The Complex of Tumuli 9 10 and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia (Albania) 9781407305486, 9781407305493, 9781407305509, 9781407335919

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BAR S2059 (I) 2010 AMORE

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10 and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia (Albania) Volume I

THE COMPLEX OF TUMULI 9, 10 AND 11 IN THE NECROPOLIS OF APOLLONIA

B A R

Maria Grazia Amore

BAR International Series 2059 (I) 2010

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10 and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia (Albania) Volume I

Maria Grazia Amore special studies by V. Dimo, L. Bejko, and L. Schepartz with contributions by S. Aliu, P. Pearce, A. Bardho, E. Bitri, L. Buchet, B. N. Damiata, V. Grimes, A. Powell, M. P. Richards, J. Southon and J. Stallo

BAR International Series 2059 (I) 2010

ISBN 9781407305486 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407305493 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9781407305509 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407335919 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407305509 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

CONTENTS Volume I



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................................vii CREDITS OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................ix 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................1 2. THE IMPORTANCE OF APOLLONIA IN HISTORY...........................................................3 3. THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS...........................................................47 Bioarchaeology of Apollonia: Tumuli 9, 10, 11 and Appendixes 1, 2, and 3 – L. Schepartz..............48 Strontium Isotope Ratios and Mobility Reconstruction – J. Stallo, L. Schepartz, V. Grimes, and M. P. Richards......................................................................................................................................78 4. METHODOLOGY OF EXCAVATION AND PROCESSING OF FINDS........................85 5. BURIAL RITES AND GRAVE TYPES........................................................................................91 Catalogue of Graves...........................................................................................................................106 6. ANIMAL DEPOSITS AND CERAMIC DEPOSITS................................................................302 Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits........................................................................................................307 7. DATINGS............................................................................................................................................324 Results of AMS Dating and Stable-Isotope Analyses of Skeletal Remains: Tumuli 9 and 10, Apollonia (Albania) – B. N. Damiata and J. Southon......................................................................330

Volume II



8. GRAVE GOODS...............................................................................................................................337 9. FINDS..................................................................................................................................................345 Pottery Catalogue (M.G. Amore with V. Dimo)............................................................................352 Small Finds Catalogue (L. Bejko with S. Aliu)................................................................................616 10. CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................................................693



TECHNICAL REPORTS CONSERVATION.................................................................................................................................697 Conservation Treatments – P. Pearce, A. Bardho, and E. Bitri..........................................................697 FAUNAL ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................853 Animal Bones from ‘Grave’ 62, Tumulus 9 – A. Powell.......................................................................853 DOCUMENTATION AND DATABASE STRUCTURE.............................................................857



BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................865 INDEX....................................................................................................................................................871



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I first would like to give my sincere thanks to Dr. David Packard and PHI for funding the “Apollonia Necropolis Project” from the field work to the preparation of this publication, and more generally all the activities of the Albanian Rescue Archaeology Unit. I am grateful also to Professor Richard Hodges for his constant support. Professor Muzafer Korkuti, then director of the Institute of Archaeology, has been instrumental and always an enthusiastic supporter of the project. Throughout the progress of this study I have felt the interest of the Head of the Classical Department of the Institute of Archaeology Professor Shpresa Gjongecaj, later director of the same Institute. I would like to express my pleasure in working with Ass. Prof. Vangjel Dimo, both from the human and the professional point of view, for sharing his lifelong knowledge of every stone at Apollonia! My thanks go also to all those individuals who have worked with me in this project through the years. For interesting discussions I am grateful to several scholars, such as Jack Davis, Sarah Morris, John Papadopoulos, Shari Stocker, Mike Galaty, Carolyn Koehler, and Iris Pojani.

vii

Particular thanks go to all the contributors to these volumes, who, with their competence and professionalism, have made possible the multidisciplinary study of this tumuli complex. Then my collaborators, who have worked in different ways on the technical preparation of the volumes: Froseda Angjellari and Keti Zotaj, who have worked with drawings and pictures, and especially Anisa Tanaka and Shefqet Lulja. Anisa has digitized all the field maps, has put together the two legends, has translated in English the conservation forms of Bardho and Bitri and has unified their language, has had the painstaking task of looking for misspellings and inconsistencies in the text. Shefqet has modified images in various ways, has elaborated the general chronological grave plans, and has created the layout of the book. I thank both of them for their patience and dedication to work. And last but not least, I cannot forget to thank Inge Lyse Hansen, who has edited the written English of most of the text, and Laura Amore, for helping me with the translation of German texts. The errors that remain are my own responsibility.

CREDITS OF FIGURES

All figures for which a source is not cited below are from author’s personal archive. The figures in the contributions are also not included here. Fig. 1.1: Aerial photo by A. Islami modified by G. Përzhita. Fig. 2.1: Andrea 1999-2000, p. 314, fig. 1 modified by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 2.2: Cabanes 1986, p. 131, fig. 14. Fig. 2.4: Myrto 1998, p. 17. Fig. 2.5: Dimo, V., J-L. Lamboley, and P. Lenhardt, and F. Quantin. 2007, p. 187, fig. 95. Fig. 2.7: N. Ceka 1982, first fig. opposite p. 40. Fig. 2.8: N. Ceka 1982, third fig. between pp. 40-41. Fig. 2.10: Balandier, C., L. Koço, and P. Lenhardt. 2007, p. 181, fig. 93. Fig. 2.11: Amore et al. 1995, p. 768, fig. 5. Fig. 2.14: N. Ceka 1982, p. 40. Fig. 2.17: Amore et al. 1995, p. 772, fig. 12. Fig. 2.18: Quantin 1996, p. 233, fig. 2. Fig. 2.19: Quantin 1996, p. 235, fig. 5. Fig. 2.20: N. Ceka 1982, p. 39. Fig. 2.22: Cabanes et al. 2000, p. 628, fig. 8. Fig. 2.23: Cabanes et al. 1994, p. 524. Fig. 2.24: Bescoby 2007, fig. 2. Fig. 2.25: MRAP, adapted by L. Bejko. Fig. 2.26: Dimo, Fenet, and, Mano 2007, p. 301, fig. 203. Fig. 2.27: Buda 1959, p. 213, fig. 1. Fig. 2.28: Buda 1959, p. 214, fig. 2. Fig. 2.29: Buda 1959, p. 219, fig. 8. Fig. 2.30: Buda 1959, p. 225, fig. 13. Fig. 2.31: Buda 1959, p. 227, fig. 17. Fig. 2.32: Military maps 1:10 000 K-34-111-D-d-2 and K-34-112-C-c-1 (1984) modified by Sh. Lulja under the consultancy of V. Dimo and A. Dimo. Fig. 2.33: Mano 1971, p. 105, fig. 2. Fig. 2.34: Mano 1971, pl. 18, no. 1. Fig. 2.35: Mano 1971, a) pl. 47, no. 1; b) pl. 47, no. 2; c) pl. 47, no. 3. Fig. 2.36: Dimo 1990, a) pl. 48, no. 283; b) pl. 25, no. 289/2; c) pl. 48, no. 155; d) pl. 48, no. 215. Fig. 2.37: Dimo 1990, pl. 7, no. 21. Fig. 2.38: Dimo 1990, a) pl. 27, no. 323; b) pl. 23, no. 260; c) pl. 28, no. 334. Fig. 2.39: Dimo 1990, a) pl. 28, no. 328; b) pl. 14, no. 113. Fig. 2.40: Dimo and Fenet 1996, p. 221, fig. 2. Fig. 2.41: Davis et al. 2000, fig. 6. Fig. 2.42: Davis et al. 2002, fig. 1. Fig. 2.43: Davis et al. 2000, fig. 7. Fig. 4.1: Google Earth image modified by G. Përzhita. Fig. 4.3: 3-D reconstruction of the tumuli complex elaborated by G. Përzhita. Fig. 5.2: General plan of the tumuli complex with location and date of graves elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 5.3: General plan of Tumulus 10 with location of Prehistoric graves elaborated by Sh. Lulja.

ix

Fig. 6.2: Koka 1990, p. 70, pl. 8. Fig. 6.3: Koka 1990, p. 29, fig. 2. Fig. 6.5: Mano 1971, p. 112, fig. 8. Fig. 6.6: Kistler 1998, p. 219, fig. 8. Fig. 6.7: Runnels et al. 2004, p. 6, fig. 3 modified by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.1: Tumulus 9 – General plan with graves dated to the Archaic period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.2: Tumulus 9 – General plan with graves dated to the Late Archaic/Early Classical period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.3: Tumulus 9 and Appendix 1 – General plan with graves dated to the Classical period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.4: Tumulus 9 – General plan with graves dated to the Late Classical/Early Hellenistic period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.5: Tumulus 9 – General plan with graves dated to the Early Hellenistic period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.6: Tumulus 10 and Appendix 2 – General plan with graves dated according to Prehistoric and Classical periods elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.7: Tumulus 11 – General plan with graves dated to the Archaic period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.8: Tumulus 11 and Appendix 3 – General plan with graves dated to the Classical period elaborated by Sh. Lulja. Fig. 7.9: Appendix 3 – General plan with graves dated to the Early Hellenistic period elaborated by Sh. Lulja.

x

1. INTRODUCTION

Between 2002 and 2006 the Albanian Rescue Archaeology Unit, in collaboration with the Institute of Archaeology of Tirana1 excavated a ridge where a complex of tumuli had been identified. Three tumuli were revealed, named Tumulus 9, Tumulus 10, and Tumulus 11 following the existing numeration of excavated tumuli in the necropolis. The areas between them were explored also, bringing to light more graves, and these areas were named “appendixes”: Appendix 1 west of Tumulus 9, Appendix 2 east of Tumulus 10, and Appendix 3 between Tumuli 10 and 11 (Fig. 1.1).      The complex had been heavily damaged due to gravel quarrying of the hill on which it is located. As a consequence, several graves had been destroyed or had been exposed and then looted, as evidenced by the 1998 survey by the Mallakastra Regional Archaeological Project.2 The Rescue Archaeology Unit (ARAU) immediately insured that Tumulus 9 and its immediate area were listed as an archaeologically protected territory with a decree of the Council of Ministers.3 The documentation of the tumulus combined careful excavation with

Figure 1.1: Areal view of the tumuli. 1

specialist studies of the human skeletal and faunal material, a first in the study of tumuli in Apollonia, as well as the conservation of ceramic and metal objects to ensure their long-term preservation. C14 (AMS) dating has been carried out also on some of the skeletons, providing a sound chronological frame from Prehistory to Post-Medieval/Modern time. It is also worthy to put in evidence that this is the first complex of tumuli being excavated completely; in fact, Mano noted that south-west of the tumulus named Tumulus 1 that she excavated in 1958-1959, there was another smaller tumulus, but it was not explored.4 The same happened to Dimo, who in the 1970s excavated two of the three tumuli he located.5    As said earlier, the complex had been seriously damaged, especially Tumulus 11, and it is very likely that on most of the area called Appendixes 1 and 2 in antiquity there had been another tumulus, completely destroyed. Tumulus 10 has given the most unexpected results, revealing a core of graves dated to the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, some of them with rich and very interesting

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

grave goods. The central grave has been dated by C14 (AMS) analyses to the Early Bronze Age. This discovery gives a complete new light to the precolonization history of the territory.    The excavation results from Apollonia are now complemented by data from the Iron Age Tumulus of Lofkënd, in the Mallakastër hills southeast of Fier. The latter has been excavated by a joint team from the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California, Los Angeles and ARAU in collaboration with the Institute of Archaeology (Tirana).6 With the parallel study of these two sites a broader regional profile can now be established.    Several publications have come to light with preliminary results on Tumulus 9;7 at that stage the study of the finds was not concluded, and the further excavations at the tumulus complex had not happened yet, so the picture was not complete. Now, in this volume, it will be noticed that there are some substantial changes in some of the dates. Notes 1

The Albanian Rescue Archaeology Unit was represented by the writer and Lorenc Bejko, and the Institute of Archaeol-

2

ogy by Vangjel Dimo. Members of the team, except for the co-directors just mentioned, alternated through the years: Esmeralda Agolli, Skënder Aliu, Arjan Dimo, Valbona Hysa, Klodiana Kondo, Gentiana Kosturi, Surja Lela, Sonila Metaj, Florian Mino, Iris Pojani, Saimir Shpuza, Sabina Veseli. The team was completed by architects for the field plans, draftsmen for the finds drawings (most of the work has been done by Florenc Cenolli), conservators (Avni Alcani and Eduart Bitri, but most of the work has been done by Philippa Pearce from the British Museum and Alma Bardho), an IT person (Genti Përzhita), a group of physical anthropologists (most of the work has been done by Professor Lynne Schepartz and her assistants), and a group of trained workers from Radostina. 2 The ridge had been intensively surveyed by MRAP (a joint project between the Institute of Archaeology of Tirana and the Department of Classics of the University of Cincinnati) in 1998 and evidence was found for graves—many looted or otherwise disturbed—along its whole length. For more information about the necropolis mapping program of MRAP, see reports on-line at http://river.blg.uc.edu/mrap/ MRAP_en.html. 3 Ministria e Kulturës 2003, p. 31 (Vendim (decree) nr. 109, date 20.02.2003). 4 Mano 1971, pp. 103-104. 5 Dimo 1990, p. 8. 6 The excavations were directed by Lorenc Bejko (ARAU), Sarah Morris and John Papadopoulos (Cotsen Institute, UCLA). 7 Amore 2003-2004; Amore 2004; Amore 2005.

2. THE IMPORTANCE OF APOLLONIA IN HISTORY1

Apollonia is one of the most important Archaic approximately 10 km from the Adriatic coast, and Greek colonies in the Mediterranean, and one of extends over two hills and the intervening valley the three major archaeological sites of Albania, to- (Fig. 2.1). gether with Butrint and Durrës. The city is located

Figure 2.1: Map of Albania. 3

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

   The details of its foundation are still debated: many scholars, both foreign and Albanian, have repeatedly written that Apollonia was founded in 588 B.C. In the historical sources, however, this is not clearly documented, and in fact there are discordant versions about the foundation and the founders.    Regarding the date, there are only indirect references in the ancient authors: Strabo (8. 3. 32)2 mentioned that Apollonia received fugitives from the city of Dyspontium after its destruction. Unfortunately this episode is not surely dated in itself, but it can be placed after 587/6,3 perhaps around 580-570 B.C.4 Plutarch (Mor. De sera 7)5 wrote that Apollonia would not have been inhabited by the Greeks if the punishment of Periander had not been deferred for so long. Reference to the rule of the Corinthian tyrant here seems to refer to a period between the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th century B.C.6     The point of contention about the founders is whether they were Corinthian or Corcyraean: Thucydides (1. 26. 2),7 Pliny (H. N. 3. 23. 145),8 Dio Cassius (41. 45),9 and Stephanos of Byzantium (s. v. Apollonia)10 wrote that they were Corinthian, while Pseudo-Skymnos (ll. 438-439)11 and Strabo (7. 5. 8)12 recorded that they were part Corinthian and part Corcyraean. The text of Pausanias (5. 22. 4)13 is corrupted exactly where he talked about Apollonia being a colony of Corcyra, and he continued by saying that the Corinthians, however, shared the

Figure 2.2: Plan of the Apollonia area. 4

booty conquered from some population. Apollodorus (Epit. 6. 15b)14 is the only one who mentions Trojans as founders.15 Stephanos of Byzantium (s. v. Apollonia) added also that the Corinthian colonists were two hundred, headed by the oecist Gylax, who gave the name of Gylaceia to the new city. Thus, we cannot be certain, but a Corinthian connection seems certain, whether it be directly from the mainland or through Corcyra, and a foundation date at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. is supported by the archaeological evidence.    The ancient sources also gave some description of the geographical position and of the characteristics of the territory around the colony: Strabo (7. 5. 8) said that the city is built ten stadia from the river Aous and sixty stadia from the sea. Herodotus (9. 93)16 described a river that originated from Mount Lacmon, flowed across the lands of Apollonia, and issued into the sea by the harbor of Orikum; this must be the Aous river.    It is also possible to gain insight into the political system from Aristotle (Pol. 4. 3. 8),17 who wrote that in Apollonia there were few people of free birth to govern the majority, who were not of free birth. Strabo (7. 5. 8) mentioned that the city had very good laws. In addition, Stephanos of Byzantium (s. v. Apollonia) classified Apollonia of Illiria as the first in importance among the numerous cities of the ancient world with the same name.

The importance of Apollonia in history

SETTLEMENT SIZE Archaeological and survey investigations have revealed that the Greek colony was built on two hills, now called 101 and 104 after their elevations above sea level (Fig. 2.2).      Hill 101 is the larger and flatter of the two, where, in the opinion of the Albanian archaeologists, with all probability there was the acropolis.18 But it is also the less explored archaeologically, because it has been the base of modern military installations which must have damaged the ancient rests (Fig. 2.3).      Hill 104 is south of Hill 101; it is more conical and has terraces down its slopes. The side of the city towards the coast contains the most prominent monuments visible today, almost all grouped in the agora (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5). It is important to keep in mind, however, that the estimated area of the city at

Figure 2.3: View of Hill 101. 5

its most flourishing time is ca. 130 ha, and the area of the necropoleis ca. 50 ha; but what is uncovered is likely to be just 1/200 of the total area.19      Apollonia was never re-inhabited after its abandonment at the end of the 4th century A.D., except for a monastery, and its monuments have been covered by soil eroded from the top of the hill. This is surely an advantage from the point of view of archaeologists, who do not have to deal with the innumerable problems of excavating in a modern town. The life of the colony, however, was very long, and the Roman phase was not less prosperous than the previous era. Indeed many of the monuments that can be admired today date to the Roman period, including the symbol of Apollonia that is most frequently represented in books and most often photographed by tourists: the so-called Monument of the Agonothetes (Fig. 2.6).20

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.4: Detailed plan of Apollonia with monuments (agora 1-8).

6

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.5: Plan of the agora.

7

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.6: Monument of the Agonothetes. THE AGORA Monuments and buildings erected during the Greek period were later remodeled or even obliterated. This is the case, for example, for the Roman buildings traditionally called “libraries” that replaced a stoa with niches oriented approximately northsouth on the same terrace (Figs. 2.5 and 2.7).21 In the same area, but facing south, a temple, probably Hellenistic22 but reused in Roman times, was modified by the erection of the Roman Odeon (Fig. 2.5: 8). According to the description of Léon Rey, who excavated it in 1931, this temple was composed of a pronaos measuring 4.00 m x 5.65 m with two columns in antis surmounted probably by Ionic capitals (an Ionic capital was found nearby), and of a cella with an apse. The walls were built with limestone blocks of large dimensions. In the religious building there were an altar and a base, probably of an equestrian statue; an ear and a foot of a bronze statue of a horse found in the same area could be related to it.23      Dated to the 4th century B.C. and adapted later is also a stoa with niches, 75 meters long and 12 me8

ters wide, oriented approximately east-west, at the base of hill 104 (Fig. 2.5: 1, Fig. 2.8). This monument was also uncovered during several campaigns by Rey in the second half of the 1920s.24 Each of the seventeen niches of the portico were covered by a vault; the corridor in front of them was covered by a tile roof supported by a colonnade on two levels: the lowest one had unusual octagonal columns with Doric capitals, while the upper one had squared pilasters with capitals similar to the Ionic type (between the volute there was a flower).25 During the Roman period the niches probably contained marble statues, five of which were found lying in the corridor before them.26 On the southern side of the same terrace that is likely to have been the agora, an “obelisk” stands on a squared base: it resembles a short cylindrical column with a conical top (Fig. 2.9). It has been interpreted as the symbol of Apollo and Neritan Ceka has suggested that it represents the omphalos at Delphi.27 This symbol was used on the coins of Apollonia beginning in the first half of the 4th century B.C.28

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.7: Roman “libraries” replacing a Greek stoa.

Figure 2.8: 4th century B.C. stoa with niches. 9

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

FORTIFICATIONS The fortification walls were identified by Pouqueville29 and Leake30 as early as the beginning of the 19th century (Fig. 2.10). Their reconstructed circumference is 4.5 km, although the well preserved parts are not very long and mostly on the eastern side of the city. The first scholar who attempted to reconstruct their course was Gillieron at the end of the 1870s.31 After him Prashniker,32 and more recently Vangjel Dimo33 and Lame Koço,34 have explored the fortifications, but the most modern study is the one completed by Claire Balandier and Lame Koço in a collaboration beginning in 1994.35 It seems that different tracts of the walls were built in different periods, as were the main gates. Four main gates have been identified: the first phase of the Northern, Southern and Western gates can be dated from the end of the 5th to the beginning of the 4th century B.C. The Northeastern gate is dated to the Hellenistic period. The dates for each are based on the technique of their construction and on the dates of subsequent modifications to them: in fact, from a function as simple passages they were adapted into defensive structures in response to developments in warfare technique during the 4th century B.C., a trend common in all the cities of the Greek world. Together with these modifications, towers, both square and round, were also added at strategic points in the surrounding walls.36 At the base of Hill 10137 very deep wall foundations and stone blocks larger than in other tracts of the fortifications support the opinion that the hill was the site of the acropolis. The best preserved part of the fortifications is on the eastern side of the city, close to the agora and to the medieval monastery of St. Mary, which still functions in part as a church but in part also as an archaeological museum. The main characteristic of this wall is that the upper part is built with unmortared bricks, which rest on courses of stone blocks a total of three meters high. Balandier has supported a Hellenistic date for this technique, which is also known in other cities in Magna Graecia, Epirus, and southern Illyria.38       In 1987 Koço excavated the fortifications close to the southeast corner of the monastery’s retaining wall: under the wall, which was built with the typical blocks with drafted margins, he found a 10

more ancient structure, using “stepped” courses of blocks worked with large chisels. He has compared this technique to the method used to carve the sarcophagi used in Archaic burials and he has dated the wall to the same period.39       The wall at the base of Hill 104 is well preserved and remains visible to this day. It is built with regular blocks, most of which have drafted margins, and it functioned perhaps more as a retaining wall for the hill than as a fortification. A portal with a pointed arch is literally cut into the façade of the wall (the upper blocks are shaped to form the curve of the arch), and opens onto a staircase that leads to the top of the hill (Fig. 2.11). If there was a temple on top of the hill, as I will discuss later, this wall could also have been the limit, on this side, of the temenos of the sanctuary. Hasan Ceka dated the wall as Hellenistic on the basis of its technique of construction and the dimensions of the blocks.40

Figure 2.9: “Obelisk.”

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.10: Plan of the fortifications. HABITATIONS AND CITY PLAN Leaving the agora area and moving west down the slope on the side toward the sea, there was a residential quarter. Two rich houses, located ca. 200 m to the west of the monastery, have been excavated by Rey, who called them A and B. They are close 11

to each other and separated by a passage that could also have been useful for the drainage of water. He dated house A to the 3rd or 2nd century B.C., but said that it had been built on a previous structure of the 5th to 4th century B.C., judging from part of the foundations and some fragments of figured

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

pottery.41 House B is larger than the previous one, and had a peristyle with columns surmounted by Ionic capitals of a very simple design. It was dated later than house A, without further specification of the evidence.42 Neritan Ceka has asserted that from the remains still visible today it is possible to see that the city plan of the colony during the 4th century B.C. was organized following the Hippodamian orthogonal principle: blocks had the same dimensions, and were divided by streets crossing at right angles. The main streets were quite wide, ca. 6 m, with channels at the side to collect and drain the water (Fig. 2.12), and ca. 60 m apart. They gave access to the gates and the most important buildings

Figure 2.11: Arched portal.

Figure 2.12: Main street. 12

of the city. These main arteries were connected by narrower streets laid 30 m apart, which simultaneously functioned as drains.43      At the bottom of the hill there was a theater that used the natural slope of the hill, as is usual in Greek theaters, to accommodate the cavea; the prolongations at the sides, however, were artificial (Fig. 2.4:14, Fig. 2.13). The skene building featured columns with archaistic Doric capitals; the metopes of the frieze were decorated with bucrania. These elements date the monument to the Hellenistic period, but it was rebuilt in Roman times. It has been calculated that the cavea could seat 7000 spectators.44

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.13: Theater at the bottom of the hill. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES A significant disadvantage for the city and for its development was a lack of natural springs and water sources, but this problem was solved in several ways: many private houses had cisterns to collect rain water, or wells.45 Public cisterns and wells were also built, especially in the southern part of the city. Vangjel Dimo excavated some of them at the end of the 1970s. There are two public wells close to the Monument of the Agonothetes, and one near the main street. There is also a cistern six meters deep in the eastern walls of Apollonia, close to a tower (Fig. 2.14). The construction of these

Figure 2.14: Cistern in the fortification walls. 13

structures corresponds to the moments of greatest prosperity for the colony in both the Greek and the Roman periods: the 4th-3rd century B.C. and the 2nd-3rd century A.D.46      The most imposing public structure, built to collect the water of feeble springs which — according to Ceka — originated on the northwestern side of the town, was erected during the 3rd century B.C.: it was a monumental fountain that utilized the slope of the hill (Figs. 2.15 and 2.16).    It is a large rectangular structure 40 m wide; from the wall at the top, more than 3 m high and 1 m thick, five covered channels ca. 20 m long came down the slope, parallel to each other. The channels were designed with steps to moderate the falling of the water, and were coated inside with plaster. At the bottom of the slope the canals were interrupted by a second wall that also functioned as the façade of the monument. All the water of the springs was at this point collected in a covered reservoir, while the rain water accumulated behind it was diverted out by a separate canal. The covered reservoir had a trapezoidal shape and was divided into two chambers: in the first one, of 14 m³ in capacity, the impurities could settle onto the bottom and the water was then filtered to the second chamber, of 41 m³ in capacity. This second chamber was accessible and protected by a parapet 1 m high that rested on a series of columns with Doric capitals. The columns with their weight balanced

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.15: Monumental fountain – view of the façade.

Figure 2.16: Monumental fountain – view from the top. 14

The importance of Apollonia in history

the pressure of the water against the parapet, and at the same time supported a wooden roof protecting the reservoir. From the floor of this chamber a small channel passed under the parapet through the blocks of the stylobate as far as the central column. The column was hollowed inside; when the water rose to a level about one meter, it was expelled through a hole, facilitated by a bronze spout. The water could also be collected directly from the second chamber of the reservoir, as the imprints of the vessels that have rubbed the parapet show.47 Brilliant solutions were also found to collect and to guide away the rain water that could otherwise have eroded the slopes of Hill 104. One of these is an underground gallery close to the northern edge of the stoa with niches, which crosses the terrace in front of the monument. Rey explored it for a length of 47 m: the gallery has a gentle incline, and the walls are covered by massive stone blocks that support monolithic stone lintels; the passage is large enough to accommodate a person for maintenance.48 While neither Rey or Ceka offer a date for this gallery, it is likely to date to the same period

as the other hydraulic structures, the 4th-3rd century B.C. A similar construction can be seen in the eastern side of the fortifications, in the section built with bricks (Fig. 2.17).    The walls of this channel are also covered with stone slabs; the mouth is made of stone blocks: the upper ones are cut in the shape of a pointed arch, like the portal in the wall at the bottom of Hill 104; the lower ones project further out from the walls, to keep the outgoing water far away from the wall. The incline of the floor of this gallery is 45º.49 POTTERY WORKSHOPS A city like Apollonia, which developed and gained importance quickly, created its own workshops and produced essential commodities quite early. At the very beginning of the colony, vessels were imported, mainly from Corinth. Nevertheless, outside the city-walls on the northeast, two pottery workshops and a deposit with pottery production waste have been found, dating from the 6th to the 2nd century B.C.; the vases were household ware, but also included miniatures or votives (Fig. 2.4: 18). The two workshops seem to have been consecutive, with the end of activity in the first one and the beginning in the second one around the mid-3rd century B.C. The variety of shapes is wide, but the quality generally is not very high, especially in the case of the miniature products. These small pots have been found in the thousands, and they must have been used as ex-votos, probably for the nearby sanctuary of Artemis, on Hill 104.50 SANCTUARIES AND SHRINES It is very unfortunate and unusual that in a city with such a long and flourishing history as Apollonia the remains of the religious buildings are so scarce. But one reason is the fact that after the abandonment of the colony at the end of the 4th century A.D., the monuments were used as quarries for stone blocks to build other structures. For centuries in the entire Myzeqe region around Apollonia private houses, churches, and mosques were erected with stone blocks from the ancient colony. In some of them, including the monastery of St. Mary, it is possible to see architectural pieces, sculptures and inscriptions undoubtedly of Greek date. One of the most

Figure 2.17: Water channel in the fortification walls. 15

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

destructive actions, however, occurred at the end of the 18th century at the hands of a Turkish pasha, who had dozens of carts full of stone blocks from Apollonia brought to the town of Berat to build his own residence. For this reason only a single column is preserved from a temple on a hill 1 km south of Apollonia, today called Shtyllas, from the Albanian term meaning “column” (Fig. 2.18).51      Fortunately Leake visited the ancient city not long after these events, and saw the trenches from which the blocks from the foundations of the temple of Shtyllas had been removed (Fig. 2.19).    He recorded some measurements of the dimensions of the building, and he judged the Doric capital of the lone column as probably more ancient than the Parthenon.52 It is necessary to keep in mind that the type of stone used for this temple is a soft limestone very weathered by the wind and the sea air already at Leake’s time, and even more today: what is left of the capital is not easy to interpret. In fact after him other travelers including Holland, Pouqueville, Heuzey and Damet, Gillieron, and Praschniker have given different descriptions, dimensions, and dates to the monument. In

Figure 2.18: Single column at Shtyllas. 16

the mid-1980s two architects from the Albanian Institute of Monuments also reached different conclusions from each other, ranging from a date at the beginning of the 4th century to one at the beginning of the 5th century B.C. (Fig. 2.20).    François Quantin is the most recent scholar to collect and evaluate all the information regarding the temple, and he has not assigned a certain date to it. His opinion is that since the temple was of large dimensions and in a position where it dominated the whole territory from the coast inland, it represented the power of Greek Apollonia over its neighbors, and thus it could not have been built at the very beginning of the life of the colony.53Also in question is the divinity to whom the temple was dedicated: the most probable is Artemis. Her importance to the colony is attested by numerous dedications made to her found at Apollonia, and because among her attributes on these dedications are the qualities of “observer” (Proscopa), and of extra-urban goddess (Agrota or Limnatis).54      About the most important temple of the city information is even scarcer: Hasan Ceka and Praschniker discussed foundations of a building or an altar, made with carefully hewn stone blocks, found on Hill 104. Associated with this structure were Protocorinthian and Corinthian ceramic fragments, which date the structure to the same period as the traditional foundation of the colony.55 Close to that place came to light also an inscription dedicated to Asklepios, and remains of walls attributed to Hellenistic private houses.    As reported by Ceka, during test-excavations done by Praschniker on the acropolis in 1917-1918, the foundations of a building 30 m long and 10 m wide were uncovered, oriented eastwest, interpreted by the Austrian scholar as a temple. Ceka, however, was convinced that the famous temple of Artemis was located on top of Hill 104, and he identified it with the foundations that were revealed during the construction of Rey’s dig house. This opinion would also be supported by the presence of a fragmentary inscription, found close to the building, with the letters APTAM; this could be the archaic Doric form for Artemis.54 Also dated to the same period is a broken relief representing three warriors opposite a fourth one; this could have been part of

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.19: Aerial view of the temple of Shtyllas.

Figure 2.20: Reconstruction of the temple of Shtyllas by Guri Pani. 17

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

the decoration of the temple.57 Anamali has added to these finds two Archaic figurines, one made of lead and the other of bronze. The first represents a seated female figure with a polos and a long, clingy chiton. The second figurine has a crown in one hand. Both pieces are identified as votive offerings to Artemis.58 Nothing is known about a temple dedicated to Apollo, except for an allusion by Rey, reporting a tradition that would locate it under the monastery of St. Mary.59 The infamous Turkish pasha responsible for the destruction of the Shtyllas temple also dismantled a second temple, the location of which is debated. Leake wrote that it was in the Kalyvia valley (Quantin has associated Kalyvia with Kryegjata)60 and that it appeared “from some fragments to have been Ionic”.61      On the other hand Praschniker described foundations of a funerary monument in the shape of a temple in the Kryegjata valley, and fragments from an akroterion of the Corinthian order.62 Sestieri also mentioned a second monumental grave in the shape of a temple, and fragments from capitals of the Corinthian order in the Kryegjata valley. He dated the building to around A.D. 160, the period of the emperor Antoninus Pius, on the basis also of the style of two marble heads found inside one of the chambers of the tomb.63 In 1960 Anamali excavated a sanctuary that he attributed to Demeter and Kore and dated to the 4th-2nd century B.C.; these excavations have not been published. It is situated in the plain west of the city, at approximately 2.5 km from the fortifications. He found stretches of brick walls, and hundreds of terracotta figurines, usually representing two female figures.64 In 1996, when a new house was built, foundations of a building with large regular blocks were uncovered. During the MRAP project, the survey in the plain between Apollonia and the coast indeed revealed a concentration of material from the Archaic period to modern time without interruption in the property called “Pojan Bonjakët,” that took the denomination of S043. Among the material, mostly pottery, approximately fifteen terracotta figurines were collected: except for one, they are all parts of female figures.65      Another extra-urban sanctuary, which would have had the additional function of an oracle, is 18

the so-called Nymphaeum. Ancient sources described this extraordinary place: Aristotle (Mir. ausc. 842b. 127) wrote that near Apollonia bitumen and pitch sprang from the ground, and a perpetual fire burned. Despite this, however, thick grass and huge trees grew very close to that place.64 Strabo (7. 5. 8) after giving the name Nymphaeum, discussed a continuous fire originating from a rock, and a spring of warm water and bitumen.66      The sanctuary was still functioning in Roman times: Pliny (H. N. 2. 106. 228, 3. 23. 145) described it as a cold spring that set fire to clothes spread out above it, and also gave its location: at the border of Apollonia with the barbarians Amantes and Byliones. He added also that it was a famous shrine.67 Dio Cassius (41.45) likewise mentioned the name of the place, and the oracle, and gave a detailed account of the landscape and of the rituals: he commented that Apollonia was in an astonishing good position from the point of view of the land, the sea, and even more the rivers. What surprised the writer more, however, was a huge fire close to the Aous river that originated from the ground, but did not burn or dry lush grass and trees around it. This place was called Nymphaeum and provided an oracle; to obtain a response about every matter except for death and marriage, the suppliant had to throw incense in the fire: if the response was positive, the fire would reach and burn the incense even if it fell away from the flames. If the response was negative, the fire would have receded even if the incense was dropped directly in the fire.68      The existence of the sanctuary has been indirectly confirmed by bronze coins dated 330-43 B.C. on which the everlasting fire of the Nymphaeum is represented.69 A Greek inscription found at Delos also referred to a place at Apollonia where the Nymphs had a sanctuary and an oracle, and where games were celebrated in their honor.70 Ceka and Anamali have suggested that the Nymphaeum might be in the territory of the modern village of Frakull, in the region of Fieri, not far away from Apollonia and from the territory of the Byliones. According to the two scholars the name “Frakull” could derive from the Latin oraculum.71 On the other hand, Eric Fouache (a geomorphologist and member of Cabanes’ team), after a study in collaboration with

The importance of Apollonia in history

the specialists of the Institute of Geology of Fier, would locate the sanctuary in the region of Selenica, close to Vlora.72       The importance of the Nymphaeum was increased by economic profit from trade in bitumen and pitch, which had a wide range of practical functions, from agricultural remedies to medical treatments to the manufacture of impermeable ceramic vessels. This last use is attested archaeologically beginning in the 6th century B.C.73 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN OF THE COLONY As the preceding account shows, the evidence for the most ancient cults and for the origin of the colony is all questionable. In addition to the problems of the enormous area of the Hellenistic and Roman colony that has not yet been excavated, and of edifices replaced by new ones in antiquity, or dismantled in more recent times, must be added those of excavations that have never been thoroughly published, and even of materials that have disappeared. This is the case, for example, of the objects found by Léon Rey. According to Charles Picard, Léon Rey collected the most precious artifacts (which he judged the most precious because they were the most ancient), that would illuminate

Figure 2.21: “Gymnasium”. 19

the origin of the colony. The small bronze figurines and the glossy vessels (of which there are neither photographs or drawings, nor descriptions), however, found in the necropolis and deposited in the Museum of Vlora were destroyed during World War II.74 This is the most striking event, according to Hasan Ceka, during decades of despoliation started in the 19th century by French, Austrians, and Italians, in addition to the disinterest and the bad administration of cultural heritage under the rule of King Zog I.75      Traces of the Archaic, or even of the Classical period, are very scant in the city. Sestieri mentioned Archaic discoveries in the so-called gymnasium, a building of 30 m x 20 m, 300 m south of the monastery: two identical antefixes in the shape of female heads, fragments of a black-figures kylix, and a silver coin from Metaponto. These objects would demonstrate that the building, visible still nowadays, was erected on a more ancient edifice (Fig. 2.21).76      The presence of Archaic material (in particular a fragment of a Ionian Type B cup of local production, datable to the last quarter of the 6th century B.C.) in the foundation of one of the walls of the “building with the mosaic” (found and interpreted as a sacellum by the Albanian-French team)

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

approximately 25 m west of the stoa with niches, and dated in itself to the 3rd-1st century B.C., could prove that the edifice was erected in an area already occupied during the Archaic period.77 Traces of an Archaic street have been found recently (together with Ionian Type B2 cups, Attic black-figures pottery and Corinthian pottery, all dated to the second half of the 6th century B.C.) under later structures to the north of the stoa with niches (Fig. 2.22).78 In 2004 an electromagnetic survey was started by the Albanian-French team in the flat area between Hills 101 and 104, which revealed the presence of a portico with central colonnade north of the area, and a symmetrical wall south, which have been interpreted as the ancient agora, previous to the one visible today. At the bottom of Hill 101, instead, was revealed the presence of a residential quarter. The fact that it is laid down with a per strigas plan makes it plausible to be dated to the period of foundation of the colony.79      Then there are generic references to Archaic pottery found in deposits: both Sestieri and Koço have mentioned Archaic ceramics while exploring the eastern fortification walls. Sestieri found fragments of Protocorinthian and Corinthian pottery, and female terracotta figurines represented with the polos.80 Many years later Koço also collected, approximately in the same area, Corinthian Type A amphorae, and Ionian Type B amphorae.81

Figure 2.22: Archaic street. 20

THE PORT From ancient sources it is known that Apollonia was located on favorable land between two rivers,82 the Seman (ancient Apsos) and the Vjosë (ancient Aous). From geological studies (the most recent one undertaken by Eric Fouache) has emerged the conclusion that the beds of both rivers were closer to Apollonia than today, as was the coastline (Fig. 2.23). The bed of the Aous river was also wider and deeper, and was navigable by ships.83 Indirect information about this can be found again in sources of the early Roman period, that tell about battles that took place at Apollonia between Rome and the Illyrian queen Teuta, or between Caesar and Pompey.84 The port probably was not far from the hill of Shtyllas: a popular legend even says that the solitary column of the temple was used to moor the ships.85 Fouache has suggested that the port was on the Aous river, which probably issued into a lagoon.86 In 2007 a geophysical survey, launched always by ARAU, was carried out in the area hypothesized as the port, on a surface of 5.2 ha (Fig. 2.24). The survey revealed dense, although badly disturbed areas of former urban occupation, including surviving building foundations and possible roadways. However, no definitive evidence for the existence of a sea port was uncovered.87

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.23: Ancient coastline and courses of the Apsos and Aous rivers. 21

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.24: Area interested by the geophysical survey.

22

The importance of Apollonia in history

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ILLYRIANS AND GREEKS A thorough investigation of the chora of Apollonia had never been carried out prior to the Mallakastra survey project. Illyrian sites like Margëlliç and Maskjezë had been excavated in the 1980s in order to gather evidence for the importance of the Illyrian settlements as opposed to the Greek colony of Apollonia.88 In addition, references to Illyrian material culture that would testify to the presence of the indigenous population in the place where Apollonia was built were few before the discovery of Tumulus 10. However, from the ancient sources there is a reference of Stephanos of Byzantium (s. v. Apollonia) who wrote that Apollonia is an Illyrian city, settled by Illyrians.89 Anamali mentioned a vessel found out of context in the necropolis dur-

ing some drainage works in 1953, together with Corinthian imported ceramics of the 6th century B.C. The vessel is made at the slow-wheel and has vertical black painted lines. More Illyrian pottery, but just sherds, with incised decoration has been found in 1958 on the north-eastern side of the city, in the so-called Sector C, in a layer dated from the 6th to the first half of the 5th century B.C.90 From the MRAP survey evidence of the Prehistoric period in the territory around Apollonia includes finds from the Middle Neolithic through the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (4th millennium to the 7th century B.C.). In addition to Margëlliç, where finds of this phase were known from the previous work of Neritan Ceka, only few sites (S034, S038, and S041) in the whole survey area has yielded Bronze Age pottery (Fig. 2.25).91

MRAP SURVEY AREA

S047

S030S003 !! S016

!

S043 S049

!

!

!

S008 S007S017 !S006 !

! S048

!

!

S024

S018

! ! S019 ! S005 ! S023S029 !S004 ! ! S014 S020 !!

S015 S013 ! ! ! S009 S032 S001S010! S012 ! !! !S011 S026 ! S002 ! S021S022 ! S040 S034 ! ! S028 ! S025

!

S033

!

S037 S038

!

!

!

!

S027

! S042 !

S035

!

S039

! S036

!

± 0 0.5 1

2

3

4 Kilometers

Figure 2.25: MRAP Survey Area.

23

S041S045

!!

S044S046

!

!

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

   Other than these sites, a few prehistoric sherds have been found in locations such as Levan-Shaban, Vadhizë, and the area around Margëlliç. On the other hand, Archaic Greek pottery has been found in sites of the hinterland.92 According to Neritan Ceka, however, the presence of Ionian pottery dated to the 7th century B.C., that is earlier than the Corinthian imports, would demonstrate that the Illyrians had commercial contacts with the East, without a need for the intermediary role of the Corinthian/Corcyraean colonists.93 Therefore, the data seem in contradiction.    The cult of Artemis as hunter, so much more worshipped than the cult to Apollo from whom the city was named, as well as the cult of the Nymphs, indicates the influence of the Illyrian culture on the Greeks. In fact, the worship of these deities was widely diffused in Illyrian territory.94 Neritan Ceka has even suggested that when the colonists arrived to settle Apollonia, there was already a temple dedicated to the female Illyrian goddess equivalent to the Greek Artemis on Hill 104, and the newcomers only enlarged the sacred building.95 Aleksandra Mano has also supported the idea that the necropolis in the Kryegjata-Radostina valley in the form of tumuli is a confirmation of the impact of indigenous burial tradition on the Greeks.96      Despite the absence of modern constructions on the site, the sheer monumentality of the Hellenistic and Roman phases means it is difficult to reach any foundation or possible prefoundation levels. From this point of view, the excavations of the tumuli necropolis are particularly important: thanks to the data collected from graves, grave goods, and skeletal material it is now possible to throw light on exactly these periods. Indeed, the results from Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 have been especially successful in this respect. THE DATA FROM THE NECROPOLIS THE EARLY WORK In addition to the urban area defined by the walls, a substantial area was occupied by the necropoleis: the tumuli necropolis from the origin of the settlement to the 3rd century B.C., situated along the Kryegjata valley, the necropolis from the 3rd to the 1st century B.C. at the foot of the fortifications on 24

their eastern side, and the Roman one in the coastal plain (Fig. 2.26). The most ancient one is made of hundreds of tumuli. To date, eleven of these tumuli have been explored since the second decade of the last century. The second necropolis is very damaged by agricultural works and is made mostly by urns and brick graves. The Roman necropolis is a flat cemetery, of which 106 graves were excavated by Aleksandra Mano, and one was found in a test pit during the “Roads Project” conducted by ARAU in 2005.97 AUSTRIAN EXCAVATIONS Excavations in the necropolis of Kryegjata began in the second decade of the last century, when Praschniker opened approximately twenty graves. In the description of his work this Austrian scholar wrote that the graves were dated from the 4th to the 1st century B.C. The most ancient burials that he brought to light were two limestone sarcophagi in a small tumulus, five hundred steps northeast of the village of Kryegjata. Unfortunately they had both already been looted in antiquity, and only a spearhead and a black-glazed cup remained.    Most of the other graves were built with tiles. The usual grave goods consisted of a black-glazed lamp to the right of the skull of the deceased, unguentaria, amphorae, and small cups. Praschniker noticed also that some of the skeletons had a coin in their mouths. A black-glazed vessel decorated with a satyr and a goat in relief was remarkable among the finds. Praschniker also mentioned large amphorae containing the skeletons of children and urns containing cremations, dated to the 2nd and 1st century B.C. An unusual type of grave, found only in one example, was a wooden coffin built with iron nails and preserving the remains of a child. A kiln was also discovered, containing a thick layer of charcoal and waste from the production of pottery and glass. Praschniker identified another necropolis, which he located “three hundred meters west of the point R1 of the fortifications,” where he uncovered a sarcophagus formed by large and well finished stone slabs; this had already been looted. Inside only a lamp decorated with vine leaves, and fragments of green and blue glass remained. He saw also material coming from graves close to the

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figura 2.26: Location of the necropoleis. village of Radostina, opened by local people; the objects that caught his attention were the bronze handle of a bucket decorated with a Medusa’s head in Attic style, and the bronze handle of a ladle with a bird’s head finial.98

25

FRENCH EXCAVATIONS In 1930 the French mission in the necropolis brought to light some graves in pithoi, some graves with tiles, and some urns.99 According to Rey, interest in this area of Apollonia was awakened by the stray finds of a terracotta seated female figurine100

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

and of an Archaic bronze mirror with the handle shaped in the form of a female figure with chiton and himation, identified as Aphrodite.101      In his archaeological report of 1932, the French scholar described two graves in pithoi dated to the Archaic period, one of which contained twelve Corinthian vessels, including oinochoai, skyphoi, olpai, and kothones, with incised zoomorphic and floral decoration. He dated some of them from the second half of the 7th to the beginning of the 6th century B.C.102 The second type of grave consisted of rectangular coffins built with tiles of a date not earlier than the 4th century B.C.; the number of graves of this type was not specified. Most of them contained an amphora of coarse fabric with one or more small and miniature vessels inside. The types of pottery included unguentaria and red-figures lekythoi. Bronze or iron spearheads and strigils were among the grave goods. A small terracotta doll with articulated limbs was a noteworthy find.103      Another type of burial consisted of transport amphorae with toes stuck in the ground and used as urns, probably of the same date as the graves with tiles. These, however, were very damaged and there were no grave goods, and so the approximate date was given by the proximity to other dated graves.104 ALBANIAN EXCAVATIONS Systematic excavations of tumuli started in the 1950s by Albanian archaeologists. Hasan Ceka, Skënder Anamali, and Aleksandra (Buda) Mano participated in the first expeditions; the last scholar continued to be closely associated with the necropolis of Apollonia. Excavations were carried out in 1948, 1950 and 1951;105 there are unpublished reports on the work of 1950 and 1951.106 1950 Campaign In 1950 forty-two graves were excavated in different parts of the necropolis. Most of them had been discovered by farmers while plowing their fields, and had been damaged in the process: the report gives the impression that the graves were rescued and documented before they were completely destroyed, and that the expedition did not have a comprehensive research design. 26

   Information about the locations of the burials is also very generic: a) Two graves were in the field of “Leksi’s wife, close to the road of the village of Kryegjata, at the bottom of the hill of the monastery.” They were both “alla cappuccina,”107 damaged and dated to the Roman period, with glass and metal objects as grave goods. One of them was a cremation not in situ. b) One grave was built with tiles, damaged, and located on the “low hill of Bekçi.” The grave goods consisted of an unguentarium, and a plain banded vessel with two handles. c) A group of sixteen burials was in “the field of the olive trees:” six were built with tiles forming a coffin, seven were “alla cappuccina,” two were amphorae used as urns, and one was too damaged to be identified. No dates were given to any material, except for a bronze coin dated to the 3rd century B.C. found in one of the graves “alla cappuccina.” The coin had Athena with a helmet on one side, and the legend AΠOΛΛONIATAN on the other. From the list of the grave goods in the report it is not possible to identify a chronological sequence for the different types of burials. Generally the objects were plain amphorae and smaller closed forms, black-glazed lekythoi, cups, plates (one decorated with leaves and palmettes), and lamps (one with two nozzles). In a child’s grave there was an askos. In a particularly rich grave “alla cappuccina” there were also a terracotta standing female figurine with chiton and himation, a small bronze mirror, and a small lead pyxis. d) Seventeen other graves were found “in the woods,”108 mostly damaged by the roots of the trees. Nine burials were “alla cappuccina,” four of which contained children. Two graves were coffins built with tiles. One grave was defined as monumental, measuring 2.20 m x 1.60 m, with walls of squared bricks (measuring 0.40 m x 0.40 m) one meter high, but with no covering and no floor; the skeleton was laid directly on the ground. Two large plain amphorae (one with a toe), a black-glazed lamp and a black-glazed kotyle were placed in this monumental grave. In the same area there was also a red-figures krater used

The importance of Apollonia in history

as an urn; on the walls of the vessel it was possible to distinguish a Dionysiac scene. At a lower elevation than all the previous graves two fragmentary pithoi were found, used as enchytrismoi with typical Corinthian ceramics as grave goods. In contrast to the usual deposition ritual with the deceased in the supine position, one skeleton in a grave “alla cappuccina” had flexed legs, and was associated with a black-glazed ribbed Attic vessel with one twisted handle. e) Two burials were “on the low hill in the field of Halit Xhambazit, southeast of the acropolis of Apollonia.” One was a fragmentary pithos with a small banded amphora as a grave good. The other was an uncommon “cappuccina:” together with the tiles, there were also two stone slabs used in the same way as the tiles. A small iron spearhead was associated with this grave. f) The last four burials were located on “the low Hill of the Gypsies, a ridge which divides the fields of the village of Kryegjata from the fields of the villages of Bakër and Radostina.” In the report there is information about some graves excavated in 1948, also in this place, but there is no indication of the number nor any description of them. The four graves were each of a different type: one was “alla cappuccina,” one was a large amphora used as an urn; one was a sarcophagus made of three stone slabs which originally had a lid, and one was monumental made of brick walls measuring 3.30 m x 2.80 m x 1.00 m. The report asserts that the stone slab sarcophagus contained a secondary burial and that the skeleton was not the original one. According to the author the evidence suggested that this type of grave had been used during the 4th century B.C., while the grave goods – a blackglazed cup, an iron spearhead, an iron knife, and a bronze strigil – were of Hellenistic date. The monumental grave was similar to the one in the woods: it measured 3.30 m x 2.80 m, and had four walls of squared bricks (0.40 m x 0.40 m) approximately 1.0 m high. Two large plain amphorae were the grave goods associated with it.    The report also mentioned that other graves were excavated, without giving their number. They had in common the absence of grave goods, and 27

usually they were “alla cappuccina;” in contrast with the previous examples, these had a horizontal layer of tiles on which the body had been laid. Despite the absence of grave goods which could date them, a date for the “cappuccina” graves with the horizontal layer later than for the ones without it was proposed by the author of the report.    The conclusion of the report observed that the necropolis had extended from Kryegjata to Radostina and that there was great variety among graves, due to chronological and economical differences among the deceased. According to the author of the report, most of the graves were dated to the 3rd and 2nd century B.C., when Apollonia had flourished. The fact that Archaic burials were found in the same places as the Hellenistic graves, albeit at a lower elevation and in small numbers, proves that the necropolis was not divided into chronologically distinct areas.109 1951 Campaign In 1951 Hasan Ceka reported the investigation of four tumuli “in the narrow plain crossed by the road that goes from Radostina to Fier.” Several low hills, no more than two meters high, undoubtedly artificial, had previously been noticed. These tumuli covered not only the whole surface of the plain, but also the hill to the right of the road, which was then covered by a wood. The author pointed out that one of these tumuli had been excavated by Praschniker.110 Because that previous exploration of a tumulus had yielded interesting results, Ceka decided to investigate other tumuli on both sides of the road. The excavation of three of them revealed only fragments of tiles and of black-glazed pottery, evidence of graves which had been looted and destroyed in the past.    In a fourth tumulus, however, the results were more encouraging: a large limestone sarcophagus with a roof-shaped lid was found, but it was damaged and looted. Closer to the center of the tumulus and at a lower elevation than the sarcophagus was a pithos with two lug handles, decorated on the belly with wavy plastic lines. Inside the pithos there was a black-glazed column krater, and inside the krater a black-glazed trefoil oinochoe with a lid and decorated with painted lines on the shoulder and

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

rays on the reserved bottom. According to Ceka, both vessels were Corinthian imports, “dated to the same period as the foundation of the colony in 588 B.C.” Ceka emphasized that the burials in pithoi, found at a lower level than the sarcophagi, showed that cemeteries with tumuli belonged to the most ancient phase of the city and preserved a burial ritual of the local Illyrian population which was used from the Bronze Age, as demonstrated in northern Albania, to the Roman occupation.    A third grave was built with four brick walls. As Ceka pointed out, previously excavated burials of this type had usually been accompanied by spear- heads, while this example yielded only fragments of black-glazed pottery dated to the 3rd century B.C. He also mentioned without further information that two other graves with tiles were uncovered “in the same field where there were excavations the previous year.” Associated grave goods were unguentaria, small black-glazed vessels, and two iron arrow heads.    A red-figures pelike, restored in antiquity with lead clamps, was discovered out of context. One side had the figure of a horseman with oriental clothes and Phrygian hat pursuing a running

female figure; between the two was an Eros. The surface of the other side of the vessel was worn, and only three vague figures of young men could be distinguished.111 1956 Campaign The expedition of 1956 was headed by Aleksandra Mano, who published it in detail. This report also mentioned other tumuli excavated in 1955, which had not been reported previously, but with no specification of their number. In 1956 four tumuli were explored east of Apollonia, at the northeast corner of the village of Kryegjata. Three of them were very close to each other, while the fourth one was about one hundred fifty or two hundred meters from the others (Fig. 2.27).      The first three tumuli were irregular and damaged in antiquity by looters. An additional problem was a recently planted forest of oaks, the roots of which had also destroyed the graves; materials, both ceramic and osteological, were spread on the surface.    Tumulus 1112 was 1.30 m high and had a diameter of ca. 16 m (Fig. 2.28). The northwest part of it was the best preserved, where three of the four

Figure 2.27: Map of the Apollonia area with the location of the four tumuli excavated in 1956. 28

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.28: Plan of Tumulus 1 excavated in 1956. recorded graves were located. Two fragmentary limestone sarcophagi were found, one of which contained an unguentarium made of blue glass. Mano dated the vessel to the 5th century B.C. based on the associated sarcophagus,113 since that kind of unguentarium was in use from the 7th to the 2nd century B.C. and is therefore not diagnostic. Fragments of an urn coated with pitch on the inside and of burned bones were found in the same area of Tumulus 1; this grave cannot have been earlier than the 3rd century B.C. when urns were first used in this part of Albania. The pit dug to deposit the urn may have damaged an earlier burial in a pithos; a stone slab may have served as the lid of this pithos burial, and a 6th century B.C. Corinthian aryballos found in the vicinity may also have belonged to it. The fourth grave114 was in the southeast part of Tumulus 1, and was the richest in grave goods. It was a large pithos restored in antiquity with lead clamps. Associated with it were two pyxides decorated with black-glazed lines, two skyphoi, and a black-figures lekythos, all fragmentary. The figures on the last vessel were worn but looked like hoplites wearing Corinthian helmets. Mano has not given dates to any of these ceramics. A few Hellenistic vases were also found out of context, as well as fragments of tiles, a pyxis with geometric decoration, and an iron double ax.    Tumulus 2 had the same dimensions as Tumulus 1; the center had been looted (Fig. 2.29). Four of the five graves in Tumulus 2 were limestone sarcophagi; three of them were for adults and had 29

roof-shaped lids, while the fourth one was small and without a cover, but with some bone fragments and grave goods. Mano dated this last burial to the beginning of the 5th century B.C., based on a small Corinthian skyphos and a black-figures lekythos. One of the other sarcophagi contained very interesting objects: besides an iron dagger and an iron spearhead, there were a lydion dated to the 6th century B.C., and a rare find of a pair of wooden sandals, bronze plated and with bronze nails probably to secure leather straps. Another grave in Tumulus 2 consisted of a large pithos decorated with wavy plastic lines, typical of the Archaic period. Inside there were three Corinthian oinochoai. An Attic red-figures squat lekythos115 and five objects that from Mano’s description could be loomweights were found out of context.    Tumulus 3 was smaller than the previous two, especially in its height. It appeared to be the best preserved of the three, but in reality many objects were scattered, especially in its southern half, and only one grave could be located with certainty, on the basis of a concentration of bones (Fig. 2.30). Close to the bones there were fragments of tiles, and some pottery. Two vessels were complete: a small cup and a small lekythos decorated with a palmette, dated to the 4th century B.C. Among the materials scattered on the surface, three fragmentary iron spearheads, a black-glazed lamp, and a black-glazed squat lekythos were also found.    Tumulus 4 was south of the other three, on top of a hill. Its diameter was twelve m. The soil

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.29: Plan of Tumulus 2 excavated in 1956. was sandier than in the others. Most of the southern part had been excavated in the campaign of 1955, but some graves had also been looted in antiquity (Fig. 2.31). In total seven burials were brought to light: three were built with tiles, and two of them had black-glazed Hellenistic pottery as grave goods: a few skyphoi, a cup, a lamp, a kantharos, a pyxis, and a guttus. The third grave was exactly in the center of the tumulus, and contained fragments of bones and a table amphora with a line

Figure 2.30: Plan of Tumulus 3 excavated in 1956. 30

in relief on the neck. A fragmentary sarcophagus with no lid and no grave goods was also recorded.    Finally, three pithoi close to each other were reported: two of them had only one object each: a Corinthian skyphos and a black-figures lekythos. The third one had eighteen objects that Mano dated to the 5th century B.C.: lekythoi, small amphorae, pyxides, skyphoi, and aryballoi. A black-figures lekythos with Herakles fighting the Nemean lion and a bronze aryballos were particularly interesting.

The importance of Apollonia in history

   The report also mentioned a sarcophagus found by chance by a farmer in his field, approximately one hundred meters north of the first three tumuli. The sarcophagus was badly damaged but with an uncommon amulet representing a mask, made of silver and blue glass, as a grave good, besides fragments of iron objects and black-glazed pottery dated to the 5th century B.C.116 1958-1959 Campaigns Mano excavated a large tumulus in 1958-1959 which, because of the great number of graves and quantity of material, was labeled Tumulus 1.117 It was located northeast of Kryegjata, not far from the road to Radostina, and approximately two hundred meters northeast of the tumuli excavated in 1956 (Fig. 2.32). The tumulus measured 3.90 m at its maximum height, and 20.0 m in diameter. It was quite regular, but the edges were more definite on the southern side; on the northern and eastern sides it was linked by a gentle slope to the natural hill from which the soil to cover the graves and to create the tumulus had been taken, while the western side was steeper. On the southwestern edge there was another tumulus, lower than Tumulus 1, which was not explored.    The surface under investigation was divided into sixteen squares, 5.0 m x 5.0 m each, plus two “extensions:” extension A, measuring 2.0 m x 2.0

Figure 2.31: Plan of Tumulus 4 excavated in 1956. 31

m, in the northwestern corner of square 5, and extension B, measuring 7.0 m x 2.0 m, on the eastern side of squares 8 and 12 (Fig. 2.33).      During the excavation the archaeologists distinguished three layers of fill in the tumulus, with different soil colors and textures, and varying in their extent (Fig. 2.32). These physical differences corresponded also to different chronological periods of use of the tumulus: the two more ancient layers are dated from the second half of the 6th century to the beginning of the 5th century B.C.; the upper layer is delineated as Hellenistic. In addition Mano has noted the almost total absence of graves dated to mid-5th century, in contrast to the predominance of burials dated to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. In the 2nd century there is again a decline in the number of burials.118 136 graves were excavated in total. The tumulus was not used with the same intensity in all the periods: in fact the two more ancient layers had only 34 burials, equal to the 25% of the total number, mostly sarcophagi and pithos graves. The upper layer, dated to the Hellenistic period, contained the remaining 102 graves (75% of the total), mostly built with mud-bricks, bricks, and tiles.119      Mano has not specified what she considered to be the beginning of the Hellenistic period, but it seems that she has labeled the whole 4th century B.C. Hellenistic, while usually the last quarter of

Figure 2.32: Location of Tumuli 1, 6-11.

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

32

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.33: Plan of Tumulus 1 excavated in 1958-1959. the century is considered the conventional date for its start.120 Both inhumation and cremation were practiced, but cremation is much rarer, accounting for only 13% of the graves, 18 of the total 136, mostly of Hellenistic date. Mano has explained the increase in the practice in the Hellenistic period as the result of ethnic changes in the population of Apollonia. However, because this ritual was practiced by Illyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Macedonians, and Italics it is not easy to specify the origins of the new ethnic component.    Even with so few cremations two variants were observed: • cremation in situ within a sarcophagus-like structure made of mud-bricks (1 case) or in a simple pit (2 cases) during the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.; • cremation outside of the tumulus with the remains afterwards deposited in an urn (plain amphorae in all cases except one, when a blackglazed pelik was used) in the Hellenistic period.121      Votive deposits with broken burned vessels but no trace of bones were also found.122 Inhumation was the most common ritual; usually the body was laid down with extended arms and legs. Skeletons with both arms flexed, one arm flexed, or legs flexed and in the fetal position were observed only in one case each. The most common orientations of the graves were with the head of the de33

ceased towards the northeast (26 cases), east (10), southeast (16), and south (18); it was never towards the north or northwest. Moreover, the orientation towards the south and southeast was preferred in the 6th and 5th centuries, while later the predominant orientation was towards the northeast. Mano observed that, given the location of the tumulus southeast of the acropolis of Apollonia, most of the bodies appeared to have been arranged with the face “looking” at the city.123      Mano also analyzed the data gained from the excavation, dividing the graves by types and at the same time grouping them in three chronological phases: the 6th-5th centuries, the end of the 5th-beginning of the 4th century, and the 4th-2nd centuries B.C. Finally, she has examined the objects found as grave goods, dividing them in two groups: pottery and “other”, creating categories in each group, and describing them by shapes (the pottery) or by function (the other objects).    In the section where the graves are grouped in two phases, the types of grave during the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. are:124 1. in situ cremations in graves built with mud-bricks forming a “sarcophagus”: 1 case; 2. in situ cremations in simple pits: 2 cases; 3. cenotaph built with mud-bricks: 1 case; 4. cremation in urn: 1 case; 5. inhumations in pithoi: 14 cases, but 2 cases actually

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

are in Corinthian amphorae; 6. inhumations in limestone sarcophagi: 15 cases. In the period from the 4th to the 2nd centuries B.C. the types of grave are:125 1. inhumations in graves built with mud-bricks: 23 cases;126 inhumations in graves built with bricks: 5 cases; 2. inhumations in pits covered by bricks: 1 case; 3. inhumations in graves built with tiles forming a coff in: 3 cases; 4. inhumations in graves built with tiles forming a roof (“alla cappuccina”): 18 cases; 5. inhumations in simple pits: 25 cases, although only 17 were listed, in which skeletons have different grades of preservation. 6. inhumations in graves built with tiles forming a roof (“alla cappuccina”): 18 cases; 7. inhumations in simple pits: 25 cases, although only 17 were listed, in which skeletons have different grades of preservation.    In addition to the preceding, there are listed also 14 damaged graves where it was impossible to define the type of construction, but fragments of pottery were present. Then the author has described 15 cremations divided into five additional numbered variants: 8. cremations in graves without construction: 8 cases with cremation in situ, three cases in urns. 9. cremations in graves with built constructions: 4 cases in all of which the cremation had not been performed in the same place as the grave. They presented three variants: Grave 10 was an urn surrounded by bricks, Graves 25 and 84 were urns covered by a couple of tiles forming a roof, Grave 97 was surrounded by mud-bricks.    Eight graves were burials, the construction of which could not be determined, and which contained no traces of bones, although objects were present.    In the catalogue the graves are described individually in ascending numerical order with their location, elevation, orientation, measurements, features, and grave goods with inventory numbers. The presence or absence of a skeleton is also specified, together with its position and state of preservation, and, when possible, whether it is an infant or an adult. 33 graves are dated to the 6th , 5th centu34

ries B.C., 46 are dated from the end of the 5th to the beginning of the 4th century B.C, and 57 are dated from the 4th to the 2nd centuries B.C.127      The last part of the article is devoted to the analysis of the grave goods which were found in great quantities, especially pottery.    The pottery is divided in seven categories: 1. plain vessels with thick walls; 2. plain vessels with thin walls; 3. Corinthian pottery; 4. black-figures pottery; 5. red-figures pottery; 6. black-glazed pottery; 7. terracotta figurines. 1. The first category includes pithoi and amphorae. Twelve pithoi were found in the cemetery, seven of which contained skeletal remains of infants. Mano dated the pithoi on the basis of the grave goods associated with them, usually Corinthian and blackfigures Attic vessels, of the 6th and 5th centuries B.C.    Amphorae were much more common than pithoi in Tumulus 1, both as containers for child burials or cremations, and as grave goods. 2. The category of plain vessels with thin walls includes table amphorae and other shapes, mostly closed, such as hydriai, jugs, cooking pots, unguentaria (which Mano has called “bottles”), lekythoi, and gutti.

Figure 2.34: Rhodian pottery from Tumulus 1.

The importance of Apollonia in history

3. The Corinthian imports were not numerous, 18 pieces in total, and were usually found in pithos graves and sarcophagi. Two trefoil oinochoai have a shiny black glaze and rondelles at the junction of the handle at the rim; according to Mano, these could have been of Rhodian production dated to the end of the 6th or beginning of the 5th centuries B.C. (Fig. 2.34). 4. The Attic black-figures pottery was also found in pithos graves and sarcophagi. 5. The red-figures pottery was more abundant in the tumulus than the two previous categories. There were two provenances for the material: Attica and southern Italy, with a definite prevalence of the latter. 6. The category including the largest number of vessels, however, is black-glazed pottery. Attic imports dated to the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., as well as Italic and local vessels dated to the 4th and 3rd century B.C., are frequent, but there is a clear preference for the latter. 7. According to Mano the terracotta figurines were produced locally. Eighteen examples were found, mostly in graves of children, but some also out of context.   They can be divided in two types: • hand-made figurines of animals, mostly birds; • moulded or partially moulded human, mostly female, figurines.    The figurines were all found in the upper layer of the tumulus.128    The objects other than ceramic are divided into five categories: 1. small glass amphorae and alabastra; 2. jewellery; 3. iron weapons and tools;

4. bronze and iron strigils; 5. stelai with reliefs and inscriptions. 1. Two small core-formed glass amphorae, one complete and one in fragments, were found in graves dated to the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The body was decorated with straight and zig-zag yellow lines.129 2. Most of the jewellery was made of bronze, but silver, bone, and amber objects were found as well. 3. The third category consists of iron objects such as spearheads, knives, daggers, and small sickles. A large number of spearheads — twenty five — have been found, usually two per grave. Mano has noted that the practice of depositing weapons as grave goods was typically Illyrian: the fact that they were found in graves of the 4th century B.C. would support the theory that in this period the Illyrian population began to play an important role in the political and social life of Apollonia. The knives were also of the same Illyrian type as those found in tumuli in the area of Mat.130 4. There were more strigils than any other category of metal object. Twenty one strigils were made of bronze and six were made of iron. They were found in graves of all periods. 5. The fifth category groups stelai and grave stones found in Tumulus 1. Because of the way graves were set up in a tumulus, creating superimposed levels, stelai in reality were not practical. As a matter of fact, the few examples were found out of context, or reused as grave coverings. This is the case of a stele reused as a lid for a grave with tiles dated to 3rd or 2nd century B.C. It is a slab of limestone with a relief of a female figure seated on a low column with an Ionic capital; the upper half of the figure is lost. According to Mano the sculpture

Figure 2.35: Stone objects from Tumulus 1: a) stele; b) inscription; c) palmette. 35

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

is a local product of the 5th or 4th century B.C. (Fig. 2.35: a). There is also an interesting grave stone in the shape of an obelisk with a name in the genitive form, Ksenaristas, written in Archaic Greek letters incised vertically from bottom to top (Fig. 2.35: b).131 A fragmentary limestone relief with a palmette and two volutes is also worthy of mention. It is also probably from a grave stone (Fig. 2.35: c).132 1973 Campaign In 1973 Aleksandra Mano documented some damaged graves southwest of the village of Radostina, “four or five kilometers from the northeast side of Apollonia, where a series of twenty or thirty tumuli form the continuation of the low hills of the villages of Kryegjata and Bakër.” Two of the graves consisted of limestone sarcophagi, but only one was explored: inside there were remains of a skeleton without grave goods, oriented with the head towards the southwest.    Not far from the sarcophagus, a red-figures column krater used as an urn was found: inside, together with some burned bones, were a small black-glazed cup and a bronze strigil. Despite the fact that the krater was fragmentary, and the surface so worn that it was impossible to identify the figures of the decoration, Mano was able to date the vessel to the mid-5th century and to attribute it to the circle of the Attic Eupolis Painter.133 In the same year Vangjel Dimo found, “close to the wood of Kryegjata”, scattered material coming from destroyed graves: a bronze hydria, three lamps, four lekythoi, two bronze mirrors, a bronze spiral bracelet, a core-formed glass bottle decorated with zigzag white and blue lines, and a female terracotta figurine wearing a chiton and himation.134 1981-1983 Campaigns More than twenty years after the exploration of Tumulus 1, Vangjel Dimo excavated two other tumuli. At first he numbered them Tumulus 2 and Tumulus 3, but later, considering also the four tumuli excavated in 1956, in addition to Tumulus 1, he has renumbered them 6 and 7.    The results of these excavations are published in Dimo’s doctoral dissertation. He has followed the structure of Mano’s article on Tumulus 1, re36

porting the architecture of the tumuli, the burial rituals, the types of graves, the catalogue of graves, and the catalogue of finds. But while all the descriptions including the catalogue of graves are done for each tumulus separately, the catalogue of finds combines the objects from both. Tumulus 6 was located approximately 250 m southwest of Tumulus 1. It was covered by thick vegetation, and the graves under the surface were damaged by roots. The cemetery was built on the slope of a natural hill, so that on the north and west sides it was steep; on the other hand, on the south and east sides it was joined to two other tumuli, which were not explored.    The diameter of Tumulus 6 measured approximately 18 m, and the height was 3.30 m. Dimo divided the tumulus in four quadrants, leaving 0.40 m wide balks between them, oriented along the cardinal axes. During the excavation Dimo noted that the artificial hill had been created by two layers of soil with different characteristics: the upper layer was mostly sandy, and the lower one clayey. The physical differences corresponded to chronological differences.    This tumulus presented two unusual features not found in the other five tumuli previously explored in the necropolis: an elliptic “ditch”, from 2.5 to 4.0 m wide and from 1.5 to 1.8 m deep, had been excavated in the first and more ancient layer of soil. The axes of the ellipsis measured 6.0 and 9.0 m, with the longest one oriented northeastsouthwest. The soil produced by the excavation of this ring had been spread around it, widening the total surface of the base of the artificial hill to approximately 18 m. The second and more recent layer had then been deposited on and in the area enclosed by the ditch. The second unusual characteristic consisted of a layer of soil at the very bottom of the tumulus, from 0.05 to 0.15 m thick, with a darker color than the two layers above and mixed with sherds of handmade cooking vessels135 and Corinthian and Laconian pottery. According to Dimo, this feature represents an Illyrian tradition of bringing soil from the settlement, from the world of the living people, to the world of the deceased. This phenomenon has been observed in many other tumuli in different areas of Albania.136

The importance of Apollonia in history

   The total number of graves found in Tumulus 6 was 71, belonging to two different chronological periods: 31 graves were dated from the mid-6th century and to the 5th century B.C., while 40 were from the beginning of the 4th to the second half of the 3rd centuries B.C. Both inhumation (38 graves) and cremation (30 graves) were practiced. Cremation was more common in the earlier period and in the first half of the 4th century B.C., and was performed in two ways: • in situ in graves built with mud-bricks (6 cases) or in simple pits (3 cases); • outside of the tumulus; the remains were then deposited in an urn, such as an amphora, a cooking pot, a krater, or a stone urn (21 cases).    In the ritual of inhumation there were cases of multiple burials. In addition, three graves were designated as cenotaphs. In the multiple grave with brick walls (Grave 55) dated to the second period, both rituals were performed: there were two skeletons and four urns.    Dimo has classified the graves into seven types, some of them with variants: 1. graves built with mud-bricks: 10 cases. There are two sizes of mud-bricks: 0.46 x 0.46 x 0.08 m or 0.38 x 0.38 x 0.08 m. There are three variants of mud-brick graves: with cremation (6 cases), with an urn (1 case), and with inhumation (3 cases). They belonged to the beginning of the later period of the tumulus. 2. urns: 18 cases with six variants: carved from a limestone or sandstone block (3 cases), transport amphorai (5 cases), cooking pots (6 cases),137 a pithos coated with pitch (1 case), a bronze amphora (1 case), a bronze hydria (1 case), a redfigures krater (1 case). 3. inhumations in pithoi (3 cases) and dinoi (2 cases). 4. limestone sarcophagi with roof shaped lids (7 cases) were the earliest graves in Tumulus 6, dated from the mid-6th to the second half of 5th century B.C. They were distributed in an interesting pattern: one was approximately in the center of the tumulus, and the others formed a rough circle around it. According to Dimo this would explain the necessity of the soil ring to enlarge the tumulus. He has also pointed out the similarities 37

in the type of stone and in the chisel work between these sarcophagi, the Archaic inscriptions found on the acropolis related to the temple of Artemis,138 and the blocks of the eastern side of the fortification walls at Apollonia. The tract of walls is associated with materials of 7th and 6th century B.C. date. 5. graves built with bricks (6 cases) which measured 0.38 x 0.38 x 0.08 m. In their dimensions, these graves were larger than any other type of burial in the tumulus, and contained multiple skeletons and an abundance of grave goods. 6. graves built with tiles (9 cases) in two variants: with tiles placed in the shape of a roof (7 cases), and with tiles placed vertically (2 cases). Both of the last were cenotaphs. The tiles measured 0.82 x 0.52 x 0.02 m and were of Hellenistic date. In the “alla cappuccina” graves the skeleton was placed directly on the ground. 7. simple pits: 14 cases. The grave goods dated them to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.139    Five graves were not included in any group, but they can be added on the basis of the catalogue of graves: Grave 33, a child burial built with tiles, whose construction was not specified; Grave 40, a Corinthian amphora used as an urn; Grave 58, an inhumation in a damaged sarcophagus without a lid; Grave 59, an inhumation in a grave built with mudbricks and covered with a limestone lid; Grave 62, an amphora of local production used as an urn. Conversely, in the catalogue of graves two burials were omitted: Grave 46, a cooking pot used as an urn; and Grave 47, a simple pit. The catalogue of graves is organized on the basis of the chronological periods, and within them the individual graves are numbered. The graves of the earlier period were covered by the clayey soil and are within and under the “ditch”. The first graves of the later period were on the clayey soil but they were covered by the sandy soil, in which were stratified all the subsequent graves up to the second half of the 3rd century B.C. Dimo has pointed out that some burials in Corinthian amphorai were found also in the sandy soil, but he interpreted them as having been moved during the preparation of the “ditch”. The preferred orientation in both periods was to the south; next most popular orientations were south-

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

east, northeast, east, and north. 1987-1988 Campaigns A few years after the excavation of Tumulus 6, Vangjel Dimo excavated Tumulus 7, one of the two tumuli joined to Tumulus 6. This tumulus had an elliptical shape with the diameter varying between 14 and 16 m, while the maximum height was 2 m. The south and east sides were steeper than the other two sides. The surface was well preserved except for the very top and one side, where a few graves had been damaged. The technique of excavation was the same as in Tumulus 6: four quadrants divided along the cardinal axes by balks 0.40 m wide. A total of 30 graves were brought to light, and as in Tumulus 6, at the very bottom of Tumulus 7 there was a layer mixed with pottery fragments, in this case hand-made vessels. According to Dimo, the characteristics of the soil used to build the tumulus were the same throughout the structure, but three chronological periods with a long interval between the first two could be identified, based on the date of the grave goods: the first period covered a time span from the end of the 7th to mid-6th century B.C., the second period from the end of the 4th to the end of the 3rd century B.C., and the third period from the second half of the 3rd to mid-2nd century B.C. In the long time span when Tumulus 7 was not in use, it seems that Tumulus 6 was created. The first period was represented by 8 graves, the second by 20, and the third by 2. Only five child burials were detected, all of them “alla cappuccina” type, dated within the second period. Cremation was the preferred ritual, especially in the first period, when 7 of the 8 burials were cremations. In the second period the two rituals were represented equally, while in the third period the only two graves were both multiple cremation burials. The third period has been distinguished by Dimo more for the unusual type of graves than for its date. It was represented by two monumental multiple graves (numbers 16 and 20) built with bricks and covered by a vault. They contained cremations, but it is not specified how many in each one. They were both oriented to the northeast.    Cremation was performed in two ways: 1. in situ in a simple pit (1 case); 38

2. outside the tumulus; the remains were then deposited in an urn, such as an amphora, a cooking pot, a krater, or a stone urn (17 cases). Inhumation was represented by 12 graves in total, among which two were multiple burials in monumental graves built with bricks, of the same type as those found in Tumuli 1 and 6.    Dimo has used the classification of the graves applied in Tumulus 6: 1. graves built with mud-bricks: no cases. 2. urns: 11 cases. Of the six variants found in Tumulus 6, only the pithos coated with pitch was not used in Tumulus 7.    The other variants included an urn carved from a limestone block (1 multiple grave), transport amphorai (5 cases), cooking pots (3 cases), a bronze lebes (1 case), a Corinthian dinos (1), and a red-figures krater (1).140 Urns were diffused during all the periods of use of the tumulus. 3. inhumations in a pithos: 1 case. 4. limestone sarcophagi: no cases. 5. graves built with bricks: 7 cases.141 The bricks measured 0.38 x 0.38 x 0.08 m. There were three variants of brick graves: a) with a simple row of bricks to delimitate an urn (1 case) or an inhumation (1 case); b) with walls forming a coffin for inhumations (3 cases); c) multiple burials covered with a vault (2 cases). These graves pertain to second and third period of the tumulus (4th and the 3rd century B.C.). 6. graves with tiles: 7 cases. There were two variants of tile graves: a) with tiles placed in the shape of a roof (5 cases), and b) with tiles placed vertically forming a coffin (2 cases). In both variants the skeleton lay directly on the ground. All these graves pertain to the second period of the tumulus, except grave 2 which is included in the group of burials of the first period. 7. simple pits: 6 cases. Three graves were cremations and the other three inhumations.142 These graves are included in first and second period of the tumulus.143    The catalogue of finds combines the objects from both Tumuli 6 and 7. The inventory number, number of the tumulus, and number of the grave are given for every catalogue entry.    The first division is between “pottery” and

The importance of Apollonia in history

“metal vessels and other objects.” Within pottery, the division is among: 1. vessels with thick walls (including cooking ware); 2. vessels with thin walls; 3. terracotta figurines: 1. The vessels with thick walls are then listed according to shape. 2. The vessels with thin walls are divided into categories in the introduction of the catalog: I. painted pottery: a. Orientalizing style, b. black-figures, c. red-figures;144 II. black-glazed pottery; III. plain pottery with thin walls. 3. Terracotta figurines were found in great numbers, but for the most part not in the graves. Except for an Archaic painted terracotta fragment, probably from Attica (Fig. 2.36: a), all were from Apollonia, on the basis of the clay fabric. Figurines represented human beings and animals, mostly birds (Fig. 2.35: d). The human figures were worked with care, while the animals are very crudely modelled. According to Dimo, the latter were probably toys, and it is possible that they were made by children. More figurines were found in the layers of soil that formed the tumuli rather then in the graves: the majority of them were in the upper layer, dated to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. Among the human figures there are representations of female seated figures (Fig. 2.36: b) and horsemen (Fig. 2.36: c).

  At the end of the catalogue of the figurines is listed also a small core-formed glass amphora found in Tumulus 6, which in Dimo’s opinion is an imitation of Corinthian amphorae of the 5th century B.C., and a Phoenician import. The glass has zig-zag lines of three colors (blue, light blue and yellow).145    The catalogue of finds describes also the metallic vessels and other objects, listed in four groups: 1. bronze vessels; 2. silver and bronze jewels; 3. bronze and iron weapons; other objects made of bone and stone. 1. Bronze vessels were numerous — twenty — and were found in both Tumulus 6 and Tumulus 7, but were located in only five graves. Some of them were complete, some restored, and some fragmentary. According to Dimo those dated from the Archaic period to the end of the 5th century were Greek imports, while from the 4th century on they came from South Italy. 2. Jewellery was not common; there were only three examples made of silver (a medallion, a finger ring and an earring ) and eleven made of bronze, mostly spiral bracelets with animal head finials, but also two fibulae. They were all found in graves dated to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. The medallion was made of two sheets, one silver and one bronze, joined with minuscule bronze nails; it was decorated with the scene of the battle between Bellerophon and the Chimera (Fig. 2.37).

Figure 2.36: Terracotta figurines from Tumuli 6 and 7: a) painted, Archaic; b) seated female; c) horseman; d) bird. 39

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 2.37: Silver/bronze medallion from Tumulus 6. 3. Weapons were definitely more abundant than jewellery. The most frequent types were spearheads, always found in pairs, together with strigils and knives. Weapons were found in graves dated from the end of the 5th to the end of the 4th centuries B.C.    One bronze shield was found, in Tumulus 6, decorated with groups of circles (Fig. 2.38: a). Three bronze helmets enriched the collection of armor: two of them were dated by associated finds

to the 6th or 5th century B.C. (Fig. 2.38: b), while the third one was of Macedonian type belonging to the 4th century B.C. Three iron swords also came to light, of different types but all with a one-edged blade. They were positioned to the left of the bodies, with the handle on the shoulder of the deceased. On one of them there were still traces of a wooden handle, and close to the end of the sword a half disk made of bone, which was part of the sheath (Fig. 2.38: c). 4. This last group includes “other metallic objects and objects made of bone:”146 two pairs of iron frames of sandals (Fig. 2.39: a), various iron nails, an iron horse bit (Fig. 2.39: b), three small bronze coins with Athena represented on them, at least one of Apollonia, and astragaloi.147

a

b

Figure 2.38: Bronze armor and iron sword from Tumulus 6: a) shield; b) helmet; c) sword.

a

b

Figure 2.39: Iron objects from Tumulus 6: a) sandals; b) horse bit. 40

c

The importance of Apollonia in history

1996 Campaign Almost ten years after the excavation of Tumulus 7, a joint project between scholars from the Institute of Archaeology at Tirana and members of a team led by Pierre Cabanes investigated one more tumulus of the necropolis of Apollonia, which was called Tumulus 8.    It was situated approximately eight hundred meters east of Apollonia (Fig. 2.32), and it was chosen because of its definite contours and because it looked intact. During the excavation, however, the archaeologists found out that the cemetery had been looted repeatedly during ancient and modern times.    The results of the excavation have not been thoroughly published, and brief preliminary reports exist: the purpose of the project was to see if the pottery dated to the last quarter of the 7th century found in Tumulus 7 was an isolated case, or if it was more common, in order to confirm Dimo’s hypothesis that Apollonia had been founded earlier than 588 B.C.148    Tumulus 8 had a diameter of 20 m and a height of 2 m.149 The excavation was conducted by dividing the tumulus in four sectors along the cardinal axes, and leaving bulks between them (Fig. 2.40). Four different layers of soil were detected:

Figure 2.40: Aerial view of Tumulus 8 showing the division in four sectors. 1) the sterile soil on which the tumulus was built was a whitish and clayey type; 2) the layer with the earliest graves was a very dark color, similar to the one found in Tumuli 6 and 7; 3) the third layer was completely different from the previous ones: it was in fact definitely sandy; 4) on the upper surface of the mound there was finally a layer of humus.150 41

  

The joint Albano-French campaign lasted one month, and it was not possible to excavate the tumulus completely. Because of problems with looters, however, it was not safe to leave the tumulus with the graves easily accessible, so Dimo finished the excavation by himself; fourteen graves were brought to light before the end of the month of joint investigation,151 in addition to three undetermined structures;152 Dimo found six more graves after the French team left.153 Inhumation was without doubt the preferred burial ritual: thirteen of the fourteen total graves were of this type.    The types of graves were the same as those observed in the other excavated tumuli: limestone sarcophagi, child burials within pithoi, graves built with bricks, graves built with tiles, and simple pits. The majority of graves were sarcophagi (6 cases), followed by simple pits (3 cases), pithoi graves (2 or 3 cases), graves with bricks and tiles (2 cases). The majority of the graves seemed to be dated to the late Classical and Hellenistic periods. Grave goods included pottery and metal objects, but there is no detailed description of any of them: the presence of amphorai, red-figures pottery, plain ware, small cups, aryballoi, and at least two pithoi are indicated. Bronze and iron objects consisted of spearheads, strigils, and fibulae. A few bronze coins of Apollonia were also found.Pottery older than the beginning of the 6th century was not found in the graves; a few sherds dated to the Bronze Age were out of context.154    All the osteological material was kept, and a preliminary physical anthropological study has been carried out on the remains of 22 individuals. The presence of males, females, and young children makes plausible to think about a family tumulus.155 MRAP SURVEY One of the components of the MRAP project has been the preparation of a detailed contour map of the necropolis of Apollonia (Fig. 2.41), with two main objectives: to help in creating a management plan in order to protect the site from looting and other dangers (such as erosion and extraction of raw materials including sand and gravel for building purposes), and to understand better the extent and the spatial organization of the cemetery.

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

   The method of work consisted of shooting topographical points with an Electronic Distance Measuring instrument (EDM), producing a topographical map that defined mounds and moundlike features, and then ground-truthing the results. The survey started from the portion of the necropolis which stretches along the road from Kryegjata to Radostina: in 1999 twenty one definite and two possible tumuli were identified on the map and verified on the ground. In 2000 the mapping of this portion of the necropolis was completed, and the impression of the archaeologists responsible for this project — Michael Galaty, Muzafer Korkuti and Jim Newhard — was that the number of tumuli is approximately one hundred, and that the necropolis extends for about eight hundred meters: in their opinion it is delimited on the north by the përroi156 Vajës which has damaged with its water some tumuli itself, and south by the RadostinaApollonia road (Fig. 2.42).

Figure 2.41: Main necropolis – contour map.

42

   Another section of the necropolis, south of the previous one and above the abandoned military installation at Kryegjata, was also mapped (Fig. 2.43): this area had been looted and damaged by bunkers and gravel quarries even more massively than the first section. It is here that in 1998 a tumulus was surface collected as Site 006.157 In 2000, a soil profile in one of the quarries was sampled for pedological analysis and thermoluminescent dating because it was near a large Palaeolithic site. In 2001, members of MRAP returned to this quarry to take more samples, only to find that it had been greatly expanded and that several Hellenistic graves had, as a consequence, been destroyed and systematically looted. These and other graves in the vicinity appeared to have belonged to a large previously undocumented tumulus. This tumulus was one of several that had been constructed midway along the ridge. These have been substantially eroded, making them difficult to recognize.

The importance of Apollonia in history

Figure 2.42: Map of Kryegjata tumulus cemetery with confirmed tumuli indicated by dots.

Figure 2.43: Map of subsidiary necropolis.

43

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Notes

Balandier and Koço do not specify clearly the location of the structures that are going to be described. However, from the picture accompanying their text, and from fig. 9 which shows the line of the fortifications, it can be inferred that they are describing the southwest side of the hill. 38 Balandier and Koço 1996, p. 207. 39 Koço 1987, p. 246. 40 H. Ceka 1958b, p. 21. 41 Rey 1925, pp. 11-15; Rey 1927, pp. 17, 25. 42 Rey 1927, p. 16. 43 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 51-53. 44 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 53-54; Mano 1977-1978, p. 279. 45 N. Ceka 1982, p. 61. 46 Dimo 1977-1978, pp. 317-319. 47 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 61-63. 48 Rey 1927, pp. 11-13; H. Ceka 1958b, p. 22. 49 Islami and Blavatsky 1959, p. 27; H. Ceka 1958a, pp. 236237. 50 Vreka 1994, pp. 205, 208. 51 H. Ceka 1958b, p. 15. 52 Leake 1835, p. 373. 53 Quantin 1996, pp. 229-233. 54 Quantin 1996, pp. 236-237, notes 51-53; Cabanes and Ceka 1997, pp. 18-19, 46. 55 If we consider the date range of the Protocorinthian period from 720 to 630 B.C., in reality this pottery would date the structure earlier than the foundation of the colony. 56 H. Ceka 1958a, p. 217; Praschniker 1922, col. 35-40; Cabanes and Ceka 1997, p. 13. 57 Rey 1935, pp. 47-49. 58 Anamali 1992, pp. 128-129: the attribution to Artemis is based on the similarities of the two figurines to others attributed to the goddess. 59 Rey 1939b, p. 690. 60 Quantin 1996, note 4. 61 Leake 1835, p. 372. 62 Praschniker 1922, col. 44-53. This funerary monument could be the “second temple” dismantled by the Turkish pasha. 63 Sestieri 1942, pp. 41-42. 64 Anamali 1992, pp. 132-133. 65 Davis et al. 2002. In September 2004 an excavation by members of the MRAP project in collaboration with the International Centre for Albanian Archaeology of Tirana took place at S043. 66 Aristotle, Mir. ausc.(W. S. Hett, trans., Cambridge, Mass./ London 1936). 67 Strabo (H. L. Jones, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1927). 68 Pliny, H. N. 2. 106. 228 (H. Rackham, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1938), Pliny, H. N. 3. 23. 145 (H. Rackham, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1942). Pliny did not specify if the sanctuary was still functioning in his time: however, the use of the present tense and the mentioning of the Nymphaeum in a list of other similar sanctuaries which seem still to function, let us infer that he was talking about a phenomenon of his time. Moreover, Dio Cassius, who lived more than one century later than Pliny, observed the spring himself. 37

Most of the following information on Apollonia and the history of excavations in the city and in the tumuli necropolis is taken from Amore 2005 and bibliography, with updates. 2 Strabo (H. L. Jones, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1927). 3 Antonelli 2000, pp. 113-115, and note 6. 4 Compernolle 1953, p.60, and note 2 for bibliography regarding the destruction of Dyspontium (the interpretation of the historical events is very complex because the ancient sources do not tell details and because of the lacunae in the sources themselves). 5 Plutarch, Mor. De sera (P. H. De Lacy and B. Einarson, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1959). 6 Antonelli 2000, pp. 113-114, and note 1; Compernolle 1953, pp. 61-64. 7 Thucydides (C. Forster Smith, trans., Cambridge, Mass./ London 1928). 8 Pliny, H. N. (H. Rackham, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1942). 9 Dio Cassius (E. Cary, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1916). 10 Stephanos of Byzantium (Th. De Pinedo Lusitanus, trans., Amsterdam 1678). 11 Pseudo-Skymnos (M. Korenjak, trans., Hildesheim/New York 2003). 12 Strabo (H. L. Jones, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1927). 13 Pausanias (W. H. S. Jones and H. A. Ormerod, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1927). 14 Apollodorus, Epit. (J. G. Frazer, trans., London/New York 1921). 15 Compernolle (1953, pp. 54-60) suggested that either Corinth or Corcyra might reasonably have been the founders. Lepore (1962, p. 141) said that Apollonia might have been the last experiment of joint occupation between Corinth and Corcyra. 16 Herodotus (A. D. Godley, trans., London/New York 1930). 17 Aristotle, Pol. (H. Rackham, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1967). 18 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 5-6. 19 N. Ceka 1982, p. 15. 20 Rey 1935, pp. 7-13. 21 N. Ceka 1982, p. 41. 22 Rey 1939b, p. 694. 23 Rey 1939a, pp. 13-14. 24 Rey 1928, pp. 13-18. 25 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 43-44. 26 Rey 1925, pp. 16, 21, fig. 14; H. Ceka 1958a, p. 222. 27 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 45-46. 28 Myrto 1998, p. 27; Gjongecaj and Picard 1996, pl. 1, g. 29 Pouqueville 1826, p. 357. 30 Leake 1835, p. 372. 31 Gilliéron 1877, p. 14. 32 Praschniker and Schober 1919, pp. 70-71. 33 Dimo 1984, pp. 199-213. 34 Koço 1987, p. 246; Koço 1990, pp. 257-258. 35 Balandier and Koço 1996, pp. 205-216; Cabanes et al. 1999, pp. 577-580; Cabanes et al. 2000, pp. 621-624. 36 Balandier and Koço 1996, p. 216. 1

44

The importance of Apollonia in history Dio Cassius (E. Cary, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1916). 70 Anamali 1992, p. 135. 71 Bizard and Roussel 1907, p. 435. 72 Anamali 1991, pp. 134-135. 73 Cabanes et al. 1999, p. 571. 74 N. Ceka 1982, pp. 167-170; Morris 2006, pp. 94-103. 75 Picard 1962, pp. 210-211. 76 H. Ceka 1958b, pp. 13-14, 17-18. 77 Sestieri 1942, p. 48. 78 Cabanes et al. 1997, p. 853; Cabanes et al. 1999, p. 573; Cabanes et al. 2000, pp. 626-627. 79 Cabanes et al. 2000, pp. 628-629; Cabanes et al. 2001, p. 710. 80 Cabanes et al. 2004-2005, p. 1163. 81 Sestieri 1942, p. 50. 82 Koço 1987, p. 246. 83 Dio Cassius, 41. 45 (E. Cary, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1916); Strabo, 7. 5. 8 (H. L. Jones, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1927): Strabo specified that Apollonia was situated on the Aous river. 84 N. Ceka 1982, p. 95; Cabanes et al. 1994, pp. 523-525. 85 Polybius, 2. 11. 6 (W.R. Paton, trans., Cambridge, Mass./ London 1922); Caesar, B. Civ. 3. 13 (A. G. Peskett, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1914); Plutarch, Vit. Caes. 38. 2 (B. Perrin, trans., Cambridge, Mass./London 1919). For a complete discussion and bibliography on this topic, see Masci 1943. 86 H. Ceka 1958b, p. 15. 87 Balandier et al. 1996, pp. 988-992; Cabanes et al. 1997, pp. 861-869. 88 For more information see http://www.gshash.org/projekte/apollonia_gjeofizik.htm 89 N. Ceka 1983a, pp. 141-142, 172; N. Ceka 1985, pp. 112, 114, 117; N. Ceka 1990, pp. 138-141. This attitude was part of the Communist political propaganda. 90 Stephanos of Byzantium (Th. De Pinedo Lusitanus, trans., Amsterdam 1678). 91 H. Ceka 1958b, p. 19; Mano 1986, p. 18; Anamali 1956, p. 8, fig. 2; Anamali 1964, pp. 131, 133, figs. 5, 7. The writer has looked for these ceramics in the store-rooms of the museum at Apollonia, without success. 92 N. Ceka 1990, pp. 138-141. 93 N. Ceka 1985, pp. 115-116 has mentioned Corinthian Type A amphorae and Ionian amphorae at Margëlliç; N. Ceka 1983b, p. 252 has listed Ionian Type B2 cups, Corinthian Type A and Type B amphorae, Samian kraters, and local pottery dated to 7th-6th century B.C. 94 N. Ceka 1983a, p. 173; N. Ceka 1985, pp. 128, 133. The author does not present explicit evidence to support his statements. 95 Anamali 1991, pp. 135-136; Cabanes and Ceka 1997, pp. 18-19. 96 N. Ceka 1982, p. 45. 97 Mano 1986, p. 18. 98 For the Roman necropolis see Mano 1974, pp. 153-238 and Mano 2006, pp. 291-373; for the “Roads Project” see http://www.gshash.org/index_files/Page1462.htm. 99 Praschniker 1922, col. 51-54. 69

45

Béquignon 1931, p. 486. Rey 1932, p. 7. 102 Rey 1928, pp. 31-37. 103 Rey 1932, pp. 7-22. 104 Rey 1932, pp. 22-25. 105 Rey 1932, pp. 25-26. 106 Buda 1959, p. 212, note 1. 107 These reports are preserved in the Archive of the Institute of Archaeology in Tirana. Many thanks to Muzafer Korkuti, then Director, Shpresa Gjongecaj, then Head of the Department of Antiquity, and Silva Mullaj, then Archivist, for permission to consult them, and for their assistance. 108 In the report this type of graves is called “with tiles in the shape of a roof.” 109 This location is probably at the east side of the valley. 110 Anonymous 1950, pp. 1-11. 111 Praschniker 1922, col. 52. 112 H. Ceka 1951, pp. 11-13. 113 It is important to point out that the numeration of these tumuli changed after the excavation of the large tumulus in 1958-1959, which was then given the number 1. 114 Mano has not specified on what basis she dated the sarcophagus. 115 Mano did not give a grave number to the pithos mentioned above. 116 In Mano’s article “squat lekythoi” are called “aryballos-like lekythoi.” 117 Buda 1959, pp. 212-239. 118 At this time the tumulus previously labeled 1 became 2; tumulus 2 became 3; tumulus 3 became 4, and tumulus 4 became 5. 119 Mano 1971, p. 198. 120 Mano 1971, pp. 103-105. 121 Mano 1971, p. 111. 122 Grave 110, an urn pertaining to the phase dated from the end of the 5th to the beginning of the 4th century B.C., has been omitted by Mano in this list. 123 It is important to point out that Mano assigned grave numbers also to the votive deposits, which constitute five of the eighteen total cremations (Graves 5, 29, 67, 111 and 119). 124 Mano 1971, pp. 109-110. 125 At the beginning of the list Mano has stated that there are seven types of graves, but only six are listed. 126 Here Mano has stated that there are eleven types of graves, but only eight are listed. 127 Graves 92 and 119 have been listed also in the previous phase. Based on the grave goods, Grave 119 certainly belongs to the “6th-5th century” phase. 128 In the article, Graves 46 and 109 have been omitted in the groupings. Based on the grave goods, grave 46 can be dated to the second half of the 6th century B.C., and so it can be placed in the first group. Grave 109 can be dated to the 4th-3rd century B.C., and so it can be placed in the third group. 129 Mano 1971, pp. 189-191. 130 Mano 1971, p. 191. 131 Islami and Ceka 1964, p. 102, pl. 11, 7; 12, 8. 132 Cabanes and Ceka 1997, p. 14. 100 101

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia Mano 1971, pp. 196-197. Mano 1974a, pp. 222-223. 135 Dimo 1974, p. 226. 136 At the light of the new discoveries, could the cooking pottery be instead prehistoric? 137 Korkuti 1981, p. 9. See also other bibliographical references in notes 5, 6, 7 and 8. 138 Dimo 1990, pp. 14, 21: Grave 17 in the dissertation is not included in this group, but among the simple pits. 139 Cabanes and Ceka 1997, p. 13. 140 Dimo 1990, pp. 8-15. 141 Dimo 1990, p. 17: urns are 11, but the sum of the variants is 12 because Dimo has put Grave 20 both in the first and in the second variant. 142 Dimo 1990, pp. 17-18: Grave 4 and Grave 20 are included in types of graves both with an urn and with bricks. 143 Dimo 1990, pp. 15-18. 144 Grave 27 is not included in any type: it consisted of a fragmentary limestone stele and fragments of red-figures kraters, black-glazed olpai and jugs, terracotta fruit, and 133 134

46

fragmentary terracotta reliefs with figures of soldiers or hunters on horses fighting panthers (Dimo 1990, p. 47). 145 Corinthian, black-figures and red-figures pottery is described also by Dimo 1991, pp. 65-74. 146 Dimo 1990, pp. 50-123. 147 In the introductory classification this group was called “objects made of bone and stone.” 148 Dimo 1990, pp. 123-144. 149 Dimo 1990, p. 144; Dimo 1991, p. 75. 150 Dimo et al. 2007, p. 305. 151 Dimo and Fenet 1996, p. 222. 152 Cabanes et al. 1997, p. 856; Dimo and Fenet 1996, p. 221. 153 Dimo and Fenet 1996, p. 221: the archaeologists could not decide if these were cenotaph graves, votive deposits, or damaged graves. 154 Cabanes et al. 2001, p. 704. 155 Munoz 2007, pp. 316-322. 156 Albanian for stream. 157 Davis et al. 1999; Davis et al. 2000; Davis et al. 2001; Davis et al. 2002.

3. THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

The tumuli complex is the first case in the necropolis of Apollonia where the skeletal material has undergone physical anthropological analysis. This is for sure a large contribution to the history of Apollonia. The information that can be gained from the investigation of the bones gives a complete new dimension to the study of a cemetery and of the population buried in it. Actually, it enlightens the knowledge about the style and way of living of the people.    At an early stage, after the excavation of Tumulus 9, a preliminary study on the human bones was done by Dr. Luc Buchet. Later Professor Lynne Schepartz, who in the meantime was working also on the Tumulus of Lofkënd skeletal material, took over. She has partially reviewed also the bones from Tumulus 9, and has analyzed all the remaining osteological finds from the tumuli complex (Fig. 3.1). This collaboration is particularly

important, because Schepartz is able to offer a regional perspective of the results.    In the frame of this fruitful collaboration, some particular analyses have been concluded on the Tumulus 9 skeletons: Jennifer Stallo, a former graduate student of Professor Schepartz, under her supervision, and in collaboration with Vaughan Grimes and Michael P. Richards from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, Department of Human Evolution, has analyzed the strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) on tooth samples in order to test the hypothesis that the population buried in Tumulus 9 included both local and colonist people, and to differentiate the two groups. This study, however, will need further testing in order to have a more complete geologic picture of the area, and to allow more detailed comparisons, since the Apollonia and Corinth regions are geologically very similar.

Fig 3.1 Lynne Schepartz while working on skeletal material from the Apollonia tumuli complex. 47

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Bioarchaeology of Apollonia: Tumuli 9, 10, 11 and Appendixes 1, 2, and 3 Lynne A. Schepartz, Florida State University, USA Burial at Apollonia was first practiced by Bronze Age populations. Over time, the tumuli necropolis served as a place of interment for Corinthian colonizers, their immediate descendants, and PostMedieval/Modern populations. Through the combined analysis of mortuary treatment, grave goods, radiocarbon dating of bone, and the taphonomy of the skeletal remains, the later Post-Medieval/ Modern burials can be distinguished from the Prehistoric, Archaic, Classical and Early Hellenistic interments. The necropolis thus provides a series of chronologically distinct subsamples of these populations and a record of their responses to the environment over a period of 3000 years. Goals of the Study Analysis of a burial complex such as the Apollonia tumulus necropolis necessarily involves determining the periods of use and the nature of the tumuli. Were individual tumuli used over spans of time? Were they constructed by families? Were they used again much later in time? The basic distribution of ages and sexes can be used to investigate how the cemetery sample deviates from an expected population structure if contemporary graves from different tumuli are compared. Any discrepancies from the modeled stable and stationary population structure can then be evaluated in terms of differential preservation, catastrophic death events, and the factors of greatest interest in prehistoric studies – selective burial practices involving age, gender, or other variables reflecting social persona.    In addition to the fundamental estimation of age and biological sex, the determination of the following are also important: health status, habitual behaviors that involve specialized uses of teeth or muscle groups, the frequency of nonmetric indicators of populational affinity and genetic relatedness, DNA analysis for familial and populational relationships, and chemical analyses for dietary composition and place of natal origin. The ultimate goal of a skeletal biology study is to reconstruct the life experiences of the popula48

tion.          While some data are pertinent to specific individuals and may reflect unique life circumstances, the effect of environmental and dietary adaptations may indicate societal responses that are also detectable archaeologically. These reflections of group behavior are of the greatest interest here, and comparative data are used to illustrate the characteristics of Apollonia within the general region of south-central Albania. Specific research questions With regard to the specific circumstances of the Apollonia population, there are several questions that may be effectively addressed through skeletal analysis. Pastoral subsistence is thought to have been the predominant system in the Albanian Bronze and Iron Ages (c.f. Allen 2002, Gardeisen et al. 2002, Korkuti et al. 1994), but the tumuli fills provide almost no evidence of subsistence. If the pre-colony population were pastoralists, we would expect them to be relatively healthy with low levels of malnutrition, caries, or infectious disease as compared to later agriculture dependent groups (Schepartz, 1987). Stable isotope analysis of carbon, nitrogen and strontium is also useful for evaluating the relative proportions of grains and animal protein is the diet. These analytical approaches provide more direct information on consumption patterns.    Temporal trends in nutritional stress and local environmental degradation (whether through natural causes, or via human over-exploitation of resources and the accumulation of waste) may be detected from changes in the frequency of skeletal health indicators such as porotic hyperostosis, dental enamel hypoplasias, and bone infections. These conditions are general, rather than specific, indicators of environmental stressors that disrupt growth or normal bone maintenance. Comparisons of prevalences over time, among age cohorts, between sexes or among populations can elucidate patterns that can be used to infer cultural practices at Apollonia.

The physical anthropological analysis

   The populational affinities of the Apollonians and specifically their relationship to the prehistoric population from nearby Lofkënd (Papadopoulos et al. 2007) are also of great interest. The Lofkënd sample represents the only comparable Bronze Age and Iron Age data from south central Albania. Studies of population relationships can involve biodistance analyses of cranial and dental data or comparisons of non-metric trait frequencies. A set of potentially characteristic non-metric traits identified during data collection for the Apollonia sample are analyzed below.

cable to poorly preserved burials. For this reason, tooth wear ages were carefully re-evaluated as the study progressed. The sexing estimation was based on pelvic and cranial morphology, with additional data (both metric and morphological) from postcrania for some specimens. Specific age estimates were made for the cases where dental development and skeletal maturation made more precise aging possible, but individuals were most frequently assigned to age cohorts of five or ten year spans. The creation of general age cohorts was made after the analysis was complete. As these are arbitrary divisions of the sample, they vary according to the question under investigation.    The focus of the dental analysis was fourfold. All teeth were identified and then mesial-distal (MD) and buccal-lingual (BL) measures were recorded. The pathological assessment included recording enamel hypoplasias, caries, antemortem loss and abcesses. Standard morphological variation, such as cusp number, incisor shoveling and congenital absences, along with unusual morphologies, were also noted.    Teeth were judged as lost antemortem when the alveolar bone exhibited substantial remodeling such that the original forms of the sockets were no longer present. Caries presence was tallied by individual tooth; hypoplasia, assessed by visual inspection, was denoted as present or absent and the degree of expression was ranked on a scale of slight, moderate or severe. In cases of clear linear hypoplasia measurements were taken from the line to the cementoenamel junction. Agenesis was assessed visually and not radiographically. The total dental sample includes both teeth present and those missing where antemortem status could be assessed from the condition of the alveolus. Units of analysis included individual teeth and dentitions.    The study of these skeletal samples involves several different levels of analysis. The approach followed here generally begins with the individual tumulus or appendix, proceeds to the combined temporal samples, and then pursues comparisons between temporal samples and other populations.

Methods Skeletal Analysis Procedures Surface bones, as well as isolated bones from the tumulus fill not associated with specific graves, were inventoried by their sector and unit. These materials were then checked for potential associations with graves. The attribution of these miscellaneous elements to graves was most successful in the case of the smaller features, such as Appendix 1; it was not possible to relate most of the others with burials or to factor them into estimations of the sample parameters for the larger tumuli.    Data were collected using an array of forms designed in FilemakerPro and adapted from Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). These include forms for dental inventory/metrics, aging, sexing, cranial metrics, postcranial metrics, non-metrics, and pathology.    The methods of aging and sexing used on this material were based largely on those suggested by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), with modifications to reflect the specific variations observed in the Apollonia sample. The entire collection was then reassessed to refine aging and sexing estimates based on a fuller understanding of the observed range of variation in the population. Due to the fragmentary nature of the material, a combination of aging techniques based on pubic symphysis changes, the auricular surface, dental development, tooth wear and sutural closure were applied, with the greatest weight given to the first four methods as they yield more precise estimates. Seriation of tooth Sample size wear was, however, often the only method appli- The majority of interments contained one skeleton 49

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

(82%), although graves with two or more individuals were found in all mounds but the substantially smaller Appendix 1. Appendix 3 is unusual in that it contained a Classical grave with multiple individuals. For very disturbed tumuli, such as Tumulus 10 and 11, there are many other units that yielded human skeletal remains. When possible, information from these units is included in the bone element or trait analyses, but it is usually not possible to factor non-grave material into the count of individuals.    If the full sample of 183 graves and their 231 individuals is grouped by cultural associations and the radiocarbon dating results, the following distribution (Table 3.1) is documented: 48 Prehistoric graves containing 60 individuals; 21 Archaic graves with 27 individuals; 6 Archaic/Classical graves with 7 individuals; 60 Classical graves (not including one prehistoric grave that was reused) with 73 individuals; 18 Classical/Hellenistic graves with 22 individuals; 5 Early Hellenistic graves with 11 burials; 25 Post-Medieval/Modern graves (not including one prehistoric grave that was reused in the Post-Medieval/Modern period) with 31 interments.

lost. The interpretation of the age distribution involves working backward: identification is cumulatively dependent on successful recovery and understanding of taphonomic alterations to bones as well as the probability that an individual dies and is interred in that particular site (Waldron 1994).    To evaluate the age structure of a sample, and to determine if it is representation of a past population, skeletal biologists use demographic models developed from actual populations. These models, based on the parameters of stable and stationary populations undergoing no declines or growth in their numbers, predict that a skeletal population should be dominated by individuals from the age cohorts where risk of mortality is greatest: the very young and the very old (Weiss 1973). To apply this methodology in a general assessment of Apollonia, it is important to control for the confounding effects of time as much as possible. The following figures do that by showing the tumuli samples divided into their temporal phases. Individuals were divided among the following age cohorts: Infants 0-2 years, Children 3-5 years, Children 6-11 years, Adolescents 12-18 years, Young Adults 19-30 years, Age distribution Mid-age Adults 31-44 years, and Older Adults >45 The distribution of ages can provide basic infor- years. There is also a cohort of ‘Adults’ that cannot mation about the structure of the population if be aged with any greater precision. the skeletal sample is in fact representative of all individuals who died during the time of cemetery Tumulus 9 use. In reality this is rarely the case, as a number Tumulus 9 was used from the Archaic through the of factors can alter the processes of death, burial, Early Hellenistic period, and then again in Postrecovery and identification. At each of these stages Medieval/Modern times (Fig. 3.2). The data for population demographic information is potentially Tumulus 9 are from a 2002-2003 study (Buchet and Phase

Number of Graves

Number of Individuals

Prehistoric

48

60

Archaic

21

27

Late Archaic/ Early Classical

6

7

Classical and Late Classical

60

73

Late Classical/ Early Hellenistic

18

22

Early Hellenistic

5

11

Post-Medieval/Modern

25

31

Total

183

231

Table 3.1:  Numbers of Graves and Individual Burials by Phase. 50

The physical anthropological analysis

Bouali, n.d.) and the results of comparative work undertaken by Schepartz and B. Kyle in 2008. The best represented phases are the Archaic (N= 17 identifiable to cohort) and the Classical (N=27).    Figure 3.2 provides the raw data for the six different phases. It is difficult to interpret as the subsamples are relatively small and they vary in size. With the exception of the small Early Hellenistic sample (N=4) that lacks individuals less than 12-18 years of age, the distribution of ages is fairly similar across time periods. Infants are best represented, as is expected from modeled populations, although older adults over 45 years are rare. The cohort of ‘Adult’ may contain some of these older adults, but it is more likely that a range of adult ages are subsumed in that grouping. Thus it may be the case that few individuals lived to advanced ages or they were buried elsewhere. The temporal phase subsamples of Tumulus 9 should also be examined as a proportional distribution to ameliorate the issue of varying subsample sizes. From Figure 3.3 it is clear that only the Archaic and Archaic/Classical periods have fairly large proportions of infants (over 30%). Most age cohorts are poorly represented and the bulk of the adults cannot be assigned to specific cohorts. The peaks of representation for the small subsamples are misleading; for example,

the Hellenistic appears to have a peak of mid-age adults, but this is a very small cohort comprised of only 2 out of four Hellenistic interments. None of the phases has an age distribution that approaches a normal population profile, but this is not unexpected given the small sample sizes. Tumulus 10 There are four different periods of use for Tumulus 10: Prehistoric, Classical and Late Classical, Late Classical/Early Hellenistic, and Post-Medieval/ Modern (Fig. 3.4). For the 60 Prehistoric individuals, the age distribution is characterized by a very low representation of subadults (including the first four age cohorts, individuals up to 18 years), a peak of young adult deaths, and a moderate number of older adults. The Classical/Late Classical group (N=21) has an even greater deficit of younger individuals and a peak of young adult deaths. The small Late Classical/Early Hellenistic group (N=8) also lacks subadults. In contrast, the Post-Medieval/ Modern subsample (N=8) has more infants than any other age cohort. The proportional distribution (Fig. 3.5) highlights the relative scarcity of subadults in Tumulus 10. The infant peak for the small Post-Medieval/Modern subsample represents only four infants. All of these age profiles deviate funda-

Tumulus 9 Age Distribution by Phase

8 ARC 7

ARC/CL CL

Count

6

CL/HL

5

HL

4

Post-Med/Modern

3 2 1 0 Infant 0-2

Child 3-5

Child 6-11

Adol 12-18 YAdult 19-30 MAdult 31-44 OAdult >45

Figure 3.2: Age Profile for Tumulus 9. Data from Buchet and Bouali (n.d.) and this study. 51

Adult

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 Proportional Age Distribution by Phase 60 ARC 50

ARC/CL CL

%

40

CL/HL HL

30

Post-Med/Modern 20 10 0 Infant 0-2 Child 3-5 Child 6-11 Adol 12- YAdult 19- MAdult 18 30 31-44

OAdult >45

Adult

Figure 3.3: Tumulus 9 Proportional Age Distribution by Phase. Data from Buchet and Bouali (n.d.) and this study. mentally from the predicted profile that has greatest representation of infants, young children and older adults. This suggests that non-biological factors, such as selective interment, may have played a role in mortuary behavior for Tumulus 10. Selective

interment is most likely for the better-represented Prehistoric and Classical and Late Classical periods where young adults are most frequent. Sampling errors associated with small sample sizes limit the interpretation of the later two phases.

T10 Age Distribution by Phase 18

Prehistoric

Count

16

CL, Late CL

14

Late CL/Early HL

12

Post-Med/Modern

10 8 6 4 2 0 Infant 0-2

Child 3-5

Child 6-11

Adol YAdult MAdult OAdult Adult 12-18 19-30 31-44 >45  

Figure 3.4: Age Profile for Tumulus 10: Prehistoric, Classical and Late Classical/Early Hellenistic Phases. 52

The physical anthropological analysis

T 10 Proportional Age Distribution

40 Prehistoric

35

CL, Late CL

30

Late CL/Early HL

%

25

Post-Med/Modern

20 15 10 5 0 Infant 0-2 Child 3-5 Child 6-11 Adol 12- YAdult 19- MAdult 18 30 31-44

OAdult >45

Adult

Figure 3.5: T10 Proportional Age Distribution for the Prehistoric, Classical and Late Classical, Late Classical/Early Hellenistic and Post-Medieval/Modern Phases. Tumulus 11 Tumulus 11 had three periods of use (Fig. 3.6). These include a small Archaic component (N=6), a slightly larger Classical subsample (N=8) that is mostly composed of adults who cannot be assigned

ered in Appendix 1 and two more were in Appendix 3. Six Late Classical, Late Classical/Early Hellenistic and Early Hellenistic graves, some with multiple interments, were found in Appendix 3. The Classical age profiles from Appendix 1 (Fig.

Tumulus 11 Age Distribution by Phase 6

Count

5 4

ARC CL Post-Med/Modern

3 2 1 0 Infant 0-2 Child 3-5 Child 6- Adol 1211 18

YAdult 19-30

MAdult 31-44

OAdult >45

Adult

Figure 3.6: Age Profile for Tumulus 11 Archaic, Classical and Post-Medieval/Modern Phases. to a particular age cohort, and three Post-Medie- 3.7), Appendix 2 (Fig. 3.8) and Appendix 3 (Fig. val/Modern burials. These groups are too small to 3.9) have few to no subadults and the majority of compare with the modeled age profile. the individuals are adults that cannot be assigned to specific age cohorts. Again, these age profiles are Appendixes 1, 2, and 3 very different from the modeled population distriThe three appendixes were primarily in use during bution and they also differ from the profile for the the Classical period, with over 50% of the graves Prehistoric individuals in Tumulus 10. Aside from and 54% of the individuals dating to that period. the Prehistoric sample from Tumulus 10, the size Three Post-Medieval/Modern burials were recov- of the phase subsamples in the individual mounds 53

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 1 Age Distribution 2.5

Count

2 1.5

Classical Post-Med-Modern

1 0.5 0 Infant 0- Child 3- Child 6- Adol 12- YAdult MAdult OAdult 2 5 11 18 19-30 31-44 >45

Adult

Figure 3.7: Appendix 1 Age Profile for the Classical and Post-Medieval/Modern Phases. Appendix 2 Age Distribution

Count

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Inf ant 0-2

Child 3-5 Child 6-11 Adol 12-18 YAdult 19- MAdult 31- OAdult >45 30 44

Adult

Figure 3.8: Appendix 2 Age Profile for the Classical Phase.

Count

Appendix 3 Age Distribution 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

CL LCL-EHL Post-Med/Modern

Infant 0- Child 3-5 Child 6- Adol 12- YAdult 2 11 18 19-30

Madult 31-44

OAdult >45

Adult

Figure 3.9: Appendix 3 Age Profile for the Classical, Late Classical/Early Hellenistic and Post-Medieval/Modern Phases. 54

The physical anthropological analysis

is quite small. It is therefore useful to look at combined temporal samples to get a better sense of the Apollonia tumulus cemetery. Figure 3.10 is a plot of the combined counts by phase, and it illustrates both the similarities and the differences in age cohort representation in the temporal phases. For visual simplification, some of the smaller subsamples are combined. The most striking features are the limited representation of subadults and older adults for all phases, and the peak in young adult deaths for the prehistoric subsample. Yet comparison of the age profiles in Figure 3.10 is biased by differences in sample sizes. To partially control for this factor, the proportional representation of individuals in the different age cohorts is plotted in Figure 3.11. The patterns in Figure 3.11 are more informa-

tive: infants make up the majority of the Archaic and Archaic/Classical burials as well as the PostMedieval/Modern burials, they approach expected frequencies in the Archaic, and they are conspicuously rare in the Prehistoric phase; young adults are best represented for the Prehistoric subsample but they are very infrequent in the succeeding Archaic phase; and older adults are most frequent in the Post-Medieval/Modern burials. The only phase that approaches the expected population parameters is the Post-Medieval/Modern but the small number of burials (N=25) limits any further demographic analysis. It is notable that a small PostMedieval/Modern sample from Lofkënd (N=18) has the same general characteristics, although the proportion of infants is much greater (61%).

Apollonia Combined Age Distribution 30

25 Prehistoric ARC, ARC/CL

Count

20

CL LCL/HL

15

Post-Med/Modern

10

5

0 Infant 0-2

Child 3-5

Child 6-11

Adol 12-18

YAdult 19-30 MAdult 31-44 OAdult >45

Adult

Figure 3.10: Representation of Apollonia Combined Age Cohorts by Temporal Phases.

%

Apollonia Combined Proportional Age Distribution 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Prehist ARC, ARC/CL CL LCL/HL Post-Med/Modern

Infant 0-2 Child 3-5 Child 6-11 Adol 12-18 YAdult 19- MAdult 31- OAdult 30 44 >45

Adult

Figure 3.11: Proportional Representation of Apollonia Combined Age Cohorts by Temporal Phases. 55

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Sex distribution More information about the Apollonia population can be obtained from examining the sex ratio and the age/sex distributions by individual tumuli and as collective parameters of the different temporal phases. Individuals were assigned to the subadult, female, male, or adult indeterminate categories. For the purposes of these comparisons, individuals who were described as ‘female?’ are counted as female and a similar adjustment was made for the questionable males. Due to small sample sizes, only Tumulus 9, Tumulus 10 and Tumulus 11 are discussed separately.    Tumulus 9 has a total of 39 subadults, 12 females, 12 males, and 19 indeterminate adults. As is apparent in Figure 3.12, the number of sexable males and females varies over time but no clear sex bias is evident in these small phase subsamples.

the sex distribution in the Apollonia sample, it is necessary to look at the distribution over time (Fig. 3.15). The representation of all Apollonia individuals in this analysis (N=78) by phase highlights the differences among the phases. The number of males in the Prehistoric phase is notable, females predominate in the Classical period (although more individuals are indeterminate), and equal numbers of males and females are present in the Post-Medieval/Modern burials. The proportional distribution of these data (Fig. 3.16) is very informative. Only the combined Archaic and Archaic/Classical sample has the expected level of subadult representation (50%) and subadults are most poorly represented among the Prehistoric burials (20%). The predominance of Prehistoric males is also quite striking.    The final step in analyzing the representation

Tumulus 9 Sex Distribution 18

ARC

16

ARC/CL

14

CL

Count

12

CL/HL

10

HL Post-Med/Modern

8 6 4 2 0

Figure 3.12: Tumulus 9 Sex Distribution by Phase.    The Prehistoric sex ratio for Tumulus 10 (Fig. 3.13) seems to favor adult males over females (20 males to 11 females) although 19 or 38% of adult skeletons are not sexable. For the Classical/Late Classical and Late Classical/Early Hellenistic burials there are more equal numbers of males and females but many adults are unsexable.    High proportions of the adults in Tumulus 11 (Fig. 3.14) and the three appendices are in the indeterminate category and cannot be identified as males or females. To obtain a broader picture of 56

of females and males is to investigate how the sexes distribute among the adult age cohorts (Figs. 3.17 and 3.18). The total number of individuals used in these comparisons is 78. This total includes both those individuals who can be given a numerical age estimate and those who are only identifiable to the broad categories of young (19-30 yrs), mid-age (3144 yrs) and older (>45 yrs) adult. In a few cases adolescents display sufficient levels of sexually relevant morphology to enable reasonable sex estimation.

The physical anthropological analysis

T10 Sex Distribution by Phase 25 Prehistoric CL, LCL LCL/EHL Post-Med/Modern

Count

20 15 10 5 0

Subadult

Female

Male

Indet

Figure 3.13: Tumulus 10 Sex Distribution. T11 Sex Distribution by Phase

6 ARC

5

Count

CL

4

Post-Med/Modern

3 2 1 0 Subadult

Female

Male

Indet

Figure 3.14: Tumulus 11 Sex Distribution for the Archaic, Classical and Post-Medieval/Modern Phases. Apollonia Combined Sex Distribution

30 25 Prehistoric

Count

20

ARC, ARC/CL CL

15

LCL,EHL

10

Post-Med/Modern

5 0 SA

Female

Male

Indet

Figure 3.15: Representation of Subadults, Females, Males and Indeterminate Adults. Apollonia Proportional Combined Sex Distribution Prehistoric 60

ARC, ARC/CL CL

50

LCL/EHL Post-Med/Modern

%

40 30 20 10 0 SA

Female

Male

Indet

Figure 3.16: Apollonia Combined Proportional Representation of Subadults, Females, Males and Indeterminate Adults. 57

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

   From the raw counts (Fig. 3.17), the largest cohorts are the young and older Prehistoric males, the Late Classical/Early Hellenistic mid-age females, and Classical young and mid-age females. There are very few older females from any phase. If we look at the proportional representation of these cohorts to lessen the effects of differential sample sizes (Fig. 3.18), it appears that young males (31%)

proportionally dominate the Prehistoric phase, followed by old males and then mid-age males. Old females (4%) are least frequent. In the Classical period the frequencies are relatively balanced among the young and mid-age cohorts although females are more frequent. The smallest adult cohort is the older males (8.7%).    For the combined Late Classical/Early Hel-

Apollonia Combined Age/Sex Distribution Prehistoric

9

ARC, ARC/CL

8

CL

7

LCL/EHL

Count

6

Post-Med/Modern

5 4 3 2 1 0 F adol

F 19-30

F 31-45

F >45

M adol

M 19-30

M 31-45

M >45

Figure 3.17: Apollonia Combined Age/Sex Distribution.

Apollonia Proportional Distribution of Age/Sex Prehistoric ARC, ARC/CL CL LCL/EHL Post-Med/Modern

50 45 40

%

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 F adol

F 19-30

F 31-45

F >45

M adol

Figure 3.18: Apollonia Combined Age/Sex Proportional Distribution. 58

M 19-30

M 31-45

M >45

The physical anthropological analysis

lenistic cohorts, the mid-age females clearly dominate (46%) the distribution. The Post-Medieval/ Modern phase is interestingly characterized by greatest representation of older males (31%). The diversity of age/sex distribution patterns at Apollonia illustrates that various factors affecting sex and age representation were in play during the use of the necropolis. General pathology Pathological conditions provide information on the life experiences of individuals. Some stresses, diseases or trauma occur early in life, and their impact may or may not be directly observable. This is due to the fact that some stresses affect the growth process and leave permanent markers (such as linear enamel hypoplasia of the teeth) while other markers are ephemeral due to bone remodeling (seen in Harris lines in long bones). Other stresses leading rapidly to mortality typically leave no skeletal signatures. The survivors, who are the more evolutionarily fit individuals, may therefore bear more skeletal markers of stress and disease. Thus ‘healthy’ or pathology-free skeletons are not necessarily indicative of health in life- this is the appropriately named ‘osteological paradox’ (Wood et al. 1992).    The Apollonia individuals display an array of pathological conditions, ranging from indicators of childhood stress to adult age-related bone and tooth deterioration. The most commonly observed conditions are linear enamel hypoplasias, caries and antemortem tooth losses, porotic hyperostosis, and degenerative joint diseases and osteoarthritis. The following discussion emphasizes pathological conditions that are indicative of population-wide stresses rather than individual-specific conditions. Linear enamel hypoplasia Linear enamel hypoplasia is a disruption to the dental enamel in response to stress. The enamel formation is interrupted and a line is formed marking the resumption of enamel development. Other, less frequently observed, hypoplasias are expressed as pits or crown defects. The stressors correlated with hypoplasia are multiple and include childhood diseases and fevers, malaria, nutritional deficiencies, 59

and parasitic infections (c.f. Hillson 1996). Thus enamel hypoplasias are non-specific indicators that can not be attributed to a particular etiology.    The frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia at Apollonia is extremely high (88.5%, or 100 of 113 observed dentitions and representative of approximately 50% of the total sample). Most individuals have only mild hypoplasia that does not affect the entire dentition and is not consistently identifiable on dental antimeres as might be expected with a stressor that impacts growth. Only 7.1% of the assessed individuals have moderate to severe levels of hypoplasia. Approximately 50% of the unaffected individuals were young children who may have died from initial stress incidents. These results indicate that the Apollonians were routinely subject to low levels of stress during childhood when their dentition was forming. In some instances these stresses were possibly acute episodes that contributed to infant and young child mortality. Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis Bones can reflect stress incidents in the form of increased porosity or hypertrophy of marrowproducing regions such as the diploe of the cranial vault and the medullary cavities of long bones (c.f. Stuart-Macadam 1985, 1992; Stravopodi et al. 2009). The greater likelihood of cranial bone preservation means that the skull is most frequently evaluated. The porosity and hypertrophy are associated with iron-deficiency anemias and the physiological responses to situations of nutritional insufficiency, infectious diseases and parasite loads. Certain congenital anemias, such as sickle-cell or thalassaemia, are maintained in populations living in areas of endemic malaria due to the conferred resistance they provide. Although the relationship between congenital anemias and malaria has long been assumed for much of the Mediterranean region (Angel 1966, 1972), more recent research employing microscopic and aDNA techniques has found that congenital anemias, as well as acquired anemias, are often misdiagnosed in skeletal studies (Stravopodi et al. 2009). This is particularly true for evaluations of cranial vault porosity and diploe expansion, but it also affects assessment of cribra orbitalia (Wapler et al. 2004). Vault porosity is of-

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

ten produced by taphonomic processes, and diploe expansion or general vault thickening can be due to age-related bone remodeling (Stuart-Macadam 1988, 1989; Stavropodi et al. 2009).    Two anemic responses on the cranium were evaluated for Apollonia: cribra orbitalia on the orbital roof and porosity on the cranial vault (Fig. 3.19). Cribra orbitalia is typically observed after the age of weaning when children’s nutritional levels change; it is active for a period of time and then begins a slow process of ‘healing’ or bone remodeling that can be observed in adults. The adult anemic response is porotic hyperostosis or vault porosity that is often accompanied by vault thickening. Although cranial thicknesses exceeding 8mm (c.f. Musgrave 2005) are sometimes interpreted as indicators of anemia, cranial vault thickness was not included in this analysis unless thickening was independent of potential age-related effects. Neither cribra orbitalia nor cranial porosity can be used to distinguish genetic from acquired anemias.    A total of 74 individuals, including 18 subadults, were sufficiently preserved for assessment. The Classical and later periods from Tumulus 9 are not included in the study, so further analysis may modify the results presented here.      Figure 3.20 displays the pattern of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis by temporal phase.

nia consists of two individuals who both have the pathology. The Indeterminate group is comprised of individuals from non-grave contexts that cannot be assigned to temporal phases; it is most probable that they are from Classical or later time periods. Most informative is the comparison between the Prehistoric crania (N=21) and the combined Classical through Hellenistic and the Post-Medieval subsamples. There appears to be a trend for increasing levels of pathology over time. This is verified by a two tailed Fisher’s exact test, where the Prehistoric crania are compared with a combined group of the later temporal phases (p-value=0.0016). The significantly lower prevalence of anemia indicators in the Apollonia Prehistoric subsample raises the question of changing risk factors as the colony grew and the environment was modified.    The coastal regions of Albania may have been prime areas for endemic malaria in prehistory as the disease was documented there in recent historical periods (Velo et al., 2002). Human modification of the landscape, whether through irrigation or cistern systems, might have created suitable breeding environments for mosquitos, so it is possible that the inhabitants could have been affected by malaria or parasitic diseases due to those culturally mediated circumstances. In contrast, the location of Lofkënd in an inland hilly region with naturally draining topography would suggest that it was not as favorable a natural environment for malaria or water-borne parasites. A study of cribra orbitalia/ porosity in the Lofkënd Late Bronze Age/Iron Age population found only two instances of healing cribra orbitalia in 33 crania, and no cribra orbitalia in the subadults (Schepartz, n.d.). The differences in prevalence of cribra orbitalia/porosity at Apollonia and Lofkënd may be related to malaria, although there is no skeletal evidence for genetic anemia. Differential malnutrition and weaning stresses, other infectious diseases, and intestinal parasites Figure 3.19: Healing Cribra Orbitalia in an Adult from may also have contributed to the higher frequency at Apollonia over time. the Post-Medieval/Modern phase (X3,    The prevalence and distribution of cribra orGrave 6). bitalia and porosity at Apollonia can be generally Forty of the 74 observed crania are potentially compared with the data from Keenleyside and Papathological, and 11 of these are subadults with nayotova’s (2006) study of the colony of Apollonia cribra orbitalia. The small sample of Archaic cra- (5th to 3rd centuries BC) on the Black Sea that was 60

The physical anthropological analysis

Apollonia Cribra orbitalia/Porosity

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

0

1 5 12

16 2

13

No Pathology Cribra/Porosity

11 9

5 PRE

ARC

CL, HL

PMed

Indet

Figure 3.20: Apollonia Frequency of Cribra orbitalia and Cranial Porosity. Numbers on bars are individual counts. founded by the Greek city of Miletus. They report 27% cribra orbitalia with a significantly greater prevalence for subadults. Porosity was rarer, and characterized only 3.7% of the crania. Their methodology is slightly different from that employed in this study, but it is evident that levels of these two conditions are higher for Apollonia of Albania in the Classical and Hellenistic periods.   Caries and Antemortem Tooth Loss Caries and antemortem tooth losses are good indicators of dietary differences, particularly where diets are based on staple crops that contribute cariogenic carbohydrates. For example, significantly different levels of dental health have been documented for Bronze Age Mycenaeans at Pylos where dental health is correlated with sex, status and access to animal protein (Schepartz et al. 2009). For Apollonia, the rates of caries and antemortem loss provide some insight regarding possible dietary shifts from the prehistoric pattern where levels of dietary animal protein may have been higher. Musgrave (2005) compiled a table of dental caries prevalence in Greece. The values range from 2.9% for the Mycenae Shaft Graves (Angel 1944) to 36.9% for Late Minoan Chania (McGeorge 1992). At Metaponto (dating to the 7th–2nd c. BC) Henneberg & Henneberg (1998) found that 10.5% of teeth were carious, and McGeorge (1992) reported 17.7% for Late Minoans at Armenoi. Iron Age individuals from Hungary had low caries rates of 61

3.7% (Ubelaker and Pap 1998).    Table 3.2 presents data on Apollonia caries rates. These statistics are high relative to the comparative data cited above, although they are lower than the Late Minoan frequency. The Archaic subsample is again very small and based upon only four individuals. The Indeterminate subsample contains those dentitions that cannot be assigned to any temporal phase. The Combined frequency, based on the total sample, is 20.4%. If we compare the larger subsamples, we see that the Post-Medieval/ Modern group is the most distinctive with 35.3%, or over double the frequency for the Prehistoric subsample. The rates of caries for females and males are virtually identical for all temporal phases. Based on these data, it appears that the Prehistoric through the Early Hellenistic Apollonians were including fairly similar levels of animal protein in their diets and there was no substantial difference in the diets of females and males.    Caries can also occur in deciduous teeth or the erupted permanent dentition of subadults. While caries in subadults are relatively rare at Apollonia, two Prehistoric adolescents have one carie each, two Classical adolescents have two caries each, and one Post-Medieval/Modern child has a remarkable six caries on their ten assessable deciduous teeth.    Antemortem tooth loss is most often associated with advanced caries infection although trauma, severe attrition and severe periodontal disease also result in tooth loss. As indicated by the data

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

in Table 3.3, tooth loss during life was a common phenomenon for Post-Medieval/Modern Apollonians (26% of all assessed teeth), but it was relatively rarer for the other temporal periods. This is consistent with the caries data. It is important to recognize that antemortem losses are typically the Caries

#Teeth Assessed 951 69 422

Phase Prehistoric Archaic Classical Late Classical, Early Hellenistic Post-Medieval/ Modern Indeterminate Combined

#Caries % 162 17 7 10.1 84 19.9

130

24

18.5

275 329 2176

97 69 443

35.3 20.4 20.4

Antemortem Tooth Loss Phase Prehistoric Archaic Classical Late Classical, Early Hellenistic Post-Medieval/ Modern Indeterminate Combined

outcome of lengthy decay or disease processes and thus the frequency is confounded by age. This analysis therefore only considers adult individuals. The Post-Medieval/Modern adults are primarily older adults (c.f. Fig. 3.11), and this may best explain the higher frequency for that phase. Comparison with the Lofkënd Tumulus and the Characteristics of the Pre-Colony Population

9

9.8

223 253 1691

58 40 178

26 15.8 10.5

The Prehistoric subsample from Apollonia Tumulus 10 provides a basis for understanding the local population prior to the founding of the Corinthian colony. A comparison of these individuals and the individuals from the Lofkënd Tumulus illustrates their commonalities (Figs. 3.21-3.24). The age profiles are very similar. For both groups there is a peak of young adults and a scarcity of subadults (Fig. 3.21). This pattern is more pronounced at Apollonia where the relative frequencies of infants and young children are lower (Fig. 3.22). They are proportionally 30% of the Lofkënd sample, and 20% at Apollonia.

Comparative Age Distribution

50 40

92

Table 3.3: Antemortem Tooth Loss Frequency by Temporal Phase.

Table 3.2: Frequencies of Caries by Temporal Phase.

45

#Teeth Assessed #Lost % 720 30 4.2 44 13 29.5 359 28 7.8

Apol T10 Lofkend

Count

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Infant Child 3-Child 6- Adol YAdult MAdult OAdult Adult 0-2 5 11 12-18 19-30 31-44 >45

Figure 3.21: Age Profile of the Apollonia and Lofkënd Prehistoric Burials. 62

The physical anthropological analysis

Prehistoric Proportional Age Distributions

35 30 T10

%

25

Lof

20 15 10 5 0 Infant 0- Child 3- Child 6- Adol 12- YAdult MAdult OAdult 2 5 11 18 19-30 31-44 >45

Adult

Figure 3.22: Proportional Distribution of Age for Prehistoric Individuals from Tumulus 10 and Lofkënd. Prehistoric Proportional Sex Distribution

35 T10

30

Lof

%

25 20 15 10 5 0 SA

Female

Male

Indet

Figure 3.23: Proportional Sex Distribution of Prehistoric Burials from Tumulus 10 and Lofkënd. Proportional Age/Sex Distribution for Prehistoric Apollonia and Lofkend

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

%

T10 LOF

F adol

F 19-30 F 31-45

F >45

M adol

M 19-30 M 31-45

M >45

Figure 3.24: Age/Sex Proportional Representation for Apollonia and Lofkënd Prehistoric Samples. 63

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

   The age/sex distribution for the Prehistoric burials in Tumulus 10 has some important shared characteristics with the distribution at Lofkënd (Fig. 3.24). At both sites, the largest cohort is young males (30.8% for Apollonia and 29.5% for Lofkënd). The proportion of young females is moderately high relative to the remaining cohorts (21.3% at Lofkënd, yet only 11.5% for Tumulus 10). The proportions of mid-age and older females are very similar for the two localities. Both sites have a notable lack of older females. The other major difference between these sites is in the relative proportions of older males, who are almost twice as frequent at Apollonia. From these comparisons it is evident that neither Tumulus 10 nor Lofkënd have representative population samples for the prehistoric phases. Older males and younger males predominate at Apollonia, and a similar but less extreme pattern characterizes Lofkënd. If a particular mortuary behavior is responsible for the patterns observed here, then it is probable that the same behavior was practiced at Apollonia and Lofkënd. At Lofkënd there is evidence for differential treatment of adolescents and some young children. The burials contain diadems and other distinctive ornaments; one adolescent female had gold alloy ear spools (Papadopoulos et al. 2007). An Archaic adolescent female from T9 Grave 45 was found with distinctive bracelets.    If the Apollonia age and sex distributions reflect socioeconomic behaviors, then it is also possible that those behaviors were similar at both localities. An example of such a socioeconomic pattern would be transhumance where certain portions of the population (such as children and mid-age or older females) remain at the settlement while other group members move seasonally with the animal herds.    A striking morphological characteristic of both the Apollonia and Lofkënd Prehistoric samples is a generally narrow and elongated cranial form. Unfortunately, there are no complete crania where the maximum length and breadth can be measured, but the general form was often observed before cleaning (Fig. 3.25). This Prehistoric cranial form contrasts with the highly brachycephalic or short, broad form of the more complete Post64

Figure 3.25: Tumulus 10, Grave 31 Prehistoric burial. Medieval/Modern individuals (combined sample N=9, Cranial Index range=81.2-93.7; Mean=88.3). Some of these individuals also exhibit the flattened occipital form seen in modern Balkan populations (Dhima 1993). There are two other fairly complete crania from the Classical/Hellenistic and Hellenistic phases of Tumulus 9. They are longer than the Post-Medieval/Modern crania (CI=74.2 and 76.5 respectively; see Fig. 3.26) and more similar to the form of the Prehistoric individuals. Based upon these observations, it appears that the Prehistoric inhabitants of the Apollonia region differed from the Post-Medieval/Modern population in terms of cranial form. This may be indicative of the general trend to brachycephaly in Europe (Nemeskéri and Dhima 1988, Dhima 1993), but the role of admixture from Corinth and cranial form in the Archaic period needs to be further explored. Familial and Populational Relationships and Non-metric Trait Analysis The study of skeletal remains from large cemeteries, and especially where individuals share graves, raises the question of familial relationships. There are a number of nonmetric traits that are standardly evaluated to assess genetic relationships. These are, of course, most informative when rare conditions are found to be shared by some individuals. Other, more prevalent, traits might provide information on populational affinities. The following features noted in the Apollonia skeletal series are useful for this type of analysis.

The physical anthropological analysis

from the Prehistoric phase of Tumulus 10, has a frequency of 44.8%. The feature is also present in the prehistoric Lofkënd sample (N=21/62 individuals or 33.9%).

Figure 3.26: Tumulus 9, Grave 9.1 Classical/Hellenistic cranium basal view. Maximum cranial length 189mm, maximum cranial breadth 140mm. Maxillary Lateral Incisor (I2) trait Variations of the maxillary lateral or second incisors are relatively common (Bailey 1995), but the diversity of I2 forms at Apollonia is particularly unusual. These include slight rounding and folding of the lingual surface, a cleft or deep infolding of the crown often associated with a groove that continues down the root (similar to the crown root groove variant of Hillson 1996:19 but with torsion of the crown; Fig. 3.27), size reduction, peg or barrel (Hillson 1996:19) morphology, and complete absence or agenesis. The expression of the trait appears to follow a continuum where the tooth germ is constricted and differentially affected; the crown is increasingly folded and reduced in size with the most extreme expression being either pegging or total absence. The trait may appear bilaterally; when that is the case there is considerable asymmetry in its expression. Further research on this morphology might determine that separate classifications of the forms are warranted. For the purposes of this study, these varying expressions were termed ‘I2 trait’ and recorded as present or absent (Table 3.4). The combined frequency is 45.6% for 68 dentitions that preserved one or both permanent incisors. The largest subsample (N=29 individuals), 65

Figure 3.27: Maxillary Lateral Incisor Demonstrating the Form of the Trait Where the Crown and Root Exhibit a Strong Groove. Maxillary Lateral Incisor Trait

#Ind. Phase Assessed #Trait % Prehistoric 29 13 44.8 Archaic 3 1 33.3 Classical 15 6 40 Late Classical, Early Hellenistic 4 2 50 Post-Medieval/Modern 7 2 28.6 Indeterminate 10 7 70 Combined 68 31 45.6 Table 3.4: Maxillary Lateral Incisor (I2) Trait Frequency by Temporal Phase. Foramen caecum molare The Foramen caecum molare (F. c. molare) is a pit that can occur on the buccal surface of deciduous and permanent mandibular molars (Fig. 3.28). The etiology is not entirely clear, but it is most probably a developmental defect of the enamel as it forms in the buccal groove between the cusps and is correlated with LEH in some populations (Capasso

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

F.c. molare Phase Prehistoric Archaic Classical Late Classical, Early Hellenistic Post-Medieval/ Modern Indeterminate Combined

feature is defined as an accessory cusp or fissure on the mesial lingual aspect of maxillary molars. Both deciduous and permanent teeth can be affected. The trait usually is most strongly expressed on the first molar and then appears in progressively diminished form on the second and third molars if those teeth are affected.    Seventy-four dentitions with one or more M1 or dmi present could be evaluated for this variant and ten examples (13.5%) were recorded. Interestingly, nine of these individuals were from the different periods of Tumulus 10.

#Ind. Assessed #Trait % 32 13 40.6 4 1 25 17 2 11.8 4

3

75

11 23 91

5 8 32

45.5 34.8 35.2

Table 3.5: Foramen caecum molare Frequency by Temporal Phase. Other Dental Variants and Di Tota 1996). It is sometimes mistaken for    There are a few other rare dental variants that a carie, but it differs in coloration and morphol- were observed at Apollonia. Enamel extensions, ogy as it is not a product of enamel destruction but a condition where the crown enamel extends beenamel absence. The frequency of F. c. molare var- low the crown and between the roots, were noted ies among populations, making it a potential non- for 10 individuals representing all of the temporal metric marker of use in examining populational af- phases except the Late Classical/Early Hellenistic finities. The combined frequency for Apollonia is and the Post-Medieval/Modern. Enamel pearls, 35.2% (Table 3.5), and it varies from 40.6% for the or isolated beads of enamel on root surfaces, were Prehistoric to 11.8% in the Classical period. Twen- observed on three Prehistoric dentitions and one ty or 62.5% of the 32 cases were from Tumulus 10. Classical dentition. Two of the Prehistoric individIn the Lofkënd prehistoric population, the F. c. m. uals and one of the Post-Medieval/Modern burials was present on 30 of 100 dentitions that could be have small accessory or supernumerary roots that are adjacent to normal teeth. evaluated for its prevalence. Conclusions Carabelli’s trait Carabelli’s trait frequency is very low at Apollonia    The tumuli and appendixes of Apollonia in comparison to other values reported for Euro- attest to a long history of human use of the surpean populations- where it is most commonly ob- Carabelli's Trait #Assessed #Trait % served at 75-85% (Scott 1980). This non-metric Phase Prehistoric 31 2 6.5 Archaic 3 0 0 Classical 16 2 12.5 Late Classical, Early Hellenistic 4 1 25 Post-Medieval/Modern 9 3 33.3 Indeterminate 11 2 18.2 Combined 74 10 13.5

Table 3.6: Carabelli’s Trait Frequency by Temporal Phase. rounding region. Several lines of evidence point to the Prehistoric phase’s similarity to the population represented at the inland locality of Lofkënd. This evidence consists of the following: similar age profiles with most young males as the most fre-

Figure 3.28: Foramen caecum molare or buccal pit on the first and second permanent molars, Tumulus 10 Grave 59. 66

The physical anthropological analysis

quent cohort, and lower proportions of subadults and older adults than expected from demographic models (c.f. Weiss 1973). These were relatively healthy peoples who experienced population-wide stress during growth and development. Most individuals survived these incidents as they are widelypreserved in adult skeletons, and the levels of stress were apparently greater at Apollonia and they increased over time. The prehistoric inhabitants had elongated head shapes in comparison to the later Post-Medieval/Modern people. In addition, the relatively highly frequencies of the I2 trait and the F. c. molare, in conjunction with the low frequency of the Carabelli’s trait, found for both Apollonia and Lofkënd tumuli suggests they are members of the same general biological population. These traits continue through the temporal sequence and there-

fore they are indicative of indigenous contributions to the later phases.    The timing and nature of the interactions between the indigenous people and the Corinthian colonizers cannot currently be assessed. There are few of the critical Archaic Apollonian burials and also few recovered from Corinth. The fact that burial did continue to take place adjacent to the older Tumulus 10, and continued the tumulus tradition, is indicative of the influence of the indigenous population after the founding of the colony. They may have been important trading partners for the colonists, providing livestock and local resources such as bitumen (Morris 2006), and becoming integral members of the colony who provided economic and social networks with the hinterland.

ADDENDA Tumulus 9 Individuals T9 Grave 01.1 T9 Grave 01.2 T9 Grave 02 T9 Grave 03 T9 Grave 04.1 T9 Grave 04.2 T9 Grave 05 T9 Grave 06 T9 Grave 07.1 T9 Grave 07.2 T9 Grave 08 T9 Grave 09.1 T9 Grave 09.2 T9 Grave 10 T9 Grave 11.1 T9 Grave 11.2 T9 Grave 12 T9 Grave 13 T9 Grave 14 T9 Grave 15 T9 Grave 16 T9 Grave 17 T9 Grave 18 T9 Grave 19 T9 Grave 20 T9 Grave 21 T9 Grave 22 T9 Grave 23 T9 Grave 23.2 T9 Grave 24 T9 Grave 25.1

Sector 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 4 3 3 2 4 4 1 4 4 1 4 3 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 3 1 4

Nj.S. 11 14 17 20 22 27 30 37 54 40 42 43 47 50 50 53 56 61 64 69 72 75 78 81 85 94 90 90 94 97

Phase Post- Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern CL CL CL CL CL Post-Medieval/Modern CL/HL CL/HL Post-Medieval/Modern CL/HL CL/HL CL Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern CL/HL Post-Medieval/Modern ARC/CL CL/HL Post-Medieval/Modern CL/HL CL/HL CL/HL CL CL CL CL/HL CL/HL ARC CL 67

Age 30-40 Adult c8-9yr Young adult 30-40 Mid-age A infant Adult Adult Adult 40-50 c3-4 ± 1 infant infant Adult c2 yr 25-35 infant infant infant Adult Adult c7yr c5 yr infant c2-3 yr infant infant infant Adult

Sex F I S I F? M F S M? I F M S S S I S M S S S I I S S S S S S S I

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

T9 Grave 25.2 T9 Grave 26.1 T9 Grave 26.2 T9 Grave 26.3 T9 Grave 27 T9 Grave 28 T9 Grave 29 T9 Grave 30 T9 Grave 31 T9 Grave 32 T9 Grave 33 T9 Grave 34.1 T9 Grave 34.2 T9 Grave 34.3 T9 Grave 35 T9 Grave 36 T9 Grave 37 T9 Grave 38.1 T9 Grave 38.2 T9 Grave 39 T9 Grave 40 T9 Grave 41.1 T9 Grave 41.2 T9 Grave 42 T9 Grave 43 T9 Grave 44 T9 Grave 45 T9 Grave 46.1 T9 Grave 46.2 T9 Grave 47 T9 Grave 48 T9 Grave 49 T9 Grave 50 T9 Grave 51 T9 Grave 52 T9 Grave 53 T9 Grave 54 T9 Grave 55.1 T9 Grave 55.2 T9 Grave 56 T9 Grave 57 T9 Grave 58 T9 Grave 59 T9 Grave 60 T9 Grave 61 T9 Grave 62 T9 Grave 63 T9 Grave 64 T9 Grave 65 T9 Grave 66 T9 Grave 67

4 4 4 4 1 1 3 4 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 4 4 3 1 4 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 4 3 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 4

97 100 101 102 106 109 112 115 118 121 124 127 130 135 138 141 144 147 150 150 156 159 163 166 169 205 172 175 179 182 187 190 193 197 201 201 204 208 212 216 220 224 227 230 234 238 244 259

CL HL HL HL CL ARC/CL Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern CL CL ARC/CL ARC ARC ARC ARC CL/HL ARC CL CL ARC/CL ARC/CL Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern CL CL CL ARC ARC/CL ARC/CL ARC Post-Medieval/Modern CL CL ARC ARC CL CL ARC ARC ARC CL ARC CL ARC HL ARC CL Post-Medieval/Modern ARC ARC CL

68

c2-3 yr Older Mid-age A Mid-age A infant infant 30-40 ad15 ± 3 Adult c4-8 infant infant c5 yr Adult infant Adult infant infant c>10 older infant c5 yr 25-35 Mid-age A infant c5 yr ad15-18 Adult Adult child Adult infant infant infant infant Adult c3 yrs. ± 12 mos. 18-20 Adult Adult Older Adult Adult Adult ad 10-15 faunal c4yr 45+ Adult 35-45 Adult

S M? M F S S M S I S S S S I S M? S S S I S S M? F S S F? F F S M S S S S I S M? I I F F F I I NA S M I I I

The physical anthropological analysis

Tumulus 10 Individuals T10 Grave 01 T10 Grave 01.1 T10 Grave 01.2 T10 Grave 02 T10 Grave 03 T10 Grave 04 T10 Grave 05 T10 Grave 06 T10 Grave 07 T10 Grave 08 T10 Grave 09 T10 Grave 10 T10 Grave 10.1 T10 Grave 10.2 T10 Grave 11 T10 Grave 11.1 T10 Grave 11.2 T10 Grave 12 T10 Grave 13 T10 Grave 14 T10 Grave 15 T10 Grave 16 T10 Grave 17 T10 Grave 18 T10 Grave 18.1 T10 Grave 19 T10 Grave 20 T10 Grave 21 T10 Grave 22 T10 Grave 22.1 T10 Grave 23 T10 Grave 24 T10 Grave 25 T10 Grave 26 T10 Grave 26.1 T10 Grave 27 T10 Grave 28 T10 Grave 28.1 T10 Grave 29 T10 Grave 30 T10 Grave 31 T10 Grave 32 T10 Grave 33 T10 Grave 34 T10 Grave 35 T10 Grave 36 T10 Grave 37 T10 Grave 38 T10 Grave 39 T10 Grave 40 T10 Grave 41 T10 Grave 42

Sector 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 1 1 4 1 1 4 3

Nj.S. 10 9 18 26 44 50 56 60 65 70 73 76 76? 75 79 79 80 86,88 97 101 114 117 127 130 131 137 143 154 158 157 163 168,164,180 175 187 179 183 190 190 195 198 202 205 215 219 227 230 235 238 241 249 245 254

Phase CL CL CL CL Post-Medieval/Modern Prehistoric Prehistoric Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern Prehistoric CL Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern Post-Medieval/Modern Prehistoric Prehistoric Post-Medieval/Modern Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Post-Medieval/Modern CL Prehistoric CL LCL-EHL Prehistoric Post-Medieval/Modern LCL-EHL LCL-EHL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric CL Prehistoric CL Prehistoric Prehistoric? Prehistoric CL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Late CL

69

Age Adult Adult Adult Older adult 2 yr ± 8 mo 25-30 3-5 yr 18 mo ± 6 mo 1 yr ± 4 mo 45-55 25-35 45-55 Adult Younger adult >35 adult 7 yr ± 24 mo >40 Adult Adult Adult 3 yr ± 1 Adult Older Adult Young Adult 4-5 yr 16-20 45-55 18-25 Adult >35 Older Adult 14-18 >40 Adult >35 18-25 Adult 20-25 9 mo ± 6mo 20-30 Young Adult 20-30 35-45 15-20 Adult 3-6 yr 20-25 9 yr ± 24 mo >45 Young Adult >35

Sex I I I F S I S S S M M M I I M M S I I I I S I I M? S F? M F I F? M S M I M? M I I S M? F? I F? M? I S M? S M M? F

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

T10 Grave 43 T10 Grave 44 T10 Grave 45 T10 Grave 46 T10 Grave 47 T10 Grave 48 T10 Grave 49 T10 Grave 50 T10 Grave 50.1 T10 Grave 51 T10 Grave 52 T10 Grave 52.1 T10 Grave 52.2 T10 Grave 53 T10 Grave 53.1 T10 Grave 54 T10 Grave 55 T10 Grave 56 T10 Grave 56.1 T10 Grave 57 T10 Grave 58 T10 Grave 59 T10 Grave 60 T10 Grave 61 T10 Grave 62 T10 Grave 62.1 T10 Grave 63 T10 Grave 64 T10 Grave 64.1 T10 Grave 64.2 T10 Grave 65 T10 Grave 65.1 T10 Grave 65.2 T10 Grave 66 T10 Grave 67 T10 Grave 68 T10 Grave 68.1 T10 Grave 69 T10 Grave 70 T10 Grave 71 T10 Grave 72 T10 Grave 73 T10 ‘Grave’ 74 T10 Grave 75 T10 Grave 75.1 T10 Grave 76 T10 Grave 77 T10 Ind 1 T10 Ind 2 T10 Ind 3 T10 Ind 4 T10 Sub 1 T10 Sub 2 T10 Sub 3

2 4 4 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 2 2 3 4 2 2 4 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

260 267 270 274 278 285 290 295 294 302 298 298 298 306 306 308 313 318 318 322 325 328 330 334 338 339 343 346 346 345 349 349 349 351 356 360 360 363 365 368 373 376 380 385 385 388 392 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

CL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric LCL-EHL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric CL CL CL CL CL CL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric LCL-EHL Prehistoric LCL-EHL Prehistoric LCL-EHL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric CL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric CL Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric Prehistoric CL LCL-EHL

70

20-30 20-25 12-14 yr 40-50 Mid-age Adult Young Adult 12-14 yr 25-35 11 yr ± 30 mo 55-60 20-30 Adult Adult Young Adult Older Adult Adult 1 yr ± 12 mo 11 yr ± 30 mo Adult >35 Adult 30-40 20-30 Older Adult Older Adult >40 20-30 23-27 Subadult Adult Young Adult Older Adult? Young Adult 35-45 20-30 20-30 Adult 30-40 >5 yr >40 35-45 9 mo ± 3mo Fauna 7 yrs ± 24 mo Adult 25-35 6 yr ± 24 mo Adult Adult Adult Adult 6 yr ± 24 mo 6 mo ± 3 mo 14-20

F M S M I M S F S F I F I I M I S S I F I F M I M M M M S I F? I I M F F? M? F S I I S NA S I F S I I I I S S S

The physical anthropological analysis

T10 Mar 19 T10 Mar 28 T10 Apr T10 Apr 1 T10 Apr 2 T10 Apr 2 T10 Apr 20 T10 Apr 20 T10 Apr 24 T10 Apr 6 T10 Apr 6 T10 Apr 7 T10 East Balk T10 East Balk T10 Ind 1 T10 Ind 2 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 Ind. 3 T10 Ind. 4 T10 West Balk T10 T10 Ind 3 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 East Balk T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 T10 T10 West Balk T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 4 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 1 4 4 4 3 3 1 1 3

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 12 13 14 15 15 19 19 23 29 30 31 37 40 47 48 48 52 53 53 61 62 66 82 82 83

Adult Adult Adult Adult Subadult Adult Adult 5-7 yr Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 1 yr ± 4 mo Adult Adult 1 yr ± 4mo 7-9 yr Adult Young Adult Adult Adult Subadult Adult Adult Adult 45-55 Adult 2-5 yr Older Adult 1yr ± 4 mo Adult Adult 20-30 Adult Adult Adult Older Adult Adult Younger Adult Adult Adult Adult Older Adult Adult Adult Adult Infant 18-23 45-55 71

I I I I S I I S I I I I I S M? I S S I I I I S I I I I I S I S I I M M M I F I M I I I I I M? I S M? M

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 Apr 27 T10 Ind 1 T10 Ind 2 T10 Ind 3 T10 Ind 4 T10 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 Ind. 3 T10 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 Ind. 3 T10 Ind. 4 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 T10 Ind 1 T10 Ind 2 T10 T10 Ind. 1 T10 Ind. 2 T10 Ind. 3 Tumulus 11 Individuals T11 Grave 01 T11 Grave 02 T11 Grave 03

3 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 3 1 4 3 3 2 1 1 1

84 85 92 93 103 103 103 104 104 104 104 107 110 111 111 111 120 120 138 138 149 150 150 150 150 191 212 212 244 262 279 280 309 310 314 343 357 381 381 386 Surface Surface Surface

Sector 3 2 3

Nj.S. 23 21 31

Phase Post-Medieval/Modern Classical Classical

72

Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 5-7 yr Mid-age Adult Adult Adult Adult Subadult Adult Young Adult 10 yr ± 30 mo 11 yr ± 30 mo Adult Adult 6 yr ± 24 mo Young Adult Adult Adult 7 yr ± 24 mo Adult Older Adult Adult Adult 5 yr ± 16 mo Adult 6 mo ± 3mo Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 25-35 Adult 6 yr ± 24 mo Mid-age Adult Adult 30-40 Adult 3 yr ± 12 mo

I M? I I I S I I I I S I I S S I I S I I I S M? I I I S I S I I I I I I I I S M I M I S

Age 45-55 Adult Adult

Sex M I F?

The physical anthropological analysis

T11 Grave 04 T11 Grave 05 T11 Grave 06 T11 Grave 07 T11 Grave 08 T11 Grave 08.1 T11 Grave 09 T11 Grave 10.1 T11 Grave 10.2 T11 Grave 11 T11 Grave 12 T11 Grave 13 T11 Grave 14 T11 Grave 15 T11 Grave 16 T11 Grave 16.1 T11 Grave 17 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 Ind. 1 T11 Ind. 2 T11 Ind. 3 T11 Ind. 4 T11 T11 T11 Ind 1 T11 Sub A T11 Sub B T11 Ind 2 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 T11 Ind 1 T11 Ind 2 T11 T11 T11 Ind 1 T11 Ind 2 T11 Ind 3

2 3 2 4 4 4 3 1 1 1 4 3 3 1 4 4 1 1 2 3 4 3 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 1 4 1 1 1

40 48 53 60 65 65 54 75 92 79 83 87 94 103 105 105 111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 11 16 16 16 16 20 29 33 35 46 49 50 53 60 63 67 67 93 97 107 107 107

Classical Post-Medieval/Modern Classical Archaic Archaic Archaic Classical Archaic Archaic Classical Archaic Classical Classical Archaic Archaic Archaic Post-Medieval/Modern

73

25-35 25-35 Adult Subadult 45-55 Adult Young Adult 0-3 mo 3-6 mo 18-25 Adult Adult Adult 4 yr ±12 mo Adult 18 mo ± 6 mo 1 yr ± 3 mo Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 18-23 Adult Infant 4yr ± 12 mo Adult Adult Adult Infant >6 mo Adult Adult Young adult Older adult Young adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 1-3 Adult 18-20 16-21 18-23 Adult Fetus/Infant

M F? M? S M I I S S I I I I S I S S I I I I I I I I I S S I I I S S I I I M M I I I I I I S I F? M I F S

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

T11 Ind 4 T11 Ind 1 T11 Ind 2 T11 Ind 3 T11 T11 Ind 1 T11 Ind 2 T11 T11 T11 T11 North Balk

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 none 1

107 112 112 112 114 115 115 116 118 none none

Infant 15-18 18-23? Adult Adult 9 mo ± 3 mo Adult 35 yr Adult 14-16 Mid-age Adult Older Adult 10-15 Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Young Adult Adult Adult Adult 7-8 Subadult Adult Adult 7-9 Adult Infant Adult

Sex F I S F M S I I I I I I I I I S S I M S I S I

Appendix 3 Individual X3 Grave 1

Nj.S. 11

Phase Post-Medieval/Modern

Age 35-45

Sex F

74

The physical anthropological analysis

X3 Grave 2 X3 Grave 3 X3 Grave 4 X3 Grave 5 X3 Grave 6 X3 Grave 7 X3 Grave 8.1 X3 Grave 8.2 X3 Grave 9 X3 Grave 10 X3 Grave 11 X3 Grave 12 X3 Grave 13 X3 Grave13.1 X3 Grave13.2 X3 Grave13.3 X3 Grave 14 X3 Grave14.1 X3 Ind 1 X3 Ind 2 X3 Ind 3 X3 Ind 4 X3 X3 Ind 1 X3 Ind 2 X3 X3 X3 X3 X3 X3 Ind 1 X3 Ind 2 X3

13 20 24 28 37 36 42 42 48 43 56 63 67 70 71 70,71.69 75 75 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 43 44 52 59 69 69 76

Late Classical-Early Hellenistic LCL-EHL EHL LCL Post-Medieval/Modern Classical Classical Classical Classical Classical Classical Classical EHL EHL EHL EHL EHL EHL

Adult Adult Mid-age Adult Adult 30-34 >35 Older Adult Adult Adult Young Adult Adult 35-45 30-40 Older Adult Young Adult >40 Adult Adult Older Adult Older Adult Young Adult 2-5 Young Adult Adult Subadult Adult Adult Adult Subadult? Adult 15 yr ± 3 35-45 Adult

F? I F? F F M? F I F F I F F F F I I I M I I S I I S I I I S I S I I

References the Tuberculum Dentale Complex and Anomalies Allen, S. 2002. "The Paleoethnobotany of Sovjan, of the Maxillary Anterior Teeth. M.A. thesis, Albania: preliminary results", in L'Albanie Arizona State University. dans L'Europe Prehistorique (Actes du Col- Buchet, L. and M. Bouali. Apollonia: Study of the Huloque de Lorient), BCH Supplement 42, man Remains (n.d.). pp. 61-72. Buikstra, J. E. and D. H. Ubelaker. 1994. StanAngel, J. L. 1944. “Greek teeth: ancient and moddards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal ern”, Human Biology 16, pp. 283-297. Remains (Proceedings of a Seminar at the Angel, J. L. 1966. “Porotic hyperostosis, anemias, Field Museum of Natural History). Arkanmalarias, and marshes in the prehistoric sas archaeological survey research series No. 44, eastern Mediterranean”, Science New Series Fayetteville, Ark.: Arkansas Archeological 153 (3737), pp. 760-763. Survey. Angel, J. L. 1972. “Ecology and population in the Capasso, L. and G. Di Tota. 1996. ������������� “Foramen Caeeastern Mediterranean”, World Archaeology 4 cum Molare as a developmental defect of (1), pp. 88-105. the enamel”, in Recent Contributions to the Bailey-Schmidt, S. E. 1995. Population Distribution of Study of Enamel Defects, L. Capasso and A. 75

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Goodman (eds.), Edigrafital Teramo, pp. 91-106. Dhima, A. 1993. “Evolutionary trends in Albanian anthropological material”, International Journal of Anthropology 8, pp. 221-231. Gardeisen, A., L. Garcia Petit and G. Piques. 2002. "La recherche archeozoologique en Albanie: un état de la question à Sovjan (Bassin de Korçë)", in L'Albanie dans L'Europe Prehistorique (Actes du Colloque de Lorient), BCH Supplement 42, pp. 43-60. Henneberg, M. and R. J. Henneberg. 1998. “Biological characteristics of the population based on analysis of skeletal remains”, in J. C. Carter The Chora of Metaponto: The Necropoleis, University of Texas Press: Austin, TX, pp. 503-562. Hillson, S. 1996. Dental Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. Keenleyside, A. and K. Panayotova. 2006. “Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis in a Greek colonial population (5th to 3rd centuries BC) from the Black Sea”, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 16 (5), pp. 373384. Korkuti, M. et al. 1996. "Konispol Cave, Albania: a preliminary report on excavations 19921994", Iliria 22, 1-2, pp. 216-219. Larsen, C. S. 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behaviour from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. McGeorge P. J. P. 1992. “Part II. The burials”, in Late Minoan III Burials at Khania: the Tombs, Finds and Deceased in Odos Palama, Hallager B.P. and P. J. P. McGeorge (eds). Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. 93: Göteborg, pp. 29-44. Morris, S. 2006. “Illyrica Pix: The exploitation of bitumen in ancient Albania”, in New Directions in Albanian Archaeology L. Bejko and R. Hodges (eds.). Tirana: ICAA Series 1, pp. 94-106. Musgrave, J. H. 2005 “An anthropological assessment of the inhumations and cremations from the Early Iron Age cemetery at Torone”, in J. Papadopoulos, The Early Iron 76

Age Cemetery at Torone. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. Nemeskeri, J. and A. Dhima. 1988. “Essai de reconstitution paléobiologique de la population apolloniate des Ier-IIIe siècles de n. ère", Iliria 18, 1, pp. 119-155. Papadopoulos, J. K, L. Bejko and S. H. Morris. 2007. “Excavations at the Prehistoric Burial Tumulus of Lofkënd in Albania: A Preliminary report for the 2004-2005 Seasons”, AJA 111, pp. 105-147. Schepartz, L. A. 1989. "Modeling Subsistence Pattern Change", in People and Culture in Change, I. Hershkowitz (ed.), BAR Inter. Series 508 (i), Oxford, pp. 199-217. Schepartz, L.A. n.d. “Bioarchaeology of the Lofkënd Tumulus”. Schepartz, L.A., S. Miller-Antonio and J. M. A. Murphy. 2009 “Differential Health and Status among Mycenaeans of Messenia: The Status of Females at Pylos”, in New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece. OWLS (Occasional Wiener Laboratory Series), L.A. Schepartz, S. Fox and C. Bourbou, (eds.), ASCSA, Athens, pp. 155-174. Scott, G.R. 1980. “Population variance of Carabelli’s trait”, Human Biology 53, pp. 63-78. Stravopodi, E., S. K. Manolis, S. Kousoulakos, V. Aleporou, and M. P. Schultz. 2009. “Porotic Hyperostosis in Neolithic Greece: New Evidence and Further Implications”, in New Directions in the Skeletal Biology of Greece. OWLS (Occasional Wiener Laboratory Series), L.A. Schepartz, S. Fox and C. Bourbou, (eds.), ASCSA, Athens, pp. 257-270. Stuart-Macadam, P. 1985. “Porotic hyperostosis: representative of a childhood condition”, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 66, pp. 391-398. Stuart-Macadam P. 2006. “Porotic hyperostosis: a new perspective”, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87(1), pp. 39-47. Ubelaker, D. H. and I. Pap. 1998. “Skeletal evidence for health and disease in the Iron Age of northeastern Hungary”, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8 (4), pp. 231-251. Velo E., A. Bino, A. Shehi and P. Vasili. 2002. “Al-

The physical anthropological analysis

bania”, in Epidemiological Surveillance of Ma- Waldron, T. 1994. Counting the Dead: The Epidemiololaria in Countries of Central and Eastern Europe gy of Skeletal Populations. John Wiley & Sons. and Newly Selected Independent States. WHO Weiss, K. M. 1973. Demographic Models for AnthropolRegional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, ogy. Memoirs 27, Society for American Anpp. 5-6. thropology, Washington, DC. Wapler, U., E. Crubézy and M. Schultz. 2004. “Is Wood, J. W., G. R. Milner, H. C. Harpending and K. cribra orbitalia synonymous with anemia? M. Weiss. 1992. “The osteological paradox: Analysis and interpretation of cranial paProblems of inferring prehistoric health thology in Sudan”, American Journal of Physifrom skeletal samples”, Current Anthropology cal Anthropology 123 (4), pp. 333-339. 33 (4), pp. 343-370.

77

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Strontium Isotope Ratios and Mobility Reconstruction Jennifer R. Stallo, Lynne A. Schepartz, Vaughan Grimes, Michael P. Richards

Introduction The archaeological evidence for the Greek colony of Apollonia, Albania suggests that the population might have included both colonists and people from the indigenous groups in the region (Amore 2005). To test this hypothesis, strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis was conducted on tooth samples from Apollonia, thus providing a direct means of differentiating ‘locals’ and ‘non-locals’ buried in Tumulus 9.    The rationale for using strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) in studies of migration is presented in detail elsewhere (Price et al. 2002; Stallo 2007). The basic principle is that different types of rocks and rocks of varying ages contain a specific 87Sr/86Sr signature. As water runs off rock formations their local 87Sr/86Sr signature is transferred to the soil, through the vegetation, and into animal life that consumes that vegetation. Humans incorporate the local 87Sr/86Sr signature into their teeth and bones through their diet and drinking water. While bone tissue is built and destroyed throughout life, tooth dentin and enamel are formed early in life and do not get remodeled.    Recent studies (Hoppe et al. 2003; Trickett et al. 2003) have determined that dental tissues, especially enamel, are most resistant to burial contamination and provide a faithful representation of the 87Sr/86Sr values from archaeological material. Comparing the 87Sr/86Sr values derived from tooth enamel to the local signature at the site allows for the differentiation of ‘local’ and ‘non-local’ individuals (Bentley and Knipper 2005; Bentley et al. 2005; Bentley et al. 2007; Budd et al. 2000; Budd et al. 2003; Budd et al. 2004). In this study the ‘local’ signature was established using modern snail shells, which represent an average value of local biologically available strontium (Bentley et al. 2004; Price et al. 2002). Additionally, dentin samples were analyzed because dentin is less resistant than enamel to post mortem chemical alteration, and will therefore more closely approximate the local signature (Budd et al. 2000). 78

Methods and materials Of the 79 individuals recovered from Tumulus 9, tooth samples from 13 individuals were collected for 87Sr/86Sr analysis. The first permanent molar was selected (except for individual 2 where the second permanent molar was substituted) because this tooth starts forming in utero and continues to form through childhood until its enamel crown is fully mineralized between the age of nine and twelve years (Hillson 2005). The portion of enamel submitted for analysis was carefully cleaned of calculus and selected to recover a suitable amount of enamel (avoiding regions of heavy attrition and caries) while preserving as much of the remaining tooth as possible. In the cases where dentin was also collected from a tooth, a quarter section of the crown was removed and the enamel and dentin samples were subsequently separated from one another.    Prior to any cutting of the tooth, the surface around the desired enamel was abraded to clean away adhering dirt or calculus using a tungsten carbide dental bur. A diamond impregnated cutting disc was then used to cut the enamel section from the crown. All adhering dentin was then cut or burred away, larger portions of dentin were collected for separate analysis, and all powder was discarded. Once the enamel appeared clean of dentin, all surfaces of the enamel sample were once again abraded. The sample was weighed to ensure that between 10-50 mg of cleaned enamel for each sample had been collected prior to additional cleansing steps. The enamel sample was then cleaned ultrasonically in high purity water (Millipore Alpha Q = MilliQ water) for approximately ten minutes. The waste water was removed by pipette and the sample was rinsed twice more in MilliQ water before being placed in a labeled Eppendorf® vial. In order to prevent contamination, cutting wheels and burs were ultrasonically cleaned in MilliQ water for ten minutes and then dipped in 2M nitric acid (HNO3) and rinsed again in MilliQ water between uses in cutting samples from different individuals.    Modern snail shells were collected around

The physical anthropological analysis

the site of Apollonia for determination of the local strontium signal. Whole shells were placed in beakers and ultrasonically washed for 15 minutes with MilliQ water, the water was changed and the shells were washed an additional hour after which that water was discarded and the shells were washed for 15 minutes in acetone. After discarding the acetone the shells were broken into small pieces and ultrasonically washed in MilliQ water another five minutes to ensure that all surface material was removed. The shell pieces of each snail were then transferred to separate clean 2 mL Eppendorf® vials. To each of these vials 1.5 mL of 1.5% NaOCl was added, and then the vials were mixed by a rotator overnight. This solution was decanted the next day and replaced with a stronger oxidizing agent (1.5 mL of 2.5% NaOCl) and left to rotate for several days. The NaOCl was removed with a pipette, rinsed twice with MilliQ water, and then transferred to the clean laboratory. Clean Laboratory Sample Preparation The cut and cleaned enamel samples were transferred to a clean (class 100, laminar flow) laboratory for the next phase of preparation. Once in the clean lab the samples were rinsed three times with MilliQ water (18.7MΩ), removing the waste water by pipette each time. After the samples dried down under a flow of air in a clean lab working space (class 10), the samples were divided into four batches. The samples from each batch were then weighed separately into pre-cleaned (acid leached) Teflon or Savillex® beakers. Included with each batch of samples was a beaker that had a weighed amount of powdered in-house enamel standard (FBC4M, cattle tooth) added to it as a control for the 87Sr/86Sr ratio analysis for each batch submitted. Another control beaker (containing no sample or standard, and referred to as the ‘blank beaker control’) was also included in each batch at this step to ensure that the beakers were devoid of contamination which might jeopardized the results.    Into all beakers (containing sample, standard, or the blank beaker control) 1 mL of 65% (14.3M) Suprapur HNO3 was added, the beakers were capped and heated to and held at 120°C. Within an hour the enamel or dentin sample had been 79

fully digested by the acid, at which point the lids were carefully removed to accelerate evaporation to dryness, which took several more hours. During this process the beakers were routinely rotated from the front to the back of the hot plate to ensure even heating and turned 180° to reduce the build up of condensation on one side caused by the unilateral direction of air flow. Once evaporation was complete the beakers were removed from heat and 1 mL of 3M HNO3 was added drop wise around the inside edges of each beaker to resolve the now digested sample. Each sample, now in 3M HNO3, was then transferred from the beaker to labeled Eppendorf® vials. Following the digestion process the sample solution contained the mineral portion of the tooth.    The next phase involved separation of Sr from other elements in the sample solution. Separation is possible using ion exchange column chromatography (see description below). The plastic columns (BioRad Poly-Prep®) used were first collected from a 6M hydrochloric acid (HCl) cleaning bath and rinsed repeatedly with MilliQ water before being set in the rack. One column for each of the samples collected in the previous step (including the standard and the blank beaker control) in addition to one extra column to serve as a column blank control was required for each batch. Each column was equipped with a porous frit near the bottom. To ensure the frit was rinsed of HCl the columns were filled twice with MilliQ water and the waste water was collected in a tray below. A 0.5 cm bed of Eichrom® Sr-spec resin (suspended in MilliQ water) was added to each of the rinsed columns so that the resin settled in an even layer on top of the column frit. The resin was then rinsed twice by carefully loading 2 mL of MilliQ water with an Eppendorf pipette to each column so as to not excessively disturb the resin layer. The resin of each column was then conditioned with 3 mL of 3M HNO3 before loading the 1 mL sample solution, which was also in 3M HNO3, to its corresponding column. The control column in this step was loaded with 3 mL of 3M HNO3.    Ion exchange chromatography is based on the principal that different chemicals and elements can be separated by their net charge. The resin in the

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

column attracts and binds to the charged strontium (Sr+2) and allows the other elements in the original sample solution to pass through the frit and be collected into the vials below. The eluted sample was loaded onto the column three additional times to ensure that the resin picked up the majority of the Sr in the sample. After the fourth time that the sample solution was passed through the column 400 µL of HNO3 was added three times to each column to rinse the Sr-loaded resin prior to extraction, and this was collected as waste. Empty labeled 2 mL Eppendorf® vials were then placed below each column and 1.5 mL of MilliQ water was passed through each column. The addition of water changed the binding quality of the resin so that the Sr was released and eluted in this wash. The samples were then transferred from the vials to clean Teflon or Savillex® beakers, staggered on

a hot plate, and heated to and held at about 100°C until the solution was completely evaporated. Once fully evaporated the collected Sr was represented by a small white to yellow dot at the bottom of the beaker. The final step in this portion of the preparation was to resolve the dot of Sr in 1 mL of 3% HNO3 and transfer this solution to a clean and labeled Eppendorf® vial. Sr-Isotope and Concentration Analysis The 87Sr/86Sr ratios and Sr concentrations were determined on a Thermo Fisher Scientific Neptune Plasma Ionization Multicollector Mass Spectrometer (PIMMS) at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. All Sr ratios were mass biased corrected using the exponential law and normalized to 88Sr/86Sr = 0.8375209. The 87Sr/86Sr values of the samples

Individual # 1

Grave # 5

Tooth LM1

Sr/86Sr Enamel 0.708901

Sr (ppm) Enamel 198

Sr/86Sr Dentin - 

S (ppm) Dentin - 

2 3

9 19

LM2 LM1

0.708955 0.708853

140 86

-  - 

-  - 

4 5 6

26 26 29

RM1 LM1 LM1

0.708942 0.708893 0.708613

133 120 37

-  -  - 

-  -  - 

7

34

RM1

0.708772

68

- 

- 

8

36

LM1

- 

39

LM1

0.708860

106

10

45

LM1

0.708834

278

11

46

LM1

88 108 115 133 102 81 89

- 

9

0.708732 0.708909 0.708918 0.708885 0.708904 0.708995 0.708972

0.708974

89

12

55

RM1

0.708928

103

- 

- 

13

57

LM1

107

Snail #

Element

89 Sr (ppm) Snail Shell

0.708764

Individual #

0.708879 87 Sr/86Sr Snail Shell

87

30 31

Snail 1 Snail 2

Outer Coil Inner Coil Inner Coil

87

Modern Snail Shell 0.708692 319 0.708669 437 0.708441 331

       

     

Human tooth samples come from Tumulus 9. Modern snail shells were collected from near the site. Duplicate analyses are presented where applicable (individuals 9, 10, 11, and 15 as well as “individual” 30 which is a snail sample). L-Left, R-Right, M-Molar, subscript numbers indicate first or second mandibular molars while superscript numbers indicate the first or second maxillary molars. Ex. LM1 = Left maxillary first molar.

Table 3.7: 87Sr/86Sr ratios and strontium concentrations of human tooth enamel, dentin, and modern snail shell samples collected at Apollonia. 80

The physical anthropological analysis

were then corrected based on repeated analysis of a NIST strontium carbonate standard (SRM987). During the analytical session, SRM987 gave values of 0.71026 (± 0.000012, n = 14), which is in close agreement with the published accepted value of 0.71024. Due to instrument sensitivity (60V/ppm), all samples were diluted prior to being introduced into the plasma source of the mass spectrometer. Strontium concentrations were calculated based on the measured signal intensity of 88Sr in three known concentration solutions (100ppb, 400ppb, and 800ppb). The resulting trend line of these three points was used to calibrate the unknown concentration of the measured sample 88Sr signals. Additionally, the Sr concentration for each sample was adjusted according to its deviation from the FBC4M standard concentration (ID-TIMS value of 156 parts per million (ppm)) for each batch. This correction allows for comparison of values among separate batch runs. Results The 87Sr/86Sr values and strontium concentration data are presented in Table 3.7 for the enamel, dentin, and modern snail shell samples. These data are represented graphically in Figure 3.29, which depicts the results for each individual (13 separate human samples and 2 separate snail samples). Where the same tissue was sampled in duplicate, or 87 Sr/86Sr values from dentin from that individual

are also available, they appear in the same vertical column. Figure 3.30 plots the strontium concentration data against the 87Sr/86Sr values for the enamel, dentin, and snail shells.      Figures 3.29 and 3.30 are marked by a line indicating the average 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.78800 as well as the ± 2 standard deviation limits determined by the range of values in the sample. Two standard deviations from the average value of a sample set conservatively includes the majority of the ‘local’ population. Any individual falling outside of the ± 2 standard deviation lines is identified as ‘non-local’. Strontium isotope ratio data used to identify ‘local’ and ‘non-local’ individuals takes on greater historical meaning when viewed in light of details about age at death, sex, chronological period to which the individual belonged, and basic mortuary details (Table 3.8). Discussion and conclusion The individuals sampled from Tumulus 9 all fall within the ± 2 standard deviation limits, indicating that they were all ‘local’ individuals. A ‘local’ individual is defined as any person that lived or at least consumed the majority of their diet during early childhood (when the tooth analyzed was forming) locally. A ‘non-local’ is any individual that spent their childhood or obtained their diet from a distinctly different geochemical region (Bentley et al. 2003; Bentley et al. 2004). A ‘local’ individual at

Enamel and dentin samples from the same individual are plotted in line with one another as are duplicate analyses for the same tissue type. The average from the range of values is displayed as the solid black line, while the dashed lines mark off the ± two standard deviation limits.

Figure 3.29: Distribution of

Sr/86Sr ratio values divided by tissue type for each individual sampled.

87

81

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

The average from the range of values is displayed as the solid black line, while the dashed lines mark off the two standard deviation limits.

Figure 3.30: analyzed.

Sr/86Sr and strontium concentration comparison for dental enamel, dentin, and modern snail shell

87

Apollonia is therefore any individual raised locally during the period when the colony was founded or prior to its founding; this would include indigenous adults as well as the offspring of new Greek colonists. In later periods locals may represent a descendent of the original indigenous peoples or Greek migrants to the area.    Due to the complicated geology of the eastern Mediterranean and the close geographical proximity of Albania and Greece, it is possible that the geology is not significantly different for the two sites to allow the indigenous peoples and the Greek migrants to Apollonia to be differentiated as ‘local’ and ‘non-local’. The region of Ancient Corinth, as well as much of Albania including the Adriatic coast, contains large amounts of limestone deposits (Crouch 2004; Hayward 2003; Meço and Aliaj 2000). Marine limestone 87Sr/86Sr ratios have been reported as 0.7086 ± 0.004 (Faure 1986), which covers the ‘local’ range marked off by 2 standard deviations (Figures 3.29 and 3.30). It is therefore possible that there are Greek migrants buried at Apollonia which cannot be distinguished using 87 Sr/86Sr ratios alone because the signature is too similar at both sites.    Determination of the local 87Sr/86Sr signature at Ancient Corinth and its colony at Corcyra would provide insight into the geologic similarity of these sites with Apollonia. Modern snail shells collected at these sites would allow for analysis of the bioavailable strontium at these sites, and if it is 82

significantly different from the signature at Apollonia then it would support the conclusion that the individuals sampled from Tumulus 9 were of local origin.    In addition to migration histories, the strontium concentration data provide information about the effect of post mortem changes on different tissue types as well as dietary variability in relation to the ingestion of different trophic levels (Price et al. 1994). Elevated strontium concentration for dentin (Figure 3.30) indicates that this tissue type is more prone to being changed by the burial environment than is enamel. The snail shells show greatly elevated strontium isotope concentration because strontium is incorporated indiscriminately into the shell instead of being incorporated through the diet.    The enamel samples pictures in Figure 3.30 can be matches to the individuals by referencing the raw data in Table 3.7. Individual 1 displays a higher strontium concentration in dental enamel than the bulk of the samples, while dental enamel from individual 6 is on the lower end of the scale. This might suggest dietary differences where individual 1 (a Classical period female; Table 3.8) consumed more vegetation and individual 6 (a Classical period male; Table 3.8) consumed more meat. Most interestingly, the majority of the individuals cluster at the lower end of the strontium concentration spectrum, suggesting that animal protein was a significant part of their diets. Once available, carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis from bone

The physical anthropological analysis

Individual # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Grave # 5 9 19 26 26 29 34

Age Adult Adult Child Adult Adult Adult Child

Sex F M U M? M M U

8

36

Adult

M?

9 10

39 45

Adult Adult

U F?

11 12 13

46 55 57

Adult Adult Adult

F F? F

Period Classical Late Classical Late Classical Hellenistic Hellenistic 17th-19th A.D. Archaic Late Classical/ Hellenistic Late Archaic/Early Classical Archaic Late Archaic/Early Classical Archaic Classical

Grave Type Sarcophagus Mud-brick Mud-brick Brick Brick Simple Pit Enchytrismos

Grave Goods Y/N Y Y Y Y Y N Y

Simple Pit

Y

Mud-brick Simple Pit

Y Y

Sarcophagus Sarcophagus Simple Pit

Y Y Y

Sex: M-Male, F-Female, U-Unsexed. Age (at death): Child (16 years old).

Table 3.8: Archaeological burial details for samples collected at Apollonia T9. collagen would shed more light on questions involving dietary reconstruction. References Bentley, R. A. and C. Knipper. 2005. “Geographical Patterns in Biologically Available Strontium, Caron and Oxygen Isotope Signatures in Prehistoric Germany”, Archaeometry 47 (3): 629-644. Bentley, R. A., R. Krause, T. Douglas Price and B. Kaufmann. 2003. “Human Mobility at the Early Neolithic Settlement of Vaihingen, Germany: Evidence from Strontium Isotope Analysis”, Archaeometry 45 (3): 471486. Bentley, R. A., M. Pietrusewsky, M.T. Douglas and T.C. Atkinson. 2005. “Matrilocality during the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture in Thailand?”, Antiquity 79: 865-881. Bentley, R. A., T. Douglas Price and E. Stephan. 2004. “Determining the ‘Local’ 87Sr/86Sr Range for Archeological Skeletons: A Case Study from Neolithic Europe”, Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 365-375. Bentley, R. A., N. Tayles, C. Higham, C. Macpherson and T. C. Atkinson 2007. “Shifting Gender Relations at Khok Phanom Di, Thailand: Isotopic Evidence from the Skeletons”, Current Anthropology 48 (2): 301-314. Budd, P., C. Chenery, J. Montgomery, J. Evans and 83

D. Powlesland. 2003. “Anglo-Saxon Residential Mobility at West Heslerton, North Yorkshire, UK from Combined O- and Sr-Isotope Analysis”, in Plasma Source Mass Spectrometry: Applications and Emerging Technologies, edited by G. Holland and S. D. Tanner: 195-208. Athenaeum, Cambridge. Budd, P., A. Millard, C. Chenery, S. Lucy and C. Roberts. 2004. “Investigating Population Movement by Stable Isotope Analysis: A Report from Britain”, Antiquity 78 (299): 127-141. Budd, P., J. Montgomery, B. Barreiro and R. G. Thomas. 2000. “Differential Diagenesis of Strontium in Archaeological Human Dental Tissues”, Applied Geochemistry 15: 687694. Crouch, D. P. 2004. Geology and Settlement: GrecoRoman Patterns. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Faure, G., 1986. Principles of Isotope Geology. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Hayward, C. L. 2003. “Geology of Corinth: The Study of a Basic Resource”, in Corinth, The Centenary 1896-1996, Charles K. Williams II and Nancy Bookidis (eds): 15-42. The American School of Classical Studies at

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Athens, Princeton. construction of Migration Patterns in the Hillson, S. 2005. Teeth. 2nd ed. Cambridge UniverBell Beaker Period by Stable Strontium Isosity Press, Cambridge. tope Analysis”, Applied Geochemistry 9: 413Hoppe, K. A., P. L. Koch and T. T. Furutani. 2003. 417. “Assessing the Preservation of Biogen- Stallo, J. R. 2007. Isotopic Study of Migration: Differentiic Strontium in Fossil Bones and Tooth ating Locals and Non-Locals in Tumulus Burials Enamel”, International Journal of Osteoarchaefrom Apollonia, Albania. Unpublished Masology 13: 20-28. ter’s thesis. Department of Anthropology, Meço, S. and Sh. Aliaj. 2000. Geology of Albania. GeUniversity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati. brüder Borntraeger, Berlin. Trickett, M. A., P. Budd, J. Montgomery and J. EvPrice, T. D., J. H. Burton and R. A. Bentley. 2002. ans. 2003. “Assessment of Solubility Pro“The Characterization of Biologically filing as a Decontamination Procedure for Available Strontium Isotope Ratios for the the 87Sr/86Sr Analysis of Archaeological Study of Prehistoric Migration”, ArchaeomHuman Skeletal Tissue”, Applied Geochemisetry 44 (1): 117-135. try 18: 653-658. Price, T. D., G. Grupe and P. Schröter. 1994. “Re-

84

4. METHODOLOGY OF EXCAVATION AND PROCESSING OF FINDS

The tumuli complex is located approximately two and appendix was cleaned of surface vegetation. km northeast of Apollonia, very close to the vil- This mainly consisted of grass and low bushes, with lage of Radostina (Fig. 4.1). It was located on a no deep roots. All pottery sherds and human bones

Figure 4.1: Satellite image with location of the tumuli complex respect to Apollonia. ridge oriented east–west. All the sides have been badly cut and have undergone erosion. On the east and west sides signs of scraping by heavy machinery were visible in the profile (Figs. 4.2 a-b). The portion cut off of Tumulus 9 is estimated to have comprised one third of its original size, of Tumulus 10 almost half, while the damages in Tumulus 11 are even worse, most of the Archaic part of the artificial hill having been destroyed. Prior to excavation the area of each tumulus 85

scattered on the surface were collected, and the area was systematically mapped using a Total Station, in order to obtain a three-dimensional model of the tumuli and the zone around them (Fig. 4.3). Each tumulus was then divided into four sectors along the cardinal axes.1 A conventional center was established in each case, to ensure that each sector had a similar volume. Balks 0.50 m wide in Tumulus 9, and 0.40 m in Tumuli 10 and 11 were preserved between the sectors until the end of the

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

a

b Figure 4.2 a, b: Damages by heavy machineries. 86

Methodology of excavation and processing of finds

Figure 4.3: 3-D reconstruction of the tumuli complex. dig, especially close to the center. However, it was not always possible to keep the balks for all their full length due to graves positioned within them. The maximum preserved height of Tumulus 9 was approximately 2.5 m, 2 m in Tumulus 10, and 2.60 m in Tumulus 11, but the surface of the artificial hills was extremely irregular due to vegetation, erosion, and holes of looters. The axes of the excavated areas measured approximately 7 m x 11 m in Tumulus 9, 22 m x 18 m in Tumulus 10, and 24 m x 23.5 m in Tumulus 11. Members of the team alternated through the years, except for the writer and Vangjel Dimo. However, the scheme used has been that in all the tumuli each sector has been excavated by a group consisting of a supervisor and a younger assistant helped by a few workers. The longevity of the site as well as its physical aspect meant that the stratigraphy was complex, an aspect further complicated by the numerous holes — some of substantial size — produced by modern and ancient robbers. Schematically, it was possible to define five main layers in Tumulus 9: 1) topsoil or humus, a very disturbed layer rich in or87

ganic wastes. 2) a mostly sandy layer, approximately 0.70 m thick, very disturbed. 3) A clayey layer, approximately 1.20 m thick, with visible intrusions by ancient looters. In both the latter two layers was the presence of gravel detected. 4) A layer, approximately 0.30 m thick, with similar characteristics to the third layer, but much more gravelly, and containing fewer sherds, even approaching sterility at the very bottom. 5) A layer consisting of the whitish gravel which formed the natural hill, used as a quarry (Fig. 4.4). ). This schematic stratigraphy was more regular in the northeast and southeast sectors of Tumulus 9, which represented the original central part of the complete tumulus. In the other two sectors — northwest and southwest — the layers were thinner and showed much more disturbance than in the previous two. In Tumulus 10 the Prehistoric core was quite well distinct from the Classical part. In fact both the colour and the composition of the soils which made up the fills of the tumulus were different: the soil of the Prehistoric core was lighter in colour and “dotted” by dispelled limestone (Fig. 4.5). In Tumulus 11 the damages were very dif-

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 4.4: Tumulus 9: stratigraphy.

Figure 4.5: Tumulus 10: fills of Prehistoric core and Classical part of the tumulus. fused and went very deep in the bedrock (Fig. 4.6), so that it was very difficult to distinguish layers with intact characteristics. However, for example in the area of Grave 10, undisturbed, the soil was clayey and with a green nuance which resembled layer 3 in Tumulus 9. The excavations were carried out following 88

stratigraphical principles. Where the stratigraphy was particularly complex, the surface of individual sectors was recorded in scale plans (1:50) and both profiles of each balk were drawn (scale 1:20). Each of the graves was documented in photographs (general views and details); in drawings

Methodology of excavation and processing of finds

Figure 4.6: Tumulus 11: damages of the bedrock by heavy machineries. (scale 1:10); in daily logbook descriptions; and in field and museum forms detailing the different elements of the grave (field forms: grave; fill of the grave; skeleton; cut of the grave; other deposit such as burned material. Museum forms: individual ceramic finds; individual non-ceramic finds); as well as recording of the elevations of different elements with a dumpy level, and of the position of the grave within the general plan of the tumulus using the Total Station. The Ceramic Deposits have been documented in the same way, as well as the Skeletal Units, intended as group of human bones considered possibly from a single skeleton, resulting from destroyed graves and thus not in situ. Every fragment of pottery found in the fills of the tumuli and appendixes was bagged and tagged according to its stratigraphical unit of provenance. The ceramic material was then separated into diagnostic and non-diagnostic, the latter of which was in certain cases discarded (before discarding it, the sherds have anyway been weighted according to 89

stratigraphical unit and class of pottery), and each fragment given an inventory number, dated, and described. Complete and more diagnostic vessels were drawn and photographed. Except for modern materials, all non-ceramic finds were kept. To each was assigned an inventory number, and all were positioned with the Total Station, dated and described. The most significant pieces were drawn and photographed (Fig. 4.7). As part of the post-excavation work, all finds were professionally cleaned and conserved: nonceramic objects were consolidated, ceramic finds were reassembled and restored for possibly museum display (Fig. 4.8). Notes 1

In each tumulus, Sector 1 occupied the northeast part of the tumulus, Sector 2 the southeast part, Sector 3 the southwest part, and Sector 4 the northwest part. In Tumulus 9 Sectors 1 and 2 contained the area of the original center of the tumulus. In Tumulus 10 the conventional center almost corresponded to the central grave. In Tumulus 11 the Archaic part was mostly in Sector 4 and partially in Sector 1.

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 4.7: Florenc Cenolli while drawing a red-figures vessel from Tumulus 9.

Figure 4.8: Alma Bardho while restoring a Corinthian vessel from Tumulus 11.

90

5. BURIAL RITES AND GRAVE TYPES

The excavation brought to light a total of 184 graves, 17 ceramic deposits, and 75 skeletal units. Among the 184 graves, two were in reality animal deposits (“Grave” 62 in Tumulus 9 and “Grave” 74 in Tumulus 10), both associated with grave goods. Because the first one was a cremation and the latter was very much deteriorated, only after the analysis of the physical anthropologist their real nature came out. Of the total number of graves, 25 are postmedieval or modern in date1 and hence have been discounted from the following discussions, unless otherwise indicated. These graves all shared characteristics such as extraordinary skeletal preservation, orientation towards the west, a lack of grave construction and grave goods, placement of the body not in the centre of the pit but towards a side, and a location on the periphery, or within superficial layer, of the tumuli (Fig. 5.1). They looked like a homogeneous group, different from the other graves. No previous excavations undertaken in the necropolis have indicated the possible presence of graves of such a late date. Only in the Tumulus of Lofkënd a series of superficial graves were distinguished by a deposition with the head towards west. In some, stone and/ or modern tiles were used to delimit or cover the grave, and in few cases coins datable to the 17th-18th centuries were found.2 With the absence of grave goods, the date of the Apollonia group was tested in AMS analyses of bone samples from two individuals (see p. 330).3 As suspected, these confirmed a date between the 17th and the 19th century A.D. The other 23 burials are dated by comparisons. It is interesting to underline that 9 of these graves (36%) pertained to children.4 The tumuli complex thus started with Tumulus 10 in the centre of the ridge during the Early 91

Figure 5.1: Appendix 3 Grave 1 dated to Post-Medieval/ Modern period. Bronze Age, which was used till the end of the Iron Age. At the beginning of the 6th century B.C. both Tumuli 9 and 11 were started at its sides and were used till the end of the 4th or the very beginning of the 3rd century B.C. After an interval during the 6th century, in the 5th T10 was reused till the late 4th century. In the 4th century the areas between the tumuli (called by us Appendixes) were filled with graves also. Then, finally, in the 17th-19th century A.D. few more graves were added (Fig. 5.2). Burial rites Prehistoric graves In the Prehistoric core of Tumulus 10, which in-

Figure 5.2: General plan of the tumuli complex with location and date of graves.

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

92

Burial rites and grave types

cluded 49 graves (Fig. 5.3),5 only inhumation was practiced. All the graves were single burials, except for three (Graves 26, 50, and 62). However, only Grave 50 (an inhumation of an adult female individual and a child) can be considered a proper multiple burial (Fig. 5.4); in fact, Graves 26 and 62 are more exactly reused graves, with the laying down of the second individual damaging the first one. The body of adult individuals and grown up children was placed in two ways: supine with flexed legs which could fall right or left (Fig. 5.5), or in sleeping/fetal position, on the right or left side (Fig. 5.4). Young children were laid down in supine position (Graves 5 and 73) (Figs. 5.6-5.7). In the supine position with flexed legs usually the arms are flexed at 90º on the belly; in Grave 60, instead, the left arm is straight on the pelvis. In the sleeping position the arms are usually folded, with the hands in front of the face or under the chin. Few exceptions are for example Grave 31, where the individual has the right arm higher than the left arm, and Grave 50, where the adult has the arm folded on the chest. Among adult individuals, the sleeping

position is prevalent (63%), preferably on the left side (58%). It would be tempting to find a chronological distinction between the two ways of placement of the body. In Grave 60, the central grave, and Graves 67 and 69, both directly above it, the individuals are supine with flexed legs, and thus this position could look like the oldest one. However, the location of Grave 46 (with individual supine with flexed legs) above Grave 49 (with individual in sleeping position), shows that this is not the case. As a confirm, Graves 26 and 46 (with individuals supine with flexed legs) are contemporary to Grave 33 (with individual in sleeping position), and are all dated to the 11th century on the basis of the grave goods. Archaic to Early Hellenistic graves During the 6th, 5th, and 4th centuries inhumation and cremation were both practiced, with inhumation being the preferred ritual. Of the 121 individuals of this period, only 20 (16.5%) were cremated.6 This, without counting the 75 skeletal units (which are obviously destroyed inhumations), in which case the percentage would lower to 10%. The cremation

Figure 5.3: General plan of Tumulus 10 with location of Prehistoric graves. 93

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 5.4: Tumulus 10 Grave 50, multiple burial with individuals in sleeping position on the left side.

Figure 5.5: Tumulus 10 Grave 46, individual in supine position with flexed legs fallen right.

Figure 5.6: Tumulus 10 Grave 5, burial of child in supine position.

Placementofprehistoricindividuals

9% 4%

24%

33%

supinewithflexedlegs sleepingposition supine undeterminate

42%

sleepingonrightside 58%

sleepingonleftside

flexedlegsfallenright flexedlegsfallenleft 67%

63%

Figure 5.7: Charts representing body placements in Prehistoric graves.

burials appear neither to be chronologically nor socially distinct from the inhumation burials. For example, in T9 Grave 55, a sarcophagus grave dated to the late 6th century, both an inhumation and a cremation were present. Usually cremations were performed in situ in simple pits (74%). The lack of chronological distinction is illustrated very well by the cremations in simple pits again in Tumulus 9, performed from the Archaic period (Graves 58 and 60) through the 5th century (Graves 31, 38, 53, and 67), to the 4th century (Graves 15 and 18). The same can be said when the cremated bone remains were put in an urn; in fact, T11 Grave 16 is dated to the late 6th century, while X3 Grave 11 to the late 5th-early 4th, T11 Graves 2 and 13 to the 4th, and T9 Grave 61 to the late 4th century B.C. The tumuli complex contained predominantly single burials. However, few multiple burials were identified, almost all in Tumulus 9;7 they 94

all contained two individuals (Fig. 5.8), except for T9 Grave 26, which had three, and X3 Grave 13, which had three and perhaps four (only one laid down, the others piled up). Except for T9 Grave 55 and Tumulus 10 Grave 1, all the multiple graves were inhumations. The bodies were laid down constantly with straight arms and legs (Fig. 5.8). The only exceptions were T9 Grave 39 where the individual had the right arm flexed on the chest (Fig. 5.9), and T9 Grave 45 and X2 Grave 3 where the individuals had both hands on the pelvis. Orientation Prehistoric graves The graves had various orientations, with no clear pattern emerging. From the table below (Table 5.1), it can be noticed, however, that the preferred orientation was towards northwest, followed by south-

Burial rites and grave types

west, west, and southeast almost with the same Tumulus 1, Aleksandra Mano suggested that the incidence. The remaining orientations occur rarely. prevalent orientation of the burials here were determined by a wish to allow the deceased to “look” Archaic to Early Hellenistic graves at Apollonia.8 This is not the case in the tumuli In this period also graves had various orientations, complex. Since the complex is located northeast of with no clear pattern emerging. When excavating Apollonia, only skeletons oriented with their heads

Figure 5.8: Tumulus 9 Grave 9, multiple burial of adult and child in supine position with straight arms and legs.

Figure 5.9: Tumulus 9 Grave 39, adult in supine position with one flexed arm.

ORIENTATION

GRAVES NO

NW

8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 31, 35, 37, 49, 55, 62*, 67, 73, 75

SW

4, 20, 27, 33, 39, 44, 65, 68

W

18, 26, 34, 40, 50, 60, 63

SE

5, 46, 51, 58, 62(2), 64, 69

NE

15, 24, 38, 47, 72

S

23, 29

E

71

N

28

Table 5.1: Orientation of Prehistoric graves (Tumulus 10). 95

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

towards the northeast and their feet towards the southwest would have faced the city, an orientation that is not among the most common (Table 5.2). Rather, the preferred orientations were towards the southeast and the southwest (the table obviously does not include enchytrismoi, urns, and some of the cremations). Neither it is possible to see a pattern in orientation versus chronological period.

Grave 60, being the central and more ancient grave of the tumulus, had a particular construction: the body (in supine position with flexed legs fallen left) was covered with soil forming a small hemispherical hill in its turn covered with pebbles. This feature was more or less in the centre of a ring with a diameter of approximately 3.30 m, obtained partially (on the north/northwestern side) in the soft bedrock, partially with a line of small rocks. Unfortunately mostly of the latter had been damaged by modern interventions (Fig. 5.12). The tradition of “monumentalizing” the central grave is widespread in the tumuli culture. In Albania they are many the Prehistoric tumuli excavated, mostly in the north and in the southeast part of the country, and each of them has the central grave different from the rest of the graves. In the Bronze Age it is common that the central grave is covered by rocks, usually medium size, forming the so-called “murana”.11 This is the case for the tumuli of Luaras and Rehovë (district of Kolonjë), Barç (district of Korçë), Cerujës

Grave types Prehistoric graves The large majority of the graves dated to the Prehistoric period, as said earlier, were inhumations placed in simple pits. Where the cut of the pit was still visible, it had a rectangular shape with rounded corners (Fig. 5.5). Very few of them (8%),9 including the central grave, were partially lined with medium size rocks (Fig. 5.10). Regarding Grave 24, most of the rocks of the perimeter were reused at the time when Grave 23 was laid down, in order to divide the two individuals (Fig. 5.11). OR

ARCHAIC

CLASSICAL

HELLENISTIC

SE

T9G55, T9G56, T9G66

T9G4(2), T9G5, T9G7(2), T9G9(2),

X3G4

T9G10, T9G19, T9G31, T9G36, T9G54, T10G2, T10G17, T10G19, T10G22, T10G32, T10G61, T10G77, X1G3, X3G8, X3G9 SW

T9G51, T9G58, T9G65,

T9G12, T9G17, T9G21, T9G22*,

T10G53

T9G44, T9G46(2), T9G59, T9G67, T10G43, T10G53, X1G4, X2G2

NE

T9G45

T9G2, T9G20, T9G22*, T9G25, T10G9, T10G48, T10G57, T10G59, T11G11, X2G1, X2G3, X3G12, X3G13

S

T9G32, T9G38*, T9G39, T10G1, T11G3*, T11G6, X3G2, X3G7, X3G14

W

T9G23, T9G57, T10G18

NW

T10G42, X3G5, X3G10

N

T9G38*, T10G30, T11G3*, T11G4

E

T9G63

* Damaged graves with uncertain orientation



Table 5.2: Orientation of Archaic to Early Hellenistic graves. 96

T9G26(3)

Burial rites and grave types

(district of Gramsh), Vajzë and Dukat (district of Vlorë), Vodhimë, Kakavij, Bodrishtë, and Çepunë (district of Gjirokastër).12 Even in cases where the “murana” was not built, the central grave was anyway distinct, like in the Kamenica tumulus, where it was enclosed in a ring of rocks, and an animal sacrifice was performed before the placing of the body.13 In few graves (16%) rests of wood were also detected.10 In all the cases, except for one (Grave 37) where it was burned, the wood was decayed. In

burials such as Graves 23, 24, and 49, the location under the skeleton of the preserved wood allow to interpret it as rests of a stretcher or litter on which the body had been transported. Grave 73 is particular, because it is the burial of a child approximately 9 months old; the layer of decayed wood underneath the bones has a concave shape, which allows assuming that it could have been a cradle (Fig. 5.13).

Figure 5.10: Tumulus 10 Grave 29, burial partially lined with rocks.

Figure 5.11: Tumulus 10 Graves 23-24, rocks of Grave 24 reused to separate the two individuals.

Figure 5.12: Tumulus 10 Grave 60, central grave. 97

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 5.13: Tumulus 10 Grave 73, infant probably in its cradle. Archaic to Early Hellenistic graves The grave types dated to the Archaic to Early Hellenistic period present in the tumuli complex include most of those known from previous excavations in the necropolis. The types comprise sarcophagi,14 enchytrismoi (Fig. 5.14),15 graves built of mud-bricks16 and bricks,17 graves lined with rocks,18 graves built of tiles,19 simple pits,20 and urns.21 The majority of graves were simple pits (46%), followed by enchytrismoi (17%), sarcophagi and graves built of tiles (9% each type), graves built of mud-bricks (8%), graves built of bricks and urns (4.5% each type), and finally graves lined with rocks

(only 1%). Simple pits, or graves without construction These were widely used during all periods of the cemetery, both for inhumations and cremations. Due to the compact nature of the soil in the cemetery, the original outline of this type of grave usually could not be distinguished, except for few examples such as T11 Grave 11 and X3 Grave 7. Given the nature itself of the tumulus, an artificial hill built by bringing soil from the surrounding area to cover the burials, it is likely that the deceased was laid down on the tumulus surface, which had simply been cleaned and levelled, and that a sunken pit was not excavated into the extant surface. A little bit different is the pattern regarding in situ cremations: in some cases, such as in T9 Graves 15, 18, 53, and 60, T11 Graves 3 and 12, and X3 Graves 2 and 3, the area with burned material was irregular, changed shape and dimensions while excavating it, the bone material was few and spread irregularly (Fig. 5.15). In other cases, such as T9 Graves 31 and 58, and T11 Grave 6, the area of the cremation had a very well defined rectangular shape, the layer of carbonized wood was very thick, and even pieces of wood still preserving their structure were still visible. In T9 Grave 58 there was a floor of baked clay or mud-bricks, a feature that has not been recorded

Figure 5.15: Appendix 3 Grave 3, in situ cremation in irregular-shaped pit.

Figure 5.14: Tumulus 9, general view of Sectors 1 and 2 with sarcophagi and enchytrismoi. 98

Burial rites and grave types

in the tumuli previously excavated (Fig. 5.16). Even if the degree of burning was very high and the bones were not much preserved (except for the upper part of the skeleton in T9 Grave 58), it could be possible to see traces of them revealing bodies in supine position. Finally, in T9 Graves

Figure 5.17: Tumulus 9 Grave 67, in situ cremation in cross-shaped pit. the more popular (in a ratio of 6:1). Sometimes the mouth of the vessel was closed by a tile, such as in T9 Graves 24, 33, 34, 40, and 52, or a stone slab, such as in T9 Graves 27 and 47. In T11 Grave 10 the pithos was sealed by a ceramic lid (Fig. 5.18). The graves using transport amphorae are dated later than the ones using pithoi.

Figure 5.16: Tumulus 9 Grave 58, in situ cremation in rectangular-shaped pit.

38 and 67, the pit was cross-shaped, with an axis shorter than the other one. These two shorter “branches” very likely were used to supply more fuel. While Grave 38 pertains to probably two children and their skeletal remains were very scanty, in Grave 67 the shape of the skeleton was still visible, and it was undoubtedly of an adult (Fig. 5.17). Except for the cremations in cross-shaped pits, both dated to the late 5th century, it is not possible to see a chronological pattern in the cremations of the other two types. Enchytrismoi Burials of new-borns or young children in vessels are dated to the Archaic and Classical periods. Both pithoi and transport amphorae were used for this Figure 5.18: Tumulus 11 Grave 10, enchytrismos in pithos with ceramic lid. purpose, though the former were overwhelmingly 99

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Sarcophagi The burial in sarcophagus is common in the Archaic and Classical periods, and all examples identified were carved from a single limestone block. Monolithic limestone sarcophagi are a typical Corinthian custom. In the North Cemetery at Corinth monolithic sarcophagi were widely used from the Protocorinthian period, with the greatest flourishing in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. before a diminution in production in the 4th century B.C.22 During the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. these sarcophagi became widespread also in Ionia, as well as at Gela, Siracuse and Megara Hyblaea in Sicily.23 Unlike the CorinthiFigure 5.20: Tumulus 9 Grave 21, small sarcophagus an sarcophagi, which predominantly used flat lids, covered by stone slab. those found at Apollonia were usually covered by roof-shaped — or gabled — lids.24 The best preserved of the lids from Tumulus 9 (Grave 5) was decorated with an incised triangular pattern on the underside (Fig. 5.19). A similar triangular pattern can be seen on an example from the North Cemetery (grave 218), at Corinth, though the decoration on this mid–6th century grave is painted rather than carved.25 Among the eight sarcophagi found in Tumulus 9, two were of small dimensions suitable for

Figure 5.21: Tumulus 9, general view of sarcophagi; on first plan Grave 5 lined with red stucco.

Figure 5.19: Tumulus 9 Grave 5, sarcophagus lid with incised triangular pattern on undeside. children (Graves 21 and 51). One of these was covered with an unworked stone slab (Fig. 5.20), the other by tiles. Three others (Graves 4, 5, and 56) were lined with pale red stucco on the interior (Fig. 5.21), a feature also known from Corinth though here most are lined with white or yellowish waterproof stucco.26

Two sarcophagi found close together and at quite a high elevation had been reused (Graves 4 and 5); a custom also found in the North Cemetery at Corinth.27 In one of these the original lid had been replaced by one too large and heavy for it, causing the sides and base of the sarcophagus to break (Fig. 5.19). The other contained grave goods datable to the Classical period, but an inscription in Archaic Corinthian alphabet on the upper rim of the sarcophagus clearly identifies its earlier date (Fig. 5.22). The inscription is complete and consists of three letters. It is possible to read Lambda or Π, Epsilon, and San. The first letter is dubious because the top stroke is inclined like in a lambda, but appears to have a short hook like in a Π; the inscription, therefore, could read LES or ΠES.28 The inclusion of an inscription on a sarcophagus of this early date is highly unusual. The only other Archaic

100

Burial rites and grave types

inscription found within the necropolis of Apollonia is the name Ksenaristas inscribed on a stele in Tumulus 1 (Fig. 2.35 b).29 At Metapontum, incised Greek letters or monograms, which have been interpreted as masons’ marks, have been found on seven funerary cists dated between the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 3rd centuries B.C.30 Graves built of tiles Graves built of tiles can be of two kinds: with tiles lined up in the shape of a coffin, or “alla cappuccina”. Of the ten tile graves, only one of each type could be identified; all the rest of them were too seriously damaged. In reality, even T10 Grave 57,

Figure 5.23: Tumulus 10 Grave 57, tile grave in the shape of a coffin.

Figure 5.22: Tumulus 9 Grave 4, inscription of the rim of the vasca. the only one in the shape of a coffin, was damaged too (Fig. 5.23). T10 Grave 22, instead, “alla cappuccina”, fortunately was intact (Fig. 5.24). It was not possible to assess a chronological distinction between the two kinds; in fact, both Grave 57 and Grave 22 are dated to the second half of the 4th century on the basis of the grave goods. However, Aleksandra Mano, who had a much higher number of these graves in Tumulus 1, noticed that the graves in the shape of a coffin were found at a lower elevation than the other kind, thus should be slightly earlier.31 Graves built of mud-bricks The graves built of mud-bricks can be dated to the Classical period, predominantly the 4th century B.C. Due to the nature of the mud-bricks and of the soil covering the graves, the single bricks were fused together, forming a compact structure. Only in one case (T9 Grave 9) could the dimensions of the bricks be identified, here measuring 0.46 m x 0.46 m. (Fig. 5.8).

Figure 5.24: Tumulus 10 Grave 22, tile grave “alla cappuccina”. Graves built of bricks Graves built of bricks were not frequent in the tumuli complex. The most preserved ones were T9 Grave 26 and T11 Grave 4, which though had been both dismantled to reuse the bricks, perhaps

101

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

already in antiquity. All the others were very badly damaged in modern time. In T9 Grave 26 it was possible anyway to determine the dimensions of the bricks by the imprints left in the soil, 0.38 m x 0.38 m x 0.08 m, that is, of the same size as in similar graves from Tumuli 1, 6, and 7.32 This grave had also three individuals, two males and a female, all adults (Fig. 5.25). However, multiple burials in this type grave were common in Tumuli 1, 6, and 7.33 A characteristic of the brick-built graves, which are dated to the Late Classical-Early HelleFigure 5.26: Tumulus 9 Grave 61, cremation in urn nistic period, is also to have a rich number of grave (plain hydria). goods. it is difficult to understand if originally there were more. The skeleton is damaged in the lower half of the legs, and the rocks also stop right at the same point. Despite the damage, there are grave goods, among which two black-glazed vessels which date the burial to mid-4th century B.C. (Fig. 5.27).

Figure 5.25: Tumulus 9 Grave 26, multiple burial built with bricks. Urns Considering the ritual of cremation, the costume to burn the body and to collect then bones and ashes in an urn was less frequent than the in situ cremation, with a ratio of 1:4. Vessels used as urns were predominantly table amphorae and kraters. In T11 Graves 2 and 13 the urn was a table amphora, banded in the first case and plain in the second. In T11 Grave 16 a Laconian krater was used as urn, while in X3 Grave 11 a red-figures one. In T9 Grave 61, instead, a plain hydria was preferred (Fig. 5.26). Graves lined with rocks This type of grave is quite unusual in the Archaic to Hellenistic period, in fact there is only one (T10 Grave 42) in the whole complex, and none is recorded in the tumuli previously excavated. The rocks, of large size and in three lines one above the other, were only on one side of the grave, and

Figure 5.27: Tumulus 10 Grave 42, burial lined with rocks dated to the Classical period. Two sections of stone circles in Tumulus 9 (Nj.S. 209 and Nj.S. 240) At the base of the tumulus, at the level of the Archaic graves, two tracts of stone-built circles came to light, respectively in Sector 4 and 1 (Fig. 7.1). These were labelled contexts 209 and 240 (Fig. 5.28).

102

Burial rites and grave types

a

Figure 5.29: Tumulus of Kamenica: circular tombs.

b Figure 5.28: Tumulus 9, sections of stone circles: a) Nj.S. 209 (Sector 4), b) Nj.S. 240 (Sector 1). The, now damaged, structures are composed of a single row of unworked stones of different sizes. These are laid with some care: mainly arranged horizontally with occasional vertically placed stones for reinforcement. In some cases two or three smaller stones are placed one above the other to achieve the same height as that of the larger stones. The two structures could be part of originally complete circles, which were damaged when the later graves were built on that area. The structure from Sector 1 may also have been damaged by heavy machineries, since it is located towards the northern margin of the tumulus This type of masonry is strikingly reminiscent of that found in the two groups of circular tombs in the Tumulus of Kamenica, dated to the late 7thearly 6th century B.C. At Kamenica, each of these circles enclosed an inhumation (Fig. 5.29). Structure Nj.S 209 could be related to Grave 45, while structure Nj.S. 240 may be associated with Grave 65, even if both – especially Grave 65 – are at quite a distance from the respective lines of stone. Grave 45 is contemporary with the Kamenica graves, while Grave 65 is dated towards the end of the 6th

century B.C. However, the two burials share a common aspect, which may support the hypothesis that they were distinguished physically from the other graves: they both have very particular grave goods. Grave 45 included two typical Corinthian kotylai as well as metal objects, such as two bronze bracelets and two iron spectacle fibulae. The metal jewellery is typical of local production of the Developed Iron Age, and identical with finds from the Kamenica Tumulus. Grave 65 contained two pieces unique to Tumulus 9 and probably to the necropolis as a whole: the foot of a black-glazed stirrup or volute krater, probably of Laconian origin, and a black-glazed krateriskos or western Greek kantharos. These two graves could belong to two individuals whose difference (in origin?) from the rest of the community was articulated in differentiation also in the cemetery. It is hoped that DNA analysis of these individuals compared with individuals from other Archaic graves may provide an answer. Tract of wall in Tumulus 11 (Nj.S. 61-62) In Tumulus 11 also there is a slightly arched structure, more imposing than those in Tumulus 9: it is more than 3.5 m long and from 0.60 to 1 m high. The unworked stones have various size, and small rocks fill the interstices between large ones. Some are placed vertically and some, on top, horizontally (Fig. 5.30). This structure is at a superficial level of the tumulus, and one of the stones was visible even before the excavation started. It is likely that it was set upduring the Classical period and perhaps it was meant as a division between the Archaic core of the tumulus and the later section (Fig. 7.8).

103

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 5.30: Tumulus 11, tract of wall (Nj.S. 61-62). Notes 1 11 graves from Tumulus 9 (Graves 1, 6, 8, 11, 13, 16, 29, 30, 41, 48, and 64), 7 from Tumulus 10 (Graves 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 16, and 21), 2 from Tumulus 11 (Graves 1 and 5), 3 from Appendix 1 (Graves 1, 2, and 5), and 2 from Appendix 3 (Graves 1 and 6). 2 Papadopoulos et al. 2007, p. 114; http://www.sscnet.ucla. edu/ioa/staff/papadopoulos/lofkend/ 3 Graves 29 and 30 from Tumulus 9, containing complete skeletons. 4 Graves 6, 11, 16, and 41 from Tumulus 9, and Graves 3, 6, 7, 11, and 16 from Tumulus 10. 5 Graves 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, and 75. Grave 11 had a second skeleton added in the Post-Medieval/Modern period, while Grave 18 had a second skeleton added in the Classical period. 6 Graves 15, 18, 31, 38, 53, 55 (together with an inhumation), 58, 60, 61, and 67 in Tumulus 9; Grave 1 (together with an inhumation) in Tumulus 10; Graves 2, 3, 6, 12, 13, and 16 in Tumulus 11; Graves 2, 3, and 11 in Appendix 3. 7 Graves 4, 7, 9, 26, 46, and 55 in Tumulus 9; Grave 1 in Tumulus 10 (context not reliable); Grave 10 in Tumulus 11; Grave 13 in Appendix 3 (more exactly a reused grave). 8 Mano 1971, pp. 111-112.

Graves 24, 25, 29, and 60. Graves 20, 23, 24, 26, 37, 49, 67, and 73. 11 Albanian term. 12 Aliu 2004, pp. 29-30 and notes 3-10; Bodinaku 1985, pp. 184-185. 13 Bejko 2004, p. 40. 14 Graves 4, 5, 21, 22, 46, 51, 55, and 56 in Tumulus 9; Grave 53 in Tumulus 10, and Grave 8 in Tumulus 11. 15 Graves 3, 14, 24, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 43, 47, 49, 50, 52 in Tumulus 9, and Graves 7, 10, and 15 in Tumulus 11. 16 Graves 7, 9, 19, 39, 54, 59, and 63 in Tumulus 9; Grave 77 in Tumulus 10, and Grave 8 in Appendix 3. 17 Grave 26 in Tumulus 9; Graves 4 and 14 in Tumulus 11, and Grave 4 and 14 in Appendix 3. 18 Grave 42 in Tumulus 10. 19 Tiles in the shape of a coffin: Grave 57 in Tumulus 10; “alla cappuccina”: Grave 22 in Tumulus 10; uncertain type: Graves 48, 52, 66, 70, and 76 in Tumulus 10; Grave 9 in Tumulus 11; Grave 4 in Appendix 2, and Grave 9 in Appendix 3. 20 Graves 2, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 32, 36, 38, 42, 44, 45, 53, 57, 60, 65, 66, and 67 in Tumulus 9; Graves 1, 2, 9, 17, 18 (together with a Prehistoric inhumation), 19, 30, 32, 36, 43, 54, 59, and 61 in Tumulus 10, Graves 3, 6, 11, and 12 in Tumulus 11; Graves 3 and 4 in Appendix 1; Graves 1, 2, and 3 in Appendix 2; Graves 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, and 13 in 9

10

104

Burial rites and grave types

Appendix 3. Grave 61 in Tumulus 9; graves 2, 13, and 16 in Tumulus 11, and Grave 11 in Appendix 3. 22 Corinth XIII, p. 71; Hitzl 1991, p. 24. 23 Hitzl 1991, pp. 27, 42. 24 For the Corinthian types, see Corinth XIII, p. 71 and Hitzl 1991, p. 24. Exceptions to the preference for flat lids include Grave 222 in the North Cemetery (Corinth XIII, p. 71, pl. 15) and an example from the necropolis of Ierissos (Hitzl 1991, p. 27). 25 Corinth XIII, p. 72, pl. 17, and p. 202; Hitzl 1991, p. 25, 21

note 9. Corinth XIII, p. 72. 27 Corinth XIII, p. 76. 28 Jeffery 1990, p. 114. 29 Mano 1971, p. 197, pl. 47, 1. 30 Carter 1998, pp. 87-88. 31 Mano 1971, pp. 125, 130-132. 32 Mano 1971, p. 125; Dimo 1990, p. 14. 33 Mano 1971, pp. 125, 140-142; Dimo 1990, pp. 14, 28, 30, 35, 38, and 47. 34 Bejko 2004, pp. 39-44. 26

105

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 Tumulus 9 was located at the eastern end of the ridge and it was heavily damaged mostly on the eastern side. Very likely one third of the original tumulus has been cut away by heavy machineries. The axes of the excavated area measured 7 m (N-S) x 11 m (E-W) . There were also numerous holes on the surface, done by looters. During the excavation, however, it became evident that robbing had happened also already in antiquity, as in the case of the sarcophagus Grave 56.    The tumulus was used from the beginning of the 6th century to the very beginning of the 3rd century B.C. A total of 67 graves (including the burned animal deposit ‘Grave’ 62 that is amply treated in the next chapter), 13 ceramic deposits, and 3 skeletal units came to light. Of the total of 67 tombs, 11 inhumations were laid down during the PostMedieval/Modern period (these graves are not considered in the analyses below as well as in the other tumuli and appendixes). The only burial that can be dated to the beginning of the 6th century is Grave 45, the simple pit of a young female individual with both indigenous and imported Corinthian grave goods. This is the only grave with such kind of mixed finds in our tumuli complex and even in

the whole necropolis till now. The other graves of Tumulus 9 are dated from the Middle Corinthian period on, that means after the traditional date of foundation of Apollonia.    Another characteristic of Tumulus 9, respect to the others of the complex, is the high number of enchytrismoi (22% of the total number of graves), which means a high number of child burials. These, added to the simple pit Graves 2, 10, 12, 15, 20, 23, 32, 38, and 44, the mud-brick Graves 9, 19, 54, and 63, the sarcophagus Graves 21, 22, and 51, and the urn Grave 61 bring the number of children up to the 51.6% of the total individuals.    Striking also is the high number of graves with grave goods (82%); considering that some of the graves with no objects have been heavily damaged or looted, very probably the percentage would have been even higher.    Earlier in the chapter the two sections of stone circles have been already illustrated. These, together with the animal deposit ‘Grave’ 62 and the characteristics mentioned above, contribute in making of Tumulus 9 a highly interesting monument.

LEGEND Grave and Nj.S. line + enclosing line

Human bones (second skeleton)

Decayed wood

Supposed grave line

Human bones (third skeleton)

Mud-brick

Break - line

Burned materials

Fired mud-brick

Stone Ceramics and small finds Human bones (first skeleton) Animal bones

Brick

Nj.S. (Njesi Stratigrafike) is the Albanian word for Stratigraphical Unit (context). The Nj.S. are listed following the scheme: grave, deposit (fill of grave), skeleton.

In some graves there are more elements: grave, cut, deposit (fill of grave), deposit (for ex. wood), 1st skeleton, 2nd skeleton, 3rd skeleton. 106

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 1

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 009, 010, 011 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.85 x 0.60 x 0.16 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located in the superficial layer of the tumulus and heavily damaged. There were no grave goods to help dating it; however, the orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The lower half of the skeleton (Nj.S. 11) had been cut off, but the bones left were very well preserved. During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also few bones of another adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number). 

107

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 2

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 012, 013, 014 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 80°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.25 x 1.60 x 0.16 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:2

Date: 400-350 B.C. Basis for date: bronze pin, pottery in the grave’s filling Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze pin (13.7) Comments: the grave was quite damaged, especially on the E side. The stratigraphical position helped also in the date assessment.

1

108

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 3

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 015, 016, 017 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.15) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: --

Scale 1:10

Date: mid-5th c. B.C. Basis for date: pyxis Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed olpe (2.1179) 2. black-glazed squat lekythos (2.1304) 3. banded pyxis (3.24) Small Finds: 4. iron fibula fr. (13.61) Comments: the olpe was found outside the pithos, but it was considered as part of the grave goods; considering that the pithos was crushed, it is plausible that the olpe rolled outside.

Scale 1:5

109

1

2

3

4

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 4

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 018, 019, 020, 022 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: supine (?) Orientation: Nj.S. 020: 170°, head towards S-E; Nj.S. 022: 170°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.26 x 1.05 x 0.60 m Sex: Nj.S 020: female?, Nj.S. 022: male Age: Nj.S 020: adult, Nj.S. 022: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: red-figures hydria Grave goods: Nj.S. 020: Ceramics: 1. red-figures hydria (1.163) Small Finds: 2. iron knife (11.5) 3. iron knife (11.6) 4. bronze applique (13.68) 5. handle of bronze knife (11.10) 6. iron strigil (11.79) Nj.S. 022: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 7. iron horse bit (11.81) Comments: the sarcophagus is carved into a single block of limestone, and has a gabled lid (only 40% preserved); all the walls of the “vasca” were cracked. Inside measures of the sarcophagus: 2.10 x 0.85 x 0.50 m. On the upper rim of the vasca there is an inscription in the Archaic Corinthian alphabet. The inscription is complete and consists of three letters. It is possible to read Lambda or Π, Epsilon, and San. The grave has been robbed; inside the “vasca” have been found many fragments of the lid and in the southern part of it the rests of two skeletons. The sarcophagus must have been reused, because the date of the grave goods is much later than the date of the letters carved on the side of the “vasca”.

2

3

4

110

5

6

7

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 5

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 025, 026, 027 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 170°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.21 x 0.85 x 0.50 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

Scale 1:2

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pin fr. (13.35) 2. iron finger ring fr. (13.84) Comments: the sarcophagus is carved into a single block of limestone, and has a gabled lid; all the walls of the “vasca” were cracked. Inside measures of the sarcophagus: 2.04 x 0.73 x 0.40 m. On the interior the walls of the “vasca” were lined with pale red stucco. This is the best preserved lid of Tumulus 9 (2.37 x 1.10 m) and it was decorated with an incised triangular pattern on the underside. It is evident that this sarcophagus was reused, because the lid was too large and heavy for it, so the walls of the “vasca” got broken as well as the floor. The “vasca” was also amended in antiquity, because on the bottom of it was found a lead clamp (11.109). The crack and lifting of the floor caused the bones of the skeleton to get assembled at both sides of the sarcophagus.

1

2

111

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 6

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 028, 029, 030 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.65 x 0.33 x 0.15 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation, preservation of the bones Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The bones are very well preserved (Nj.S. 30) for being such a young individual. The grave was placed within the structure (in its N corner) of a more ancient grave with mud-bricks (Grave 9).

112

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 7

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 035, 036, 037, 054 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 037: 170°, head towards S-E; Nj.S. 054: 170°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.30 x 1.70 x 0.57 m Sex: Nj.S. 037: male?, Nj.S. 054: -Age: Nj.S. 037: adult, Nj.S. 054: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 350-300 B.C. Basis for date: cup kantharos, red-figures krater Grave goods: Nj.S. 037: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.62) 2. black-glazed wide-mouthed oinochoe (2.771) 3. black-glazed olpe (2.1192) 4. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.864) 5. red-figures krater (1.233) 6. black-glazed cup kantharos (2.843) Small Finds: 7. part of bronze applique (13.70) 8. iron spearhead (14.10) 9. iron strigil (11.70) 10. iron strigil (11.71) Nj.S. 054: Ceramics: 11. black-glazed mug (2.37) 12. black-glazed skyphos (2.142) 13. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.865) 14. black-glazed skyphos (2.143) 15. black-glazed skyphos (2.144) 16. plain table amphora (4.63) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave, among the graves lined with mud-bricks, is one with the highest number of grave goods. Unfortunately neither one of the skeletons is well preserved.

2

113

3

4

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

5

Scale 1:5

11

6

12

13

7

14

114

8

15

9

10

16

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 8

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 038, 039, 040 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.80 x 0.70 x 0.28 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was in the S balk, between Sectors 2 and 3.There were no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. It was damaged, so part of the skeleton had been cut off (Nj.S. 40), but the bones left were very well preserved.

115

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 9

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 041, 044, 042, 043 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 042: 140°, head towards S-E; Nj.S. 043: 140°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.34 x 0.97 x 0.52 m Sex: Nj.S. 042: male, Nj.S. 043: -Age: Nj.S. 042: adult, Nj.S. 043: child

Date: 350-300 B.C. Basis for date: red-figures squat lekythoi Grave goods: Nj.S. 042: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed skyphos (2.146) 2. plain table amphora (4.61) Small Finds: 3. iron spearhead (14.11) 4. iron shoes skeletons (13.63) Nj.S. 043: Ceramics: 5. black-glazed olpe (2.1183) 6. black-glazed saltcellar (2.908) 7. red-figures squat lekythos (1.173) 8. red-figures squat lekythos (1.174) Small Finds: 9. astragaloi (11.125) Comments: one of the mud-bricks graves best preserved. The dimensions of the mud-bricks are: 0.46 x 0.46 m, but most of them were melted together. The grave was slightly damaged in the N-E and S-W corners. AMS analysis was performed on the skeleton of the adult individual (Nj.S. 42), and it provided a date to the Classical period. This grave was above Grave 38.

116

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

2

1

Scale 1:5

6

7

3

8

9

117

4

5

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 10

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 045, 046, 047 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 140º, head towards S-E Dimensions: preserved: 0.22 x 0.20 x 0.09 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:5

Date: mid-5th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed olpe Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed olpe (2.1180) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged and there were very few bones preserved from the skull and from the ribs (Nj.S. 47). The measurements of the graves take in account only the area where bones were present.

1

118

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 11

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 048, 049, 050 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.45 x 0.15 x 0.09 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The bones are very well preserved (Nj.S. 50), for being such a young individual. Together with the baby’s skeleton, the physical anthropologist found some burned bones of an adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

119

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 12

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 051, 052, 053 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 190º, head towards S-W Dimensions: preserved: 0.55 x 0.50 x 0.09 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:2

Date: 400-300 B.C. Basis for date: bronze earrings Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. pair of bronze earrings (13.72) Comments: the grave and the skeleton itself (Nj.S. 53) were damaged.

1

120

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 13

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 055, 057, 056 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260º, heads toward S-W Dimensions: 1.95 x 0.75 x 0.20 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The skeleton (Nj.S. 56) was complete and the bones very well preserved.

121

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 14

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 059, 060, 061 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.12) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 500-450 B.C. Basis for date: pithos Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze ring (13.79) 2. iron object in two fragments (16.12) Comments: the pithos has a small flat base and is decorated on the shoulder with straight and wavy incised lines. The skeleton (Nj.S. 61) was poorly preserved.

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:2

122

1

2

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 15

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 062, 063, 064 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.50 x 0.43 x 0.20 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:5

Date: 350-300 B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze instrument (11.82) Comments: this grave was an in situ cremation. Few bones were preserved (Nj.S. 64), mixed with ash and soil. The bronze implement is deformed by the heating.

1

123

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 16

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 066, 067, 068, 069 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 280º, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.45 x 0.19 x 0.09 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: one of the few graves where the cut (Nj.S. 67) is distinguishable. This grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The bones left (Nj.S. 69) are very well preserved.

124

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 17

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 070, 071, 072 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.90 x 0.45 x 0.44 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 350-300 B.C. Basis for date: red-figures lekythos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded table amphora (3.78) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.145) 3. red-figures squat lekythos (1.176) 4. black-glazed saltcellar (2.929) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has been damaged and the skeleton (Nj.S. 72) was very poorly preserved. The definition of the grave is based essentially on the position of the grave goods. Very close to the grave, N of it, was evident an area disturbed by looters.

2

3

125

4

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 18

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 073, 074, 075 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 1.25 x 1.03 x 0.04 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: 400-325 B.C. Basis for date: silver finger ring Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. silver finger ring with engraving (13.86) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation; the limits of the graves were not regular and visible on every side. This grave damaged partially the N side of Grave 19. The bones preserved from the skeleton (Nj.S. 75) were not numerous and were spread on the surface. The finger ring was found in the W corner of the grave.

1

126

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 19

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 076, 077, 078 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine, with head fallen on the right side Orientation: 120º, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.95 x 1.23 x 0.26 m Sex: -Age: child

2

1

4-5

Scale 1:5

6

3

7

9

Date: 350-325 B.C. Basis for date: red-figures skyphos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.866) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.867) 3. red-figures hydria (1.162) 4. lid of red-figures lebes gamikos (1.195) 5. red-figures lebes gamikos (1.194) 6. black-glazed saltcellar (2.940) 7. black-glazed saltcellar (2.941) 8. banded small table amphora (3.79) 9. red-figures skyphos (1.230) 10. black-glazed skyphos (2.187) Small Finds: 11. iron stylus (11.87) 12. astragaloi (11.124) Comments: outside measures: 1.95 x 1.23 m; inside measurements: 1.60 x 0.83 m. The inside limit was not always clear. The N side was slightly damaged by Grave 18, while the S side was damaged by heavy machineries. The amount of astragaloi was very high, 152 pieces.

8

10

11

127

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 20

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 079, 080, 081 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 30º, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.35 x 0.54 x 0.47 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 400-350 B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed two-handler cup Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed two-handled cup (2.790) Small Finds: 2. bronze strigil (11.63) 3. iron pin (13.47) 4. astragaloi (11.122) Comments: the skeleton (Nj.S. 81) was damaged in the upper skull, in the right arm, and in the feet. The amount of astragaloi was very high, 94 pieces.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 21

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 083, 084, 085 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 190º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.97 x 0.51 x 0.40 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:5

Date: mid-5th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed skyphos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed type A skyphos (2.186) Small Finds: no Comments: the sarcophagus was composed by a limestone “vasca” measuring inside: 0.85 x 0.40 x 0.21 m and a lid made of an unworked conglomerato slab measuring 1.12 x 0.78 m. The “vasca” was cracked on the walls and on the floor. The upper part of the skeleton (Nj.S. 85) was unmoved.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 22

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 086, 087, 094 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 45º/230º (?), head towards N-E/S-W (?) Dimensions: 1.21 x 0.65 x 0.40 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:2

Date: 475-325 B.C. Basis for date: fibula and stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze fibula (13.60) Comments: the limestone sarcophagus was damaged, lacking even part of the floor. It was partially covered by a fragmentary worked limestone lid found upside down. The inside measures of the “vasca” are: 1.02 x 0.46 x 0.20 m. The bones left of the skeleton (Nj.S. 94) were not in their original position. It was located above Grave 51.

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130

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 23

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 088, 089, 090 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: 0.65 x 0.30 x 0.10 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:2

Date: 400-300 B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy and astragalos Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. astragalos (11.123) Comments: the skeleton was relatively well preserved (Nj.S. 90). As grave good there was only one astragalos, which was burned. During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also some bones of another child (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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131

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 24

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 091, 092, 093 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.9) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: late 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: kotyle and pyxis Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated kotyle (1.44) 2. decorated tripod pyxis (1.136) Small Finds: no Comments: the pithos is coated with bitumen inside, and has lead clamps which testify for a repair in antiquity. The mouth was closed by a fragmentary tile. Very few bones of the skeleton were preserved (Nj.S. 93).

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:5

132

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 25

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 095, 096, 097 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 60º, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.26 x 0.87 x 0.14 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed lamp (2.1512) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.904) 3. cooking chytra (6.5) Small Finds: no Comments: the grave has been damaged by looters, especially in its S part, so that the whole left side of the skeleton is missing (Nj.S. 97). During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also some bones of a child (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 26

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 098, 099, 100, 101, 102 Type of grave: pit lined with bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 3 Position of body: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 100: 180º, head towards S, Nj.S. 101: 180º, head towards S, Nj.S. 102:180º, head towards S (individuals from E to W) Dimensions: 2.28 x 1.46 x 0.33 m Sex: Nj.S. 100: male?, Nj.S. 101: male, Nj.S. 102: female Age: Nj.S. 100: adult, Nj.S. 101: adult, Nj.S. 102: adult

Scale 1:5

Date: 300 B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed table amphora (2.1346) Grave goods: Nj.S. 100: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.95) Small Finds: no Nj.S. 101: Ceramics: 2. red-figures skyphos (1.231) 3. black-glazed cup with stamped decoration (2.975) 4. black-glazed table amphora (2.1346) Small Finds: 5. part of bronze applique (13.71) 6. iron handle (12.2) Nj.S. 102: Ceramics: 7. black-glazed saltcellar (2.939) 8. banded table amphora (3.91) 9. bottom part of transport amphora (4.319) Small Finds: 10. iron strigil (11.77) Comments: the grave was located between Sectors 3 and 4, very close to the conventional centre of the tumulus; this is the only grave built with bricks of Tumulus 9. Unfortunately the grave has been heavily damaged, so that they are visible only the lines within which the bricks used to be. The bricks measured 0.38 x 038 x 0.08 m. A sample of the mortar used among the bricks has been taken (K AP02T9/98/7).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

2

Scale 1:5

7

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135

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10

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 27

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 104, 105, 106 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.16) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:10

Date: 500-400 B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed feeder Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed feeder (2.1275) Small Finds: no Comments: the pithos has three holes in the upper part and the rim is damaged. Inside it is coated with bitumen. The mouth was closed by a stone slab. From the skeleton (Nj.S. 106) are preserved bones of the skull, of the ribs, and of the limbs.

Scale 1:5

1

136

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 28

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 107, 108, 109 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.7) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 500-450 B.C. Basis for date: pithos and tile at the mouth Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pin (13.31) Comments: the pithos is coated with bitumen inside. The mouth was closed by a tile dated to the 5th century B.C. (8.4). The bones of the skeleton (Nj.S. 109) were very fragile.

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:2

137

1

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 29

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 110, 111, 112 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 275º, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.50 x 0.50 x 0.16 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: 17th/19th A.D. Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation, AMS analysis Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The bones of the skeleton are very well preserved. AMS analysis was performed on this skeleton, and it provided a date to the Post-Medieval/Modern periods.

138

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 30

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 113, 114, 115 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: 1.50 x 0.30 x 0.20 m Sex: -Age: adolescent

Date: 17th/19th A.D. Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation, AMS analysis. Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves. The skeleton was complete and very well preserved (Nj.S. 115). AMS analysis was performed on this skeleton, and it provided a date to the PostMedieval/Modern periods.

139

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 31

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 116, 117, 118 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 105º, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.00 x 0.86 x 0.14 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:2

1

Date: 475-325 B.C. Basis for date: diadem, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pin fr. (13.39) 2. bronze strigil fr. (11.65) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation. The grave was damaged on every side except for the S one; the skeleton also was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 118). It was located with different orientation under Grave 20, which very probably was the cause of the damages.

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140

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 32

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 119, 120, 121 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 180º, head towards S Dimensions: 1.20 x 1.00 x 0.27 m Sex: -Age: child

1

Scale 1:5

Date: 450-400 B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed vessels and bronze bracelets Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed hydria (2.1277) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.130) Small Finds: 3. astragaloi (11.116) 4. bronze bracelet (13.95) 5. bronze bracelet (13.96) 6. bronze earring (13.73) 7. iron pin fr. (13.38) 8. clay spool (12.4) 9. clay spool (12.3) 10. clay spool (12.5) 11. astragaloi (11.117) Comments: this grave was damaged, the central part of the skeleton was missed (Nj.S. 121).

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11

141

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9

10

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 33

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 122, 123, 124 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.17) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 500-400 B.C. Basis for date: pithos and tile at mouth Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the pithos is relatively small and richly decorated. The mouth was closed by a fragmentary tile. The skeleton was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 124).

Scale 1:10

142

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 34

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 125, 126, 127 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.1) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 550-500 B.C. Basis for date: pyxis Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated lid of globular pyxis (1.129) 2. globular pyxis with handles and decorated with lotus buds (1.128) Small Finds: no Comments: the mouth of the pithos was closed by a tile. When the grave was excavated, the bones found were assessed as of a young child. The anthropologist during the analysis determined the presence of bones of two children (a newborn and a 5 years old), which is plausible, and of an adult. One of the children and the adult did not get a Nj.S. number.

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:5

143

1-2

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 35

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 128, 129, 130 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.4) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:10

Date: 550-500 B.C. Basis for date: pixis Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated lid of globular pyxis (1.131) 2. globular pyxis decorated with lotus buds (1.130) Small Finds: 3. iron pin (13.29) Comments: the skeleton was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 130).

Scale 1:5

144

1-2

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 36

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 133, 134, 135 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 165º, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.15 x 0.70 x 0.11 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 400-300 B.C. Basis for date: mug Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed mug (2.38) Small Finds: 2. iron pin fr. (13.48) Comments: the grave and by consequence the skeleton (Nj.S. 135) were damaged.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 37

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 136, 137, 138 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.10) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: late 6th-early 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: pithos, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the pithos was very fragmentary and its shape deformed. The skeleton was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 138). This grave was located above Grave 47.

Scale 1:10

146

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 38

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 139, 140, 183, 141 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 0º/180º?, head towards N/S? Dimensions: 3.50 x 2.10 x 0.24 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 425-400 B.C. Basis for date: saltcellars Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.900) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.901) Small Finds: no Comments: the grave is an in situ cremation and the limits have the shape of a cross, with the longer axis oriented N-S. It was located with different orientation under Grave 9. There was a layer of carbonized material under the upper fill of the grave (Nj.S. 183). Few bones were found, but the anthropologist, after his analyses, assessed that they belong to two individuals, a newborn (Nj.S. 141) and a child over 10 years old, who did not get a Nj.S. number. The saltcellars were offered after the firing, because they do not have traces of burning.

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147

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 39

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 142, 143, 144 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine; right arm flexed on the chest, head fallen right. Orientation: 180º, head towards S Dimensions: 1.80 x 0.68 x 0.44 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

Date: 500-450 B.C. Basis for date: one-handler cup, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.855) Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton is well preserved, while the mud-bricks have melted together.

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148

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 40

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 145, 146, 147 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.18) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 500-400 B.C. Basis for date: pithos and tile Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the mouth of the pithos was closed by a tile (8.5). The skeleton was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 147). The jug 2.1329, found outside the pithos close to the mouth, first was considered as grave good, then a Ceramic Deposit.

Scale 1:10

149

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 41

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 148, 149, 150 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: 0.90 x 0.70 x 0.17 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves. The skeleton is preserved quite well (Nj.S. 150), except for the skull. The anthropologist, after his analyses, found also bones of an adult individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number. This grave is partially above Grave 42, and very likely it is the cause of its damage.

150

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 42

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 154, 155, 156 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.60 x 0.27 x 0.07 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: red-figures lekythos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed squat lekyhtos with ribbing (2.1306) 2. red-figures squat lekythos (rim and neck) (1.180) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave very likely has been damaged when the individual of Grave 41 was laid down, because the skeleton (Nj.S. 156) is not complete and the bones are grouped in a very irregular way.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 43

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 157, 158, 159 Type of grave: enchytrismos in transport amphora (4.314) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the transport amphora Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: 460-440 B.C. Basis for date: transport amphora Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the amphora was complete and has been mended. The skeleton was not entirely preserved (Nj.S. 159).

Scale 1:10

152

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 44

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 161, 162, 163 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 222º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.15 x 0.60 x 0.10 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 425-400 B.C. Basis for date: bolsal Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed bolsal (2.788) Small Finds: 2. bronze strigil (11.59) Comments: this grave was damaged on the N-E side. The skeleton was not complete (Nj.S. 163), but the bones were quite well preserved.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 45

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 164, 165, 166 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with arms flexed on pelvis Orientation: 24º, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.26 x 0.40 x 0.09 m Sex: female? Age: adolescent

1

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3

Scale 1:5

Date: 625-590 B.C. (Early Corinthian period) Basis for date: kotyle (1.30) Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. kotyle with rays (1.30) 2. kotyle with rays (1.29) Small Finds: 3. bronze bracelet (13.93) 4. bronze bracelet (13.94) 5. faience bead (13.88) 6. iron spectacles fibula (13.58) 7. iron spectacles fibula (13.59) 8. bronze applique (13.64) 9. bronze applique (13.65) 10. bronze finger ring (13.78) 11. iron knife (11.2) 12. iron knife (11.3) 13. bronze applique (13.66) Comments: the skeleton was not complete (Nj.S. 166) and damaged by Grave 38 (cross-shaped pit with in situ cremation). What is unique is the presence of two bronze bracelets typical of the local Developed Iron Age culture associated with two Corinthian kotylai in an Archaic grave. At approximately 1.0 m on the W side of the grave there is one of the rows of rocks shaped as segment of arch (Nj.S. 209), which could be related to the grave. On the E side, instead, there are two big unworked blocks. It seems strange that such an early grave is located quite at the edge of the original undamaged tumulus.

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154

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12

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 46

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 167, 168, 169, 205 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 169: supine; Nj.S. 205: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 169: 220º, head towards S-W; Nj.S. 205: 220º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.25 x 0.91 x 0.61 m Sex: Nj.S. 169: female; Nj.S. 205: female Age: Nj.S. 169: adult; Nj.S. 205: adult

Scale 1:5

1

2

3

4

Date: 500-450 B.C. Basis for date: one-handler cup Grave goods: Nj.S. 169: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.853) Small Finds: 2. iron pin fr. (13.32) 3. iron pin fr. (13.33) 4. iron pin fr. (13.34) 5. iron unidentifiable object (16.13) Nj.S. 205: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 6. iron unidentifiable object (16.14) Comments: this grave is a multiple inhumation with two skeletons partially preserved (Nj.S. 169 and 205). The inside measures of the sarcophagus are: 2.06 x 0.78 x 0.52 m. The “vasca” is well preserved, while the lid was crumbled and fallen inside. On the W side of the sarcophagus there was a rounded limestone rock. Inside the sarcophagus, among the objects, an iron nail (11.94) was found also.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 47

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 170, 171, 172 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.11) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: child

Date: late 6th-5th c. B.C. Basis for date: pithos Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the mouth of the pithos was closed by a stone slab. The skeleton was poorly preserved (Nj.S. 172). This grave was located under Grave 37.

Scale 1:10

156

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 48

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 173, 174, 175 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.40 x 0.06 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: in this grave there were no grave goods to help dating it; however, the orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval grave. The skeleton was not complete (Nj.S. 175), but the bones left were very well preserved.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 49

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 177, 178, 179 Type of grave: enchytrismos in transport amphora (4.320) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the transport amphora Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: transport amphora, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the date of the transport amphora is not sure, but the closeness and the similarity with Grave 50 allows the assessment of the same date for this burial.

Scale 1:10

158

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 50

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 180, 181, 182 Type of grave: enchytrismos in transport amphora (4.315) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the transport amphora Sex: -Age: newborn

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: transport amphora Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the date of the grave is based on the date of the transport amphora.

Scale 1:10

159

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 51

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 185, 186, 187 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 213º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.38 x 0.50 x 0.41 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1 : 5

Date: end of 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: kotyle Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated kotyle (1.38) Small Finds: no Comments: inside measures of the sarcophagus: 1.24 x 0.36 x 0.30 m. It was covered by fragmentary tiles (one of them: 8.6) measuring from 0.12 x 0.06 x 0.025 m to 0.26 x 0.14 x 0.03 m. It was located below Grave 22.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 52

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 188, 189, 190 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.8) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the pithos Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1 : 10

Date: 550-500 B.C. Basis for date: kothon Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated kothon (1.119) 2. black-glazed mug (2.29) 3. decorated kotyle (1.36) Small Finds: no Comments: the mouth of the pithos was closed by a Corinthian tile (8.3). Inside the pithos there was a layer of soil to create a platform for the skeleton.

1

Scale 1 : 5

161

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3

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 53

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 191, 192, 193 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.60 x 0.45 x 0.12 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: 475-325 B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton consists in a small amount of burned bones within a layer rich in carbonized material. The grave was located in the N limit of the sector, at the W side of the arched line of rocks Nj.S. 240.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 54

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 195, 196, 197 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 122º, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.15 x 1.10 x 0.27 m Sex: -Age: child

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Date: late 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: skyphos (2.135) Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed skyphos (2.135) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.120) Small Finds: 3. iron strigil (11.69) 4. astragaloi (11.118) Comments: inside dimensions of the grave: 1.40 x 0.65 x 0.27 m. The mud-bricks were melted together. The floor of the grave is the gravel of the sterile layer, base of the tumulus.

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Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 55

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 199, 200, 201 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation, cremation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 201: supine; cremation: -Orientation: Nj.S. 201: 170º, head towards S-E; cremation: -Dimensions: 2.16 x 0.78 x 0.63 m Sex: Nj.S. 201: male?, cremation: -Age: Nj.S. 201: adult, cremation: adult

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Date: late 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: round-mouthed oinochoe Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded lydion (3.74) 2. decorated kothon (1.115) 3. decorated kothon (1.116) 4. decorated kothon (1.117) 5. plain round-mouthed oinochoe (4.53) 6. decorated kothon (1.118) Small Finds: 7. iron knife (11.7) 8. bronze wire (16.34) Comments: inside measurements of the “vasca”: 1.95 x 0.60 x 0.52 m. Measurements of the gabled lid: 2.20 x 0.88 x from 0.18 to 0.08 m. This sarcophagus was well preserved and has not been robbed. The lid was cracked by the weight of the soil, but the “vasca” did not get damaged. The “vasca” is narrower than in other sarcophagi. After the analysis of the bones, the anthropologists assessed the presence also of a cremated skeleton of an adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 56

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 202, 203, 204 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 170º, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.29 x 0.90 x 0.72 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: late 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: inside measurements of the “vasca”: 2.03 x 0.68 x 0.57 m. Measurements of the preserved part of the lid: 1.14 x 0.72 m. The inside walls and the upper rim of the “vasca” have been coated with red plaster. Also the surface of the lid which has been in contact with the upper rim of the “vasca” has traces of red plaster. The floor of the “vasca” was cracked and the skeleton poorly preserved (Nj.S. 204). This sarcophagus was very close and perfectly parallel with the sarcophagus of Grave 55, thus it has been assessed the same date, even if there were no grave goods. On the W side of the sarcophagus it was evident an area with disturbed soil exactly were the lid was fragmentary, which shows that the grave has been robbed since the antiquity.

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Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 57

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 206, 207, 208 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.37 x 0.13 m Sex: female Age: adult

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Date: 425-400 B.C. Basis for date: skyphos (2.126) Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed skyphos (2.126) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.123) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located under Grave 23. The floor of the grave is the gravel of the sterile layer, base of the tumulus (Nj.S. 217). The skeleton is almost completely preserved (Nj.S. 208). AMS analysis was performed on this skeleton, and it provided a date to the Classical period.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 58

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 210, 213, 211, 212 Type of grave: pit lined with wood and mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 220º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.64 x 0.70 x 0.26 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Archaic period Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pin fr. (13.45) Comments: the grave is an in situ cremation. This type of grave’s construction, lined and covered with wood to allow the burning and with a floor of mud-bricks or clay, has not been found in the tumuli previously excavated. The wooden rods measure from 0.009 to 0.12 m diameter. The skeleton was well preserved in his upper half till the pelvis and except for the right arm (Nj.S. 212). The limits of the grave-pit were clearly visible (Nj.S. 213). The NE corner of the grave was under Grave 51.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 59

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 214, 215, 216 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 200º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.84 x 0.88 x 0.36 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

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Date: early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar (2.910) Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.910) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.942) 3. banded lekythos (3.75) 4. black-glazed skyphos (2.137) Small Finds: no Comments: the grave was damaged in its SW part, but the mud-bricks were still visible in depth there. The mud-bricks were melted together. The skeleton was not well preserved (N.j.S. 216).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 60

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 218, 219, 220 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 2.40 x 1.00 x 0.11 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: 500 B.C. Basis for date: plemochoe Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated plate with panthers (1.16) 2. kotyle with rays (1.31) 3. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1149) 4. black-glazed stirrup krater (2.7) 5. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1150) 6. decorated cup-skyphos (1.140) 7. black-glazed stirrup krater with meander (2.8) 8. decorated plemochoe’s lid (1.160) 9. decorated stemmed dish (1.142) 10. decorated plemochoe (1.159) 11. kotyle with rays (1.32) 12. decorated stemmed dish (1.143) 13. black-glazed lid (2.1511) 14. plate with phytomorphic decoration (1.17) 15. black-figures oinochoe (1.11) Small Finds: 16. astragalos (11.115) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation, covering a large area and without defined limits. The deposit of the grave is a mix of charcoal, few burned bones, and a large quantity of sherds, all spread around, of fifteen different vessels. Unfortunately the skeleton was not well preserved (N.j.S. 220): few bones were left, from which the anthropologist could not assess the sex at all and the age group with certainty. The individual could be an adult or an adolescent; the presence of an astragalos could suggest that more probably is an adolescent.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 61

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 222, 223, 224 Type of grave: urn in plain hydria (4.201) Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the hydria Sex: -Age: adolescent

Scale 1:5

Date: 325-300 B.C. Basis for date: hydria Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. miniature plain lekythos (5.12) Small Finds: no Comments: this is the only cremation in urn of Tumulus 9.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 62

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 225, 226, 227 Type of grave: two lines of mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: animal cremation Number of individuals: -Position of body: -Orientation: 0º/180º Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.36 x 0.19 m Sex: -Age: --

Date: 570-540 B.C. (Late Corinthian period) Basis for date: kotyle decorated with lotus buds (1.35) Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. kotyle decorated with panthers (1.33) 2. black-glazed two-handled cup (2.786) 3. kotyle decorated with lotus buds (1.35) 4. cooking chytra (6.6) Small Finds: no Comments: this feature consisted in two parallel rows approximately 0.40 m apart, made of two mud-bricks each, measuring 0.46 x 0.46 x 0.08 m. The southern end was damaged. The deposit between them was a mixture of charcoal, ash, burned bones, and pottery fragments. Pottery fragments were located also on the outer side of the rows. When it was discovered it was considered a grave and got a sequential number, but later on the analysis of the physical anthropologist assessed that the osteological remains were animal bones.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 63

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 228, 229, 230 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 90º, head towards E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.70 x 0.11 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

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Date: 400-350 B.C. Basis for date: red-figures squat lekythoi Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded table amphora (3.80) 2. decorated palmette squat lekythos (1.177) 3. decorated palmette squat lekythos (1.178) 4. black-glazed saltcellar (2.911) Small Finds: 5. astragaloi (11.120) 6. astragalos (11.121) Comments: the skeleton was not very well preserved (Nj.S. 230), but the line of mud-bricks was clearly distinctive, even if the mud-bricks were melted together.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 64

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 232, 233, 234 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270º, head towards W Dimensions: preserved: 0.60 x 0.45 x 0.20 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the grave was locateds at the S edge of Sector 2, and the bottom half of the skeleton had been cut away by an heavy machinery. However, the bones of the upper part of the body were very well preserved (Nj.S. 234). There were no grave goods to help dating this burial; however, the orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 65

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 236, 237, 238 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 252º, head towards S-W Dimensions: preserved: 0.70 x 0.68 x 0.13 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

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Date: 525-500 B.C. Basis for date: krateriskos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. bottom of black-glazed stirrup krater (2.6) 2. black-glazed krateriskos (western Greek kantharos) (2.27) 3. plain oinochoe (4.48) 4. fragmentary plain oinochoe (4.49) Small Finds: 5. iron spearhead (14.6) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, as well as the skeleton, of which only some leg bones are preserved (Nj.S. 238). However, the grave goods are very interesting and both the krater and the krateriskos (western Greek kantharos) are unique pieces in Tumulus 9 and probably in the whole necropolis. South of this burial is an arched line of rocks (Nj.S. 240) which could be related to it.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 66

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 242, 243, 244 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 110º, head towards S-E Dimensions: preserved: 0.76 x 0.41 x 0.06 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Archaic period? Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the grave was heavily damaged and more than the bottom half of the skeleton was completely missing (Nj.S. 244). The bones left were not well preserved.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - GRAVE 67

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 258, 252, 253, 254, 255, 259 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 200º, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.55 x 2.05 x 0.85 m Sex: -Age: adult

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Date: late 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.903) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.863) 3. cooking chytra (6.3) 4. black-glazed squat lekythos (2.1305) 5. black-glazed skyphos (2.124) Small Finds: 6. iron spearhead (14.8) 7. iron spearhead (14.12) 8. bronze strigil (11.60) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation performed in a crossshaped pit oriented SW-NE (Nj.S. 252). The firing was at a very high temperature, and the sides of the pit were all burned. The skeleton was very fragile, but complete, and it was visibly of an adult individual (Nj.S. 259). The grave goods also have signs of burning, especially the strigil, which was on the chest of the deceased. This grave was excavated in 2005 when Appendix 1 was explored. The limit between Sector 4 of Tumulus 9 and Appendix 1 is conventional, but seen the location of Grave 67 respect to Grave 48, it was decided to consider Grave 67 also still part of Tumulus 9.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 As said earlier, Tumulus 10, located in the centre of the ridge, reserved the most unexpected result: a core of Prehistoric graves dated from the Early Bronze Age to the Developed Iron Age. This is the first case in the whole necropolis and it is a very important discovery giving unparalleled information regarding the period before the Greek colonization.    A total of 77 graves came to light in Tumulus 10, including the animal deposit ‘Grave’ 74: 48 Prehistoric, 22 Classical, and 7 Post-Medieval/Modern (Grave 11 is Prehistoric reused in Post-Medieval/ Modern time, and Grave 18 is Prehistoric reused in Classical time). However, to this number must be summed 51 skeletal units, which obviously represent damaged inhumations; unfortunately it is not possible to assess which ones are Prehistoric and which ones Classical. It is important to remind that it is calculated that almost half of the tumulus was damaged. The axes of the excavated area measured

22 m (N-S) x 18 m (E-W).    The number of children is not so high compared to Tumulus 9: 18% in the Prehistoric period, and 17% in the Classical period. Regarding the number of tombs with grave goods, in the Classical period it is very high. During the excavation process it was observed that all Classical graves with no finds had suffered damage of some kind in the past. For this reason it is quite possible that these graves originally also contained grave goods which were dispersed. The number of Prehistoric finds is not very high, however they represent a variety of categories and cultural influences that help understand a dynamic picture of life, traditions, and cultural contacts of the Prehistoric communities.    The Prehistoric core built up around the central grave, with characteristics typical of the other Prehistoric tumuli in Albania, makes of Tumulus 10 a unicum in the necropolis of Apollonia.

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Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 1

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 007, 008, 009, 018, 010 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: Nj.S. 009: cremation, Nj.S. 010: inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 009: --, Nj.S. 010: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 009: --, Nj.S. 010: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 1.50 x 0.90 x 0.53 m Sex: Nj.S. 009: --, Nj.S. 010: -Age: Nj.S. 009: adult, Nj.S. 010: adult

Scale 1:5

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Date: mid-5th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed oinochoe and skyphos Grave goods: Nj.S. 009: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Nj.S. 010: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.897) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.854) 3. black-glazed feeder (2.1276) 4. banded one-handler cup (3.33) 5. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1156) 6. black-glazed skyphos (2.122) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave had a complicated stratigraphy and was heavily damaged. It is not clear if two rocks present in the area, considered as part of the grave, are really pertinent to it. At first cremated bones (Nj.S. 9) came to light, then the poor remains of an inhumated skeleton (Nj.S. 10). Above the limbs of Nj.S. 10 there is an area with carbonized wood (Nj.S. 18) where the burned bones of Nj.S. 9 are located. All the vessels found were considered date compatible and attributed to Nj.S. 10, while the fragmentary bronze sword, dated to the Late Bronze Age (14.1), was not an in situ object. During the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist found also some bones of another adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 2

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 024, 025, 026 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 170°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.00 x 0.90 x 0.24 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

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Date: first half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.912) 2. plain table amphora (4.58) Small Finds: no Comments: this simple pit grave had no clear limits; there were some rocks on the upper part of the skeleton (Nj.S. 26), which have damaged the skull.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 3

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 042, 043, 044 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 0.75 x 0.30 x 0.10 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval? Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation toward W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves. The preservation of the bones (Nj.S 44), however, is not so good as observed in other examples of this date.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 4

Sector: 4; Nj.S: 049, 050, 051 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 190°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.70 x 0.12 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, arrow head Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron arrowhead (14.5) Comments: the condition of both the skeleton and the iron object was very frail.

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Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 5

Sector: 3; Nj.S: 054, 055, 056 Type of grave: simple pit. Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 130°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 0.70 x 0.35 x 0.05 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: vessel Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. jug or kantharos (10.56) Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was very poorly preserved (Nj.S. 56), as well as the vessel, placed left of the skull.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 6

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 057, 058, 059, 060 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 0.85 x 0.40 x 0.20 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves. This is one of the rare examples where the limit of the grave was identifiable (Nj.S. 58); in this case it had an oval shape.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 7

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 063, 064, 065 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.60 x 0.30 x 0.09 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is quite good.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 8

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 067, 068, 069, 070 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.45 x 0.81 x 0.07 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. This is also one of the rare examples where the cut of the grave is identifiable (Nj.S. 68); in this case the shape is rectangular with rounded angles.

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Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 9

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 071, 072, 073 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 80°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.90 x 0.70 x 0.30 m Sex: male Age: adult

Scale 1:5

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Date: first half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.913) 2. black-glazed mug (2.31) 3. black-glazed skyphos (2.128) 4. black-glazed wide-mouthed oinochoe (Q 2.772) 5. plain table amphora (4.64) Small Finds: no Comments: this is a quite well preserved grave, including the bones. However, the limit of the pit was not identifiable. Very probably the laying down of this grave damaged Grave 17.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 10

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 074, 075, 076 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.78 x 0.75 x 0.15 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is very good. ������������������������������������������������� During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also some bones of two more adult individuals (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 11

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 077, 078, 079, 080 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 079: piled, Nj.S. 080: supine Orientation: Nj.S. 079: 280°, head towards N-W, Nj.S: 080: 300°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 2.10 x 0.80 x 0.18 m Sex: Nj.S. 079: male, Nj.S. 080: -Age: Nj.S. 079: adult, Nj.S. 080: child

Date: Prehistoric, Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Nj.S. 079: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Nj.S. 080: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is very good (Nj.S. 80). This is the case of a reused grave, where the bones of the skeleton Nj.S. 79 have been piled up to make place to the skeleton Nj.S. 80. After the physical anthropological analysis of the bones, it came out that among the bones of Nj.S. 79 there could be elements of a third individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number). By the position of the skull of skeleton Nj.S. 79, on the right side, it seems plausible that the individual was originally in the sleeping position, so that it is the case of a Prehistoric grave disturbed and partially reused in the Post-Medieval period.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 12

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 086, 087, 088, 089 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 350°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 2.5 x 0.60 x 0.095 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. It is possible to see a limit of irregular shape (Nj.S. 87) around the body; it is probably more correct to interpret it as the limit of a leveled area where the individual was laid down, than the cut of a pit. Damaged by Grave 10?

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 13

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 095, 096, 097 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.70 x 0.75 x 0.16 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. The grave was heavily damaged, the upper half having been cut off.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 14

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 099, 100, 101 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.13 x 0.90 x 0.11 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. The grave was heavily damaged, most of it having been cut off by the cuts Nj.S. 119 and Nj.S. 144, and the respective burned deposits Nj.S. 120 and Nj.S. 145.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 15

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 112, 113, 114 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 45°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.60 x 0.14 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. The grave was damaged in the upper part, the skeleton missing the skull.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 16

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 115, 116, 117 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.80 x 0.47 x 0.17 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval? Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is good.

195

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 17

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 124, 125, 126, 127 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 160°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 0.90 x 0.50 x 0.10 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged very likely when Grave 9 was laid down; it was possible to distinguish the fill of the grave from the fill of the tumulus, but the fill of the grave also had been damaged, so its limits were irregular. The skeleton was very poorly preserved.

196

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 18

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 128, 129, 130, 131 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 130: sleeping position on the left side, Nj.S. 131: ? Orientation: Nj.S. 130: 270°, head towards W, Nj.S. 131: -Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.73 x 0.17 m Sex: Nj.S. 130: --, Nj.S. 131: male? Age: Nj.S. 130: adult, Nj.S. 131: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric, Classical? Basis for date: position of the bodies, pin, stratigraphy Grave goods: Nj.S. 130: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bone pin (13.22) Nj.S. 131: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this is the case of a reused grave: the first skeleton (Nj.S. 130), in sleeping position, has been damaged at mid-body, and some of the bones of the lower body have been piled up at the bottom of the grave-pit. A rounded small pit has been dug (Nj.S. 132) approximately in the center of the Prehistoric burial, where the bones of a second later individual (Nj.S. 131) have been placed (not the complete skeleton).

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197

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 19

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 135, 136, 137 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 130°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.40 x 0.12 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: stratigraphy and vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.59) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.870) Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was poorly preserved, and the line of the pit was not identifiable. It was partially above Grave 22, the date of which - the second half of the 4th century B.C. - is a terminus ante quem non for Grave 19.

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198

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 20

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 139, 140, 141, 142, 143 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 200°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.10 x 0.76 x 0.06 m Sex: female? Age: adolescent

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, pin Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bone pin (13.25) Comments: this grave was located parallel and very close to the northern balk, so close that it was necessary to dig a “niche” into it to put to light the whole skull. The limits of the grave-pit were identifiable (Nj.S. 140) in the shape of an irregular rectangle with rounded angles. On the eastern side of the grave were preserved traces of decayed wood (Nj.S. 142) of some sort of a covering for the individual.

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199

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 21

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 151, 153, 154 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 2.00 x 0.58 x 0.08 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is very good. On the northern side of the grave a large band of burned wood (Nj.S. 169) was preserved, but at a higher elevation than the skeleton, so the burning did not involve at all the individual in the grave.

200

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 22

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 155, 156, 157, 158 Type of grave: tile grave “alla cappuccina” Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 140°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.10 x 0.53 x 0.62 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: decorated lekythos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.65) 2. lid of banded lebes gamikos (3.77) 3. banded lebes gamikos (3.76) 4. black-glazed hydria (2.1278) 5. black-glazed stemmed dish (2.1080) 6. red-figures squat lekythos (1.172) 7. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.871)sd 8. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.872) 9. black-glazed saltcellar (2.906) Small Finds: 10. bronze earring (13.76) 11. bronze instrument (11.83) 12. astragaloi (11.129) 13. shell (16.39) Comments: this grave was well preserved and intact. The roof-shaped covering was composed by two and a half pantiles by each side, placed angled. The burial was completed by two half pantiles placed vertically at the head and feet. The tiles were broken but complete, and have the standard measures 0.82 x 0.52 x 0.030 m (8.8-8.15). In the filling of the grave above the covering of tiles were found burned bones which at first were interpreted as animal bones. However, after the analysis of the physical anthropologist, they resulted as pertaining to another adult individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number.

Scale 1:10

201

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

1

Scale 1:5

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202

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13

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 23

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 161, 162, 163 Type of grave: simple pit with wood layer Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 1.39 x 0.75 x 0.175 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave is strictly linked to Grave 24, since it has damaged the latter. Both graves are Prehistoric. Grave 23 is perpendicular to Grave 24, and has damaged the skeleton at mid-body. In Grave 23 it is possible to see a cut (Nj.S. 160) on the E (at the back of the skeleton, in sleeping position) which distinguishes this grave by the older one. From this cut towards the body there are traces of decayed wood (Nj.S. 162), probably some sort of a stretcher or litter where the individual was laid down and transported. The rocks between the two graves are part of the contour of Grave 24, which have been reused to separate more efficiently Grave 23 from the older grave.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 24

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 165, 166, 167, 168=164, 172 Type of grave: pit lined with rocks and with wood layer Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 50°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.84 x 0.32 m Sex: male Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze knife (11.1) Comments: this grave was originally lined with rocks, placed on the cut of the pit (Nj.S. 166). There are also traces, especially under the skull, of decayed wood (Nj.S. 172), probably some sort of a stretcher or litter where the individual was laid down and transported. The grave has been damaged by the construction of Grave 23: the lower limbs of the skeleton (Nj.S 168) have been piled up and placed far away, W of the individual of Grave 23. These bones were found before the two graves, so they got a Nj.S. number as skeletal unit (Nj.S 164). After the analysis, the physical anthropologist confirmed that they can be pertinent to Nj.S. 168.

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204

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 25

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 173, 174, 175 Type of grave: pit partly lined with stones Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 290°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.66 x 1.00 x 0.21 m Sex: -Age: adolescent

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 11th c. B.C. Basis for date: black fabric kantharos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. Prehistoric black fabric kantharos (10.36) 2. Prehistoric red fabric kantharos (10.37) Small Finds: 3. thin bronze pin (13.13) 4. bronze pin (13.10) Comments: this grave was lined with rocks only on the W and S sides of the pit. The rocks measure from 0.13 x 0.15 m to 0.44 x 0.20 m.

2

Scale 1:2

205

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 26

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 176, 177, 178, 179, 187, 186 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 179: ?, Nj.S. 187: supine with flexed legs fallen right Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 2.10 x 1.10 x 0.13 m Sex: Nj.S: 179: --, Nj.S. 187: male Age: Nj.S: 179: adult, Nj.S. 187: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: 11th c. B.C. Basis for date: position of the skeleton Nj.S. 187, stratigraphy Grave goods: Nj.S. 179: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Nj.S. 180: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bone pin (13.23) Comments: this grave is very likely a case of reused burial. The skeleton Nj.S. 179, very poorly preserved, could have been damaged by the placing of the individual Nj.S. 187. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body of Nj.S. 187 leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. In this grave were preserved the limit of the pit (Nj.S. 177), rectangular-shaped with rounded angles, and traces of decayed wood (Nj.S. 186).

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206

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 27

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 181, 182, 183 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 240°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.80 x 0.55 x 0.79 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was poorly preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

207

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 28

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 188, 189, 190 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with legs flexed fallen left Orientation: 0°, head towards N Dimensions: 1.15 x 0.90 x 0.18 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was well preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also some bones of another adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

208

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 29

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 192, 193, 194, 195 Type of grave: pit lined with rocks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen left Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 1.90 x 0.80 x 0.07 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: in this grave the limits of the burial, an irregular rectangle with rounded angles (Nj.S. 193), were still visible. On this line, but not continuously, were placed rocks measuring from 0.12 to 0.40 m length. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the supine sleeping position of the body with flexed legs fallen left leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

209

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 30

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 196, 197, 198 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 0°, head towards N Dimensions: 0.62 x 0.32 x 0.11 m Sex: -Age: newborn

Scale 1:5

1

Date: first half of 4th c.B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed skyphos (2.140) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.141) 3. black-glazed saltcellar (2.914) 4. black-glazed saltcellar (2.915) 5. black-glazed saltcellar (2.916) Small Finds: 6. iron fibula (13.62) Comments: the skeleton was very poorly preserved, basically only the skull and small parts of the upper body. It was not possible to distinguish the limits of the grave.

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210

Scale 1:2

6

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 31

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 200, 201, 202 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 330°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.50 x 0.27 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was quite well preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. The laying down of this grave very probably damaged Grave 58.

211

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 32

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 203, 204, 205 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 110°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.40 x 0.07 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton (Nj.S. 205) was very poorly preserved. There are no grave goods to help dating the grave. However, the supine position of the body should exclude that it is Prehistoric.

212

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 33

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 213, 208, 209=214, 215 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.35 x 0.60 x 0.14 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 11th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated jug (10.4) 2. decorated amphora (10.2) 3. decorated jug (10.5) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was in between Sectors 1 and 4, and it was necessary to cut the balk. The limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 208) were still preserved. The two Nj.S. 209 and 214 indicate the same deposit, the fill of the grave.

2

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213

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 34

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 216, 217, 218, 219 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: Orientation: 270°?, head towards W? Dimensions: 0.60 x 0.30 x 0.28 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric? Basis for date: location in the tumulus Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was partially located in the S balk, having only the skull and few other bones in Sector 3, where it was also still visible the limit of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 217), of an irregular shape. The part of the skeleton in the balk was excavated almost one month after the skull, and was poorly preserved, so that it was not easy to understand the position of the body and even the correct orientation. However, the placement of the grave in the central core of the tumulus makes plausible dating it to Prehistory.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 35

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 225, 226, 227 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 335°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.20 x 0.45 x 0.12 m Sex: male? Age: adolescent

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was quite well preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

215

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 36

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 228, 229, 230 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine? Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.75 x 0.30 x 0.165 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Classical? Basis for date: position of the body? Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged because located at the margin of the existent platform of Sector 1, where erosion was very active. Very little of the skeleton was left, so that it was difficult to understand orientation and position of the body; however, what is left of the pelvis and the femur seems supine. This grave damaged a previous burial, Grave 37.

216

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 37

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 231, 232, 233, 234, 235 Type of grave: simple pit with possible carbonized wooden covering Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 350°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.85 x 0.35 x 0.04 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was damaged by the placing of the Grave 36, so the skeleton was not complete. However, it was still possible to understand that the individual had been laid down in sleeping position. In the grave were still visible a short tract of the limit of the gravepit (Nj.S. 233) and traces of carbonized wood (Nj.S. 232). Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 38

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 236, 237, 238 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 30°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.50 x 0.17 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. thin bronze pin (13.14) Comments: the skeleton was quite well preserved.

1

218

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 39

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 239, 240, 241 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.05 x 0.60 x 0.17 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: bronze pin, position of the body Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze pin (13.3) 2. bone pin (13.24) Comments: the skeleton was almost complete but very frail.

1

2

219

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 40

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 247, 248, 249 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.70 x 0.15 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: the skeleton was quite well preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

220

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 41

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 250, 245 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.41 x 0.90 x 0.11 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: location in the tumulus Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged. At first few bones were found and they were considered as skeletal unit (Nj.S. 245). Later, more bones came to light and it seemed more correct to consider the context as a grave. However, there is no Nj.S. number for the filling of the grave, because it was not possible to assess an uniformity. The vicinity of this grave to Graves 44 and 45, both Prehistoric, makes plausible dating it to Prehistory also.

221

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 42

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 252, 253, 254 Type of grave: pit partially lined with rocks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 310°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.23 x 1.20 x 0.53 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: mid-4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1160) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.149) 3. plain table amphora (4.73) Small Finds: 4. iron pin (13.40) Comments: the skeleton was quite well preserved, except for the lower legs. On the W side of the burial there were large rocks on three lines, one above the other.

2

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222

Scale 1:2

4

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 43

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 258, 259, 260 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 240°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.645 x 0.57 x 0.69 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: position of the body, location in the tumulus Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located at the eastern extremity of the tumulus and heavily damaged: all the left side and lower half of the skeleton have been cut off.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 44

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 265, 266, 267 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 230°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.35 x 0.50 x 0.35 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located in the part of the tumulus were the heavier damages have been carried out and the soil had collapsed. In this case the skeleton is on three different levels. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 45

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 268, 269, 270 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.93 x 0.40 x 0.26 m Sex: -Age: adolescent

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located in the part of the tumulus were the heavier damages have been carried out and the soil had collapsed. In this case the skeleton is on two different levels and lacks the lower half of the body. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

225

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 46

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 271, 272, 273, 274 Type of grave: simple pit. Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine position with flexed legs fallen right Orientation: 110°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.00 x 1.10 x 0.13 m Sex: male Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: 11th c. B.C. Basis for date: position of the body, pin Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bone pin (13.26) Comments: in this grave it was possible to see the limits of the gravepit (Nj.S. 272), rectangular-shaped with rounded angles. It was slightly damaged on the E side.

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226

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 47

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 275, 276, 277, 278 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 30°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.98 x 0.78 x 0.12 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: in this grave it was possible to see the limits of the gravepit (Nj.S. 272), rectangular-shaped with rounded angles. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 48

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 282, 283, 284, 285 Type of grave: tile grave “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 50°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 2.15 x 0.52 x 0.215 m Sex: male Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

2

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.930) 2. black-glazed squat lekythos fr. (2.1310) 3. banded table amphora fr. (3.88) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged. The only two tile fragments still in situ were placed vertically at the head and feet of the skeleton, so it was not possible to understand if the grave was in the shape of a roof or of a rectangular coffin. The limits of the gravepit (Nj.S. 283) were preserved only on the S and the lower W sides. All the left side of the skeleton (Nj.S. 285), except for the lower leg, had been cut off.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 49

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 288, 290, 289 Type of grave: simple pit with decayed wood layer Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.70 x 1.00 x 0.16 m Sex: -Age: adolescent

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: in this burial were preserved the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 287), in an irregular oval shape, and traces of decayed wood (Nj.S. 289), probably some sort of a stretcher or litter where the individual was laid down and transported. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 50

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 291, 292, 293, 294, 295 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 294: sleeping position on the left side, Nj.S. 295: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 2.30 x 1.10 x 0.22 m Sex: Nj.S. 294: --, Nj.S. 295: female Age: Nj.S. 294: child, Nj.S. 295: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the bodies, stratigraphy Grave goods: Nj.S. 294: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. necklace with faience and tin beads (13.87) Nj.S. 295: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave is a case of multiple burial. The limits of the grave-pit were still preserved (Nj.S. 292), in the shape of an irregular rectangle. The two skeletons (Nj.S. 294 and 295) were not perfectly aligned. Even if the necklace is not diagnostic in dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the bodies leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 51

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 299, 300, 301, 302 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen right Orientation: 130°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.60 x 0.09 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was damaged, but not heavily: only the skull is cut in the upper part. The limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 300) are preserved in a short tract on the S side and the fill of the grave has for this reason an irregular shape. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the supine position of the body with flexed legs fallen right leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 52

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 303, 298 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 2.92 x 1.21 x 0.69 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: type of grave, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pruning hook (11.93) 2. astragalos (11.127) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged. Tile fragments let infer that it was a tile grave, but it is not possible to assess if it was in the shape of a roof or of a rectangular coffin. For several days bones and objects fragments, attributed to this grave, were found spread out on a large surface, so that there are seven documented layers for this burial. However, no orientation and position of body could be assessed. At first the bone fragments (Nj.S. 298) were considered as skeletal unit, later on, after finding tile fragments and objects like an iron pruning hook, it was decided to consider the context as a grave. However, there is no Nj.S. number for the filling of the grave, because it was not possible to assess an uniformity. After the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist confirmed the presence of two more adult individuals, who did not get a Nj.S. number.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 53

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 304, 305, 306 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 230°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.00 x 0.90 x 0.32 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: type of grave, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this sarcophagus was heavily damaged, and basically only the bottom of it (and not even complete) was preserved. Three clusters of bones were found, which were considered of the same individual (Nj.S. 306). After their analysis, however, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence also of bones of a younger adult, who did not get a Nj.S. number.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 54

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 307, 308 Type of grave: simple pit? Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 2.25 x 1.50 x 0.11 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: black-glazed and plain pottery fragments (10.44-10.45, 2.242, 2.1081, 2.243, 10.79), tile fragments (8.22-8.23), and brick fragment (8.70) found in the area of the grave Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, located at the western margin of the tumulus. The fragments of bones and ceramics were spread out on a surface measuring approximately 2.25 x 1.50 m. The most diagnostic bones were two fragments of long bones (Nj.S. 308). There is no Nj.S. number for the filling of the grave, because it was not possible to assess an uniformity.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 55

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 311, 312, 313 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine (?) Orientation: 290°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.35 x 0.22 x 0.08 m Sex: -Age: child

Date : Prehistoric Basis for date: location in the tumulus, stratigraphy, Prehistoric pottery fragments (10.51, 10.46) found in the fill Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was poorly preserved, as well as the skeleton (Nj.S. 312). However, the presence of two sherds, both Prehistoric, in the fill and the location of the grave in the core of the tumulus makes plausible dating it in the Prehistoric period.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 56

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 316, 317, 318 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 1.20 x 1.00 x 0.13 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric? Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, so that it was not possible to assess the orientation and the position of the body. The bone fragments (Nj.S. 318) were spread out on a surface of approximately 1.20 x 1.00 m, and were found in more than one layer. After their analysis, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence also of a child, who did not get a Nj.S. number. The quite low elevation of the grave makes plausible dating it in the Prehistoric period.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 57

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 319, 320, 321, 322 Type of grave: tile grave in the shape of a coffin Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 80°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 2.15 x 1.05 x 0.455 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed lekythos (2.1299) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.926) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was quite well preserved. The line of tiles was not complete, but it was possible to assess the dimension of the burial.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 58

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 323, 324, 325 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position (?) Orientation: 110°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 0.65 x 0.45 x 0.255 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was so heavily damaged that it was not possible to assess the limits of the grave-pit and the position of the body with confidence. The damage very likely was caused by the laying down of Grave 31. It is possible that the skeletal unit Nj.S. 381 is part of the same individual Nj.S. 325.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 59

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 326, 327, 328 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 70°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.50 x 0.65 x 0.185 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.931) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.150) 3. banded table amphora (3.81) Small Finds: 4. iron pin with bronze head (13.42) 5. bronze pin (13.50) Comments: this grave was well preserved, even if the limits of the grave-pit were not visible. The skeleton (Nj.S. 328) was complete. There was a rock on the skull which fortunately did not completely damage it.

2

3

Scale 1:2

239

4

5

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 60

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 329, 242, 243, 330 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen left Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 1.37 x 0.70 x 0.38 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Early Bronze Age Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this is the central grave. The body was laid down in a simple pit, the limits of which (Nj.S. 242) had a rectangular shape with rounded angles. Above the fill of the grave (Nj.S. 243) there was a layer of gravel (Nj.S. 12) which had a hemispherical shape. It seems then that the simple pit was included in a larger ring, partially (N side) carved in the soft bedrock, and partially created with gravel and pebbles (damaged on the S side), with a diameter of approximately 3.30 m. Unfortunately there are no grave goods to date this grave. However, the violin-shaped figurine of “Grave” 74, stratigraphically above Grave 60, dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age, and the AMS dating allow to place the central Grave in the mid-3rd millennium B.C.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 61

Sector: 3 Nj.S.: 331, 332, 333, 334 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine. Orientation: 110°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 2.40 x 1.20 x 0.18 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed type A skyphos (2.188) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.932) 3. plain table amphora (4.66) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was quite well preserved and the skeleton (Nj.S. 334) was almost complete. The preserved limit with irregular rectangular shape (Nj.S. 332) was quite large, so it showed probably a leveled area rather then a pit. There was a rock on the skull which damaged it.

2

3

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 62

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 335, 336, 337, 338, 339 Type of grave: simple pit, reused Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 338: sleeping position on the left side, Nj.S. 339: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: Nj.S. 338: 150°, head towards S-E, Nj.S. 339: 310°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.25 x 0.89 x 0.060 m Sex: Nj.S. 338: male, Nj.S. 339: male Age: Nj.S. 338: adult, Nj.S. 339: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the bodies, stratigraphy Grave goods: Nj.S. 338: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Nj.S. 339: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this is a case of a reused grave, with the skeleton Nj.S. 339 damaged by the placing of the individual Nj.S. 338. It is the only case in T10 where the two individuals have opposite orientation. The limits of the grave (Nj.S. 336) had an irregular oval shape. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the bodies leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 63

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 340, 341, 342 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen left Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.60 x 0.200 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was quite well preserved, the skeleton (Nj.S. 342) was almost complete, but the limits of the grave-pit were not visible. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the supine position of the body with flexed legs fallen left leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 64

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 344, 345, 346 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 100°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.20 x 0.30 x 0.10 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged and skeleton’s bones (Nj.S. 346) were spread out on a large surface. However, it was still possible to understand the sleeping position of the body. After the analysis, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence also of bones of an adolescent and an adult individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 65

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 347, 348, 349 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 240°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.70 x 0.19 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, pin, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bronze pin (13.20) Comments: this grave was damaged and the skeleton not well preserved, especially in the lower half, even if the sleeping position was still visible. After the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence of bones of two more individuals, who did not get a Nj.S. number. The rim fragment of a black-glazed skyphos found in the fill (2.212) can be considered an intrusion.

1

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 66

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 350, 351 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 1.90 x 0.70 x 0.060 m Sex: male Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain jug (10.40) 2. black-glazed closed shape (2.1354) 3. black-glazed cup (2.976) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, so that it was not possible to assess if it was “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin, its orientation, and the position of the skeleton (Nj.S. 351), very poorly preserved. There is no Nj.S. number for the filling of the grave, because it was not possible to assess an uniformity. The fact that the context of this grave is not sound is proved also by the presence of the plain jug which seems Prehistoric.

2

3

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 67

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 354, 355, 356 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen right Orientation: 330°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.40 x 0.10 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Scale 1:2

Date: 11th-10th c. B.C. Basis for date: mug Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. mug (10.28) Small Finds: 2. bronze pin with conical head (13.5) Comments: this grave was located at the crossing of the balks, but for the largest part in the W balk. Above it there were bones from the lower half of the body of another skeleton, considered as skeletal unit (Nj.S. 357). On the N side of the grave there were few traces of decayed wood, but it was not possible to assess if they were pertinent to the grave.

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247

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 68

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 358, 353, 359, 360 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 230°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.95 x 0.45 x 0.28 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was below Grave 65, so the skeleton could have been damaged by the placing of the individual Nj.S. 349 of the most recent burial. After the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist assessed the presence of a second individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number. On the S-E side the limit of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 353) was partially preserved. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 69

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 361, 362, 363 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine with flexed legs fallen left Orientation: 140°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 0.53 x 0.51 x 0.07 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located at the crossing of the balks. The skeleton (Nj.S. 363) was quite well preserved, except for the lower half of the legs. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

249

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 70

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 364, 170, 171, 365 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 2.20 x 1.40 x 0.58 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: type of grave, feeder, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain feeder (4.57) Small Finds: 2. astragaloi (11.128) Comments: this grave was between Sectors 2 and 3 and heavily damaged. It was not possible to understand whether it was “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin. The limit of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 170) was still visible on the N side. This cut, together with part of the fill of the grave (Nj.S. 171), had been assessed approximately one month earlier than the moment when the grave could be excavated.

2

250

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 71

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 366, 370, 367, 368 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 90°, head towards E Dimensions: 1.30 x 0.60 x 0.120 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:2

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, pin, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. bone pin (13.28) Comments: this grave was quite well preserved, but since it was located at the crossing of the balks, and mostly in the E balk, the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 370) were preserved only at the head and feet of the skeleton (Nj.S. 368).

1

251

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 72

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 371, 372, 373 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the right side Orientation: 20°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 0.75 x 0.38 x 0.160 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was partially located in the S balk, and the skeleton was damaged and incomplete. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 73

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 374, 375, 376, 377 Type of grave: simple pit with wood layer Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 340°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.27 x 0.24 x 0.02 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: stratigraphy, location in the tumulus Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located in the W balk. Under the skeleton (Nj.S. 376) there was a quite well preserved layer of decayed wood (Nj.S. 377) with a curved shape, which could be interpreted as a cradle.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 74

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 378, 379, 380 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: animal deposit Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.48 x 0.40 x 0.105 m Sex: -Age: --

Scale 1:2

Date: end of Early Bronze Age Basis for date: figurine Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. jug or kantharos (10.42) Small Finds: 2. violin shaped figurine (15.1) Comments: this feature was located in the S balk, very close to the crossing of the balks, and unfortunately very badly preserved. After the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist assessed that they are of an animal, thus it is not a grave. The violin-shaped figurine found in this feature is very important for the date of the central grave. The probable closed vessel is so fragmentary that it is not possible to make a drawing and it is useless to take a picture of it.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 75

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 383, 384, 385 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: sleeping position on the left side Orientation: 300°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.90 x 0.40 x 0.055 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Prehistoric Basis for date: position of the body, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was damaged. The skeleton lacks the lower half of the body and also the limits of the grave-pit were not identifiable. Even if there are no grave goods to help dating the grave more closely, the sleeping position of the body leaves no doubt about the fact that it is Prehistoric. ������������������������������������������� During the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist found also some bones of an adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

255

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 76

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 387, 388 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.80 x 1.00 x 0.19 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: type of grave, stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was excavated in 2006. It was heavily damaged and it was not possible to understand if it was “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin. It was located close to a modern cut, probably of an heavy machine, that has taken off a large amount of soil, so these are very likely remains fallen from an higher level. The skeleton was very poorly preserved. There is no Nj.S. number for the filling of the grave, because it was not possible to assess an uniformity.

256

Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 10

Tumulus 10 - GRAVE 77

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 389, 390, 391, 392 Type of grave: pit lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 100°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.10 x 0.54 x 0.23 m Sex: -Age: child

Scale 1:5

1

Date: late 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: skyphos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded table amphora (3.83) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.927) 3. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.166) Small Finds: 4. iron strigil (11.72) Comments: this grave was excavated in 2006. This grave was quite well preserved. The limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 390) were clear. However, it was not possible to assess the dimensions of the mud-bricks because they were melted together.

2

3

4

257

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 11 Tumulus 11, at the western end of the ridge, has been literally devastated. Unfortunately it was assessed by the excavations that the Archaic part of the tumulus suffered most of the destruction. The axes of the excavated area measured 24 m (N-S) x 23.5 m (E-W). The material found (all crushed) is, however, very interesting and made the excavation worth-while. On the other hand, this experience raises the issue of the effective protection of the listed archaeological areas in the country.    The period of use of the tumulus started a little later than Tumulus 9, and went on until the end of the 4th century B.C. The total number of graves found is very low, 17, of which only 6 are dated to the Archaic period. Moreover, of these 6, only one (Grave 10) was intact. Compared to the number of graves, it was identified a high number of skeletal units (14 in total). On the other hand, only two ceramic deposits were assessed. Two graves were dated to the Post-Medieval/Modern period.

   The percentage of children is 25%, and the peculiarity is that they are all grouped in the Archaic period. Despite the devastations, all the graves except for one had grave goods. It has not been easy to make sense of the destroyed material found, both ceramic/non ceramic and osteological. For example, the contexts of Graves 7 and 8, an enchytrismos and a sarcophagus respectively, have been composed in a sort of arbitrary way: the materials were scattered on a large surface and pieces of single objects have been found at different elevations. The high number of objects very likely comes from more than two tombs; however, their assignment, problematic as it might be, was based on criteria of similar chronology and provenance.    The tract of wall which probably separated the Archaic core of the mound from the later part and which is the main characteristic of Tumulus 11 is illustrated earlier in the chapter.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 1

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 022, 010, 011, 023 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.10 x 0.90 x 0.31 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is extremely good. In this grave were still visible the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 10). The individual (Nj.S. 23) was not laid down perfectly in the centre of the pit, but against the right side.

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Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 2

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 019, 024, 020, 021 Type of grave: urn in banded table amphora (3.85) Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the vessel Sex: -Age: adult

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: table amphora Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was poorly preserved, but the limit of the small rounded pit (Nj.S. 24) where the vessel had been placed was still partially visible.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 3

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 030, 034, 028, 031 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 180°/0° (?), head towards S/N (?) Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.85 x 0.16 m Sex: female? Age: adult

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Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: olpe Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.898) 2. black-glazed olpe (2.1187) Small Finds: 3. iron pin (13.43) 4. bronze applique fr. (13.69) 5. iron strigil (11.73) 6. iron knife (11.8) 7. iron finger ring with gold stud (13.85) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation. It was very difficult to assess the orientation, since the skeleton (Nj.S. 31) was very poorly preserved. The limits of the pit (Nj.S. 34) had an irregular elliptical shape.

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Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 4

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 037, 038, 039, 040 Type of grave: grave lined with bricks (8.65) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 357°, head towards N Dimensions: 3.00 x 1.60 x 0.51 m Sex: male Age: adult

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Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed mug (2.40) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.873) 3. black-glazed lamp (2.1513) Small Finds: 4. iron spearhead (14.15) 5. iron pin (13.51) 6. iron strigil fr. (11.74) Comments: this grave had been damaged to reuse the bricks, but has not been looted. The bricks fragments left were fallen on the skeleton (Nj.S. 40). The limits of the pit were preserved where the line of the bricks was still visible (Nj.S. 38).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 5

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 047, 043, 044, 048 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.00 x 0.95 x 0.225 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave has no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones is extremely good. In this grave were still visible the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 43). The individual (Nj.S. 48) was not laid down perfectly in the centre of the pit, but against the right side.

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Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 6

Sector: 2; Nj.S.: 051, 052, 032, 053 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 2.45 x 0.90 x 0.32 m Sex: male? Age: adult

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Date: second quarter of 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.899) Small Finds: 2. bronze strigil (11.61) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation. The degree of firing has been quite high and there was a thick layer of carbonized material (Nj.S. 32). The limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 52) were also very evident. Part of the construction of the grave were also two iron nails (11.95-11.96), which probably were used in the litter, or stretcher, or even coffin, where the individual was laid down.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 7

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 058, 059, 060 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.14) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the vessel Sex: -Age: adolescent

Date: early 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: pithos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated Ionian oinochoe (1.5) 2. black-glazed Corinthian oinochoe (2.1151) 3. decorated Corinthian neck amphora (1.14) 4. decorated Corinthian kothon (1.120) 5. decorated Corinthian aryballos (1.144) 6. banded Ionian cup (3.9) 7. decorated Corinthian oinochoe (1.10) 8. black-glazed Corinthian oinochoe (2.1152) 9. decorated Corinthian oinochoe (1.7) 10. decorated Corinthian kotyle (1.34) 11. decorated Corinthian kothon (1.114) 12. banded Corinthian kothon (3.22) 13. decorated Ionian lid of oinochoe (1.6) 14. decorated Corinthian lid of pyxis (1.135) 15. decorated Corinthian pyxis (1.134) 16. decorated Ionian aryballos (1.145) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave is not a real one. It was located in the most destroyed part of the tumulus. It has been assessed putting together many elements, which perhaps were composing more than one grave. However, the grave goods have been grouped taking in consideration their similarities. The remains of the skeleton were very fragmentary (Nj.S. 60) and were collected close to fragments of the pithos, but could be not pertinent to it.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 8

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 064, 065 Type of grave: sarcophagus Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the vessels Sex: male Age: adult

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Date: mid-6th c. B.C. Basis for date: decorated Ionian kothon Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-figures Attic kylix (1.18) 2. black-figures Attic kylix (1.19) 3. black-figures Attic kylix (1.20) 4. banded Ionian cup (3.6) 5. banded Attic kylix (3.7) 6. black-glazed Attic lekythos (2.1297) 7. decorated Ionian kothon (1.121) Small Finds: 8. iron sword fr. (14.4) Comments: this grave also is not a real one. It was located in the most destroyed part of the tumulus. It has been assessed putting together many elements, which perhaps were composing more than one grave. However, the grave goods have been grouped taking in consideration their similarities. The remains of the skeleton were very fragmentary (Nj.S. 65) and were collected close to fragments of the sarcophagus, but could be not pertinent to it. During the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist found also some bones of another adult (who did not get a Nj.S. number). The location with the Total Station is not certain because fragments of the sarcophagus were even 4 m apart, so it was not possible to decide where the original location could have been. There is no Nj.S. number for the fill.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 9

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 066, 041, 042, 054 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine? Orientation: -Dimensions: -Sex: -Age: adult

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Date: mid-4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.923) 2. red-figures squat lekythos (1.171) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was badly damaged and it was not immediately assessed as a grave. However, the limits of the irregular-shaped grave-pit were still partially visible (Nj.S. 41). Fragments of tiles were few and it was not possible to understand if the grave was “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin. The skeleton’s bones were also mostly not in place (Nj.S. 54).

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Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 10

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 072, 073, 074, 091, 075, 092 Type of grave: enchytrismos in lidded pithos (7.5) Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 2 Position of body: Nj.S. 075: --; Nj.S. 092: -Orientation: Nj.S. 075: --; Nj.S. 092: -Dimensions: 0.85 x 0.80 x 0.53 m Sex: Nj.S. 075: --; Nj.S. 092: -Age: Nj.S. 075: newborn; Nj.S. 092: newborn

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Date: late 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: decorated globular pyxis Grave goods: Nj.S 075: Ceramics: 1. decorated globular pyxis(1.132) 2. plain oinochoe (4.50) Small Finds: no Nj.S 092: Ceramics: 3. decorated kotyle (1.37) 4. decorated tripod pyxis (1.137) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was intact and composed by a small pithos with its lid still in place. The limits of the pit where it had been located were still visible (Nj.S. 73).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 11

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 076, 077, 078, 079 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 30°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.06 x 0.40 x 0.46 m Sex: -Age: adult

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Date: late 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed stemless cup (2.825) 2. black-glazed stemless cup (2.826) Small Finds: 3. bronze strigil (11.64) 4. astragaloi (11.119) 5. iron pin (13.46) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged: more than the upper half had been cut away by heavy machineries, and part of the upper half of the skeleton and of the grave goods were found not in situ at a lower elevation. However, the lower limit of the grave-pit was still visible (Nj.S. 77). Of the in situ portion, not even the lower limbs of the skeleton were complete (Nj.S. 79), but the bones left were anyway very well preserved.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 12

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 081, 069, 083 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 2.55 x 1.35 x 0.80 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1155) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.127) 3. decorated tripod bowl (1.28) 4. banded lekanis (3.13) 5. banded lekanis (3.14) 6. banded lekanis (3.15) 7. banded lekanis (3.16) Small Finds: 8. iron pin head (13.30) Comments: this grave is an in situ cremation, damaged by a modern cut (Nj.S. 82). At first only the burned deposit was assessed (Nj.S. 69), later were found also bones and grave goods. The skeleton remains are poorly preserved (Nj.S. 83), and show various degrees of burning. The grave was laid down on the bedrock (Nj.S. 90).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 13

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 086, 087 Type of grave: urn in plain table amphora (4.67) Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the vessel Sex: -Age: adult

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed skyphos fr.(2.168) 2. banded table amphora (3.86) 3. black-glazed closed shape (2.1355) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was extremely damaged and there is no certainty about the grave goods (especially the banded table amphora (3.86), which were found in the area where the fragments of the urn were spread. The skeleton remains are poorly preserved (Nj.S. 87), and show various degrees of burning. There is no Nj.S. number for the fill of the grave.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 14

Sector: 3; Nj.S.: 095, 096, 094 Type of grave: grave lined with bricks (8.64) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: -Sex: -Age: adult

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Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: olpe and type of grave Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain transport amphora (4.317) 2. black-glazed lamp (2.1514) 3. black-glazed olpe (2.1193) Small Finds: 4. iron strigil (11.75) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, and it was not possible to assess the orientation and the position of the body; very few bones were left (Nj.S. 94) and not all in situ. At first, the osteological remains were defined as skeletal unit; then, more elements such as grave goods and fragments of bricks (one of them complete), allowed to make the context as a grave lined with bricks. Three iron nails (11.97-11.99), very likely part of a litter or stretcher or coffin where the individual was laid down, were considered as part of the construction of the grave.

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 15

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 100, 101, 102, 103 Type of grave: enchytrismos in pithos (7.13) Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.80 x 0.63 x 0.33 m Sex: -Age: child

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Date: early 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: pithos Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. decorated kotyle (1.39) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged and the pithos not complete. The limit of the pit where it had been located was visible only on the eastern side (Nj.S. 101). Among the pithos fragments were found also two astragaloi from Grave 11.

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Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 16

Sector: 4; Nj.S.: 104, 105 Type of grave: urn in black-glazed Laconian krater (2.5) Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: of the vessel Sex: -Age: adult

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Date: late 6th c. B.C. Basis for date: kotylai Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. kotyle with rays (1.40) 2. kotyle with rays (1.41) Small Finds: 3. silver coin fr.? (16.37) 4. bronze vessel fr. (12.10) 5. bronze vessel fr. (12.11) 6. bronze vessel fr. (12.12) 7. bronze handle of a vessel (12.13) 8. bronze fr. (16.7) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged and ceramic fragments were spread out on a large surface (9.50 x 2.30 m), going through the N balk into Sector 1. Besides the Laconian krater used as urn and the grave goods, there were also fragmentary Corinthian tiles (8.18.2), which could have been used as a sort of cist. There is no Nj.S. number for the fill of the grave. During the analysis of the bones, the physical anthropologist found also some bones of a child (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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Catalogue of Graves - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - GRAVE 17

Sector: 1; Nj.S.: 108, 109, 110, 111 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 260°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 0.94 x 0.43 x 0.16 m Sex: -Age: child

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave looked like it was not in situ, but fallen as a block from a higher elevation. The limits of the grave-pit were even still preserved on the S and E sides (Nj.S. 109). There are no grave goods to help dating this burial, however the orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°, as well as the lack of grave construction and grave goods. However, the preservation of the bones is not so good as in other cases (Nj.S. 111).

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Appendixes 1, 2, and 3 The definition ‘Appendix’ for the areas between the tumuli was chosen by the directors of the projects. It was not easy, especially because of the damages, to decide where the circumference of a tumulus ended. However, it is clear that the whole area available of the ridge was used to lay down burials.    Appendix 1 and 2 were located between Tumuli 9 and 10, Appendix 1 closer to Tumulus 9 and Appendix 2 closer to Tumulus 10, for a total length of 28 m. The area between the two appendixes was very narrow, showing that that part of the ridge has been devastated also, as Tumulus 11. To Appendix 1 were assessed 5 graves: 2 dated to the 4th century B.C., both with grave goods, and 3 dated to the Post-Medieval/Modern period.       Appendix 2 is composed by 4 graves, in general less preserved than those in Appendix 1; Grave 4, a tile grave, was heavily damaged. Only 2 burials

had grave goods, but they should all be dated to the Classical period. In this appendix were assessed also 2 skeletal units.    Appendix 3 was located between Tumuli 10 and 11 and measured approximately 20 m (N-S) x 9.5 m (E-W). A relatively high number of graves was assessed, 13, together with 2 ceramic deposits and 5 skeletal units. Most of the tombs, 9, had grave goods, but it is important to notice that the ones with no objects were also the most damaged. The use of this area continued till the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., and some finds found in the fill, such as “west slope” ceramics (1.337) and a black-glazed cup-kantharos (2.844), are among the most recently dated objects of the whole complex. There were also 2 graves pertaining to the PostMedieval/Modern period.

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Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 1

Appendix 1 - GRAVE 1

Nj.S.: 003, 004, 005 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 1.85 x 0.80 x 0.47 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave is very likely dated to the Post-Medieval period, given the impressively good preservation of the bones, the orientation of the skeleton, the lack of grave goods, and the location at the periphery of Tumulus 9.

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Appendix 1 - GRAVE 2

Nj.S.: 006, 007, 008 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 270°, head towards W Dimensions: 1.75 x 0.62 x 0.20 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave is very likely dated to the Post-Medieval period, given the impressively good preservation of the bones, the orientation of the skeleton, the lack of grave goods, and the location at the periphery of Tumulus 9.

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Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 1

Appendix 1 - GRAVE 3

Nj.S.: 009, 010, 011 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 150°, head towards S-E. Dimensions: preserved: 1.10 x 0.50 x 0.16 m Sex: male? Age: adolescent

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Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: one-handler cup Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.121) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.869) 3. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.136) Small Finds: 4. bronze pin (13.11) 5. iron unidentifiable object (16.19) Comments: this grave has been damaged, slightly in the upper part, more seriously in the lower part. However, the parts left of the skeleton were quite well preserved.

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Appendix 1 - GRAVE 4

Nj.S.: 012, 013, 014 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 200°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.70 x 0.20 m Sex: male Age: adult

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Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: table amphora Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded table amphora (3.82) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was quite well preserved, even if the limits of the grave-pit were not visible.

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Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 1

Appendix 1 - GRAVE 5

Nj.S.: 015, 016, 017 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 280°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 1.75 x 0.65 x 0.17 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located at the N limit of the platform of Appendix 1. It was very evident the cut of a heavy machinery, which took away most of the skeleton.

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Appendix 2 - GRAVE 1

Nj.S.: 004, 005, 006 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 70°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.75 x 0.60 x 0.11 m Sex: female Age: adult

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Date: first half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.856) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.909) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave and the skeleton were not well preserved.

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Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 2

Appendix 2 - GRAVE 2

Nj.S.: 009, 010, 011 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 220°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.65 x 0.069 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Classical Basis for date: location (Appendix) and preservation of the bones Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was located in a disturbed part of the platform of Appendix 2 and was poorly preserved.

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Appendix 2 - GRAVE 3

Nj.S.: 012, 015, 013, 014 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 40°, head towards N-E Dimensions: preserved: 0.90 x 0.87 x 0.13 m Sex: -Age: adolescent

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Date: Classical Basis for date: location (Appendix) and preservation of the bones Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: 1. iron pin (13.44) 2. iron unidentifiable object (16.20) 3. bronze finger ring (13.81) 4. bronze finger ring (13.82) Comments: this grave was damaged and the lower half had been cut away. The arms of the individual (Nj.S. 14) were crossed on the pelvis. The limit of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 15) was visible only on the S side of the burial.

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Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 2

Appendix 2 - GRAVE 4

Nj.S.: 008, 018, 019 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 4.00 x 3.70 x 0.47 m Sex: male Age: adult

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: type of grave Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: in 2005 a deposit of fragmentary tiles was assessed (Nj.S. 8). It was clear that the tiles were remains of a destroyed grave, but no bones were found. In 2006 the whole area was rechecked and the excavation went on, and more tile fragments, together with pottery fragments, and, finally, bone fragments came to light. All the material, however, was spread out on a large surface and was found in more than one layer, so that it was impossible to assess the orientation and the position of the body. In any case, it was decided that there were all the elements to consider the context as a grave. After the analysis of the skeletal material (Nj.S. 19), the physical anthropologist assessed the presence of two or more adult individuals, who did not get a Nj.S. number.

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Appendix 3 - GRAVE 1

Nj.S.: 008, 009, 010, 011 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S–W Dimensions: 1.87 x 0.86 x 0.63m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave had no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones was extremely good. In this grave were still visible the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 9). The individual (Nj.S. 11) was not laid down perfectly in the centre of the pit, but against the right side.

288

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 2

Nj.S.: 012, 007, 013 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 1.60 x 0.80 x 0.358 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: second half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellars Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.68) 2. plain table amphora (4.69) 3. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.151) 4. black-glazed saltcellar (2.934) 5. black-glazed squat lekythos (2.1309) 6. black-glazed saltcellar (2.936) 7. black-glazed saltcellar (2.935) 8. black-glazed squat closed shape fr. (2.1356) Small Finds: 9. astragalos (11.130) Comments: this grave was an in situ cremation, with the skeleton poorly preserved (Nj.S. 13). The ceramic vessels were all smashed.

2

289

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 3

Nj.S.: 019, 016, 020 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: 0.46 x 0.83 x 0.235 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: Late Classical-Early Hellenistic Basis for date: stratigraphy Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was an in situ cremation, poorly preserved. It was very close and at the same level of Grave 4, a grave lined with bricks, which helps in dating it.

290

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 4

Nj.S.: 021, 022, 023, 024 Type of grave: grave lined with bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 160°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 0.98 x 0.96 x 0.235 m Sex: female? Age: adult

Date: Early Hellenistic Basis for date: type of grave Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, but the limits of the grave-pit were still visible on the W and S sides (Nj.S. 22). Very few bones were preserved (Nj.S. 24), as well as few fragments of bricks.

291

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 5

Nj.S.: 026, 027, 028 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 310°, head towards N-W Dimensions: 0.80 x 0.60 x 0.11 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: mid-4th c. B.C. Basis for date: saltcellar Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.920) Small Finds: 2. unidentifiable faience object (16.28) Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, as well as the skeleton (Nj.S. 28), and it was not possible to assess the position of the body. On the N-W side of the burial, 0.40 m away, there were two fragments of bricks, but it was not possible to understand if they could be part of this grave or not. It was located above Grave 9, and actually there is the possibility that these two graves are in reality one.

2

292

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 6

Nj.S.: 029, 030, 031, 032 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 250°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 2.06 x 0.80 x 0.19 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Post-Medieval Basis for date: stratigraphy, orientation Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave had no grave goods to help dating it. The orientation towards W is typical of the Post-Medieval graves, even if in this case it is not perfectly 270°. The preservation of the bones was extremely good. In this grave were still visible the limits of the grave-pit (Nj.S. 30). The individual (Nj.S. 32) was not laid down perfectly in the centre of the pit, but against the right side.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 7

Nj.S.: 033, 034, 035, 036 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.57 x 0.25 m Sex: male? Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. banded table amphora (3.87) 2. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.147) 3. black-glazed two-handler cup (2.791) Small Finds: 4. iron pin (13.53) 5. iron pin (13.41) Comments: this grave was well preserved, even if some rocks had fallen on the skeleton (Nj.S. 37) and very close to the ceramic vessels. The limits of the grave-pit were still visible (Nj.S. 34).

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294

Scale 1:2

4

5

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 8

Nj.S.: 039, 040, 041, 042 Type of grave: grave lined with mud-bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 120°, head towards S–E Dimensions: 2.30 x 1.40 x 0.41 m Sex: female Age: adult

1

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:5

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. plain table amphora (4.70) 2. black-glazed type A skyphos (2.189) 3. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.148) 4. black-glazed squat lekythos (2.1308) 5. black-glazed saltcellar (2.905) 6. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.874) 7. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.875) Small Finds: 8. iron pin fr. (13.54) 9. iron pin fr. (13.55) Comments: this grave was quite well preserved, even if the bones were very frail (Nj.S. 42). The limits of the grave-pit were very clear (Nj.S. 40). During the analysis of the bones the physical anthropologist found also some bones of another adult individual (who did not get a Nj.S. number).

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295

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7

Scale 1:2

8

9

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 9

Nj.S.: 045, 046, 047, 048 Type of grave: tile grave Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 120°, head towards S-E Dimensions: 1.86 x 1.27 x 0.19 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

2

Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.943) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.921) 3. black-glazed saltcellar (2.922) 4. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.876) Small Finds: 5. iron strigil (11.76) Comments: this grave was damaged especially in the upper part, in fact the skull of the skeleton was missing (Nj.S. 48), probably by the laying down of Grave 5 and actually there is the possibility that these two graves are in reality one. The limits of the grave-pit, rectangular shaped, were still visible (Nj.S. 46). Very few tile fragments were present, so that it was not possible to assess whether the grave was “alla cappuccina” or in the shape of a coffin.

3

4

296

5

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 10

Nj.S.: 049, 050, 043 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 240°, head towards S-W Dimensions: 1.40 x 1.70 x 0.19 m Sex: female Age: adult

Date: Classical? Basis for date: location (Appendix) Grave goods: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged, as well as the skeleton (Nj.S. 43), which at first was considered as skeletal unit and of which only the feet were preserved and in situ.

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 11

Nj.S.: 053, 054, 055, 056 Type of grave: urn in red-figures krater (1.235) Ritual of deposition: cremation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: -Dimensions: area of spreading: 1.04 x 0.60 x 0.12 m Sex: -Age: adult

Date: late 5th-early 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.907) Small Finds: 2. bronze instrument (11.84) 3. iron strigil (11.80) 4. iron unidentifiable object (16.23) 5. bronze sheet fr. (16.10) Comments: this grave was damaged and the fragments were scattered on a large surface. On the N and W sides was still visible the limit of the pit (Nj.S. 54), cut in the soft bedrock (Nj.S. 38), where the urn had been deposited.

Scale 1:10

Scale 1:2

1

2

3

4

298

5

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 12

Nj.S.: 060, 061, 062, 063 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: supine Orientation: 80°, head towards N-E Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.80 x 0.18 m Sex: female Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: first half of 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed saltcellar (2.917) 2. palmette squat lekythos (1.179) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was well preserved, except for its limits, which were visible only on the N and E sides (Nj.S. 61). The skeleton was not complete in its central part and the bones were generally frail (Nj.S. 63). The grave goods were 15 cm far from the right arm of the individual and perhaps this shows that there has been a sliding of the skeleton towards S.

2

299

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 13

Nj.S.: 064, 065, 066, 067, 070, 071 Type of grave: simple pit Ritual of deposition: inhumation, inhumation Number of individuals: 3 Position of body: Nj.S. 067: supine, Nj.S. 070: piled, Nj.S. 071: piled Orientation: Nj.S.067: 60°, head towards N–E, Nj.S. 070: --, Nj.S. 071: -Dimensions: 1.47 x 1.19 x 021 m Sex: Nj.S.067: female, Nj.S. 070: female, Nj.S. 071: female Age: Nj.S.067: adult, Nj.S. 070: adult, Nj.S. 071: adult

Scale 1:5

1

2

3

Date: late 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed type A skyphos Grave goods: Nj.S. 067: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed lamp without handle (2.1515) 2. black-glazed type A skyphos (2.190) 3. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.152) 4. black-glazed lamp (2.1516) Small Finds: no Nj.S. 070: Ceramics: 5. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.877) 6. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.878) Small Finds: 7. astragalos (11.131) Nj.S. 071: Ceramics: no Small Finds: no Comments: this was a reused multiple grave, damaged. The skeleton Nj.S. 67, the last one to be laid down, lacked most of the lower half of the body. In the S-E corner there were two more skeleton piled up (Nj.S. 70 and 71). Among these bones, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence of a fourth individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number. The limits of the grave-pit were preserved on the N and E sides (Nj.S. 65).

4

300

5

6

7

Catalogue of Graves - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - GRAVE 14

Nj.S.: 073, 074, 075 Type of grave: grave lined with bricks Ritual of deposition: inhumation Number of individuals: 1 Position of body: -Orientation: 180°, head towards S Dimensions: 0. 29 x 0.90 x 0.29 m Sex: -Age: adult

Scale 1:5

1

Date: late 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: skyphoi Grave goods: Ceramics: 1. black-glazed type C skyphos (2.165) 2. black-glazed type A skyphos (2.191) 3. banded hydria (3.110) 4. plain table amphora (4.71) Small Finds: no Comments: this grave was heavily damaged and bone and ceramic fragments were found at various levels. Few fragments of bricks lead to think that this was the construction of the grave. Very few bones were found (Nj.S. 75) and, after the analysis, the physical anthropologist assessed the presence of bones of a second individual, who did not get a Nj.S. number.

2

3

4

301

6. ANIMAL DEPOSITS AND CERAMIC DEPOSITS

In the tumuli complex, besides graves, there are several more elements which can give interesting information about rituals related to the funerary practice. Prehistoric period The feature ‘Grave’ 74 in Tumulus 10 Approximately 0.50 m above the central grave was placed an animal offering together with a ceramic vessel and a terracotta figurine. Unfortunately this feature was very much deteriorated: very few bones left, the vessel totally crumbled, and the figurine damaged (Fig. 6.1).

Figure 6.2: Tumulus 6 of Shtoj: group of violin-shaped figurines.

Figure 6.1: Tumulus 10 ‘Grave’ 74, animal deposit with terracotta figurine dated to the EBA.    Even if the bones are few and friable, it was possible to assess that they pertain to an ovine. The vessel should be a jug or a so-called kantharos. On the other hand, the terracotta, even if damaged on top, is an outstanding find: in fact, it is a violin shaped female figurine, very rare and of early date, the Early Bronze Age.    Very few examples of these figurines are known in Albania. At Shtoj, in the north of the country, there is a Prehistoric tumuli cemetery.

There, in Tumulus 6, were found six terracotta figurines similar to ours, all of them above the central grave (Fig. 6.2).    Four of them represent female figures, one a male figure, and one a child. The four female figurines have breasts in relief, as well as the male figurine the sexual attributes. The child figurine has no characterization at all and has much smaller dimensions than the terracottas mentioned above (the “adult” figurines measure between 13 and 16 cm, while the child figurine measures 6 cm). One of the female figurines has two rows of incised dots at the base of the neck, and one row at the belly, representing very probably a necklace and a belt, respectively. In the lower half of the body there are

302

Animal deposites and ceramic deposites

also two rounded groups of dots, as well as rows of dots on the sides of the head and shoulders.1 The figurine found at Apollonia has the same dimensions as the ones of Shtoj, but has a pattern of incised lines on the whole upper surface of the body difficult to interpret (considering also that the surface is partially damaged).    The group of figurines from Shtoj is said was found on a “platform” together with bird bones. This platform was above the central grave, made of a ring of rocks measuring 2.2 x 1.5 m and 0.40 thick (Fig. 6.3).      The floor was made of gravel pressed in the soil. Together with the figurines there was also a

This uncommon feature consisted of two parallel rows of mud-bricks each approximately 0.900.95 m long and set 0.40 m apart (Fig. 6.4). Between these were found burnt animal bones and fragments of four vessels; some sherds were also discovered outside the western row of mud-bricks. The feature was positioned close to the probable original centre of the tumulus and can be dated to the Archaic period on the basis of the associated ceramics, despite being very fragmented (Fig. 7.1). The two most diagnostic vessels were both Corinthian imports: a kotyle decorated with panthers and one decorated with lotus buds, respectively dated to the Middle and the Late Corinthian periods. As noted above, on discovery a grave number was assigned to it (Grave 62).    A similar structure was found in Tumulus 1 (grave 119) and identified by the excavator as a cenotaph. Here traces of burning were found, and fragments of Corinthian and black-figures Attic ceramic vessels that date the feature to the Archaic period. However – unlike ‘Grave 62’ – no bones at all were found here (Fig. 6.5).3      After analysis, the bones found in ‘Grave’ 62 all transpired to be faunal. The feature, in other

Figure 6.3: Tumulus 6 of Shtoj: platform above the central grave. vessel which can be related to the Cetina Culture and dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age.2    In the feature at Apollonia there are some similarities, as well as some differences: the figurine was indeed associated with a vessel and animal bones, though the bones were of an ovine and not a bird. There were no traces of a platform; however, the deposit was physically above the ring of the central grave (but not directly above the skeleton). There are no other similar features known from Prehistoric tumuli in Albania, Tumulus 6 of Shtoj remains the closest comparison to Tumulus 10 of Apollonia. Archaic to Early Hellenistic period The feature ‘Grave’ 62 in Tumulus 9

Figure 6.4: Tumulus 9 ‘Grave’ 62. 303

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 6.5: Tumulus 1 Grave 119. words, represent an uncommon rite in Tumulus 9 and the whole complex. Similar features have been found in the Kerameikos cemetery at Athens, and have been called ‘Opferrinnen.’4 These offering ditches started in the late 8th century and became very frequent from the sixties until the end of the 7th century. They were carefully built, close to both inhumation and cremation tombs, and a floor of pebbles and stone slabs were created around the tomb, and between the tomb and the ritual ditch. The Opferrinnen were normally 8–11 m long, with a depth equal to their width. A platform was created by a series of sticks positioned across the two rows of bricks, and on this was placed a large number of ceramic vessels (Fig. 6.6).      The whole thing was then set alight, the vessels breaking in the high temperatures of the fire. The burnt material was subsequently covered with

Figure 6.6: Reconstruction of an Opferrinne.

dirt or mud, and a layer of poros rock.5 This phenomenon appears to be an exclusively Attic tradition. Other than at the Kerameikos cemetery, offering ditches have also been found close to cremations in the tumuli of Vourva and Marathon and in tumulus G in Athens.6 The association with the latter relates the ritual to the richest class of Late Geometric/Protoattic Athens: thus, apart from the religious implications of the ritual it was a way to display the social status of the deceased.7 Indeed, Sanne Houby-Nielsen has interpreted the presence of bird bones found with the ceramics in the Kerameikos cemetery as indicating that the rite performed included a ritual banquet, and connects it with the Homeric banquet and the heroization of the deceased.8 James Whitley, instead, prefers to consider the offerings part of an aristocratic rather than a heroic cult, and disputes that meals were performed on the tomb.9 While scholars disagree on the interpretation of these offering ditches, all agree that the vessels found within them were produced specifically for the ceremony, with no previous use.10    There are different hypothesis also regarding the time when the ritual was performed: according to Karl Kübler the burning of the offerings was happening during the funeral, Wolfang Helbig believes that it was performed after the funeral, while Roland Hampe proposes that it was a ceremony done on the ninth day after the funeral.11    The relationship between the ritual and the burial has been much debated; however, fragments of the same vessel discovered both within the Opferrinne and the burial fill of grave KII-1, sealed by a stone covering slab, in the Kerameikos cemetery indicates that the two were performed at the same time.12 For Erich Kistler the Opferrinne‘Zeremonie’ is that of a cult where something is destroyed or killed in honour of the deceased. The burning of different kind of vessels used in banquets emulates eastern costumes, the euphrosyne, as ideal of aristocratic life.13    There are some elements of similarity as well as of difference between ‘Grave’ 62 and the Opferrinnen. There can be no doubt that a ritual has been performed, in which faunal remains and drinking vessels have been burned. However, the animals

304

Animal deposites and ceramic deposites

found in the Tumulus 9 ritual are sheep/goats (see Technical report 3), and not birds as in the Kerameikos. Further, the length of the mud-bricks lines is much shorter than usual, and the space around the feature is not arranged as a floor. More significantly are the differences in date and location of ‘Grave 62’ compared to recognised Opferrinnen. Firstly, when the Tumulus 9 feature was constructed in the Archaic period, the phenomenon had disappeared in Greece. Secondly, if ‘Grave’ 62 is indeed an Opferrinne it occupies a somewhat isolated position within the tumulus (Fig. 7.1). The closest graves are Graves 55 and 60, both dated later than the ‘Grave’ 62. Grave 60 is a cremation burial richly furnished with grave goods; Grave 55 is a sarcophagus containing both an inhumation and a cremation burial, that too containing many grave goods. The richness of these graves contrasts with the Attic ones associated with Opferrinnen where no grave goods were present. Finally, the performance of the Opferrinne-Zeremonie in Attica is related to a complex social situation, which is difficult to prove was recreated at Apollonia. Ceramic Deposits Single complete vessels, two or more complete vessels grouped together, and concentrations of fragmented vessels outside graves were called “Ceramic Deposits”. In contrast no complete metal objects were found outside graves, either alone or associated with ceramics in circumstances which could be interpreted as deposits. In three ceramic deposits, however, the vessels were associated with terracotta figurines.14 The majority of these features came to light in Tumulus 9.15 Most of them were found spatially separate from graves, and they have been interpreted as probable offerings presented at the anniversary of the death by the families of the deceased, but placed apart from the graves. An exception to this could be X3 CD Nj.S. 15, which was very close to Grave 2, and thus could be related to the cremation. The vessels of the Ceramic Deposit did not suffer a second firing, in contrast to the vessels of the grave.    The custom of offerings outside the tombs is known at Corinth in the north Cemetery, as well as at Metaponto. At Corinth, however, in contrast

with Apollonia, the objects were close to the graves to which were offered, usually sarcophagi; in some cases the vessels were put even on the lid of the sarcophagus. Usually they had the same date, type and shape of those in the respective burial.16 The same has been documented at Metaponto, and they have been referred to as “external corredo”.17    Among the thirteen Ceramic Deposits of Tumulus 9, two of them are not, but they have been defined as such so that they would be fully documented. One is CD Nj.S. 8, a mixture of fragmented tiles and vessels not in situ, very probable the remains of a destroyed tomb. However, since no bones were found, could no be listed as grave. The second case is CD Nj.S. 184, the rim and neck of a Corinthian Type A transport amphora, one of the earliest finds of Tumulus 9, found also not in situ. Very likely it is the rest of a damaged enchytrismos. T9 CD Nj.S. 251 first was considered associated to the enchytrismos Grave 40 as grave good rolled outside, but the diversity of dates caused to list it among the CDs.    A particularity of Tumulus 9 is that terracotta figurines were found only in Ceramic Deposits and never in graves. In the three CDs −Nj.S. 21, Nj.S. 58, Nj.S. 131− where they came to light, both anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines were present. Fills In the fills of the graves, and more generally in the fill of the tumuli and appendixes, numerous sherds were collected. It is true that, because of the modern damages, many of them, especially in the superficial layers, can be remains of destroyed graves. However, it seems that this cannot be the only explanation. Finding pottery fragments in the fill is known from excavations of Prehistoric tumuli all over Albania, even those intact. It has always been interpreted as the custom of bringing some soil from the settlement, including the artifacts that it contained, together with the body of the deceased. The same pattern can be seen at Apollonia, both in the Prehistoric core of Tumulus 10 and in the later components of the whole complex. In addition to sherds, in the core of Tumulus 10 also thirty-five lithics have been found, half of them in graves fills,

305

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 6.7: Location of Kryegjata C respect to the tumuli complex. the other half in the fill of the tumulus.    According to the results of soil analysis done at the Tumulus of Lofkënd, the soil to build up the mound has been collected from the areas around, but not only. In fact, to avoid erosion and collapses, to the fine-textured local sediments has been added periodically some clayey soil collected farther away.18 The same process it is likely to have happened at Apollonia: some of the soil, for example, could have been collected in the area around the ridge of the tumuli complex. The Palaeolithic site identified during the MRAP project and named Kryegjata C (S024) (Fig. 6.7), located along the slope to the south of our tumuli, is very likely the source for the lithic finds washed down the valley, fact which could justify their presence in the Prehistoric core of Tumulus 10. Something similar must have happened also in the later period, because, as a matter of fact, fragments of the most ancient imported vessels have been found exactly in the fills of the tumuli.19 The date of these sherds is much earlier than any find coming from graves, thus it is likely that the fragments have been brought together with soil collected from some place inhabited even before the colony was settled, where objects testifying the early contacts between the indigenous population and the Greeks ended up. Whether this was an intended action, part of the mortuary rituals

as argued for the case of Lofkënd and other prehistoric tumuli in the country, of course remains not completely clear. Notes 1

Koka 1990, pp. 38-40. Koka 1990, pp. 29, 58. 3 Mano 1971, pp. 112, 152. 4 I would like to thank Professor Sarah Morris for having drawn my attention to the Opferrinnen in Attica. 5 Kübler 1959, pp. 86-88. 6 Kistler 1998, pp. 9, 20. 7 Kistler 1998, pp. 10, 19. 8 Kistler 1998, pp. 22, 24-25. 9 Kistler 1998, p. 27. 10 There are different elements which guide them to this conclusion: 1) the dimensions of the vessels, smaller than usual; 2) the thickness of the walls, thinner than usual, and 3) the firing, at a temperature lower than usual. Other characteristics common to the vessels of the Opferrinnen are tall feet, useful for exhibition, and plastic decorations on rims and handle, which make not functional the use of the pots themselves (Kistler 1998, pp. 20, 36-37). 11 Kistler 1998, pp. 20-22. 12 Kistler 1998, pp. 40-41. 13 Kistler 1998, pp. 177. 14 Tumulus 9 Nj.S. 21, 58, and 131. 15 13 in Tumulus 9, 2 in Tumulus 11, and 2 in Appendix 3. 16 Corinth XIII, p. 85. 17 Carter 1998, p. 116. 18 Papadopoulos et al. 2007, p. 134. 19 Fragments such as 1.45 and 1.46 (see Pottery Catalogue). 2

306

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 8

Sector: 4 Dimensions: 0.93 x 0.82 x 0.38 m Date: 400-300 B.C. Basis for date: cup

Scale 1:2

Ceramics: 1. bottom of black-glazed cup (2.984) 2. wall of red-figures krater (1.245) 3. wall of cooking chytra (6.16) 4. fragmentary pantile (8.30) Small Finds: no Comments: this feature is not properly a ceramic deposit, but very probably a destroyed grave. The remains (fragmentary tiles and fragmentary vessels) were not in situ.

1

4

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 21

Sector: 4 Dimensions: 0.70 x 0.60 x 0.11 m Date: 400-300 B.C. Basis for date: plain olpai

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed stemless cup with impressed decoration (2.821) 2. black-glazed olpe (2.1184) 3. black-glazed skyphos (2.138) 4. black-glazed stemless cup (2.820) 5. rim fr. of plain olpe (4.54) 6. foot fr. of plain olpe (4.55) 7. black-glazed skyphos (2.211) Small Finds: 8. zoomorphic terracotta figurine (15.2) 9. zoomorphic terracotta figurine (15.3) Comments: this deposit presents a high number of objects on a small surface. It is worthy to notice the presence of terracotta figurines, which have not been found in any grave.

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9

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 24

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 1.85 x 0.95 x 0.12 m Date: 400-325 B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed vessels

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. cooking chytra (6.1) 2. black-glazed one-handler cup (2.868) 3. black-glazed oinochoe (2.1159) 4. black-glazed mug (2.32) 5. black-glazed skyphos (2.154) 6. transport amphora (4.316) Small Finds: no Comments: the fragments of the vessels of this deposit are spread on a large surface, the soil of which has a different color than the area around.

2

3

4

309

5

Scale 1:10

6

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 32

Sector: 3 Dimensions: 0.50 x 0.20 x 0.06 m Date: 400-350 B.C. Basis for date: red-figures lekythos

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed squat lekythos (2.1307) 2. red-figures squat lekythos (1.170) Small Finds: no Comments: the two lekythoi are complete (even if 1.170 was mended) and they were aligned quite close to each other.

2

310

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 33

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 0.45 x 0.20 x 0.09 m Date: late 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: askos

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed askos (2.1353) 2. cooking chytra (6.2) Small Finds: no Comments: this deposit, as the previous one, occupies a very small area. Both vessels are complete, even if the chytra was mended.

2

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 58

Sector: 4 Dimensions: 1.15 x 0.85 x 0.35 m Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: black-glazed olpai

1

2

5

9

11

4

7

6

8

Scale 1:5

3

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed olpe (2.1185) 2. black-glazed stemless cup (2.822) 3. black-glazed olpe (2.1186) 4. black-glazed saltcellar (2.902) 5. black-glazed skyphos (2.155) 6. bottom of black-glazed skyphos (2.156) 7. black-glazed mug (2.36) 8. black-glazed olpe (2.1188) 9. black-glazed skyphos (2.131) 10. black-glazed skyphos (2.129) 11. black-glazed skyphos (2.139) 12. black-glazed stemless cup (2.823) 13. red-figures squat lekythos (1.181) 14. black-glazed stemmed dish (2.1079) Small Finds: 15. zoomorphic terracotta figurine (15.4) 16. zoomorphic terracotta figurine (15.15) Comments: this deposit occupies quite a large surface and it is composed by an impressive number of vessels and by two terracotta figurines. Some of the vessels were complete, some were fragmentary. It was located between two other Ceramic Deposits, CD 21 and CD 131.

10

12

13

14

312

15

16

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 131

Sector: 4 Dimensions: 1.05 x 0.50 x 0.23 m Date: first half 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: red-figures krater

Ceramics: 1. red-figures krater (1.234) 2. bottom of black-glazed skyphos (2.163) 3. rim of red-figures krater (1.236) 4. black-glazed skyphos (2.162) 5. wall of black-glazed closed shape (2.1378) Small Finds: 6. anthropomorphic terracotta figurine (15.27) 7. anthropomorphic terracotta figurine (15.28) Comments: in this deposit was found one of the two complete redfigures krater of Tumulus 9. This one was fragmentary and has been restored in plaster, but at least on one side the figured scene is readable.

1

Scale 1:5

2

3

4

313

6

7

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 151

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 1.55 x 1.20 x 0.21 m Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: mug, olpe, and skyphos (2.157)

Scale 1:5

1

2

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed mug (2.39) 2. black-glazed skyphos (2.157) 3. black-glazed chytra (2.1271) 4. bottom of black-glazed cup (2.978) 5. bottom of black-glazed olpe (2.1198) 6. black-glazed skyphos (2.132) 7. black-glazed skyphos (2.158) Small Finds: 8. ceramic loom-weight (12.7) Comments: all the vessels were very closed to each other, except for the chytra, which anyway was decided to include in this group.

3

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314

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6

7

8

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 153

Sector: 2 Dimensions: 1.45 x 1.00 x 0.23 m Date: third quarter of 5th c. B.C. Basis for date: lekythos

Scale 1:5



Ceramics: 1. ivy lekythos (1.158) Small Finds: no Comments: this deposit consists in an isolated complete lekythos, an Attic import.

1

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 184

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 0.62 x 0.50 x 0.20 m Date: second half of 7th c. B.C. Basis for date: transport amphora

Scale 1:5



Ceramics: 1. Corinthian Type A rim and neck of transport amphora (4.311) Small Finds: no Comments: this fragmentary transport amphora was considered as Ceramic Deposit to give it importance and not to classify it just as a common find from the fill of the tumulus; in reality very probably is the remain of a destroyed enchytrismos. Such an early date could be justified by the fact that the amphora was used with its primary function for a period, and later as a grave.

1

316

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 249

Sector: 4 Dimensions: -Date: 350-325 B.C. Basis for date: oinochoe and saltcellar

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed ribbed oinochoe with stamped palmettes (2.1161) 2. black-glazed saltcellar (2.925) Small Finds: no Comments: this Ceramic Deposit was located while taking off the balks, so the dimensions of the area occupied could not be assessed with certainty.

2

317

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 250

Sector: 1 Dimensions: -Date: late 7th-early 6th c. B.C. (Early Corinthian period) Basis for date: krater and cup

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed kotyle-krater (2.1) 2. cup with offset rim (1.1) Small Finds: no Comments: this Ceramic Deposit was located while taking off the balks, so the dimensions of the area occupied could not be assessed with certainty.

2

318

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 9

Tumulus 9 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 251

Sector: 1 Dimensions: -Date: 5th-4th c. B.C. Basis for date: jug

Scale 1:5

Ceramics: 1. black-glazed jug (2.1329) Small Finds: no Comments: this jug, found outside the pithos of Grave 40, close to the mouth, first was considered as grave good, then became Ceramic Deposit.

1

319

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Tumulus 11 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 84

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 0.81 x 0.16 x 0.06 m Date: mid-4th c. B.C. Basis for date: bottom of transport amphora

Scale 1:5

1

Ceramics: 1. bottom of transport amphora (4.318) 2. wall of black-glazed olpe (2.1201) 3. upper part of black-glazed skyphos (2.258) Small Finds: no Comments: this group of ceramics very probably is not a ceramic deposit in strict terms. However, it was decided to define it as such to distinguish the finds, which are likely from a destroyed grave, and not to include them simply in the fills of the tumulus.

2

3

320

Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Tumulus 11

Tumulus 11 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 85

Sector: 1 Dimensions: 0.20 x 0.08 x 0.08 m Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: lopas

Scale 1:5



Ceramics: 1. rim of lopas (6.88) Small Finds: no Comments: the vessel is fragmentary, but it was decided to make it a ceramic deposit to give importance to the presence of cooking pottery in the tumuli, which should testify for ritual meals.

1

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Appendix 3 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 15

Dimensions: 0.80 x 0.48 x 0.04 m Date: 4th c. B.C. Basis for date: vessels

Scale 1:5



Ceramics: 1. rim of lekane (6.93) 2. rim of black-glazed mug (2.107) 3. rim of black-glazed skyphos (2.266) 4. wall of black-glazed jug (2.785) 5. rim of black-glazed skyphos (2.267) Small Finds: no Comments: this group of ceramics was located close to Grave 2 and very likely the vessels are pertinent to the burial ritual.

1

2

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Catalogue of Ceramic Deposits - Appendix 3

Appendix 3 - CERAMIC DEPOSIT Nj.S. 37

Dimensions: 0.65 x 0.55 x 0.60 m Date: 325 B.C. Basis for date: bottom of black-glazed skyphos (2.164)

Scale 1:5

1

4

Ceramics: 1. rim of black-glazed mug (2.41) 2. bottom of black-glazed type C skyphos (2.184) 3. bottom of black-glazed type C skyphos (2.185) 4. rim of black-glazed oinochoe (2.1162) 5. bottom of black-glazed type C skyphos (2.164) Small Finds: no Comments: this group of ceramics very probably is not a ceramic deposit in strict terms. However, it was decided to define it as such to distinguish the finds, which are likely from a destroyed grave, and not to include them simply in the fills of the tumulus.

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7. DATINGS

There are various elements which have provided means for dating the period of use of the tumuli complex: the first and most used one for absolute chronology has taken in consideration the artifacts found in grave contexts, especially of undisturbed graves. Another, useful for relative chronology, has been stratigraphy; however, considering the way a tumulus is build up, chronologically later graves can be laid down not only on top of the mound but also at its edges, being thus at the same elevation than the earlier graves in the core of the tumulus. Relative chronology works well only when graves are physically one above the other. When considering stratigraphy, can be of help the observation of the soil’s characteristics; in facts, as mentioned in the previous chapter, graves could be covered by different type of soils in different periods.    In case of burials with no grave goods, or damaged, the type of grave has been of help, except for graves with no construction (or simple pits). In this circumstance, for example in Tumulus 10, the way the body had been laid down has been an important element to distinguish the graves at least between Prehistoric and Classical. Of course for these burials the time span is very broad. In the presence of grave goods, the dating time span has been much more restricted. Decorated pottery is the component which gives the opportunity for closer comparisons, since it is the class of ceramic which had more frequent evolutions. Black-glazed pottery also allows good time framings, while plain and cooking ware are less definite. Objects other than ceramic have been useful for dating especially in Prehistoric graves.    In graves which had more than a grave good, the object with the most recent date has been considered the basis for the date of the whole grave. Of course any date must be taken with reserve

for at least two reasons: it is not possible to establish if the object was purchased on the occasion of the funeral, or, if it belonged to the deceased, for how long it had been used before being put in the grave. In the case of imported objects, we do not know how long did it take between the time of production and the time of import.      The tumuli complex has been object of heavy damages, but not uniformly: the worst devastations have happened on the northwestern side, corresponding to the Archaic part of Tumulus 11, in the area corresponding to Appendixes 1 and 2, and on the eastern side, cutting away very likely one third of Tumulus 9. However, in the remaining part of Tumulus 9, having most of the graves still their funerary set of objects or other diagnostic elements for the dating, it has been possible to provide a good periodization. This has been expressed in a division in Archaic, Archaic/Early Classical, Classical, Late Classical/Early Hellenistic, and Early Hellenistic periods, illustrated in general plans (Figs. 7.1-7.5). The Archaic/Early Classical and Late Classical/Early Hellenistic periods are the result of not very strict dating due to objects with a quite broad time span of production.    In Tumulus 10 few Prehistoric graves had grave goods, and it was not possible to distinguish soundly Bronze Age from Iron Age, except for the central grave (Grave 60) and the animal deposit (‘Grave’ 74). The few burials which have a narrow date-range seem concentrated in the 11th/11th-10th centuries. In the Archaic period the tumulus was not used; new graves started to be laid down in the 5th century, with an increase in the 4th. There are no burials which are doubtless only Early Hellenistic (except perhaps Grave 77), thus it seems meaningful to provide a simple division between Prehistoric and Classical graves for Tumulus 10 (Fig. 7.6).

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Datings

Figure 7.1: Tumulus 9 – Graves dated to the Archaic period.

Figure 7.2: Tumulus 9 – Graves dated to the Late Archaic/Early Classical period. 325

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 7.3: Tumulus 9 and Appendix 1 – Graves dated to the Classical period.

Figure 7.4: Tumulus 9 – Graves dated to the Late Classical/Early Hellenistic period. 326

Datings

Figure 7.5: Tumulus 9 – Graves dated to the Early Hellenistic period.

Figure 7.6: Tumulus 10 and Appendix 2 – Graves dated according to Prehistoric and Classical periods. 327

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Figure 7.7: Tumulus 11 – Graves dated to the Archaic period.

Figure 7.8: Tumulus 11 and Appendix 3 – Graves dated to the Classical period. 328

Datings

Figure 7.9: Appendix 3 – Graves dated to the Early Hellenistic period.    For what concern Tumulus 11, the limited number of graves has been distinguished in Archaic and Classical periods (Figs. 7.7-7.8). No graves are undoubtedly only Early Hellenistic, except perhaps for three burials in Appendix 3, thus a plan has been produced just for those (Figs. 7.9). In the previous cases, appendixes have been presented together with the tumuli, to simplify the illustrations (Appendix 1 with Tumulus 9, Appendix 2 with Tumulus 10, and Appendix 3 with Tumulus 11).    Besides the traditional dating methods explained above, in few cases it has been considered important to explore the possibility of absolute dating using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) analysis on skeletal material.1 As mentioned in the Introduction, a big problem of interpretation had been presented by the graves that, after the AMS dating, resulted indeed of Post-Medieval/Modern date, as suspected. The central grave from Tumulus 10 was considered also important to process, since there were no grave goods associated with the skeleton. The recovery of the violin-shaped figurine stratigraphically above the central grave provided the first indication for a late phase of the Early Bronze Age date, which was confirmed by the AMS date of two samples from the individual

in the central grave (2528 ± 53 and 2679 ± 174 Cal B.C.). This date compares quite well with the radiocarbon date from Sovjan 7 (Middle Bronze Age) 2843–2416 Cal B.C., which is considered by the excavators to belong to the layers between the Early (Sovjan 8) and Middle Bronze Age.2 Other reference dates for our earliest date include the one from the Middle Chalcolithic from Maliq IIa (4660–4092 Cal B.C.)3 and the date from the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age layers at Konispol Cave (4450 ± 90 Cal B.C.).4    Two more graves from Tumulus 9 were processed (Grave 9 and 57), dated both to the Classical period. They were chosen because they were intact with well datable grave goods, in order to test the reliability of AMS dating. As it is possible to see from Table 7.1 of the Damiata-Southon report below, the AMS date for Grave 9 is slightly earlier than the date based on grave goods. Notes 1

We owe a debt of gratitude to the co-directors of the Lofkënd project, Professors Sarah Morris and John Papadopoulos, for allowing our samples to be processed along with the samples of some of the skeletons and of other organic material from the Lofkënd Tumulus. 2 Lera, Prendi, and Touchais 1996, pp. 1006-1007, note 18. 3 Guilaine and Prendi 1991, pp. 574-578. 4 Korkuti et al. 1996, p. 197

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The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

Results of AMS Dating and Stable-Isotope Analyses of Skeletal Remains: Tumuli 9 and 10, Apollonia (Albania) Brian N. Damiata, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, A210 Fowler Bldg., University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1510 [email protected] John Southon, KCCAMS Laboratory, B321 Croul Hall, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3100 [email protected] Introduction This chapter reports on Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stable-isotope analyses that were performed on samples of collagen extracted from human skeletal remains from Tumuli 9 and 10. Specifically, three bones and a tooth from four skeletons from Tumulus 9 and a bone and a tooth from one skeleton from Tumulus 10 were sampled and analyzed. The AMS results are the first radiocarbon dates for the site.    Stable-isotope analyses were performed to infer palaeodiet (see Katzenberg, 2000; and Ambrose, 1993 for overviews). It is generally assumed that the isotopic composition of collagen mainly reflects the intake of protein when dealing with high-protein diets. In particular, carbon isotopic values are used to differentiate the intake of C3 and C4 plants as well as to identify terrestrial and marine components when C4 plants are absent. Examples of C3 plants include wheat, barley, rice, root crops, legumes, vegetables, nuts, honey and most fruits whereas C4 plants include millets, maize, sorghum and sugar cane. Nitrogen isotopic values are used to distinguish the intake of plant and animal proteins by assessing the trophic level of an organism (i.e., its position within the food chain). Methods The bone samples were selected from thick portions of dense-bone elements (e.g., tibia and humerus) because they are less susceptible to contamination and are easier to clean. Raw samples consisted of approximately 1- to 2-cm segments of bone that were cut using a hack saw. All samples were then pretreated at the Keck Carbon Cycle AMS facility, University of California at Irvine. In general, the procedure to convert raw samples into graphite targets for AMS dating involved several steps that included removal of macroscopic con-

taminants, chemical cleaning, gelatinization, freezedrying, combustion and graphitization.    Collagen extraction was performed using the modified Longin method (Longin, 1971; Brown et al., 1988). Raw samples (~ 150 mg) were crushed and initially decalcified by application of 6 cc of 0.5 N (Normal) HCl for 24 to 36 hours (i.e., until the fragments looked translucent). The acid was removed and the samples were neutralized with dionized water. The samples were then gelatinized by using 5 cc of 0.01 N HCl for approximately 12 hours at 60 C, followed by two applications of ultrafiltration (>10 kD)/centrifugation for 30 minutes. To help lower salt concentration, the filtrate was diluted with dionized water followed by two more applications of ultrafiltration/centrifugation. The remaining filtrate was then frozen with liquid nitrogen and allowed to freeze dry under centrifuge for at least 12 hours. The dried samples (~ 2 mg) were then placed in quartz tubes with silver and cupric oxide, sealed under vacuum, and combusted at 900 C for 3 hours to generate CO2. Finally, the CO2 was converted into graphite by the hydrogenreduction method using iron powder as the catalyst.    The tooth samples were an intact left mandibular premolar (P3) and a right maxillary molar (M3). These samples were initially cut in half at their crown-root interface using a hand drill with a diamond studded cutter. Approximately 70 mg of dentine powder were removed using a diamond studded drill bit, and being careful not to include enamel or cementum. Collagen was then extracted from the powder using the above described procedure.    Aliquots of the dried bone and tooth samples were also analyzed for C and N stable isotopes using a Fisons NA-1500NC elemental analyzer equipped with a Delta-Plus CFIRMS stable-isotope mass spectrometer. The amount of collagen yield-

330

The Complex of Tumuli 9, 10, and 11 in the Necropolis of Apollonia

the Classical period, in that it produces a relatively Ambrose and Norr, 1992). The mostly widely used large spread in the calibrated date even when the criterion for identifying contamination and/or diaAMS measurement is of high precision. genetic alteration is the C:N ratio. Modern collagen has an atomic ratio of 3.21. Values within an Stable-Isotope Analyses empirically derived range of 2.9-3.6 are commonly The results of the stable-isotope analyses are sum- accepted for archaeological studies (DeNiro, 1985), marized in Table 7.2. The data are reported in the although Hedges (2000) restricts the range to 2.8conventional δ-notations that are referenced to 3.3. Values above 3.4 may indicate contamination the PDB standard for C (Craig, 1957) and the AIR with carbon-rich substances such as humic acid standard for N (Mariotti, 1983). The reported δ13C (Kennedy, 1988). The measured values reported and δ15N values were measured to a precision of here are between 3.20-3.34, upon conversion from