Maritime Tel Michal and Apollonia: Results of the underwater survey 1989-1996 9781841712123, 9781407352602

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BAR S915 2001  GROSSMANN  MARITIME TEL MICHAL AND APOLLONIA

Maritime Tel Michal and Apollonia Results of the underwater survey 1989-1996

Eva Grossmann with contributors

BAR International Series 915 B A R

2001

Maritime Tel Michal and Apollonia Results of the underwater survey 1989-1996

Eva Grossmann with contributors

BAR International Series 915 2001

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 915 Maritime Tel Michal and Apollonia © The authors individually and the Publisher 2001 The authors' moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841712123 paperback ISBN 9781407352602 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712123 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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E MAIL P HONE F AX

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To my sons Michael and Rami.

CONTENTS

Table of Contents List of Figures

iii

Acknowledgements

VI

Abstract.

vii

Foreword

IX

Preface

XI

History of Research 1.1 Tel Michal 1.2 Apollonia 2 Geomorphology of the Shore 2.1 Geomorphology of the Shore 2.2 Sea Level Changes . 2.3 Climatic Changes .

3 3 6 8

3 Coastal Processes along the Central coast of Israel. The Beaches and the Kurkar cliffs of Apollonia, by Ya'akov Nir.

11

4 Historical Background of Tel Michal and Apollonia 4.1 Historical Geography 4.2 The Occupation of the Settlement

13 13 13

5 Archaeology 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

and History at Tel Michal, by Ze 'ev Herzog Environmental Conditions . The Bronze Age (Strata XVII-XV) The Iron Age (Strata XIV-XII) The Persian Period (Strata XI-VI) The Hellenistic Period (Strata V-III) The Roman and Early Arab Periods (Strata II-I) The Significance of Tel Michal

21 21 24 28 28 30 30 30

6 Maritime Tel 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Michal Background Site Investigations Discussion Conclusion

33 33 33 36 38

7 Archaeology and History at Apollonia, by Israel Roll

41

8 Maritime Apollonia 8.1 Background 8.2 Site Investigation of the "Roman Anchorage" .. 8.3 Site Investigation of the "Crusader Harbour" 8.4 Discussion: The "Roman Anchorage"

55 55 63 65 72

8.5 8.6

9 The Finds 9.1 9.1.2 9.2

9.3

9.4

Discussion: "Crusader Harbour" Conclusion

73 74

77 81 81 92 97 105 105 108 108 113 113

Pottery Description of Pottery Description of a Clay Cow's Head. Non-ceramic Artifacts Sounding Leads The Minerva Statuette Additional Stone Objects Stone Anchors Marble Mortar Miscellanea

10 Summary

115

Abbreviation and List of Journals

119

Bibliography

120

11

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. Map of Tel Michal, Apollonia and vicinity. Fig. 2. & 3. Ancient artifacts used for decoration in modem buildings, including columns, Corinthian capitals, glass ingots, grinding stones and others. Fig. 4. View to south-west from Apollonia's Crusader fortress. The big stone on the shore in front of the picture is part of the collapsed Crusader fortifications. On the slope above it are fishermen's huts. Further to the south, in the sea, close to the shore are the remains of storehouses, Area B. The hill immediately to the right of the two high buildings is Tel Michal. Fig. 5. Remains of the tower at the southern entrance to the harbour below the Crusader fortress still standing in 1955. Fig. 6. Conder and Kitchener prepared a detailed plan of Apollonia's Crusader town during the 1872-1878 Survey of Palestine. . Fig. 7. Currents: a) Atlantic ocean streams b) streams in the Mediterranean Sea. Fig. 8. View to north-west from Apollonia. Notice the narrow beach. . Fig. 9. Longshore sediment transport model, schematically presenting the change of flow direction at the nodal points. (From: Goldsmith & Golik, 1980. Fig. 11). . Fig. I 0. Comparative table of sea level changes: according to Bloch (1963) and Lewis (1971), Sneh's table (11981) and Raban (1983 b: 122). Fig. 11. Comparative graphs of sea level changes as researched by Nir-Eldar and Raban-Galili. Fig. 12. Parts of the Crusader wall which collapsed on the beach (by Y. Nir). Fig. 13. A tunnel, approximately 175 m long, was quarried during the Byzantine period through kurkar rock to drain the swamps between the two kurkar ridges eastwards from Tel Michal and Apollonia. Fig. 14. Roads and sites of the southern Sharon in the Late Roman, Byzantine and Early Arab periods (Herzog, 1989 Fig. 3 .5). Fig. 15. Aerial photograph of Apollonia, 1949, view from the sea to east. To the left of the photograph is the Crusader fortress on the cliff and below it the harbour. The Crusader fortifications encircling the town are clearly visible. Fig. 16. Aerial view of Tel Michal. View to east. Fig. 17. Topography and Excavation areas at Tel Michal. Fig. 18. Occupational periods, gaps, and relative sizes of the settlements at Tel Michal. Each column represents the (estimated) total size of the settlement, its preserved portion, and the excavated portion. Fig. 19. Movement of Tel Michal to the east during the Bronze Age (strata XVII-XV); plan and section. . Fig. 20. The Roman fortress at Tel Michal. . Fig. 21. Map of Tel Michal based on an aerial photograph and our survey. Fig. 22. A geomorphological and vegetational map of Tel Michal, based on aerial photography and a field survey during the excavation period 1977-1980, and three transects made perpendicular to the cliff face of the high tell (X-X', Y-Y' and Z-Z' the southernmost). The transect mentioned in this chapter (6.2) is marked on this map. Fig. 23. Tel Michal; a column standing upright underwater. Fig. 24. Cumae. The Greek harbour (Paget, 1968: 157). Fig. 25. Apollonia. Debris sliding from the Crusader fortress. Fig. 26. Plan of Apollonia-Arsuf with areas of excavations. Fig. 27. Plan of Area E: the Roman villa, the Byzantine installations and the Mediaeval city-wall. Fig. 28. The Roman villa, looking west. Fig. 29. Plan of the site and its water and maritime facilities. . Fig. 30. The cliff of Apollonia-Arsufprior to the recent excavations, looking north, (courtesy ofR. Cleave).

iii

v11 viii

x xi x11 2 4 5 7 9 .. 12

14 16

18 22 23

24 26 27 32

35 36 37 39 40 43 44 46 47

Fig. 31. The anchorage of the fishermen's boats (centre) and the built port (in the background), looking north .. Fig. 32. Area B: the Early Islamic market street, looking north. Fig. 33. Reconstruction by Anna Yamim of the Early Islamic market street, looking north. Fig. 34. Crusader castle and port prior to the recent excavations, looking east, (courtesy ofR. Cleave). Fig. 35. The west gate of the Crusader fortress. View to west. . Fig. 36. The Crusader fortress. In the background the arch of the donjon. View to west. Fig. 37. General reconstruction by Anna Yamim of the Crusader site and its maritime facilities. Fig. 38. An aerial photograph of Apollonia, 1989. Note the fishermen's huts on the slope and their boats in the sea. The submerged rocks continue from the "Crusader Harbour" southwards to the "Roman Anchorage". The entrance to the anchorage is at the southernmost point of the submerged ridge. The rocks near the shore represent Area B. Fig. 39. View to the north-west, towards the harbour below the Crusader fortress. On the southern side of the western breakwater is a 10 m wide gap, the entrance to the harbour. Today it is blocked by debris of the southern tower which was still standing until 1955 (Fig. 5). Inside the basin are parts of walls that collapsed from the Crusader fortress. Fig. 40. Map of Apollonia's harbours based on an aerial photograph and a field survey. Fig. 41. Byzantine amphorae in siOOtu. Fig. 42. Apollonia, fishermen's anchorage, today. Fig. 43. Apollonia, part of a wall from the Crusader fortress, hanging on the cliff. Fig. 44. Layers of kurkar and hamra, Tel Michal. Fig. 45. Apollonia, breakwater, Area D. Part of the man-made stone wall. Fig. 46. Apollonia, plan of the piers. Fig. 47. Apollonia, view to west. The northern pier of the "Crusader Harbour". To the right of the pier is a puddle of polluted water flowing from the north. Fig. 48. Apollonia, foundations of the northern tower. Fig. 49. Apollonia, stone with ten small recesses, in secondary use. Fig. 50. Apollonia, northern pier with the mooring holes. Fig. 51. Apollonia, water depth in the "Crusader Harbour". Fig. 52. Apollonia, "Crusader Harbour'' - points from where mortar samples were taken. . Fig. 53. Murex mollusc. . Fig. 54. Apollonia Area H. Two layers of ashlar stones. Situation and enlarged plan and view from the south. Fig. 55. Apollonia Area A, Band C. View to west. Fig. 56. Column at Area D, in situ. . Fig. 57. Stone anchor, Area C, in situ (Fig. 89.19). Fig. 58. Fragment of a Byzantine bag-shaped amphora and a part from an anchor. Fig. 59. Pottery drawings.. Fig. 60. Pottery drawings.. Fig. 61. Fragment of a Byzantine bag-shaped amphora (see Fig. 59.1). Fig. 62. Fragment of a Late Roman/Early Byzantine amphora (see Fig. 59.3). Fig. 63. Pottery drawings. . Fig. 64. Pottery drawings. . Fig. 65. Neck of a narrow-mouthed imported Mauretanian Late Roman/Early Byzantine amphora (Fig. 64.2). Fig. 66. A red amphora with a cylindrical body and base (Fig. 64.7). Fig. 67. Pottery drawings. . Fig. 68. Cypriot Red Slip Form2 (?) fine ware bowl (Fig. 67.2) Fig. 69. Rim fragment of a Byzantine pithos (Fig. 60.1). Fig. 70. A clay cow's head. Fig. 71. A clay cow's head. Fig. 72. Fragment of a Late Roman/Byzantine amphora (64.3). Fig. 73. Marble vase (Fig. 76.1) Fig. 74. Glass ingot (Fig. 76.5). Fig. 75. Lead sheeting from a ship? (Fig. 76.2). Fig. 76. Drawings of stone, marble and metal objects. Fig. 77. Drawings of stone, marble and metal objects. Fig. 78. A copper laginos, wine jug (Fig. 77.1). Fig. 79. Cylindrical piece of marble (Fig. 77.5). Fig. 80. Coppernails. Fig. 81. Copper nails with heavy encrustation, as removed from the sea bed. iv

48 49 50

51 52 53 54

56

57 58 59 60 61 62 64 66 67 67 69 69 70 74 75 78 79 79 80 80 82 83 84 84 85 87 88 88 90 91 91 92 93 93 94 95 95 96 98 99 99 100 101

Fig. Fig. Fig Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

82. Two copper legs (Fig. 83.1 & 2) 83. Copper objects. No. 1 & 2 two copper legs, No. 3 a copper strip, strigil. 84. Sounding leads. 85. Sounding leads. . 86. Minerva. 87. Minerva (drawing by Y. Kapelyan). 88. Stone anchors. 89. Stone anchors. 90. Stone anchor, in situ (Fig. 89. 21). 91. Marble mortar. 92. Fragment of stone chancel post of church. 93. Fragment a of wooden boat keel. 94. Tel Michal. 95. Apollonia.

V

101 102

103 104

106 107 109 110 111 112 113 114 116 117

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To accomplish this work I have had to rely on the knowledge, wisdom and help of colleagues and friends who were always standing by my side and willing to contribute. As in any project of this magnitude no single person can do all the work and the assistance of others was required. I wish to express my special gratitude to Sean Kingsley, without whose initiative this report would not have been accomplished. His advice, comments, help and patience were boundless. During the work at the site we were supported by Professor Israel Roll, Director of the land excavations at Apollonia and Professor Ze'ev Herzog, Director of the land excavations at Tel Michal, both of Tel Aviv University; Dr. Tom W. Hillard and Dr. Geoffrey J. Cowling, of Macquarie University, Sydney; Dr. Ya'akov Nir, Marine Geologist; Kurt Raveh, Dor Project Director; Professor Avner Raban, Dr. Elisha Linder and Yossy Tur-Caspa, from the Centre for Maritime Studies at Haifa University, all of whom shared with us their expertise, knowledge and also discussed with us the finds and problems. I thank my diving team, who braved some cold and many hard days and their spouses, who supported them when we got up early in the morning and when we planned our next steps late in the evening: Tod Spedding, teacher at the American International school, whose eyes never missed an interesting item and who found the most beautiful artifacts, as the statuette of the goddess Minerva, the marble vase, copper nails and many others, Eitan Glusmann, Ziv Polacek, Oded Ben-Dor, Omri BenEliahu, all former Israeli Navy commandos. I am grateful to Ursula Mazur-Ludwig, Germany, for drawing the pictures. I would like to express my thanks to the then mayor of Herzlia, Mr. Eli Landau, who enabled us to enter the beach with our cars and who introduced us to Mr. S. Samuka from the "Control Centre", the drilling contractor of the Herzlia Marina Project, who made it possible for us to utilise the results of their drillings. At last, but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my husband, who, despite his small interest in archaeology, supported and helped me, and patiently read and reread this work.

E.G.

vi

ABSTRACT

The results of this work are based on investigations conducted over a period of four years at Tel Michal and Apollonia and are the result of2,300 actual underwater hours. Evidence collected from written sources and field work brings us to the conclusion that the harbour or anchorage at Tel Michal was located in an estuary on the southern or south-eastern side of the high tell. This study demonstrates that Apollonia, an industrial centre and a town engaged in international trade, had two harbours: one for international trade, opposite the southern part of the Late Roman/Byzantine town, and a small harbour serving local fishermen and coastal trade, at the foot of the Crusader fortress. Both Apollonia's harbours have their entrances at their southern side, an unusual feature on the Israeli coast, where the longshore current flows along the coast northwards, bringing with it sediment from the Nile delta. At Apollonia the waves nearly always come in from the north-west. Goldsmith and Golik (1980: 166:y) observed three nodal points along the Israeli coast, one of them to the south of Netanya (in the vicinity of Apollonia), where the sea-current reverses and runs in a southerly direction. These days, the polluted waters spilling into the sea to the north of the "Crusader Harbour" can be seen flowing southwards. It seems probable that also in antiquity the current along this shore ran in the reversed direction, this being the explanation for the unusual placing of the harbour entrances facing south for the purpose of de-silting by natural flow action.

I

... I

.I Shfaim

.

j

Rishpon

Apo/Ionia

Kfar

HERZLIA

Afek

PETAHTIKVA 2

3

4

Fig. l. Map of Tel Michal, Apollonia and vicinity.

vii

5

10km

Fig. 2. & 3. Ancient artifacts used for decoration in modem buildings, including columns, Corinthian capitals, glass ingots, grinding stones and others. viii

FOREWORD

The beautiful sandy beach of Apollonia has long been a popular and attractive place for bathers and strollers. With its mosque and the ruins of the Crusader castle the place has often been visited by tourists. It fascinated travellers throughout the centuries, such as Richard Pococke (1771: 74) who described this place during his journey to the Middle East in the 18th century. Some fifty years ago a resort hotel was built nearby, and since then the built-up area has increased and the region close to Apollonia has become one of the most exclusive residential areas of Israel. On top of the cliff, overlooking the beach, is the mosque Sidna 'Ali (Our Master Ali), a shrine holy to Moslems (Vilnay, 1965: 318); a clan of Moslems still inhabits the compound of the mosque. A village bearing the same name, inhabited by Arabs until the foundation of the State of Israel in 1948, was located nearby. Two modern settlements were founded in the area: one close to the beach (Nof-Yam) partly including the village of Sidna 'Ali and mostly inhabited by new immigrants arriving after the Second World War, and one in the close hinterland (Kfar Shmaryahu) founded by German immigrants in 1936. Most of the new inhabitants could not bring their belongings with them and relied on locally available raw material for house construction. They also decorated their houses and gardens with ornamented columns, glass ingots, pottery and other artifacts which had been scattered on the beach over the centuries (Fig. 2 & 3). It did not take much time until antiquity collectors discovered these treasures. They were helped by fishermen, who settled in huts built on the cliff above the beach (Fig. 4) and quickly discovered that they could increase their income quite substantially by selling antiquities. After a storm, or following a period of rough seas, various artifacts were washed out of the sandbed and often only had to be picked up close to the shore. It took years until the authorities passed a law forbidding the gathering and trade of antiquities. But it is still difficult to prevent robbery, particularly on this popular beach which is frequented during the summer months by thousands of bathers. Our family, having resided in this vicinity for almost fifty years, also enjoyed the beach and the sea. We witnessed the "cleaning up" of charming and irreplaceable artifacts from the beach and the vanishing of parts of the Crusader castle, including an arch which was still standing in the south-western corner of the "Crusader harbour" in the fifties (Fig. 5). As our children grew, they dove at Apollonia and found pottery shards. It was then that I started studying archaeology and came to understand the importance of this site, whose sands cover the remains of a busy ancient harbour-town, its treasures and cultures. Increasing population growth has caused intensive new development along the shore. One project involved constructing a big and modern marina about 3 km to the south of Apollonia, below the Middle and Late Bronze settlement at Tel Michal. The building of the breakwater deep into the sea interrupted and interfered with the natural flow of the longshore current that sweeps Nilotic sand from Egypt along the eastern Mediterranean shore. Inevitably the sand layer on the seabed became thinner and architectural remains were partly uncovered. Diving below the ancient city of Apollonia, we discovered artifacts related to a harbour or anchorage, such as anchors, bronze nails, storage jars, and items that fell into the water during the loading and unloading of vessels. The coastline along Apollonia is straight, without bays, peninsulas or an island. The open sea sweeps the shore with all its force and strength, destroying what stands in its way. The many earthquakes which occurred over the centuries, both strong and mild, helped the sea to destroy this ancient inheritance. The constantly occurring geomorphological changes unveiled and then again covered up the many artifacts still buried underwater. We did not find any shipwrecks during our survey, except a ship's keel. But despite robberies and natural activities, the many finds we did uncover bear witness to the glory of this town and its harbour. Herzlia municipality, to which Apollonia and Tel Michal belong, has plans to develop the ancient city of Apollonia into a park and to erect a museum next to the new marina to exhibit artifacts found in the land and marine excavations in this vicinity.

ix

Fig. 4. View to south-west from Apollonia's Crusader fortress. The big stone on the shore in front of the picture is part of the collapsed Crusader fortifications. On the slope above it are fishermen's huts. Further to the south, in the sea, close to the shore are remains of storehouse, Area B. The hill immediately to the right of the two high buildings is Tel Michal. X

PREFACE

The ancient settlements of Tel Michal (also known as Tel Makmish) and Apollonia (also known at different periods as Arsuf and Arsur) are located on the Mediterranean coast of Israel along the Sharon Plain, some 10-15 km north of Tel Aviv. Tel Michal was inhabited from the Middle Bronze to the Persian period, flourishing in the Late Bronze Age. During the Persian period Tel Michal declined in prominence as Apollonia, lying 3.5 km to the north, was founded and became more important. Apollonia peaked in importance during the Byzantine period and was inhabited until the Crusader period.

The purpose of our work was to determine whether the settlements of Tel Michal and Apollonia possessed their own harbours, anchorages or beaching shores, or whether their economic development, including industry and trade, was solely dependent on the hinterland and land-borne transport. To understand the nature and also the problems of marine archaeology, relating to the sites of Tel Michal and Apollonia, one has to consider other interrelated disciplines: - The behaviour of the sea and its physical aspects such as waves, tides, currents, sediment transport and deposition. - Geomorphological changes of the seashore such as the lithology and the geological composition of the coastal cliffs, of the shallow continental shelf and of the Sharon Plain encompassing Tel Michal and Apollonia. - The history of the two sites and of the Sharon Plain at the time when these settlements were inhabited. - Archaeological finds on both tells such as pottery, dwellings and evidence of agriculture and industry. These provide a clear picture of how their inhabitants lived. They also inform us whether these inhabitants were supplied with goods from the hinterland, or whether overseas trade links existed instead, and also who influenced the religion and culture to be found at these sites.

Fig. 5. Remains of the tower at the southern entrance to the harbour below the Crusader fortress still standing in 1955, looking west. xi

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i

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. \LIi \c,,

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i ..

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Fig. 6. Conder and Kitchner prepared a detailed plan of Apollonia's Crusader town during the 1872-1878 Survey of Palestine.

xii

CHAP1ER1 HISTORYOF RESEARCH

1.1

Tel Michal

breakwater of this harbour was described as covered by water and completely destroyed; the harbour was clogged with sand. To the south of this harbour lay a natural bay forming an anchorage, lacking piers, possibly a trade harbour (Roll & Ayalon, 1989: 23-24).

Tel Michal, also referred to as Tel Makmish, was first identified and investigated by the archaeologist J. Ory in 1922. Ory argued that the five nearby hills were the site of one large settlement (Fig. 17). Later explorations were once again conductP.d by Ory (1940), as well as by Hamilton (1944) and Danelius (1957). Ory and Danelius suggested that the site's high tell was already settled during the Bronze Age, a hypothesis proved correct by later examinations. Large scale excavations were conducted on the northern hillock in 1958 and 1960 by the Ha'aretz Museum of Tel Aviv and the Archaeology Department of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, directed by N. Avigad (1960: 9096; 1961: 97-110).

Conder and Kitchener (1882: 137-140) carried out exact measurements of the settlement and provided a detailed plan of the site, as part of their 1872-1878 Survey of Western Palestine (Fig. 6). During the same period ClermontGanneau (1876: 196-204, 372-399) came to the conclusion that the Arabic name Arsuf was derived from the Phoenician god Reshef, the Phoenician equivalent of the Greek god Apollo, according to Semitic and Greek inscriptions found in Cyprus (Roll & Ayalon, 1989: 25.)

The excavation of Tel Michal was continued as part of a regional study of settlement patterns in the western Y arkon basin by Z. Herzog of Tel Aviv University. The project was initiated in 1977 and continued until 1982 (see Chap. 4). In 1979, the Department of Maritime Civilization at Haifa University was invited by Herzog to survey the inshore waters adjacent to Tel Michal and to seek evidence of a harbour. No indication of a harbour was found (Raban, 1979: unpublished).

The first excavation in 1950 was conducted by Ben Dor and Kahana (1951: 86-87) outside the city walls, as part of rescue excavations by the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. This excavation revealed a wine press and traces of a glass industry dating to between the Late Byzantine and Early Arab periods. In 1962 and 1976, further rescue excavations were conducted outside the city walls, revealing a Byzantine church with a mosaic bearing a Greek inscription (Roll & Ayalon, 1989: 26).

1.2

In 1977, Prof. I. Roll and E. Ayalon (1989: 26) conducted the first large-scale excavation of the site at three locations within the original city walls. In 1980 and 1981, Roll and Ayalon undertook two rescue excavations along the northern perimeter of the town. Since 1982 Roll has continued to excavate at various locations across the site. Roll was interested in determining whether the man-made elements of apparent maritime significance below the Crusader fortress were truly part of a harbour and whether an additional harbour or anchorage might be detected. A team from Haifa University was therefore invited to survey the inshore waters in 1979. Their conclusion was that the socalled Crusader harbour was not a harbour, but rather a lower castle, and that a natural anchorage existed farther to the south (Raban, 1979).

Apollonia

One of the first studies of Apollonia was undertaken by Herianus Reland in 1714. Reland collected information on the site and first identified it as Apollonia. In 1852 Ritter mentioned Arsuf as part of his greater geographical review of the Sharon coast (Ritter, 1852: 590). Victor Guerin (1875: 375-382) provided a unique and detailed description of the town, including a description of the structures, massive walls with towers and the moat, which have since partly collapsed. Of particular relevance to this work is Guerin' s reference to the so-called Crusader harbour as a "military harbour", because it was protected by the fortress above, had a postern and massive towers on both the northern and southern piers. The remains of the western

1

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Fig. 7. Currents: a) Atlantic ocean streams b) streams in the Mediterranean Sea

2

CHAP1ER 2 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF 1HE SHORE

2.1

Geomorphologyof the shore

Kurkar 1 formations of the Quaternary period dominate the coastal ridge. The kurkar rocks lie in parallel strips on the continental shelf, along the seashore and inland. On the Sharon coast they are eroded at the base by wave wash and this causes the sea to advance continuously inland (Gill and Almagor, 1999: 27). Due to a lack of drainage, the interridge valleys were swampy until quite recently. The ridge along the shore prevents sand from penetrating inland, except where rivers had created eroded gaps in the ridge and enabled sand penetration (Neev et al., 1987: 3-4). This phenomenon appears at Tel Michal, where sand penetrates extensively through Nahal Gelilot (Goldsmith & Golik, 1980: 149). These ridges are also eroded due to wind action and wave abrasion at the toe of the cliff, as at Apollonia, and by rain washout of the soft hamra layers which can be perceived at Netanya (Goldsmith & Golik, 1980: 149). Nir (1973 & 1984) reports that the average retreat of the coastal kurkar cliff hasbeen 2-4 cm yearly for the past 6,000 years. When in recent years the exploitation of beach sand for construction began, the average yearly retreat of the cliff also grew larger. However, the longshore current rebuilds the seashore, flowing from the south towards the north, with the sand from the River Nile's Delta which is composed mainly of quartz and small amounts of biogenic fragments and heavy minerals extending as far north as the Haifa Bay (Nir, 1984: 74). It has been noted that this current begins depositing sediment from the south, therefore the sandy beaches are the widest there. To the south of Tel Aviv the beach can reach a width of some 50 m. At most sites between Tel Aviv and Apollonia the beach is some 15-20 m wide and at Apollonia the waterline almost touches the cliff (Fig. 8). Along the Sharon's kurkar cliff, between Apollonia and Hadera the beaches are relatively narrow, mostly only a few meters wide and sometimes non-existent.

The inshore waters at Tel Michal and Apollonia are subject to dramatic shifts in sediment cover, caused by waves and the longshore current which flows, except at three locations described below, northwards along the coast. Such phenomena affects the deposition of materials on the seafloor and the ability to survey the site. This section will review aspects of geomorphology relevant to this work, moving from the general to the specifics of the Sharon Plain, where these two sites are situated. To understand the changes that have taken place and which have affected the Israeli seashore during the last millennia, we have to consider the physical characteristics of the Mediterranean sea. The Mediterranean basin is supplied by the Atlantic Ocean and most significantly by the Gulf Stream (Fig. 7) which splits in the vicinity of the Bermudas into the North Atlantic Current and the Canary Current. A small part of the Canary Current enters through the Gibraltar opening into the Mediterranean Sea which is a closed basin. The Apennine Peninsula divides the basin into the western and the eastern section. In the western section the stream flows along the north African coast as far as Sicily, where again it divides into two currents. One remains in the western basin, flowing counterclockwise on the western side of Italy to the French coast and finally to the Spanish shore. The second current continues eastwards along the north African shore (Libya, Egypt), then the longshore current extends northwards along the eastern Mediterranean shore to Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Asia Minor and back to the Apennine Peninsula (Bowditch, 1977: 742). The Mediterranean Sea, with its negative balance, is also nourished through the Bosphorus by waters from the Black Sea. The yearly sea-level fluctuations on the Israeli shore may reach 70-80 cm (resulting from seasonal changes of tide), the daily tide fluctuation is low, approximately 30-40 cm (Champion, 1980: 96-97; van Dorn, 1974: 137:ff;Mart, 1990: 99-104).

A considerable part of the Israeli Mediterranean coastal sand originates in the Nile Delta's coast transported by the longshore current along the shores of Northern Sinai, the Gaza Strip and Israel. The supply carried by local rivers and deposited in estuaries is minute and almost negligible. The major local sources are from kurkar rocks which erode and add sand to the coastal system. The fine contents of kurkar rocks enter into a suspension which are later deposited in

The Israeli coastline extends 180 km from the south, from the Gaza Strip, to the Lebanese border in the north. The seashore line is almost a straight line, except for the area of the prominent Carmel Mountains and the Haifa Bay.

1 Kurkar is a local term for a carbonate-cementedquartz sandstone of various degrees of cementation typical on the Coastal Plain of Israel and its shallow shelf, with inter-beddedsoft layers of hamra - red sandy loam.

3

Chapter 2. Geomorphology of the Shore

Fig. 8. View tc north from Apollonia. Notice the narrow beach. 4

Chapter 2. Geomorphology of the Shore

NORTHERN ZONE

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LONGSHORE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MODEL

11 Sec.

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SIN A I

Fig. 9. Longshore sediment transport model schematically presenting the change in location of converging longshore transport nodal points with change in wind direction and period (From Goldsmith & Golik, 1980).

5

Chapter 2. Geomorphology of the Shore

used as harbours in ancient times. It is suggested that the ancient harbour at Tel Michal may have been located in the estuary of Nahal Gelilot, on the inland (eastern) side of the high tell, accessible by a channel. This theory is discussed below (Chap. 6).

deeper water off the sandy "belt". This "belt", according to Kennett and Nir (Kennett, 1964: 287; Nir, 1973 & 1984: 724), is some 3-5 km wide, reaching a depth of20-25 m. At that depth there is a transitional zone to the fine muddy sediment regime, therefore most of the sand found there is of fine and very fine grades.

Beachrock is found along many Israeli beaches. It is composed of cemented sand, kurkar fragments, shells and forms relatively quickly. Some deposits even contain bottles and other materials dating from recent decades. Beachrock is usually located at sea level, and forms an abrasion platform, sloping at an angle of about 4 degrees into the sea. Torbjorn's explanation (1969: 57) that beachrock examined in the Aegean Sea ranged "from incipient, where the grains hardly cohere, to advanced, where the original pore space between the grains is mostly filled by cement" thus demonstrating that ''when the grains are firmly bound, abrasion by wave action cuts through both grains and cement and leaves a smooth upper surface." Small tombolos, lagoons and bays may form seawards from beachrock (Goldsmith & Golik, 1980: 149-150). Precise dating of beachrock is difficult, although biologenic material, such as shells can be dated by radiocarbon i:.::a!ysis (Alexandersson, 1972: 203223; Hopley, 1986: 165). Very often beachrock breaks into rectangular shapes, resembling pavements. This phenomenon of rectangular shapes also occurs to the north of Apollonia's "Crusader Harbour".

The beach is the most dynamic of all the marine environments. Located at the intersection of sea and land, the sediment is constantly changed and by surface waves and tides. The turbulence violently stirs the sdiment and transports it between the upper beach limits and deep water (onshore - offshore transport of sediment). This obstructs marine archaeology and causes delays as we ourselves experienced during our survey. We observed that the sand could be redistributed very quickly, particularly in the Tel Michal area, changing the sand accumulation differential up to +/-2 m daily. When the sand deposition was great, all features observed on previous dives might be completely covered, when it was low, new features could be revealed. The company performing sample drilling for the construction of the Herzlia marina, found the sand layer fluctuations to be even greater than we experienced, reporting changes of +/-3 m (S. Samuka, 1989, pers. comm.). This caused considerable operational problems while surveying, photographing and measuring underwater. Since the continental shelf was still dry l:ind during the last ice period (the Wilrm period), it can be suggested that the deposition of sand began by the glacioeustatic rise of the sea level (of approximately 30 m) at the beginning of the Holocene, some 10,000 years ago (Nir, 1984: 72). According to Slatkine & Rohrlich (1963), the age of the deposition and accumulation of the sands on the Israeli seashore is not more than 11,000 years BP and its upper layer, as dated by stratified archaeological finds, is younger than 3,000 years. The settlements along the shore reached their peak at the end of the Neolithic and at the beginning of the Chalcolithic period, 6,000-5,000 BP (Gophna & Ayalon, 1989: 17-19).

2.2

Sea level changes

Sea level changes in the Eastern Mediterranean have been discussed by many scientists. Bloch (1963: 89-98) and Lewis (1971: 243) have suggested depicting the sea level changes as a graph based on the examination of European Mediterranean shorelines and on the dating by radiocarbon analysis of plant and animal remains from the period 237 BC to AD 1970 (Fig. 10). Muckelroy (1978: 77) has discussed a possible dating method for sea-level changes by studying a vermiform gastropod which only forms as solid matter precisely at a sea-level interface and can be dated by correlating it with associated artifacts or by radiocarbon analysis. Also Erol and Pirazzoli (1992: 321) based their research on sea level changes on marine biological evidence, such as vermetids, oysters and calcareous algae, supported by radiocarbon dating of these marine samples. There are examples of the use of marine molluscs in the recognition of earlier sea levels and by reference to all the above methods. But these only enable differentiation between littoral, shallow and deep water environments (Petersen, 1986: 129, 141-2). At Dor, vermetids were found on submerged architectural structures and could be used for dating, but none were identified at Caesarea (Flemming et al., 1978: 42). Evidence provided by such shells at Apollonia was contradictory, suggesting contamination by sources that could not be determined. After consulting staff members of the Department of Biology at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, it was felt that these findings should be left for later study by scientists with more specialized expertise.

At three points off the Israeli shore the current flows in a reversed, north to south, direction creating three longshore transport nodal points which change their location according to the direction of the incoming waves. These nodal points (Fig. 9) are situated approximately at Gaza, south ofNetanya (close to Apollonia) and at Dor (Goldsmith & Golik, 1980: 165 fl). The location of the nodal points provide a framework for sediment transport, influenced by different wave conditions. The existence of nodal points also explains the seemingly reversed placing of harbour entrances in ancient times, which a.;:tually allowed current-driven desilting of a harbour basin. This feature occurred at Apollonia (see below Chap. 8). River estuaries are semi-enclosed coastal bodies of water freely connected to the sea. Here sea-water is gradually diluted by freshwater from the land, mixed by tides and winds. However, permanent maintenance of the channel together with the freshwater flow cleans the immediate outlet of the estuary, and this was the reason why river outlets were

6

Chapter 2. Geomorphology of the Shore

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58

Chapter 8. Maritime Apollonia

Fig. 41. Byzantine amphorae in situ. 59

Chapter 8. Maritime Apo/lonia

Fig. 42. Apollonia, fishermen's anchorage, today.

60

Chapter 8. Maritime Apo/Ionia

Fig. 43. Apollonia, part ofa wall from the Crusader fortress, hanging on the cliff. 61

Chapter 8. Maritime Apo/Ionia

Fig. 44. Layers of kurkar and hamra, Tel Michal.

62

Chapter 8. Maritime Apollonia varying puzzle, only a few pieces of which were revealed at any given time.

The Crusader fortress is situated on the northern outskirts of the ancient town, topographically the highest point of the site. According to Roll & Ayalon (1989: 106) the Crusaders fortified the castle with towers and with double walls, forming a moat on all sides except the west. The castle was built on the extreme edge of the cliff and as the cliff eroded over the centuries, parts of the castle collapsed onto the narrow beach and into the sea (Figs. 39 & 43). 1

The investigation of the "Roman Anchorage" proceeded in two stages. The preliminary stage consisted of the surveying of the general features of the site, with specific emphasis on the nature of components which formed the breakwater to the west of the anchorage in Area D (Figs. 40 & 55). Secondly, each area which became exposed naturally when the sand cover disappeared was surveyed, and if found to be of interest, photographed and mapped.

Access to the city from the west was prevented by the steep cliff. A tunnel was excavated to connect the fortress with the seashore. Roll & Ayalon (1989: 112-114) describe the inner fortification wall as extending 35 m westwards into the sea and forming two piers, each bearing a round tower at its end (Figs. 39 & 46). The basin is protected from the open sea by a breakwater, thus creating a safe anchorage. At the southern end of the breakwater is a gap approximately IO m wide. As this basin lies directly below and in line with the fortifications, Roll and Ayalon assert that it was built by the Crusaders.

Nir and Roll (pers. comm.) assert that if the rocks, to the west of a line connecting the westernmost extremities of both ancient harbours (Figs. 38 & 40), were composed of beachrock, it would been likely that the beach was in fact in existence when the rocks were forming indicating a lower sea level. Evidence indicating the period when this occurred might then be found by dating the pottery sherds (provided they are of sufficient size) if present in the beachrock (and if the rock turned out to be beachrock). Should the rocks prove to be of an origin other than beachrock, we would find support for the presence of a bay having existed in antiquity.

The "Crusader Harbour" was surveyed by Raban and his team from Haifa University, who concluded that the enclosure served as a "lower fortress" rather than as ·a harbour (Raban, 1979). Furthermore Raban argued that during the Crusader period the water level was approximately 1 m lower than today's, presumably leaving the basin dry (Figs. 10 & 11).

8.2

Following Nir and Roll's advice, a sampling survey was set up at a distance of80-100 m from the current shoreline. Four main areas were sampled along the line suggested by the scientists: two areas 100-120 m to the south of the end of the southern pier of the "Crusader Harbour", to the north of Area F (Fig. 40); and two areas located about 200 m further to the south, in Area D. Representative samples were taken from the first two areas. This required great effort, as it was very difficult to break the rock. No pottery lodged in the rock was discovered at any location, despite the fact that the "Roman Anchorage" at Area C was littered with Byzantine pottery. Examination of the samples by Nir revealed that they were not beachrock, but other sedimentary rocks including grained marble which is not local. All rocks were encrusted with a covering of biological origin, 1-2 cm thick.

Site investigation of the "Roman Anchorage"

As is true of the shore at Tel Michal, sand sediment overlaying the "Roman Anchorage" at Apollonia is subject to rapid and dramatic shifts due to currents and wave action, with corresponding changes in water clarity and sand deposition; this can fluctuate by up to +/-1 m (Chapt. 2). While we dived at the site at every opportunity when conditions of clarity and calm prevailed, storms created dramatic and completely unpredictable changes in the depth and distribution of sand. A patch of reef free of sand on one occasion might become deeply covered the following day and in some cases may remain concealed for the remainder of the season, while another area might be suddenly cleared of sand. Thus the basin revealed itself sparingly, requiring a quick survey when conditions were favourable, and with the recording of finds having to be compared with previous work. Find spots were marked by a buoy, an empty bottle on a rope fixed by a stone, and two or more magnetic bearings were taken. The method was not sophisticated, but merely functionaI2. The survey of the "Roman Anchorage" represents the piecing together of a highly complicated and

These samples were taken about 50-60 m to the north of Area F where the rock is unlikely to be a remnant of a beach or of processes associated with the presence of a beach and were found to be natural rock and support the conclusion that during the Byzantine period the sea level was in fact approximately 1 m higher than today (Sneh & Klein, 1984: 831 ft). The character of our work changed following a significant find in Area B, where a cluster of architectural debris lying parallel to the coastline was discovered within an area measuring approximately 50 m from north to south and 20 m in width (Fig. 40). Items discovered included many ashlar stones, and pillars measuring 0.30-0.50 min diameter, made of basalt and marble. A very large quantity of pottery sherds were also found scattered amongst these architectural remains, predominantly from the Byzantine period, though there were also some she,rds of storage jars and pithoi from the Late Roman period.

1 Goldsmith & Golik (1980: 149) explain that the coastal cliffs along the length of the Israeli coast are made of kurkar imbedded with hamra. They are eroding at the toe of the cliff due to wave abrasion, wind aelion and by washout of the soft harnra by rainwater (at Tel Michal see Fig. 44 and at Apoll"nia see Fig.~3). 2 Modem equipment was used for example at Torone (Samiou et al., 1993), where the mapping was condueled using a Sokkisha Set 3 electronic theodolite; and see the various survey techniques outlined by Green (1990: 23 fl).

The area to the west of this group, Area C, was free of architectural remains and its solid rock bottom slopes 63

Chapter 8. Maritime Apo/lonia

Fig. 45. Apollonia, breakwater, Area D. Part of

64

Chapter 8. Maritime Apollonia The northern pier of the "Crusader Harbour" juts diagonally into the sea to the north-west; it is 35 m long and 4 m wide (Figs. 46 & 47). The northern side of the pier is still well preserved and reaches a maximum height of 2.10 m above today's sea level. It was built from rubble and undressed stones and was surfaced by 0.2-0.25 x 0.3 x 0.3 m and 0.20.25 x 0.3 x 0.6 m ashlar stones on foundations in a fashion described by Vitruvius in the 1st century BC (Book V: XII) where he described harbour building methods. Frames made of heavy timber tied with chains were lowered to the seabed and firmly fastened. A mass composed of two parts of volcanic ashes and one part of lime together with an aggregate of stones was placed into the frames and lowered to the seabed where it solidified into a concrete-like substance. After the hardening of the mass, the wooden frames were removed, whenever possible, so that they could be re-used. More stones and gravel were then placed around the cast foundation to obviate erosive effects and undermining by waves and sand. The volcanic ashes (lava) were probably imported from Italy.

gradually to the west from a depth of 1.8 m to 2.5 m below sea level. Further into the sea, Area D, the "breakwater" was investigated. It enclosed Area C from the west. The "breakwater'' is a major feature of the "Roman Anchorage", measuring about 50 m in width and 250-300 m in length from north to south (Fig. 40). This massive conglomerate led us to assume that it could not be of natural origin because it was covered with many scattered ashlars and foreign ballast stones (Nir anu. Balder 1991, pers. comm.); cut-off corners and edges of stones were visible, all encrusted and joined into seemingly natural rock (Fig. 45). Large quantities of pottery sherds from this location were dated by Roll to the Late Roman and Byzantine periods (pers. comm. 1991). The "breakwater" was examined in the 4 th season of our survey, in September 1994. It was built on a natural ridge of sedimentary rock which slopes gradually from the "Crusader Harbour'' in the north, where it is at water level, and extends southwards to Area F (Fig. 40) where it reaches a depth of approximately 2 m and continues on the sea floor for about 150 m at the same depth. At the southern end of this ridge, where the rock disappears were found large stones 1.50-2 m lying parallel to each other in a north-west to south-east direction. They seem to be the visible part or the remains of a larger number. Huge blocks of hewn kurkar stone, some measuring 0.6x0.6x0.6 m were thrown or built on top of the ridge and a quantity of ashlar sand-stones 0.4x0.4xl.2 m placed over them. Analysis of these ashlar stones by Y. Nir indicates that they are not of local provenance. It is possible that these stones constituted the upper surface of a breakwater. Due to damage by continuous erosion and water movement, it is not clear how this surface was built. The possibility exists that an artificial structure composed of ashlar stones was built on natural rock, as at Sidon (Muckelroy, 1978: 76).

During several dives a detailed search was made for remains of timber used in the foundations of the northern pier, so that we could establish an accurate radio-carbon dating. None, however could be found and it is assumed that any wood would have been destroyed over the centuries and by recent pollution of the site (Fig. 47). An interesting phenomenon was a constructive feature of the foundation casting that was also used to desilt the harbour. The frames were necessarily heavy and clumsy and the thickness of the timbers, plus the chains, resulted in, after following the removal of the frames, adjacent foundation blocks being separated by gaps of various widths. These were not filled by the builders and even continued into the walls up to water level, forming more or less vertical slots allowing water to flow through the basin (Figs. 46 & 47). These irregularly spaced slots can clearly be seen, reaching from the seabed through the cast foundation and into the wall. Thus a functional feature was created, using the southern longshore current, as outlined above, reversed by the local nodal point, to automatically desilt the harbour. Such self desilting installations can be traced at many places such as Caesarea in Israel (Raban, 1981 b: 73-77), or at the Early Roman harbour of Cosa in Italy (Lewis, 1971: 238). The piers at Apollonia, as was usual at that time, consisted of an outer and inner wall of ashlar masonry, the space between them filled with a mixture of mortar and pebbles.

The ashlar blocks from this breakwater are today scattered over an area 50 m wide. Considering the destruction by water movement and earthquakes which occur in this area it appears that the breakwater was 20 m wide and that the above described forces scattered the stones on both sides over a distance of about 15 m.

8.3

Site investigation of the "Crusader Harbour"

The investigation of the "Crusader Harbour" at Apollonia was conducted along the same lines as at Tel Michal. We began with a general photographic survey of the site from the cliff-top on which Apollonia is situated. Looking from the site of the ruined Crusader castle, the enclosure of the basin can be easily distinguished (Fig. 39). When the sea was not too rough, it was possible to measure the exposed remains of the "Crusader Harbour'' and when the sea was calm we could conduct underwater investigations as well. Large pieces of masonry debris from the fortress' walls had collapsed and slipped down the cliff to the eastern side of the basin. The piers extend approximately 35 m in a generally western direction ending at a 94 m long breakwater which links the two pier ends, thus enclosing the basin. At the southern end of the breakwater is an opening, about 10 m wide.

The Herodian harbour at Caesarea was similarly constructed with variations of the method as outlined by Vitruvius (Raban, 1981 b: 73-77. Ongoing investigations of precise construction techniques used at Caesarea continue to offer surprises (cf. Brandon, 1994: 5). A chemical analysis of the waterproof cement used there has now been published by Oleson (et al., 1992). The utilization of the same kind of "concreting" technique can be clearly observed at Apollonia, where the marks of the wooden frames are still visible in the foundation blocks. The Claudian port of Ostia and Lepcis Magna also utilized the same method (Raban, 1981 b: 6566).

65

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Chapter 9. The Finds

Marble Mortar: Fig. 90.

9.4

A broken section of a marble stone mortar; one of four semicircular decorated handles is preserved.

Various other objects were found on the seabed, often so encrusted that they could hardly be recognized. These include a 3 m long wooden log, which may be a remnant of a wracked ship, probably the keel (Fig. 93). Located between Areas G and C.

Parallels: a well-preserved intact example was found at Dor in Israel (Kingsley and Raveh, 1996: 62, fig. 42, pl. 61). Broken and complete examples were discovered during the excavation of a Byzantine church at Ostarkine in northern Sinai: most examples possessed three geometrically decorated lugs and one false spout (Prof. Oren, personal comm. 1996). A mortar fragment was also found at Kh. Jemameh, Israel (Gophna and Feig, 1993: fig 16); on the Byzantine merchant vessel at Yassi Ada (Katsev, 1982: 289), and in the Byzantine Fortress at Emporio on Chios (Ballance et al., 1989: 83 & 124). This kind of stone mortar was common in the eastern Mediterranean during the Byzantine period and numerous examples are known from this period.

Miscellanea

Broken pieces of glass ingots were also found (Figs. 74 & 76.5), most probably derived from Apollonia's Byzantine glass Apollonia. Their colour is sky blue. Area G. (Inv. No. (97.91) 12.1; [I-6445 1992-1345]. Inv. No. (35/93) 23/8; [1992-69]). The inside face of a fragment of encrustation revealed the traces of a sword blade whose metallic structure had completely disappeared. A small amount of thin copper leaf remained intact, most likely a decorative element. The condition of this 'interior mould' did not permit identification of the artifact. Area B. (Inv. No. (35.92) 22.5).

Fig. 92. Fragment of stone chancel post of church (Fig. 77.4) 113

Fig. 93. Fragment ofa wooden keel. 114

CHAPTER

10

SUMMARY

Various marine features visible at the sites of Tel Michal and Apollonia were hitherto thought to be of natural origin, such as the remains of a breakwater in the sea off Apollonia and the underwater masonry found close to the shore. The main purpose of our investigations at these sites was to discover the location of the harbours which were suggested by the land excavations, but have not been found. We based our research for the existence of harbours at these sites on the evaluation of the two towns during the relevant periods, their size and importance having been documented by land excavations and at Apollonia also by written documents. We took into consideration that the strategic position ( of the two towns) lay close to the coastal road and at Apollonia three roads converged from inland. At Tel Michal the land excavations uncovered three platforms on top of the high tell that were built in succession, after part of the tell had collapsed. The material used for the platforms had been taken from the eastern and southern edges of the high tell, most probably to build an artificial channel that diverted from Wadi Gelilot around the tell and into the sea. Our survey also brought to light evidence for the existence of an estuary harbour on the southern side of the high tell that was accessible by this diverted channel. It was common during the Bronze Age to built harbours/anchorages on the inland side of the settlement, to protect them from bad weather and stormy seas. We had to terminate our survey at this location because it was disrupted by extensive construction work, and unfortunately before we were able to obtain further proof for our hypothesis.

evidence confirming our assumption that there were two harbours below the Byzantine town. During the Roman period and later in the Byzantine period it was common for coastal towns to have two separate (or if one then divided) harbours. One was used for fishing and local trade, and the other for international trade with all the necessary installations. During the Crusader period it was also essential that coastal towns possessed harbour installations. Living between enemies in a hostile land, the Crusaders could not depend solely on land supply from Akko and Jaffa (Joppa), but it was fundamental also to be connected with their homeland via the see. Our survey has brought to light the probable locations of the harbours at Tel Michal and at Apollonia and provides the direction for further investigations with the view to answering some further questions: Areas across the ancient outflow channel of Wadi Gelilot below Tel Michal that have been undisturbed by recent construction activities, could be explored by digging trenches and/or by a line of drilled cores. This could also help in providing the required for the assumed existence of the estuary harbour. Apollonia did not have a built harbour before the second century AD based on the available documentation. However, it is generally accepted that many Byzantine period harbours were actually reconstructed Roman harbours. Hence since the harbours of Apollonia were established in the Byzantine period these remains may be regarded as a rare exception of authentic Byzantine construction. Insight into possibly unknown construction methods could further be gained with the suggested investigation of the breakwaters of Apollonia.

At Apollonia the land excavations clearly indicated that the town's prosperity was based on trade during the Byzantine period. It is evident that a rich coastal town such as this had to have an harbour. Extensive underwater work yielded

115

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118

ABBREVATIONS AND LIST OF JOURNALS

Afo AJA ANET AS 'ATIQOT AZ BA BAR Int. Series BAR Brit. Series BAR BASOR Byzantion CAH CNRS DEGUW A Enc. Arch. Exe. GSI IEJ IES IJES UNA Iraq IBA JESHO JQS JRS KLIO MM Nature

NEAEHL PEFQSt PEQ RA RAO RSO Science SWP Tel Aviv

Archiv fiir Orientforschung. American Journal of Archaeology. Pritchard, B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts. 3rd ed. with supplement. Princeton. Anatolian Studies. Journal of the Israeli Department of Antiquities (Hebrew and English Series). Archaologische Zeitung. Biblical Archaeologist. British Archaeological Reports Intremational Series. British Archaeological Reports British Series. Biblical Archaeology Review. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. Byzantion. Revue Internationale des Etudes Byzantines. Cambridge Ancient History. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Groupe Francais des Agriles. Bulletine. Deutsche Gesel/schaft zur Forderung der Unterwasserarchaologie e. V. Erlangen. Avi-Yonah, M., ed. 1975-78. Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, I - JV Stem, E., ed. Jerusalem Geological Survey of Israel. Bulletine. Israel Exploration Journal. Israel Exploration Society International Journal of Environmental Studies. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. British School of Archaeology in Iraq. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Journal of Quaternary Science The Journal of Roman Studies. Klio. Beitrage zur Alten Geschichte. The Mariner' Mirror. Cambridge University Press. Physical Science (London). New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Stem, E., ed. Jerusalem Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Statement. Palestine Exploration Quarterly. Revue Archeologique. Clermont-Ganneau, Ch. 1888-1924. Recueil d'archeologie Orientate, I-VIII. Paris. Rivista degli Studi Orientali. Science for People. Conder, C.R. and Kitchener, H.H. 1881-1883. The Survey of Western Palestine, 1-111.London. Journal of the Tel Aviv University of Archaeology.

119

ANCIENT SOURCES

Eusebius. 1904. Das Onomastikon der Biblischen Ortsnamen. GCS 11, I. Leipzig. (repr. Hildesheim 1966).

Plinius, 1906, NH - C. Plini Secundi Natura/is Historiae. Ed. C Mayhoff, Vol. I. Teubner. Leipzig.

Fulcher of Chartres. 1941. Chronicle of the First Crusade. (Translated by M.E. McGinty). Philadelphia.

Pococke, D.R. 1771. Beschreibung des Morgenlandes und Einiger Anderen Lander. Wolfgang Walter (ed.).

Herodotus. 1985. The Histories. Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt. Penguin Books. Suffolk.

Reland, H. 1714. Palaestina Jllustrata. Trajecti Batavorum.

Homer, 1952. The Odyssey. The Story of Odysseus. Translated by W.H.D. Rouse. A Mentor Book.

Strabo, 1852. Strabonis Geographica. (ed.) G. Kramer Vol. III. Berlin.

Josephus. ed. 1984. The Jewish war.Translated Williamson. Penguin Book. Suffolk.

by G.A.

Vitruvius. 1964. De Archtectura - Vitruvii de Architectura Libri Decem. (ed.) C. Fensterbusch, Darmstadt.

Tafeln.

Willemus Tyrensis. 1986. Chronicon - Willemi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon. Ed. R.B.C. Huygens, ad. H.E. Mayer et G. Rosch. CCCM63.

Knudtzen, J.A. 1915. Die Vorderasiatische Bibliothek. Leipzig.

El-Amarna

ex Monumentis

Veteribus

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University Press. Archer, T.A. 1889. The Crusade of Ricard I, 1189-92. The History of Contemporary Wrters. New York, London. Arnold, C.T. 'Archaeology and History: The Shades of Confrontation and Confrontation'. In Bintliff, J.L., and Gaffney, C.F., (eds.). Archaeology at the Interface, BAR International Series, 300: 32-39.

Akurgal, E. 1987. Griechische und Romische Kunst in der Tiirkei. Miinchen. Hirmer. Albright, W.F. 1931-32. The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim I A: The Bronze Age Pottery of the Fourth Campaign. ASOR XII: 55-128.

Artzi, M. 1994. Incense, Camels and Collared Rim Jars: Desert Trade Routes and Maritime Outlets in the Second Millennium. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13.2: 121-147.

Alexandersson, T. 1972. 'Marine Precipitation ofMg-Calcit'. In Stanley, D.G. (ed.). The Mediterranean Sea: A Natural Sedimentation Laboratory. Strousburg, PA: 203-223.

Avigad, N. 1960. Excavation at Makmish, 1958. JEJ 10: 9096.

Alt, A. 1968. Das Stiitzpunktsystem der Pharaonen an der Phonikischen Kiiste und Syrischen Binnenland. Mtinchen.

Avigad, N. 1961. Excavation at Makmish, 1960. /EJ 11: 97100.

Amiran, D.H.K. 1952. A Revised Earthquake - Catalogue of Palestine. /EJ2. No. 1: 48-62.

Avigad, N. 1977. Tell Kudadi. Enc. Arch. Exe. III: 720. Avigad, N 1977. s.v. 'Makmish'. Enc. Arch. Exe. III: 768- 770.

Amiran, R. 1969. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land. Rutgers 120

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