l i k e . T h e r e i s no n o t i c e a b l e a f f r i c a t i o n of [ t - , d - ] ; i n t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y i n city, theater, e t c . , the consonant i s r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y voiced; [—?] and a l e s s f r e q u e n t [—d] o c c u r i n w o r d s l i k e battle and catalog. O n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f /Θ, 6/ a p p e a r . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / r a r e l y o c c u r s i n t h e third-group. In t h e g r o u p e x e m p l i f i e d by oil a n d ointment t h e r e i s a m i x t u r e of t y p e s : [ o i ] ( [ ο ^ Γ ] ) , [ δ ι ] , and c o n t a m i n a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g m o s t common. The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n buy, mind, e t c . i s o f t e n s t r o n g l y r e t r a c t e d . In w o r d s l i k e me and day, t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g s t e n d s t o be c e n t r a l i z e d ; t h e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i s m o s t n o t i c e a b l e i n open s y l l a b l e s b e f o r e a p a u s e . The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of / a u / v a r i e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of [ a e ] ; t h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o c e n t r a l i z e i n t h e c a s e o f / o u / , o r of /ÜÜ/ ( e i t h e r i n w o r d s l i k e tubes or those l i k e room). The v a r y i n g q u a l i t y of t h e v o w e l s and d i p h t h o n g s i n bad, grass, pantry, e t c . may be i n d i c a t e d b r i e f l y by n o t i n g t h a t i n t h e p h r a s e half in and half out, the f i r s t half i s [haeTf] , t h e s e c o n d [ h s - f ] . Marked r e t r a c t i o n and a s t r o n g d i p h t h o n g a l g l i d e i s o f t e n o b s e r v a b l e i n t h e c a s e o f / a § / and / θ θ / . The phoneme / a § / o c c u r s i n a g r e a t e r n u m b e r of m o n o s y l l a b l e s l i k e bomb and hog, and s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r s i n d e r i v a t i v e s l i k e Bobbie and foggy. B e f o r e / r / , /r>§/ o c c u r s in coral, immoral, orator, Oregon. In popular, ( f a n a m a k e r , and t h e l i k e , t h e vowel i s n o t r o u n d e d . §22. Boy, a g e 1 5 . Born i n M a n h a t t a n ; now a s t u d e n t i n a p u b l i c high s c h o o l . F born in Manhattan; h i g h school e d u c a t i o n ; a d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e c l e r k . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born in t h e c i t y ; e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n ; PGF a b u i l d i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . Most o f g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s on t h i s s i d e w e r e b o r n in I r e l a n d . Μ b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n ; h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . MGF b o r n i n

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Brooklyn, of German descent; an employee of a milk company. MGM born in Norway, brought to Brooklyn as a child. Both grandparents probably had no more than elementary education. Part of material recorded: all sentences, the Rat story, extempore conversation. The consonant /r/ occurs regularly as the syllabic in the third-group (occasionally there is a slight off-glide toward high-front) and words like preferred may exhibit the contamination [ΛΓ] ; in addition, in a very small nurrber of cases /r/ appears in words like carton, and in those like summer before a pause. Otherwise, his speech i s " r - l e s s . " In Asia, law, etc., the consonant often occurs. The cluster /hw/ and /hj/ are absent; /j/ does not appear in news, tubes, due, etc. The initial voiceless stops sometimes have a rather heavy aspiration and there is some tendency to affricate [t—], although not very strongly. In water, theater, and the like, the consonant is ordinarily voiced; [—?] appears in battle, bottle, Seattle. In rare cases a dental stop occurs for [5—] ( t o the laundry). In college and garage before pauses, there is a fortis unvoicing of the fricative component of the affricate. The diphthong /3l/ does not occur. The first element of /aΪ/ and of /οΐ/ is often retracted. In house, pounds, etc., the starting-point of the diphthong is advanced toward [ae] . There is no tendency to centralize in the case of /oü/ and /uü/. The vowels or first diphthongal elements in Dad, glass, lamb; avenue, mantle, etc. are sometimes low, but the occurrence of the higher varieties, coinciding with those in fair and scarce, approaches regularity. Retraction is common in the case of /αδ/ and /θθ/. The phoneme /a§/ appears very frequently in the monosyllables like hog and also in derivatives like robber. Before /r/, it is doubtful if an /α/-/αδ/ opposition exists, for the vowels in words like borrow and forest are quite long. Coral and immoral have /os/. In popular, waffles, etc., there is no tendency to round the vowel. #23. Man, age 27. Born in Brooklyn and now lives there. Attended public schools; served in the Coast Guard for two years. Now a student at Columbia. F born in Manhattan, attended public schools, did not complete high school; a stock exchange clerk. PGF an Alsatian by birth, came to New York as a young man; a baker. PGM born in Germany, came here as a young girl. Μ born in Brooklyn, did not complete high school. MGF born in Ireland, came to New York at the age of 28; a transport worker. MGM born on the Isle of Man, came here as a young woman. Part of material recorded: all sentences, the Rat story, extempore conversation. Words of the third-group vary between /r/, /3l/, and the contamination [fl]; his pronunciation is otherwise consistently " r - l e s s . " O n these records there are no occurrences of /r/ in words like Anna and law. The dialectal lip-modification of the consonant is sometimes observable, although not

11?

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r e g u l a r . The c l u s t e r s / h w / a n d / h j / do n o t a p p e a r i n h i s s p e e c h ; / j / i s r e g u l a r l y a b s e n t f r o m news, tabes, due, enthusiastic, and t h e l i k e , "ftiere i s an i r r e g u l a r a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t—]; i n getting, photographic, e t c . , the consonant i s rather r e g u l a r l y v o i c e d ; Seattle a n d bottle h a v e [—'] b u t hospital h a s [ - d ] ; t h e g l o t t a l a l l o p h o n e of / t / a l s o o c c u r s n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y i n w o r d s l i k e hat b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t . The a r t i c u l a t i o n o f [ ε ] and [ z ] i s o f t h e s o r t d e s c r i b e d on p a g e s 3 8 - 3 9 . / θ , S / a r e r e g u l a r l y r e p r e s e n t e d by f r i c a t i v e s . In t h e p a r t i c i p l e s and s i m i l a r words / n / o c c u r s b e s i d e / g / r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y in c o n v e r s a t i o n and a p p e a r s in t h e t e s t s e n t e n c e s occasional ly. The w o r d s o f t h e c o i l - g r o u p v a r y , and t h e s p e a k e r ' s u s a g e h e r e i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s : f o r e x a m p l e , h e p r o n o u n c e d Hoyt a s [ h ^ I t ] , t h e n c o r r e c t e d i t t o [ h o ^ I t ] . He i s o n e o f t h o s e many New Y o r k e r s who f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o s a y o r r e a d w i t h o u t s t u m b l i n g s e n t e n c e s l i k e This ointment's good for sunburn or He would always shirk making a choice. The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g i n w o r d s l i k e buy and dime i s o f t e n r e t r a c t e d . In house, pounds, e t c . , t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g i s s o m e w h a t a d v a n c e d , b u t n o t a s f a r a s [se] ; t h e r e i s no c e n t r a l i z a t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f / O Ü / and / u Ü / . The v o w e l s o r f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t s i n bag, grass; Astor, mantle, e t c . vary c o n s i d e r a b l y in h e i g h t ; the h i g h e r v a r i a n t s , which a r e very common, a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e in flares a n d scarce. Varia n t s of / Q S / and / θ θ / s h o w i n g r e t r a c t i o n a r e common, and t h e g l i d e i s o f t e n v e r y m a r k e d . In w o r d s l i k e hog, / a s / i s f r e q u e n t . Her ( s t r e s s e d ) h a s [ Λ 3 ] , occurred the contamination [ΛΓ] . U n r o u n d e d v o w e l s r e g u l a r l y o c c u r i n w o r d s l i k e goggles, omelet, popular, wallet. # 2 4 . Young man, a g e 2 3 . Born i n M a n h a t t a n on t h e l o w e r West S i d e . A t t e n d e d p u b l i c s c h o o l s , spent s e v e r a l y e a r s in the Army; now a s t u d e n t a t C o l u m b i a . F b o r n i n M a n h a t t a n , d i d n o t c o m p l e t e h i g h s c h o o l ; a t e l e p h o n e company r e p a i r m a n . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h b o r n in New York C i t y ; PCF a t e l e p h o n e r e p a i r m a n . Μ born in Manhattan, e l e m e n t a r y school e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o t h b o r n i n G e r m a n y , came h e r e i n a d u l t l i f e . MGF a s e r v i c e - m a n f o r an e l e v a t o r c o m p a n y . P a r t of m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n . The c o n s o n a n t / r / o c c u r s r e g u l a r l y a s t h e s y l l a b i c in w o r d s l i k e heard a n d German ( t h e r e i s s o m e t i m e s a g l i d e t o w a r d h i g h - f r o n t ) a n d w o r d s l i k e her a n d preferred show t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n [ΛΓ]. With t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s , t h e i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s c o n s i s t e n t l y " r - l e s s . " On t h e s e r e c o r d s t h e r e a r e no o c c u r r e n c e s o f / r / i n Anna, law, e t c . T h e r e i s a n o t i c e a b l e s p e e c h - d e f e c t i v e l a b i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s o n a n t . The c l u s t e r s / h w / a n d / h j / do n o t o c c u r ; / j / d o e s n o t a p p e a r in w o r d s l i k e new, tubes, due, enthusiastic, suit. Not i n f r e q u e n t l y [ t - ] i s a f f r i c a t e d ; in t e r v o c a l i c a l 1 y in words l i k e forty and later and b e f o r e t h e s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e o f / ! /

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(bottle, e t c . ) , t h e c o n s o n a n t i s v o i c e d . In a s m a l l n u m b e r o f c a s e s t h e d e n t a l s t o p and a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e s o f / δ / o c c u r . In t h e word joint a diphthong occurs that suggests the / S ^ / ' t y p e ; t h e o t h e r words of t h e c o i f - g r o u p a r e p r o n o u n c e d w i t h [ o l , r> h l] . The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f / a i / s h o w s no p a r t i c u l a r r e t r a c t i o n . In w o r d s l i k e house and pounds the s t a r t i n g - p o i n t of t h e d i p h t h o n g i s sometimes a d v a n c e d , b u t n e v e r as f a r as [«] . T h e r e i s n o f r o n t i n g i n t h e c a s e o f / o ü / . A few w o r d s l i k e suit a n d Tuesday have a d i p h t h o n g t h a t b e g i n s f a r t h e r f o r w a r d t h a n t h a t i n room, b u t o r d i n a r i l y t h e two g r o u p s a r e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d . Words l i k e b a g , bath, jazz commonly h a v e l o n g v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s d i s t i n c t f r o m t h o s e i n flares and scarce, b e i n g much l o w e r ; in a few i n s t a n c e s ( f o r e x a m p l e in avenue, dan, family), t h e h i g h e r v a r i a n t s a p p e a r . The v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s i n many w o r d s l i k e card, tardy, Tom o f t e n e x h i b i t e x t r e m e r e t r a c t i o n ; b e f o r e / r / , c e r t a i n words l i k e Doris a n d quarry have long vowels t h a t a r e presumably / a § / a l s o . R e t r a c t i o n i s much l e s s m a r k e d in t h e c a s e o f / o § / . In Molly, polished, e t c . , the vowels are atomic, g o n g , Gothic, not rounded. $ 2 5 . Woman, a g e a b o u t 7 0 . Dorn i n M a n h a t t a n on t h e s i t e o f t h e p r e s e n t G e n e r a l P o s t O f f i c e . E l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . Has a l w a y s l i v e d a t home. F b o r n on t h e l o w e r F a s t S i d e ; e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n ; k e p t a s h o p in w h i c h he r e p a i r e d g a s - m e t e r s . P a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n i n L o n d o n , came h e r e a f t e r t h e i r m a r r i a g e ; PGF a m a k e r o f s t r a w h a t s . Μ b o r n i n downtown Manh a t t a n , e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s b o r n in I r e l a n d , p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t h e r e a s c h i l d r e n . MOF's o c c u p a t i o n n o t k n o w n . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : t h e Bat s t o r y , a s e l e c tion of s e n t e n c e s . With t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t [ij·] and [l^l] o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r b o t h i n t h e th i r c f - g r o u p and i n w o r d s l i k e boisterous and Boyd, t h e i n f o r m a n t ' s s p e e c h i s r e g u l a r l y " r - l e s s . " The c o n s o n a n t o c c u r s a s a w o r d - f i n a l b e f o r e i n i t i a l v o w e l s in Anna, Λίΐα, law, Panama, s a w , Utah. The c l u s t e r /'hw/ i s a b s e n t : / h j / o c c u r s o n l y i n humors, / j / i s n e v e r p r o n o u n c e d i n news, tubes, Dewey, enthusiastic, suit, and t h e l i k e , whose s y l l a b i c ? a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e i n room and two. T h e r e i s o c c a s i o n a l l y a s l i g h t a f f r i c a t i o n of [ t - ] ; b e f o r e / I / , h e r u s a g e i s v a r i a b l e , w i t h [ - t ] i n Seattle, [ - d ] i n l i t t l e , and [ - ? ] in petals; [—'] a p p e a r s i n rotten, satin. In a few c a s e s d e n t a l s t o p s a n d a f f r i c a t e s o c c u r in p l a c e o f [5—], b u t / Θ / h a s o n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s . In p a r t i c i p l e s and s i m i l a r w o r d s / n / i s f a i r l y f r e q u e n t i n h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n , r a r e in r e a d i n g . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / o r d i n a r i l y o c c u r s in t h e third-group and t h e c o i i - g r o u p ( s e e a b o v e ) . I t s a p p e a r a n c e in boy's is irregu l a r . T h e f i r s t e l e m e n t of / a ! / i s o c c a s i o n a l l y somewhat r e t r a c t e d , b u t n o t m a r k e d l y s o . T h e r e i s no f r o n t i n g o f t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f / ' a u / , which v a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e l i m i t s of [al and [ a j . The f i r s t e l e m e n t s of / o u / and / u u / a r e n o t c e n -

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t r a l i z e d (the o c c u r r e n c e of /oil/ in the third s y l l a b l e of California I h a v e also n o t e d a few t i m e s in the s p e e c h o f o t h e r less c u l t i v a t e d s p e a k e r s ) . R a i s e d v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s w i t h a raised f i r s t e l e m e n t , i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e in fair and scarce, a r e r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d in ask, bag, jazz; acid, answer, mantle, planning, etc., a l t h o u g h glass, l o w e r o n e s s o m e t i m e s o c c u r ( p a n t r y , rafters with the vowel o f hat). S t r o n g l y r e t r a c t e d v a r i e t i e s o f / a s / and / o s / are not u n c o m m o n . In m o n o s y l l a b l e s such as bomb, doll, fob, wash, / a s / is f r e q u e n t , but it is n o t e x t e n d e d to d e r i v a t i v e s of m o r e than o n e s y l l a b l e : bombing, robber h a v e /a/. In popular, robber, Washington, e t c . , the v o w e l is not r o u n d e d . Jf?.6. W o m a n , age o v e r 70. B o r n in M a n h a t t a n on the W e s t S i d e . P a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . H u s b a n d w a s a clerk for an i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y . F born in M a n h a t t a n in the G r e e n w i c h Village section; elementary education; a plumber. Paternal g r a n d p a r e n t s born in F r a n c e , c a m e to N e w Y o r k as c h i l d r e n . Μ born in G r e e n w i c h V i l l a g e s e c t i o n ; e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born in I r e l a n d , c a m e h e r e b e f o r e m a r riage. O c c u p a t i o n s of g r a n d f a t h e r s n o t known. P a r t o f material r e c o r d e d : the Rat story and a s e l e c t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s . T h e i n f o r m a n t ' s u s a g e is very c o n s i s t e n t l y of the " r - l e s s " type. T h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n s a r e the o c c a s i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e o f the c o n t a m i n a t i o n s [ij*!] (heard) and [ Λ Γ ] (her). In Anna, law, Utah, and the l i k e , / r / o c c u r s very f r e q u e n t l y . T h e c l u s t e r / h w / is a b s e n t ; / h j / o c c u r s only in the n a m e Hughes. In w o r d s like news, Tuesday, Dewey, enthusiastic, suit, / j / n e v e r app e a r s ; t h e s e w o r d s h a v e the same s y l l a b i c as room and two. O c c a s i o n a l l y a s l i g h t a f f r i c a t i o n of [t—] is o b s e r v a b l e ; inter voc al i cal 1 y in c a s e s like city and go tomorrow, the cons o n a n t is n o r m a l l y v o i c e d ; b e f o r e the s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e of / 1 / in little, Seattle, e t c . , [ - t ] and [ - d ] o c c u r , but not [—'] . A d e n t a l a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e o f / 9 / o c c u r s in the initial c l u s t e r / Θ Γ / (three, thrashing), but o t h e r w i s e o n l y the f r i c a t i v e v a r i e t i e s o f /θ, δ / a p p e a r . F o r t i s u n v o i c i n g before a p a u s e is a l m o s t r e g u l a r in matches, Mormons, thongs' college, garage, etc. Final c l u s t e r s are f r e q u e n t l y s i m p l i fied. The d i p h t h o n g / 3 l / o c c u r s in Germans, third, etc. and in Hoyt, ointment, etc. (There is some i r r e g u l a r i t y : b e f o r e / I / in boil, coil, foil, etc. the d i p h t h o n g is o f t e n [οϊ] , w h i l e this v a r i a n t d o e s not o c c u r in the third-group.) T h e first e l e m e n t o f / & Ϊ / is n e v e r m a r k e d l y r e t r a c t e d . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f the d i p h t h o n g in house, pounds, etc. is n e v e r adv a n c e d toward [ae] ; [αΰ] is frequent. T h e r e is no t e n d e n c y to c e n t r a l i z e the first e l e m e n t s of / o 3 / and /uü/; in the l a t t e r case, in fact, the g l i d e o f t e n b e g i n s q u i t e far b a c k . V o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h o s e in fair, scarce occur with c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e q u e n c y in clams, Dad, grass; answer, mo las s es, etc. ; but the lower v a r i e t i e s also appear. T h e

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q u a l i t y o f t h e v o w e l s o r f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t s in words l i k e barge, park, rod, Tom v a r i e s ; some I h a v e m a r k e d a s r e t r a c t e d , o t h e r s h a v e a r a t h e r a d v a n c e d p o s i t i o n . Some o c c u r r e n c e s o f / ö S / a l s o show r e t r a c t i o n . In popular, tomorrow, waffles, e t c . , the vowel i s not rounded. # 2 7 . Man, a g e ? 5 . b o r n i n B r o o k l y n and now l i v e s t h e r e . Attended p a r o c h i a l s c h o o l s , spent t h r e e y e a r s in the A i r F o r c e , now * s t u d e n t a t C o l u m b i a . F L o r n i n B r o o k l y n , d i d n o t c o m p l e t e grammar s c h o o l ; a m o t i o n - p i c t u r e e l e c t r i c i a n . Paternal g r a n d p a r e n t s both born in B r o o k l y n ; n e i t h e r c o m p l e t e d element a r y s c h o o l ; PGF a w o r k e r i n t h e m u n i c i p a l street-cleaning d e p a r t m e n t . Μ born in B r o o k l y n , g r a d u a t e d from p a r o c h i a l elementary s c h o o l . MfT l o r n in B r o o k l y n , g r a d u a t e d from p a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ; a c o a l and i c e d e a l e r . MGM b o r n i n J e r s e y C i t y , moved t o B r o o k l y n a t t h e a g e o f 19; e d u c a t e d a t a p a r o c h i a l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l in J e r s e y C i t y . I n f o r m a n t b e l i e v e s t h a t a l l h i s g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s were born in Ireland. P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : a l l s e n t e n c e s , t h e Bat s t o r y , extempore c o n v e r s a t i o n . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n s o f w o r d s l i k e third a n d curtain, the i n f o r m a n t ' s speech i s c o n s i s t e n t l y of the " r - l e s s " type: t h e s e w o r d s v a r y b e t w e e n / 3 Ϊ / , / r / , and t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n In Anna, law, saw, e t c . , t h e c o n s o n a n t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s . T h e c l u s t e r s /hv»/ and / h j / do n o t a p p e a r ; i n neins, tubes, due, and t h e l i k e , / j / i s n o t p r o n o u n c e d . T h e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s a r e o f t e n r a t h e r h e a v i l y a s p i r a t e d and [ t — ] freq u e n t l y a f f r i c a t e d . The a l v e o l a r s a r e b l a d e - a r t i c u 1 a t e d . In c o n v e r s a t i o n , d e n t a l s t o p and a f f r i c a t e a l l o p h o n e s o f /Θ/ and / 8 / a r e f a i r l y common; t h e y do n o t a p p e a r so o f t e n i n r e a d i n g . F r e q u e n t l y [ft—] i s a s s i m i l a t e d t o a p r e c e d i n g f i n a l consonant. The a r t i c u l a t i o n i n g e n e r a l l a c k s p r e c i s i o n : l o s s e s and w e a k e n i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e a l v e o l a r s , a r e v e r y n u m e r o u s , riot o n l y f r o m f i n a l c l u s t e r s , but a l s o in many o t h e r c a s e s t o o v a r i e d t o r e d u c e t o any f o r m u l a . The d i p h t h o n g / 3 Ϊ / in a f e w w o r d s , f o r e x a m p l e i n certainly, b e g i n s s o f a r f o r w a r d t h a t i t p r o b a b l y o v e r l a p s on / e i / . It d o e s n o t a p p e a r in oil, join, and t h e l i k e , w h o s e s y l l a b l e s u s u a l l y b e g i n w i t h a somewhat r e t r a c t e d and s t r o n g l y r o u n d e d [ θ ] · The s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f / i l / and / e i / i s i n some c a s e s n o t i c e a b l y c e n t r a l i i e d . T h e r e i s o f t e n some r e t r a c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g in dime and five, but i t is n o t v e r y m a r k e d . In b a r g e , b a r n , e t c . t h e r e may be a s i m i l a r r e t r a c t i o n and i n soft, draw, e t c . i t i s q u i t e pronounced. Long v o w e l s o r d i p h t h o n g s ( / a s / ) a r e f r e q u e n t in w o r d s l i k e bog and bomb and e v e n i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f c o m p o u n d s l i k e ccdf ish and hod carrier. T h e r e i s no t e n d e n c y t o r o u n d t h e v o w e l s o f popular, .Scotch, wander, and t h e l i k e . Vornan, a g e 5 0 - 5 5 . LSorn in t h e D r o n x , e l e m e n t a r y school e d u c a t i o n ; an u n e m p l o y e d n e e d 1 e - 1 r a d e s w o r k e r on home r e l i e f .

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F born in C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , brought t o New York as an i n f a n t ; a t t e n d e d an e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l in the Bronx; a s a l o o n - k e e p e r . Μ born i n Manhattan, moved to t h e Bronx in 1369, a t t e n d e d a p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t h e r e . M a t e r n a l g r a n d p a r e n t s born in I r e l a n d ; MGF a p a t r o l m a n on the o l d C e n t r a l Park p o l i c e f o r c e . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : the Bat s t o r y , extempore c o n v e r s a t i o n , and a s e l e c t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s . The i n f o r m a n t i s e x t r e m e l y c o n s c i o u s o f c e r t a i n m a t t e r s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n , and as a r e s u l t t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s p a r i t y between h e r more unguarded c o n v e r s a t i o n and her c a r e f u l s p e a k i n g and r e a d i n g . For example, in o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n the p a r t i c i p l e s a r e r a t h e r r e g u l a r l y pronounced w i t h /n/; in r e a d i n g /q/ i s u s u a l . In c o n v e r s a t i o n but not in r e a d i n g , with b e f o r e /S/ (with them, e t c . ) i s r e g u l a r l y p r o nounced w i t h a v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l s t o p . In the t / i i r d - g r o u p the o c c u r r e n c e o f / 3 l / i s more f r e q u e n t in her o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n than in r e a d i n g . Both in s p e a k i n g and in r e a d i n g , t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f / r / in the p r e c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n i s v e r y i r r e g u l a r ; in one s h o r t p a s s a g e o f extemporaneous c o n v e r s a t i o n , i t appeared in about t w o - f i f t h s o f t h e p o s s i b l e c a s e s . (When the consonant i s p r o nounced in t h i s p o s i t i o n , the v i g o r w i t h which i t i s f r e q u e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e d would be a p p r o v e d in P e o r i a . ) In Anna, Jamaica, law, saw, seesaw, / r / o c c u r r e d as a w o r d - f i n a l . The c l u s t e r /hw/ a p p e a r e d t w i c e in r e a d i n g , but was o t h e r w i s e a b s e n t ; / h j / i s r e g u l a r in h e r s p e e c h . Words l i k e new, tubes, suit were v a r i o u s l y pronounced in r e a d i n g : / j / o c c u r r e d in s e v e r a l , s e v e r a l were pronounced w i t h a d i p h t h o n g d i s t i n c t from /uü/, in most /uü/ o c c u r r e d ; the l a s t , I t h i n k , i s her most n a t u r a l u s a g e . T h e r e i s some a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t—] and [d—] ; in words l i k e city and elevated the consonant i s n o r m a l l y v o i c e d in c o n v e r s a t i o n , but t h e v o i c e l e s s s t o p i s f r e q u e n t in read mat e r i a l ; b e f o r e the s y l l a b i c a l l o p h o n e o f / l / , [ - t ] , [ - d ] , and [ — ' ] a l l a p p e a r . Scotland has [—?] . With the e x c e p t i o n ment i o n e d in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h , I n o t e d o n l y f r i c a t i v e a l l o p h o n e s o f /Θ, 3/. A l l nouns l i k e mouth and path have r e g u lar plurals. In the th i rci-group, both / 3 l / and / r / a p p e a r ( o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e i s a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f the two t y p e s ) . The d i p h t h o n g in coil, doily, join, ointment, etc. varies considerably: it sometimes b e g i n s w i t h an [ o ] i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f c u l t i v a t e d s p e e c h , sometimes w i t h [ Λ ] , and sometimes w i t h an i n t e r m e d i a t e phone. The f i r s t e l e m e n t o f t h e d i p h t h o n g in line i s s t r o n g l y r e t r a c t e d and s i m i l a r r e t r a c t i o n s o c c u r in some o t h e r words, but o r d i n a r i l y t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t o f / a i / i s f a r t h e r f o r w a r d . In house, pounds, e t c . , the d i p h t h o n g n e v e r b e g i n s a t a m a r k e d l y advanced p o s i t i o n and may b e g i n at [ a ] . The s y l l a b l e s o f words l i k e ask, f la g ; candy, fasten are oft e n i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e in fair and scarce, but l o w e r v a r i e t i e s a r e a l s o f r e q u e n t . On the fiat r e c o r d , the / a a / - t y p e a p p e a r s in aunt and half, but one doubts t h a t t h i s i s her

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n a t u r a l u s a g e . In s o m e o c c u r r e n c e s o f /aS/ ( f o r e x a m p l e , in harm and Tom), t h e r e i s s t r o n g r e t r a c t i o n ; i n o t h e r s t h e vowe l s or f i r s t d i p h t h o n g a l elements are placed well forward. /a.§/ i s common i n t h e " s h o r t o" m o n o s y l l a b l e s , b u t s h o r t vowe l s a l s o o c c u r . T h e r e i s no m a r k e d r e t r a c t i o n o r o v e r r o u n d i n g i n t h e c a s e o f / o s / . In block, hospital, novel, prospect, wallet, and t h e l i k e , t h e v o w e l s a r e n o r m a l l y u n r o u n d e d ; in a f e w w o r d s I t r a n s c r i b e d [ c ] , c h i e f l y b e f o r e / r / (foreign, fore s t ) . A l o w e r h i g h - c e n t r a l v o w e l a p p e a r s i n building and Smith. # 2 9 . Man, a g e 3 1 . B o r n i n B r o o k l y n , h a s l i v e d m o s t o f h i s l i f e in M a n h a t t a n . H i s p a r e n t s d i e d when h e w a s a s m a l l c h i l d , and he was e d u c a t e d t o t h e a g e o f 11 i n a B r o o k l y n o r p h a n stonecuta s y l u m . Worked a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a s a b o o k b i n d e r , t e r , r e s t a u r a n t w o r k e r . Now on home r e l i e f . T h o u g h i t s e e m s s c a r c e l y n e c e s s a r y to r e c o r d t h e s e f a c t s , h i s p a r e n t s were b o t h b o r n i n B r o o k l y n a n d h i s f a t h e r was a c a r r i a g e - p a i n t e r . P a r t o f m a t e r i a l r e c o r d e d : t h e flat s t o r y , e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n , and a s e l e c t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s . The i n f o r m a n t ' s u s a g e i s c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t i n its"rl e s s " p a t t e r n . In Anna, Asia, law, Nassau, Panama, window, e t c . , / τ / o c c u r s b e f o r e v o w e l s a s f r e q u e n t l y as in words l i k e /j/ dollar a n d wore. The c l u s t e r s / h w / a n d / h j / do n o t o c c u r ; i s r e g u l a r l y a b s e n t f r o m news, tubes, due, enthusiastic, and t h e l i k e - - s u c t i w o r d s form a s i n g l e g r o u p w i t h t h o s e l i k e room and two. T h e r e i s no a f f r i c a t i o n o f [t—. d—]; v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t s o c c u r v e r y o f t e n i n w o r d s l i k e city a n d elevator, bef o r e . / l / , I r e c o r d e d no i n s t a n c e s o f [—?]. / Θ , 3 / a r e r e p r e s e n t e d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y by d e n t a l s t o p s and a f f r i c a t e s , and in a n u m b e r o f w o r d s p h o n e s o c c u r t h a t m u s t b e a s s i g n e d t o / t / o r / d / : f o r e x a m p l e , in thrashing a n d with fear I heard t h e s t o p s a s a l v e o l a r ; and t h e i n f o r m a n t h i m s e l f v o l u n t e e r e d t h a t oaths a n d oats w e r e h o m o n y m o u s . In t h e p a r t i c i p l e s , and in s i m i l a r w o r d s l i k e morning, /t]/ s o m e t i m e s o c c u r s , b u t , / n / i s m o r e f r e q u e n t . On t h e r e c o r d i n g o f h i s e x t e m p o r e c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e r e a r e t h r e e p a r t i c i p l e s in w h i c h / r t / i s f o l l o w e d by a r a t h e r w e a k l y a r t i c u l a t e d v o i c e d s t o p . The a r t i c u l a t i o n i s o f t e n n o t v e r y d i s t i n c t and t h e r e d u c t i o n of c l u s t e r s i s frequent. The in

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