Lexicon of Tamil Literature (Handbuch Der Orientalistik.Erste Abteilung, Der Nahe Und Mit) 9004100725, 9789004100725

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LEXICON OF TAMIL LITERATURE

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HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES ZWEITE ABTEILUNG

INDIEN INDIA HERAUSGE GEB EN V ON

J. BRONKHORST NEUNTER BAND

LEXICON OF TAMIL LITERATURE

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LEXICON OF TAMIL LITERATURE BY

KAMIL V. ZVELEBIL

EJ. BRILL LEIDEN . NEW YORK· KOLN 1995

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The paper in this book meets the guid elines for permanenc e and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longe vity of the Council on Library Resources.

Library of Congress Cataloging- in -Publication Data Zvelebil, Kami! . Lexicon of Tamil literature / by Kamil Zvelebil. p. em. - (H andbuch der Ori entalistik. Zweite Abteilung, Indien, ISSN 0169-9377 ; 9Bd.) ISBN 9004100725 I. Tamillanguage-Lexicology, Historical. 2. Tamil literature- T o 150Q--History and criticism. 3. Author's, T amil-Biography- Dictionaries. 1. Series PL4759.z89 1994 94-3 1617 CIP

Die Deu tsch e Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahtne Handbuch de r Orientalistik / hrsg. von B. Spu ler unt er Mitarb. von C . van Dijk .. . - Leiden ; New York; Koln : Brill. Teilw. hrsg. von H. Altenmiiller. - Teilw. mit Parallelt.: Handbook of oriental studies

Abt. 2, Indien / hrsg. von J. Bronkhorst.

NE: Spuler, Bertold [Hrsg.]; Altenmiiller, Hartwig [Hrsg.]; Gonda ,Jan [Hrsg.]; Bronkhor st,Johann es [Hrsg.]; Handbook of oriental studies

Bd. 9. Zvelebil, Kamil Y.: Lexicon of Tamil literature. - 1994

Zvel ebil, Karnil V .: Lexicon of T amil literature / by Kamil V. Zvelebil. - Leiden ; New York ; Koln : Brill, 1994 (Handbook of oriental studies : Abt. 2, India ; Bd, 9) ISBN 90--04--10072-5 NE: HST

ISSN 0169-9 377 ISBN 9004 10072 5

© Copyright 1995 by E.J. Brill, Leiden, Ike Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication mqy be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in a'!Y firm or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission .from the publisher. Authorization tophotocopy items fir internal orpersonal use is granted by E.J. Brillprovided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to Ike Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers AM 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHER lAL'\fDS

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"Few nation s on earth can perhap s boa st of so many poets as the Tamil s" (Simon Casie Chitty, THE TAMIL PLUTARCH , 1859, Preface) "Everything that is said is said by someone" (H. Maturana and F. Varela, THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE: THE BIOLOGICAL ROOTS OF HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, Boston, 1987)

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CONTENTS

Foreword

IX

Introduction

XI

Avant-propos

XVII

Abbreviations .

XXV

Transliterated symbols of Tamil script Lexicon

XXVII 1

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FOREWORD

The longer I have been engaged in research and teaching activities in the field of Drav idian studies in general and Tamil studies in particular, the more firmly I have been convinced that gathering, class ifying, organizing and evaluating data still remains the most urgent desideratum in almost all branches of our subject. We have certainly not yet got over this basic stage in the rich realm of Tamil literature . Therefore, remembering Quintillian's dictum Difficultatem facit doctrinam (lnst it.orat. X.3), I leave speculations, constructions of models and proposing of theories to others who are more impatient than I, more talented, younger and less humble; I as for myself, I wish to offer to all those who indeed need it - and their number is apparently growing steadily - a fundamental, standard and relatively reliable work of reference, a lexicon of Tamil literature which would become a tool indispensable to every scholar and student in that particular field as well as in related subjects.' What has just been stated does not mean that there are no theoretical biases or no value judgments involved: the very problem of selection and inclusion, the principles of arrangement, questions of evaluation - all these require a certain well-defined approach (see Introduction) based on a certain theoretical view of what is Tamil literature and how it should be studied, understood and enjoyed. In a work of such pioneering character there are bound to be some errors and imprecisions, for which I do apologize. It was often extremely difficult to unearth factual information; frequently, very abstruse and unusual sources had to be consulted and their reliability weighted; the selection, too, was often rather difficult. It I Cf. a phrase often cited in the Pali canon as representing the stamp of dogmatism characteristic of speculative views: janami passdmi tatheva etam . . . etc. "I know, I see, ' tis verily so"; it is on a par with the dogmatic assertion idameva saccam moghamaiiiiam "This alone is true, all else is false". Cf. further Montaigne (Essais III:13) "L 'affirmation et l' opiniastrete sont signes expres de bestise". 2 Without wishing to sound outrageously immodest, I believe that at this time of the evolution of our studies (of Tamil literature) I am probably the one best suited to be capable of putting together a work of this kind: this being due not to any special talent or ability, but to the fact that I have been gathering, over forty years of study and research in the field, a rather considerable amount of data and detailed information. Thus, this is primarily a work of erudition and patience, not of new daring vistas and original speculations.

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FOREWORD

can only be hoped that the discretion of the compiler and editors was such that nothing of real value and importance has been left out. In the constant tension between the demands of completeness and selection (when it came to modern and contemporary literature I had naturally to be particularly selective), and the space available, I do believe that no major work or author of Tamil literature between its first creations some 2000 years ago and ca. 1980 have been omitted. I hope that the present work will serve not only as an indispensable mine of information but also as basis for a more accomplished and more advanced attempt of a similar nature.' This work is dedicated to my wife Nina . It was in fact she who came up with the idea in the first place, although neither I nor she anticipated the difficulties involved.

3 Obviously , the "raw" mass of data is substantially larger than the final selection and elim ination/inclu sion of entries. The decisions as to what to include and what to eliminate were based neither on any personal value judgment of aesthetic criteria of literary excellence. nor on any ideologically restrictive aspect. As for the first, I believe in strict, non-deterministic, largely unpredictable "freedom" of choice (at most a "choice-and-necessity"): I have learned this from my own experience and my reading, my favourite authors being (chronologically) the Buddha , Dogen (a Japanese Buddhi st philo sopher) , Montaigne, John Fowles, R.K. Narayan and L. Kunder a. Anyone is welcome to discover a psycholog ical or ideological or aesthetic pattern in this selection of prose writers (add, for poetry , Japanese haiku, and the Czech Nobel laureate Jaroslav Seifert). The princ iples of selection and elimination/ inclusion in this lexicon were based roughly on the consensus of indigenous Tamil opinion, combined with the consideration of what seemed vital, more than ephemerous , and structurally-organically viable in the development of Tamil literature . In addition, though , I tried to include works and authors thus far completely ignored or forgotten . This kind of selective proces s found expression also in the fact that translat ion of titles and very brief evaluation of authors and work s is provided where considered necessary while elsewhere only Tamil titles of works are mentioned and practically no evaluation given. Regrett ably, often fast and "brutal" decision had to be made . Also, it was quite obviously impossible for the compiler of this lexicon to confront directly and personally all the texts mentioned; the differences among the nature of the sources are therefore enormou s - from the original texts themselves known intimately from "direct confrontation" through such relatively reliable and detailed accounts of Tamil literature as Mu.Arunacalam ' s century-wise series to various akarati' s and other lists and lexicon s of works and authors. The outcome is that while some entrie s can be taken as more or less "definitive" statements (say such entries as Cilappatikaram , or Kuruntokai, or Paripatals, many other entries will serve rather as pointer s and indicators in the direction of further search and research.

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INTRODUCTION

1. This works was originally planned as another history of Tamil literature. However, considerations of age, health, time, space and money, in this order, made it imperative for me to forsake the hope of bringing out a "definitive", very detailed and very ambitious Tamil literary history. Nevertheless, as stated emphatically above, this lexicon, too, based on thousands of cards gathered over four decades, manifests certain theoretical bias and some "new" aspects of approach. This theoretical bias and the resulting aspects of approach reflect in the judgments concerning mainly selection and inclusion of entries. Since I view a national literature as a "living" dynamism in constant interaction among many changing factors, which is ever - expanding (and ever-shrinking), "adding" and "losing" items, an undivided wholeness in flowing movement (David Bohm), a lexicon of its authors and works can never be complete. Value judgments came into the "game" of selection. But, of course, it would go totally against my instincts and intuitions if such value judgments were based on any ideologically restrictive or reductionist theory. And yet, there have been certain preferences. 2. First of all, there has never been, in my view, any attested and documented total isolation of the Tamil and Sanskrit traditions. Thus, the selection of entries in this reference dictionary certainly does not reflect either a "pro-Sanskrit" or an "anti-Sanskrit", or a "Tamil-only" bias. Similarly, in my view, there is no watertight dividing line between "substandard" and "standard" cultures, but rather a dynamic and interacting continuum: "tribal" ~ "demitribal" ~ village ~ urban folk ~ urban literati (observe that the dynamism goes in both directions). This is vividly reflected in the verbal art of the Tamils. 3. However, the theory (and praxis) of literature (as in the performing arts) acknowledges, somewhat simplistically, two "streams" of development, namely margo (standardized, normative, "classical" , "high") and desi (non-standardized, regional, "folk", "low"). While we recognize that , for some purposes, such classification may be useful, we do not apply it in our value judgments of selection and inclusion. On the contrary, when compared with all other accounts of Tamil literature published so far the lexicon reflects a K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

xii

INTRODUCTION

greater stress on orality, oral transmission and tradition, and hence on "folk" genres and literary "folklore"; on performance; and the awareness of Tamil as mu-t-tamil, the totality of threefold Tamil expressed in the modes of "written" literature (poetry and prose) which is read (or scanned) or listened to (iya r-!.ami£), of the Tamil of music/song ticai-t-tamilj and of Tamil performed, enacted tkiutu , nataka-t-tamil). The fact that Tamil did remain, until relatively short time ago, a language-culture rooted deeply in orality (in spite of the early adoption of writing, which is quite another matter) has its decisive bearing on the conception of authorship, originality and "copyright". 4. Another feature of this lexicon which should be stressed is the inclusion of works and authors usually ignored either completely, or taken into account only very marginally : Muslim and Christian authors , as well as modern and post-Independence and contemporary literature. 5. It is probably neces sary to stress the fact that the Tamil poet (and, later, the writer in general) has always been in the center of economic, social, political and cultural events, in the very core of the historical movements and changes, whether in the era of primary orality, or in the era of semi-orality, or, at present, in the period of moribund orality, derived (secondary) orality (radio, television) and literacy. From the very beginning of early documented history, as the "bard", to the recent times of Karunanidhi's victory in 1989 elections, the verbal artist (creator and/or performer) played crucial, often almost decisive role in Tamilnadu's dramatic two thousand and odd years old history. The early bardic poet who composed and performed for the benefit , well-being and pleasure of the king, the ruler, the patron; the bhakti poet who epitomized the socio-religious and cultural movement of the day (we must not forget that, too, to compose a devotional poem, or a puriina, etc ., i.e. religious poetry, earns merit); the court-poet of the epics and other narrative poetry, the later medieval poet of the prabandhas at local courts and Zamins, right down to S. Bharati and the poets and writers of the Dravidian movement - rarely have verbal artists played such tremendous role in a nation's life and history as among the Tamils of South India and Sri Lanka. To some extent, this supremely relevant function of Tamil verbal artist will be reflected in the wealth and variegation of entries in this lexicon. In contrast, historical facts and dates of life of authors were and are regarded as of little importance. There is much more interest in

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INTRODUCTION

xiii

the "spiritual" or other type of lineage than in factual history of literary works and authors .' : 6. The entries are arranged in the order of the English alphabet, the reasons for this decision (after much deliberation) being as follows: a. the language of the lexicon is English. b. the lexicon includes not only names of Tamil authors/works, but inevitably personal and other proper names from other Indian languages (Sanskrit, Pali , Prakrit, Hindi etc., Dravidian languages other than Tamil); c. the lexicon includes general entries other than personal and proper names, often in English (such as, e.g. "Academies, Tamil", or "Autobiography") or in Indian languages other than Tamil (e.g. siara, yamaka); I To a "Western" mind which seeks to know exact dates, genuine biographical details, to establish authenticity of authorship, and deal critically with so-called originality etc., the typical disregard for these matters in Indian literatures is irritating, even annoying. However, this disregard is, to a great extent, typical for orality in general. Originality in the sense of the introduction of new (or apparently new) materials is the characteristic of literacy, and conscious striving after it is to a great extent an "invention" of European romanticism . Tamilnadu even in the second half of the 19th century was in a period of transition from chirographically to typographically based thought and expression with an overwhelmingly massive oral residue, a situation which was similar to that of European Middle Ages. As for dating, authorship etc., in most cases we don't know either the date, or the name of the authors of literary works, there is an almost total absence of anything approaching critical editions, many literary works are available in very different versions etc. All this should constantly be born in mind while consulting the lexicon. Take, for instance, even such apparently easily datable work as a lexicon (containing thousands of rather concrete lexical units): Uriccolnikantu (with 3200 entries) is dated by K.A. Nil.Sastri (A History of South India, 3rd ed., p. 392) to "early seventeenth century" while Mu.Arunacalam (Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, 14th c., 103-88) attempts to prove that its date is "slightly before A.D. 1400". Both authors are serious and critical scholars. Even modem - in fact, contemporary - authors are victims of imprecision: The (more or less reliable) Ulakattamil eluttalar yar evar (1980) gives the date of birth of Sujatha (Es.Rankarajag) as 3.5.1935; Dr. A. Franklin (in Journal of Tamil Stud ies I, Sept. 1972) gives (twice) the date 1938 as the year of his birth. Equally difficult problems are posed by the question of ascription. A brief Salva Siddhanta sastra, Unmai neri vilakkam of 24 lines used to be ascribed to the great Umapati Civam (this mistake appears, too, in my own Tamil Literature, 1975, p. 201) . However, Mu.Arunacalarn (Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, 14th cent., 200-204) has conclusively shown that its author was Cikali Tattuvanatar (c. 1350-1375). There are dozens of cases like this. When it comes to evaluative judgments, certain rather surprising pronouncements, too, have been made. Cf. e.g. the following: "Sivaha -sindamani is fine pastime for the luxuriously inclined and it gives terribly dangerous stimulation to the senses .. . If there is one book in Tamil literature that should be banned for the young, it is Sivaha-sindamani . .. the crime that Tiru-t-takka-devar has committed against society is the real source of its popularity" (C. and H. Jesudasan, A History of Tamil Literature, p. 148): this about one of the masterpieces of Tamil narrative poetry, which even the Jesuit father C.J.E. Beschi (17th-18th c.) admired, praised and imitated!

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xiv

INTRODUCTION

d. the lexicon is meant to be used not only by students/scholars in Tamil (and Tamil students/scholars) but also by Indologists at large, and by scholars in more general disciplines (such as comparative and general literature, cultural anthropology etc. ). 7. The lexicon comprises as its main entries: 1. Names of authors (in the accepted transcription of their Tamil forms) , e.g. Putumaippittan. 2. Names of literary works, if anonymous, or anthologies, e.g . Ettuttokai. 3. Names of institutions, e.g. Carikam. 4. General terms related to Tamil literature, e.g. centamil, akam, Anthologies, Autobiography. 5. Important pro sodical terms, e.g. acai, akaval. 6. Important rhetoric terms, e.g. yamaka, tinai. 7. Names of literary forms and genre s, e.g. prabandha , pirapantam , kovai, pallu. 8. Crossreferences of works ~ authors (in ca se of better known and more important works, e.g . Nannul ~ Pavananti), if necessary. In important and/or complicated cau se s, one work, although not anonymous, most often is discu ssed as SUCh, and it s author separately ; thus there will be both Manikkavacakar (author) and Tiru vticakam (work); in addition, in a few very important works, the main characters may be found as separate entries, e.g . Kannaki, 9. Crossreferences of English ~ Tamil form s of names of authors and works that have become known outside the Tamil - speaking territories , e.g. Bharati, S. ~ Cupramanya Parati, Ci. 10. Other types of crossreferences, e.g. Hameed ~ Amitu , Sangam ~ Carikam, Jfiana sambandha ~ Na!!acampantar. 8. In the alphabetic arrangement, the differences between short and long vowels, and between consonants with and without diacritics have been completely ignored; thus, in the order of entries, no distinction is made e.g. between a and ii, or among I, land i, or between rand [ . The principle of the ordering of entries follows strictly the order of letters of the English alphabet. 9. It is necessary to stress that the bibliography with individual entries is selective, not exhaustive. With many entries there is no bibliography given at all , either because there is nothing available, or because whatever is available is almost or completely inacces-

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INTRODUCTION

xv

sible, or because the information is based on personal communication or oral tradition. 10. The seeming confusion in forms of names and titles reflects, unfortunately, actual state of affairs . Even with modern authors, it is often the case that the name is written (printed) in several different forms, both in Tamil and in English versions.

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AVANT-PROPOS

Tamil is an ancient language with a vast and archaic vocabulary, with complex rules of syntax and morphophonemics, with a classical, uninterrupted literary tradition more than 2000 years old. Tamil speakers number today some 60 million (Lane 1984), forming a very important minority in Sri Lanka (3.5 million at least), Vietnam (l million), Malaysia (c. 300,000), South Africa (c. 300,000) and Singapore (200,000) as well as smaller minorities in Central and Southern America, British Guayana, and on the islands of Fiji, Mauritius, Reunion, Madagascar, Trinidad and Martinique. The main bulk of Tamil population lives in the state of Tamilnad (former Madras), Republic of India. There have always been legends current among the Tamils about their language: created by gods Siva or Murugan, it is of divine origin; the Tamils believe to have developed their language within the framework of three Tamil "Academies" thousands of years ago; to have been the originators of the Indus Valley Civilization; to have inhabited a continent called Lemuria, cover ing vast areas in the Indian Ocean. The se legends are all scientifically inconclusive, maybe even absurd; there is in existence ample counterevidence (K.K. Pillai 1979), and many riddle s remain unsolved. But hypotheses such as these have been exploited by scholars, poets, orators and politicians to awaken pride among the Tamils about their ancient language and culture. In the collective conscience of the Tamil people, Tamil is older than any other living language; it is superior to Hindi and Sanskrit, since Hindi has no history comparable to Tamil, and Sanskrit is a "dead" language unlike Tamil which is vigorously alive. These legends about their language shed light on the Tamils ' attitude toward their language and explain many recent developments, such as antiBrahmin and anti-Hindi sentiments, Tamil nationalism recently so very apparent in Sri Lanka and , last but not least, the Tamil Renaissance in which scholars like Swaminath' Aiyar and poets like Subramanya Bharati had played such a crucial role (Barnett 1976, S.V. Shanmugam 1980, F. Britto 1986). Within India, Tamilnadu has always been one of the leading states in literacy rate: it rank s currently third in the nation with 45.78% literacy (after Kerala and Maharashtra). It is estimated, however, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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that in 1900 the Indian literacy rate was just 5.73% (India News, January 30, 1978). This low literacy rate must have contributed to the isolation of the High Literary variety of Tamil, "preserving it from the vagaries of ordinary speech" (Britto 1986), and creating an aura of sanctity around this High Literary Standard. It also must have contributed to the isolation of the elite of the literati; on the other hand, it was of course connected with the vigorously alive orality , oral transmissions and oral traditions of the folk. Tamil has been described as Cen tamil "Pure/Correct Tamil", Kanni-t tamil "Virgin Tamil", To!J:. moli "The ancient tongue", Te!J:. mali "The Southern tongue" (in opposition to Vata moli "The Northern tongue", Le, Sanskrit) and Payn tamil or Paccai-t tamil "Green/ Fresh Tamil". Another important fact that one should constantly remember is that Tamil is a diglossic language. Diglossia - that is, a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language there is a highly codified superposed variety which is learned largely by formal education and is not used for ordinary conversation - has been first mentioned, apparently, by Krumbacher (1902) , but classically interpreted by Ferguson (1959) and applied to Tamil mostly by M. Shanmugam Pillai, K.V. Zvelebil, H. Shiffman and, especially, by Francis Britto (1986) . Britto has proposed as the principle behind Tamil diglossia the dichotomy Authentic versus Non-Authentic. The Authentic domain is where language is used spontaneously, in natural or real-life situations: the whole domain of language use excluding writing and public discourse. Authentic speech refers to all genuine, real-life conversations and the remnants of preliterate society (proverbs, sayings, lullabies, lamentations, songs, folk narratives), in short, when the speaker does not assume any "role". The Non-Authentic domain is where language is used before a passive audience, when one takes on a role or uses artificial means of communication such as stylus and palmleaf, pen and paper, type-writer and computer, or a microphone. The Non-Authentic domain encompasses every occasion of language use except real-life or genuine speech, such as writing, reading aloud, reciting, acting, and public speaking (Britto 1986). The Tamils have developed an ancient and vigorous grammatical tradition of their own, with particular stress on the notion of "correct": the "correct" Tamil variety is that one which follows the traditional, prescriptive linguistic norms of grammar. The standards of correctness for Tamil are to be found in the Centamil tradition, in ancient grammars like the Tolkappiyam and the Nannul.

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AVANT-PROPOS

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The only legitimate and complete view of language, according to the Tamil erudite tradition, consists in perceiving the language in its totality as mu-t-tamil "threefold Tamil" of spoken word (secondarily codified in written form, poetry/prose), so-called iyal; of language sung, language joined with music, so-called icai: and of language performed, enacted - kuttu , natakam (performance, play, drama) ; and in terms of the following five levels: ani

r

figures of speech , tropes

I

yiippu

rhythm , metre

porui

meaning

I I.

col

I

eluttu

rhetoric

I

I

prosody

.

I I sound/written symbol

I .

semantics

I I phonetics, phonemics, graphemics

form : word and sentence

morphosyntax and lexicon

This view of language which found its expression in the "fivefold" (aivakai) grammars tilakkanami of Tamil with their five main divisions - grammars dealing with "threefold Tamil" tmuvakai tamil, muttamil) as defined above - pervades the entire grammatical tradition and is valid till this day . Tamil has had a long tradition of high literary culture whose beginnings reach at least two thousand years back. This literary tradition has been rich and variegated, but above all uninterrupted for two millenia, and since it has produced some of the finest pieces of literary art in India, it is legitimate to indeed maintain that Tamil is one of the two classical languages of the subcontinent (the other being, of course, Sanskrit). And yet, paradoxically enough, it is this enormous and outstanding literary heritage that, until a few decades ago, smothered an uninhibited, creative development of modern literature in the Tamil language. On the one hand, pre-modern and early modern Tamil writing was characterized by a much diluted, imitative continuation of the medieval traditions of devotional (bhakti) poetry , local mythological narratives (sthalapuranast, minor, rather stale genres (prabandhas) and polemic or exegetic writings mostly of Saivite persuasion; on the other hand, the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century saw the rediscovery of the truly ancient, magnificent classical heritage of the so-called Sangam poetry, under the unquestionable spell of which Tamil intellectuals and creative writers live, to some extent , until today. There was, of course,

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a noticeable influence of Western literature, felt mainly in the field of early prose-fiction. But the first real break-through occurred only with such revolutionary-minded poets as Subrahmanya Bharati (18821921) and prose writers like V.V.S. Aiyar (1881-1925) and B.R. Rajam Aiyar (1872-1898). However, truly modern Tamil writing, both in verse and in prose begins in the thirties of our century. 1933 - and not 1947, the year of Independence - represents the true watershed in the development of Tamil literature. In that year, Manikkoti ("The Jewel-Banner"), a literary journal which has become a legend, was founded in Madras by K. Srinivasan and V. Ramaswami, and soon attracted the best creative writers and critics of that period: B.S. Ramiah, N. Pichamurthi, and the famous short-story writer Puthumaippittan (1906-1948), the greatest prosateur in Tamil writing of the first half of the 20th century, whose stories are being translated not only into English but also into Russian, German, Czech, Polish, Japanese, not to speak of a number of Indian languages. In the development of modern Tamil writing, 1947 did not make much difference. There were , of course, stories and novels (e.g. Kalki 's well-known Noise of the Waves, 1953) which deal with India's struggle for freedom. But on the whole, the great dividing line in creative Tamil writing - as far as the prose is concerned runs along the middle thirties, and the other two periods of rather remarkable changes are the middle sixties, and the present, contemporary era of the eighties and nineties. In 1965, the Congress Party lost the elections in the state of Madras to the fiercely nationalistic, semiseparatist party called The Dravidian Progressive Federation (D.M.K.). This was the political culmination of a process in the development of Tamil linguistic, social, cultural and political self-awareness and aggressive self-assertion and self-identification. In creative writing, this process had its protagonists in the purists and didacticists, popularizing "pure" Tamil (read "Dravidian"), "Tamil only" values - Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950), M. Varadarajan (1912-1974), and the well-known politician and chief minister of Madras-Tamilnadu, C.N. Annadurai (1909-1969). However, much more important was the fact that the mid sixties represented a tremendous creative ferment, characterized by the ripening of a generation of older or middle-aged prose-writers, and the emergence of "new poetry" (putu kavitaii movement in Tamil. The most productive genres were , at that time, short story and short lyrical poem , with some narrative poems in addition. After Puthumaippittan, who died prematurely of tuberculosis in 1948, came a few prosaists who matured into masters of the short form: Mauni

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(S. Mani, b. 1907), N. Pichamurthi (1900-1977), L.S. Ramamirtham (b. 1916), T. Janakiraman (1921-1988), Akilan (1922-1988), K. Alagiriswami (1923-1970). Among these short-story writers, one should particularly stress the names of Mauni, Ramamirtham and Janakiraman. Mauni wrote only about a dozen of stories, but each of them is a masterpiece, and replete with a fulness that is truly admirable; they stretch the Tamil language almo st to the boundary of the impossible. Ramamirtham is supremely sensitive in his use of words , metaphors and symbols, and is definitely one of the best stylists of modern Tamil. In contrast, Janakiraman shows a deep psychological insight, and his prose-style is rich in its concreteness and lively in its persuasive realism and dialogues, reflecting the spoken word. At the same time, a new generation of prose writers made their debut in the fifties and sixties; let us quote only three names which have since then become increasingly popular in the world of Tamil fiction: D. Jeyakanthan (b. 1934), the enfant terrible of modern Tamil prose; Sundara Ramaswami (b. 1931), an intelligent and very complex writer ; and N. Parthasarathy (b. 1932), a widely-read author of stories and novel s. In the works of Janakiraman, Ramamirtham and Jeyakanthan, the Tamil short story has reached its maturity and, after producing a few top pieces which should become widely known in world literature, it shows, at present, certain symptoms of fatigue and decline. At approximately the same time when the Tamil short story reached its creative peak , Tamil poetry went through decisive changes. The roots of these changes may be found in S. Bharati's prose-poems, in K.P. Rajagopalan ' s (1902-1944) poetic experiments, and in the highly original poetry of N. Pichamurthi. However, most poets the poeta laureatus Namakkal V. Ramalingam Pillai (1888-1972), Kavimani Desigavinayagam Pillai (1876-1954), K. SubburattinamBharatidasan (1891-1964), even the immensely popular Kannadasan (1926-1981) - wrote either on classical themes and motifs in rather traditional diction and established prosody, or on modern, frequently very contemporary subjects with politically and socially relevant theme s (Bharatidasan on the one hand , on the other the Marxists), but in the same classicist diction, style , prosody and poetics. 1959 may be considered a critical moment in the development of modern poetry. In this year , C.S. Chellappa (b. 1912) founded his review Eluttu (Writing) which opened its page s to everything new and experimental. Putukkuralkal (New Voice s), a path-breaking, all-important anthology of poems wa s published by Chellappa in Madra s in 1962; it included dozens of poem s of variou s "new poets". By about 1965, the avantgarde poetry, dissociated from stock

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phrases, traditional conventions, classical metres and repetitive, "oldfashioned" themes, was firmly established in Tamil writing (though it was repeatedly and viciously attacked), and the movement was represented by a few truly gifted, well-read and educated, sensitive poets like S. Mani, T.S. Venugopalan (b. 1929), S. Vaitheeswaran (b. 1935) and Shanmugam Subbiah (b. 1924). Besides Chellappa, it was mainly K.N. Subramanyam (b. 1912) who was the theoretician of the new movement, and perhaps the best and most unconventional critic in the field of Tamil poetry and prose, just as Vallikkannan was the best historian of the new trends. The contemporary movement in the development of Tamil literature between 1975-1990 is characterized by a crisis which seems to alter the emphasis and change the trends, and gives it a sense of new directions. The tendency of our times is a movement from the short story and poetry towards great or even experimental novel, and we are witnessing the birth of real drama, dramatic play which had previously been rather unimpressive in the so-called great or serious literature. There were, of course, some important - and hundreds of less important - novels in the past. In fact, the thesis, more or less generally accepted, that after the first blossoming of early novels in the last decade of the 19th c. there followed, in the first three of four decades of the 20th c. a long era of decline and almost complete inactivity in the field of novel - this thesis has been proved wrong and unjust due to more recent research. It is enough to quote a dozen names which represent development - true, not always very positive, original, creative and "serious", but still a movement forward - in the field of novel between, say, 1903 (Ponnusami Pillai) and the first novels of Kalki: Visalakshmi Ammal, l.R . Rangaraju, N.S. Gopalakrishna Pillai, Maraimalai Adigal, Arani Kuppuswami Mudaliar, Varakavi A. Subramania Bharati, S.M. Raju Chettiar, P. Abraham, T.S.T. Sami, Va. Ramasami, Guhapriyai, Muvalur Ramamirtattammal, Mathavaraya Mutaliar, but, in particular, K.S. Venkataramani and Narana Duraikkannan. Later, between the forties and the sixties, there are the historical romances of Kalki (1899-1954), the didactic novels of Varadarajan, at least one very important realistic novel (Nakammal, 1941) by R. Shanmugasundaram (d. 1976), the early novels of Akilan (19221988); but it is roughly around and after 1970, and in our days, that the middle generation of writers has produced truly outstanding works, and that a new, vigorous generation of novelists made

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its appearance. Akilan, the great story-teller about love and sex, has developed into a most skilled prosateur with deep humanitarian tendencies; his Citt irappdvai (Portrait of a Woman, 1976) has a neat roundness in spite of its many dimensions and complicated plot. T. Janakiraman's novels are ripe, rich, colourful, realistic portrayals of real life in Tamilnadu of the Tanjavur area (e.g. Cemparutti, 1968, which tackles splend idly the social problems confronting a joint family ; Marappacu "Wooden Cow", 1975, is a masterful description of a woman's search for identity and freedom, though rather difficult in diction and style; not to speak of his Ammii vantal, translated as The Sins of Appu' sMother, 1972, which has become a classic) . In 1968, Jeyakanthan published a novel written entirely in the slum dialect and yet retaining high art form (A Small Man Who Went to the Cinema); all characters are drawn from the slums, and the theme and diction complement each other. The author, who is noted for robust, direct style , depicted in a shocking way the craze of innocent slum-dwellers for the movies , their god-like reverence for the artistes, and the havoc wrought by the unscrupulous on these poor people. But since then Jeyakanthan's style has mellowed, and his themes have changed from the description of the life of the poorest proletarians to sensitive treatment of psychological problems of individuals (cf. Some People at Some Time, 1970, one of the best novels ever written in Tamil) or to some little explored, rather unexpected topics (like in Jaya Jaya Shankara, 1976, which has created a minor sensation in the whole of India since it is based on the life-story of the world-famous Shankaracharya of Kanchipuram). Ramamirtham's Apita (1970) reads like a fragile prose-poem. In this boom period of the Tamil novel, perhaps the the most encouraging trend is the appearance of daring, experimental novels from the pen of a host of relatively young writers: Nakulan 's The Path of Reminiscenses (1972) is a unique reading experience, just like his sarcastic Dogs (1974). Nila Padmanabhan (b. 1938) wrote at least three novels which have left deep and lasting impre ssion on Tamil prose : The Generations (1968), The City Where God Sleeps (1970), a novel of Trivandrum , and Uravukai (Relationships, 1975). Indira Parthasarathy (b. 1931), who lives in Delhi, has a dramatically progressive approach to social problems in his novels and plays. Another significant contemporary novelist is Ashokamitran (b. 1931), whose novels, although perhaps badly constructed and somewhat superficial, yet throw sharp and cynical light on Tamil society in their naturalistic description of its inad-

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equacies and evils. With his I.J. - A Few Notes (1981), Sundara Ramaswami has tried new techniques of writing and opened completely new vistas in the field of Tamil fiction. Another important contemporary novel , characteristic for its lively dialogues, is Bhumani's (b. 1947) Piraku (Afterwards, 1979). Dramatic writing, which used to be mostly the domain of purely "literary" drama destined for reading and not for theatrical performance (e.g. P. Sundaram Pillai's, 1855-1897, Ma!1o!1mal1iyam, based on Shakespeare as model) , or of plays of entertainment performed on the stage of the street, has finally reached definite artistic level, and a few contemporary plays may be regarded as true dramas since they differ in quality and purpose from everything so far produced, including some attractive historical romances like Rajaraja Cholan (produced and enacted by the famous T.K.S. Brothers, written by Aru. Ramanathan). A kind of revolution was carried out in Tamil drama by Indira Parthasarathy whose excellent plays were staged typically first in Delhi and not in Madras where they were considered cynical, off-beat, artful and too shocking. Another contemporary play which is lively , reali stic and full of delicious humour staged with enormous success in Madras, is Koma1 Swaminathan's Tannir (Water).

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ABBREVIAnONS ascr. = ascribed to; (by) ascription

I., II. = line, lines liter. = literary Iw. = loanword

b. = born BEFEO = Bulletin , Ecole Francoise d'Extreme Orient BSO(A)S = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

M.E.R .

c. = circa cat . = catalogue Col . = Collat ikaram of Tolkappiyam comm. = commentary; commentator Christ. Coli. Mag. = Christian College Magazine, Madras d. = died dist. = district Dr. = Dravidian dram. = dramatic

pers. = personal Pkt. = Prakrit pl. = plural Porul, = Porulatikaram of Tolkappiyam pr. = proper Proc . = Proceedings publ. = published, publisher(s)

ed. = edited; edit ion(s) ; editor E.I . = Epigraphia Indica Eng. = English Ep. Ind . = Epigraphia Indica epigr. = epigraph(ic) esp. = especially gen. = general(ly ) gram . = grammatical I.A. = Ind ian Antiquary import . = important Ind. = Indian Ind . Ant. = Indian Ant iquary Inst. = Institute Intern . = International inscr . = inscription(al) JA = Journal Asiatique JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Societ y JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society

= Madras

Epigraphical (Annual) Reports MhBh = Mahabharata ms., mss. = manu script , manuscripts

Ram. R.C. reed. repr.

= Ramdyana = Roman Catholic = re-edited, re-edition = repr int(ed)

s., ss. = sutra, sutras S.I.I . = South Indian Inscriptions sing. = singular Skt. = Sanskrit st. = stanza(s) Tam . = Tamil T.A.S. = Travancore Archaeologi cal Surv ey Series Tolk . = Tolkappiyam trans . = translated, translation(s) v. = verse

< = derived from ~

= see as entry in this lexicon

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TRANSLITERATED SYMBOLS OF TAMIL SCRIPT

a

t n

a i

p

u

y r

m

i

ii

1

e

e

v

1

ai

I

0

r

0

au

!! j

h

s

k

n

~

c

s h

ii T

r

Q

Please distinguish carefull y especially between these symbols: r I n

r I fi

n

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A Academies, Tamil, ~ Cankam. Academies, Tamil, ancient. Cf. Aravamuthan, T.G., "The Oldest Account of the Tamil Academies", JORM, 1930, 183-201, 289317; K.V. Zvelebil, "The Earliest Account of Tamil Academies", Indo-Iranian Journal XV, 2, 1973, 109-3; id., Tamil Literature, Leiden/K6In, EJ. Brill, 1975, 25. See ~ cahkam. acai «? acai v. to move, stir; walk) basic metrical unit; fundamental quantitative unit of any metre in Tam. It is of two kinds, simple (~ ner-acai, lit. "straight/long a.") and compound (~ niraiy-yacai, lit. "clustered/packed a."); in both cases it is only one metrical unit (or acai). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction, Madras , New Era Publications, 1989, p. 9. Acaittampi, E.Vi.Pi. (20), author: novel Malai (The Rain) on the topic of intercaste marriage exemplified on the story of poor Tevan and rich Mallika . Acalampikai Ammaiyar (also A . Amma!) (late 19 - early 20). Widowed at young age, became engaged in education, public life and literature; known as Pandita Achalambika Ammaiyar. Was a close friend of ~ Tiru.Vi .Kaliyanacuntara Mutaliyar. Wrote a number of important essays and articles for newspapers and journals. Author: Kantipuran am (1924, on M.K. Gandhi), Atticu{ivelJPii, Tilakarpuranam (on B.G. Tilak), a poetic biography of ~ Iramalinka Cuvami etc. Tiruvitaiyur- t talapuranam (Kutalur 1899) was composed in cooperation with ~ Kulantaivelu-p Pulavar Pill ai (she wrote the first part, he composed second kaniami. Acan Ali-p Pulavar ~ Aliyar Pulavar, Ka. Acan. AIi-p Pulavar (19) alias Kantappulavar, author of Cahkitaccintamani (1897), Islamic devotional poetry. Acana Leppai-p Pulavar (1870-1918) of Jaffna, son of Sultan Mukayitin , well-versed in Tamil, Arabic and English, first Muslim in Ceylonese government service. Author of many Tam. books with Islamic subjects, e .g. Navarattina-t ti ruppukal and Kutupunayaka anuciicanam. Tirunakai nirottaka yamakavantati, Patayikku-p patirru-t tirukkantati. Acan Pe carittiram ~ Mukammatu Kacim , Cittilevvai Maraikkdr. Acan Pey katai ~ Mukammatu Kacim , Cittilevvai Maraikkdr. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

2

AcARAKKOVAI-ACATIKKOV AI

Acarakkovai, "The Garland of Right Conduct", later didactic work, part of the "18 Minor Poems" ( -7 Patinenkilkkanakkui of 100 st. and an invocation to Siva, with considerable religious bia s, of about 750 A.D ., ascribed to Mull iyar of Vankayattur, son of Peru vay. It lay s down a semispiritual course which disciplines the individual and teaches him right conduct and good manners. Its concern is good behaviour at home and in society, as well as hygiene and sanitation, proper ritual, external observan ces and customs. Many of its ideas are reminiscent of the pre scriptions of the Agamas. It draw s heavily on Skt. sm rti, on Apastamba gmyasiara, Apastamba dharmasutra, Manusmrti, Visnupurana etc. The -7 venpd st. of rich formal variety are often of three , occasionally of four lines. Cf. S. Vaiyapuri Pill ai, History of Tamil Langua ge and Literature, 1956, 93-94, who dates it to A.D. 825; K,V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Le iden/KOln , EJ. Brill , 1975, 122, 166 ftn . 2; M.S . Purnalingam Pillai , Tamil Literature , Munnirpallam, 1929, 80 ; tran sl. Gnanou-d ia gou , Perouva yin Moulliar, A ssara kova i. Tr aduit du Tamoul , Karikal , 1950, ii + 23 pp. acarya l (Skt), teacher , preceptor, master , in particular spiritual preceptor and guide; Tam. aciriyan, aciriyar -7 iiciirya z• acarya z (Skt) , in specific contexts, spiritual preceptor of Tamil Vaisnavi sm; the semilegendary biographies of Vai snava dcdryas, with authentic chronicles of historical events, form part of accounts in -7 manipra val a style texts called -7 Ku rup aramparai. See -7 dcdryas , Vai snava. Acarya, Pi. Sri (PLSri, b. 1892), author: short stories Puta kannatiyil vetapporul (The Meaning of the Vedas in the Mirror of Spooks, 1964), Nii!!:. arinta tamil manikal (Tamil Jewel s, Kno wn to Me , 1971 ), sketches of dozen s of Tam. poet s, writers, scholars and other person aliti es. acaryas, Vaisnava. Vaisnava preceptors, tea chers, commentators and philosophers who ba sed their teachings and works on the compositions of the -7 alyars. First in their line was SrinathaNatamuni (end of 9th-begin. of 10th c.), the greatest undoubtedl y Sri Ram anuj a. Cf. Gonda, J., Aspects of Ea rly Y isnuism, Delh i/Patna/Varanasi, 1969; id., Visnuism and Sivaism , Vni v. of London, 1970; Ramanujam, B.V ., History ofVaishnav ism in South In dia up to Ram anuja , Ann amalai Vniv ., 1973; Venkatach ari, K.K.A. , Th e Manipra vala Literature of the Srivais nava Ac iiry as, Ana nthacharya Research Institute, Bombay , 1978. Acatikkovai (da te?) lost -7 aka m (?) poem ascribed to one of the medieval -7 Auvaiyars (9 st. survived).

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ACCAI,.PURATTALAVARALARU-AIMPATAIVIRUTTAM

3

A.cca!purattalavaralaru, Salva prose-puriifJa on Acca lpuram. Contains data on ~ Tirufiagacampantar. Accutananta Carni , (19). Author: Atvaitarasamaiicari (1896) in 45 st. on advaita philosophy, Atva ita castira manmiya cahkirakam (1886), and esp. mystical Tiyananuputi (1868) in 896 st. Accutananta Cami, (1850-1902) alias Appay Nayutu of P6n1r (North Arcot). Yogic and Vai snava religious poet. Author: Tottira icaippiitalkal , Pirakaliita carittiram ("Life of Prahlada"), Turuvacarittiram , Canmdrkka tarppanam , Nicanantar patikam etc. aciriya-c cir, metrical foot particularly proper to ~ aciriyam (~ akaval) metre; consists of two ~ acai, and is of four kinds; nerner, nirainer, nirainirai and nernirai. See also ~ iyarcir. acirlyam (alias aciriya-p-pai, one of the 4 chief kinds of metre in class. Tam. prosody. Etymology of the designation a. uncertain. cf. Skt. dcd rya- (?). The most ancient and least complicated of metres. The name of its ~ ocai ("rhythm", sound-quality), ~ akaval, became also the name of the metre. Cf. ~ Tolkappiyam 1338. See K.V. Zve1ebil, Classical Tamil Prosody : An Introduction , Madras, 1989, 47 and ftn. 109. A.ciriyan Perunkannan (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 239. aciriyattalai (Tam. prosody), type of connection (~ ta{ai) of feet peculiar to ~ aciriyappti metre . Used with feet of 2 ~ acai (~ iyarcir). Cf. K.V. Zve1ebil, Classical Tamil Pro sody: An Introduction , Madras, 1989, 23-4. acirlya viruttam, Tam. metre , ~ viruttam of six or more feet in a line. Cf. K.V. Zve1ebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction, Madras, New Era , 1989, 81 and passim. Acokamittirajj ~ Tiyakarajan , Ja. acukavi « Skt. asu + kavi) , poet who can compose extempore verses on any subject under any conditions. A.cukkavi Racacinkag (alias Cerai Kaviraca Pillai, 16), author of devotional poems mostly on god Murukag: Kaiatti Natar ula, Annamalaiyar vannam, Ceyur Murukan ula , Yiupokki Natar ula (alias Irattinakiri ulii) , Tirukkalatti Natar kattalai-k kalitturai. (publ, Madras, 1904). Cf. also Tamil navalar caritai (ed. 1949, repr. 1972) No. 241--42. Agastya ~ Akattiyan. Aguillar, Gaspar de (b. 1588 Lamego, Portugal - d.?), Jesuit, dismissed from S.J. 1648. Author: Arte Tamul sive institutio linguae Malabariae. ~ Costa refers to this grammar in his Arte Tamulica. aimpataiviruttam, poem praising the five weapons tai-m-patai. cf. Skt. paiicayudha-y of Visnu in ~ viruttam st. Pannirupattiyal Ina v. 95. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

4

AIMPERUNKAPPIY AM-AINKUBUNURU

Aimperunkapplyam, lit. "The Five Great Epics". There is a (late?) Sanskritic tradition enumerating paiica kavya "the five epics" of Skt. literature tRaghuvamsa , Kumarasambhava , Sisupalavadha , Kiratarjuniya, Naisadha; sometimes , Rdmayana is quoted in place of Naisadhai. In imitation, medieval Tamil savants came up with the notion of aimperu 1i -kappiyam . This appears first in ~ Mayilainatar's comm . on Nannul (13) when he speaks tsut, 387 comm .) of the five great epics, the eight large anthologies (e!l peruntokai), the ten songs (pattuppauuy and the eighteen minor works (pati!leJJkflkka!lakku) ; but he does not enumerate which were the "five great epics". It is only at the beginning of 19th cent., in Tiruttanikaiyulii (v. 526-7) by ~ Kantapp'Aiyar (late 18 - early 19) that they are enumerated as ~ Cintamani, ~ Cilappatikdram; ~ Manimekalai, ~ Valaiyap ati and ~ Kuntakeci. The notion of the "five great epics" in Tam. lit. is also found in ~ Tamilyitutiuu (17) which mentions them without enumerating them. Among the five enumerated three have been preserved tCilappatikaram , Manimekalai , Cintamanii. two lost (Val aiyapati, Kuntalakecii . The ideological relationships of the five are interesting : Manimekalai is undoubtedly a Buddhist propagandist work; not so Cilappatikaram (composed probably by a Jaina); Cintamani is a pronouncedly Jaina work, Kuntalakeci was a polemical Buddhist work (its Jaina counterpart being ~ Nilakecii , Valaiyapaii, composed probably by a Jaina, was not a truly propagandist work. Cf. T .P . Meenakshisundaran, A History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, 1965, 99; K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, Leiden/Koln, 1975 ,111. Alficijukkappiyam (five short narrative poems): ~ Yacotarakaviyam, ~ Culamani, ~ Utayanan katai, ~ Nakakumara kaviyam, ~ Nilakeci. The term "minor epics" was coined by ~ Tamotaram Pillai in his ed. of ~ Culamani in 1889. Hardly any of these poems can be designated as "epic" in the accepted designation. Airikuruniiru (The Short Five Hundred), class. Tam. anthology of 500 st. in ~ akaval metre ranging from 3 to 6 lines, divided into 5 parts of 100 st. each corresponding to 5 basic love situations (~ tinai) in the order ~ marutam riverine, ~ neytallitoral, ~ kuriiici montane, ~ palai arid and ~ mullai pastoral. St. 129 and 130 are lost. ~ Orampoki, ~ Ammuvan, ~ Kapilan, ~ Otalantai and ~ Peyan are said to be respective authors of the 5 parts . Invocatory st. by ~ Peruntevapar. Old brief anony mous comm. supplemented by detailed comm . by ~ Caminat' Aiyar, U.Ve . There are 17 allusions to historical events in the

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AINT'ILAKKANAM-AINTINAI

5

anthology, which is considered by some scholars to be the earliest collection of all, by others a rather late one because of its sophisticated arrangement. Publ. first in print by Caminat 'Aiyar, U.Ve. in 1903. Engl. transl., P. Jotimuttu (Poems on the Theme of Love in Tamil Literature, Ain kurunuru , The Short Five Hun dred, The Christian Literature Society, Madras, 1984). Cf. also, for dating, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1956, pp. 25 and 51-2; J.R. Marr, The Eight Anthologies, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985, 344 - 63; K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1973, 50 - 1; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 1975, 90; A.K. Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War, Columbia University Press, New York, 1985, passim. Best ed. by Auvai S. Turaicami Pillai, 3 vols., Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ., 1938. aint'Ilakkanam, lit. "five[fold] grammar" - grammar in its totality as consisting of five parts: -7 eluttu (phonology and orthography), -7 col (morphology, syntax and etymology), -7 porul (semantics, subject matter), -7 ydpp u (prosody and poetics), -7 ani (rhetoric). The two Tam. "five-fold" grammars par excellence are -7 Puttamittiran 's -7 Viracoliyam (11) and -7 Vaittiyanata Tecikar's -7 Ilakkana vilakkam (17). The term corresponds and is prob. derived from Skt. paiica adhikara (Tam. paiica atikiiram). aintinai (lit. "five regions"/"five situations"), five conventionalized physiographic divisions of land named after trees/plants most commonly found there, five landscapes, as set up in earliest Tam. liter. culture: (1) kuriiici hills, (2) mullai forests, (3) marutam cultivated fields, (4) neytal seashore, (5) palai wasteland. Also five types of conventional behaviour of -7 akam (inner, private, intimate life, love-life) associated with these regions, five "interior landscapes" (A.K. Ramanujan): (1) spontaneous and voluntary love-union of man and woman, (2) wife's loyalty and patient waiting, (3) lover's/husband's temporary desertion and wife's bearing the separation, (4) anxious waiting in separation, (5) elopement of lovers; long separation. Cf. -7 Iraiyanar Akapporul 1:1; 56:3; -7 Tolkappiyam Porul, 2:1, 54:1, 92:2; Ramanujan, A.K., The Interior Landscape, Indiana Univ. Press, 1967; Zvelebil, K., The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1973, Chapter 6; id., Literary Conventions in Akam Poetry, Inst. of Asian Studies, Madras, 1986; Marr, J.R ., The Eight Anthologies - A Study in Early Tamil Literature, Inst. of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985; T. Takahashi, Poetry and Poetics - Literary Conventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Utrecht, 1989.

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AINTINAI-C CEYYUI,..-AIVAR RAcAKKAL, KATAI

Aintinai-c ceyyul (lit. Poems of the Five Situations, alias aintinaippai, medieval term for old Tam. classical poetry of the ~ akam type. Accord. to some medieval theoreticians, this poetry is classifiable as ~ prabandha under the term aintinai-c ceyyul (e.g. Pirapantatipam 22) : "the poem which describes in detail the five psychological states of union , waiting, pining, separation and quarrel in the five situations (~ aintinaiy of mountains, woods, seashores, desert and farm-land." Accord. to Pirapantatipikai, the metres ~ venpa, --7 vaiici, --7 kali, --7 vannam and --7 akaval are suited to it. Aintinaiyaimpatu Fifty [st. about] the five settings, collection of poems in ~ nericaivenpa (and a few ~ innicai st.) each group of ten st. devoted to one of the five phases (~ aintinaii of love . Author: Maran Poraiyanar, Hindu, 5th-6th c. A.D. Aintinaiyelupatu, Seventy [st.] on five settings, collection of poems in ~ innicai and ~ nericai venpa, each group of 14. st. devoted to one of the ~ aintinai: only 64 st. have survived. Invocation to Ganesa. Author: Muvatiyar (Jaina"), prob. 7th c. A.D. Aintiram, gram. work in Skt. said to have been composed by Indra (hence Skt. Aindra), not extant. ~ Tolkappiyar is reputed to have been well versed in this work. Cf. ~ Tolkappiyam Cirappuppayiram 13. See also ~ Akattiyan, ~ Tolkappiyam . Aivar racakka] katai (The Story of the Five Rajas) . There is a cluster of early Tam. histor. ballads centered around the Five

Pandyas (ruling clan in small local kingdoms of Southern Tamilnadu). Many ver sions tell their story, in particular the five ballads Aivar racakkal katai, ~ Paiicapontiyar katai, ~ Kannatiyan p ataippor , ~ Veuumperumai katai and Ulakamulututaiydl katai (The Story of the Lady Who Owned Whole World). The Story of the Five Rajas begins with account of the birth of Kulacekara Pantiyan and his four brothers to the ruling king at Madurai. Kulacekaran leads his army on a mission of conquest and annexes large territories to Pandya kingdom. At Nagercoil he is fascinated by the beauty and abilities of Paraci, a pole-danceuse, and marries her. He builds a fortress at Vall iyur and stations there a strong force . An artist paints his portrait and carries its copy to Vijayanagar. The princess falls in love with the portrait, desires to marry the original, her father sends an emissary to Kulacekarag to negotiate the match, but the Pandya, proud of his legendary ancient lineage and thinking low of the recent origin of Vijayanagar dynasty , rejects the proposal. The insulted Emperor sends an army, and after valiant

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AIYACCAMI MDTALlYAR-AIYA.!"f ARITA.!"fAR

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battle, Kulacekaran is captured and his brothers killed. Carried in a palanquin to the enemy's capital, he kills himself. The bearers discover his dead body and report to the Emperor. The princess decides to marry the corpse. She follows the palanquin with the body, riding and dressed in the red clothes of a bride. She is burned on the funeral pyre , and attains divine status of a sati. The magnificent ballad of 5371 lines which is sung as ---7 villuppattu has been ed. and publ. critically with introd. and notes by Na, Vanamamalai, Madurai Univ., 1974, together with ---7 Vinati VfIJa!! katai, another ballad of the "Valliyur circle". Aiyaccami Mutaliyar. (19) of Bangalore, author of traditional devotional and panegyric poetry (Kunahkuti Mastanmitu tottirappa. Tirumalai Alarmelmahkai Nayaki malai, Tirukkacci Varatar venpd, Tiruvarahkattu-p patikam, Cirahka Ndyaki malai, Mantar niti etc.). Aiyaccami Mutaliyar, (19) , author (with Lila Vinotiyammal): Para Vacutevar tiruvantati, devotional poem of 102 ---7 venpa st. (1868). aiyam ceytal, situation in akam: the woman doubting her lover's constancy , cf. ---7 Tolkappiyam Porul, 270.7. Aiyamperuma] Civanta Kaviracar (16), author: Pururavacaritai, fragmentary poem in 25 ---7 patalams, 920 st., Tam. version of the Vedic and epic story of Pururavas and the nymph, composed on request of Accutan; first publ. reading in the court of Varatunka Rama Pantiyan (coronation 1588). Aiyamperuma] Plllai (20) of Madurai, son of Virapattira Pupati, author: Pantimantala catakam on the vellala community of Pandya country. Aiyan Aritanar (Aiyanar Itanar), author: ---7 Purapporul venpa malai. His name may be derivation of Harita (Arita) gotra; Aiyanaritanar is also name of god Sasta at Kuraficeri (nr.Tiruvitaikkali). Accord. to Preface of his work, its author was descendant of the Vanavar (vanavar marumany; ---7 Cilappatikaram 30: 1 calls the Cheras Vanavar; hence prob . of royal Cera I family . Accord. to Preface, he had studied ---7 Pannirupatalam written by 12 disciples of ---7 Akattiyan including ---7 Tolkappiyan, Since invocation is to Ganesa and Siva, was Saivite. Cult of Ganesa was introduced to Tamilnadu prob. in + 7th c. (by Ciruttontar as he returned from Vatapi where it flourished in Chalukya empire?). If this is earliest reference to Ganesa worship in Tam. literature, author could be dated in + 7th c. In chapter on ---7 pa(aIJ (9) he alludes to important towns like Kafici and Pacur as being in flourishing condition, this pointing to Pallava period. The ---7 venpa st. of the work are considered to be earliest specimens of this type of v. metre in Tam., and this too points to early date . Atiyarkkunallar (12th c.) quotes from the work

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AIY Al'! PERUMAr... ACIRIYAR-AIYATIKAL KAT AVARKOl'!

in his comm. on Cilappatikaram. The date of A.A. is however very uncertain. Srinivasa Ptll ai and others: earlier than 8th c., Mu.Arun acalam: 9th c., S.Vaiyapuri Pillai: c. 1000 A.D. (Kaviyakalam p. 219), 11th c. (Hist. of Tam . Language and Literature, p. 55). Cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru 9-1 (1975) 248-82 for detailed discussion; M. Govindasamy , A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ., 1977, 51-53. Aiyan Peruma] Aciriyar (alias Aiyam Peru rna! Pil lai, 20) of Maturai, author: Pantimaniala catakam (Cirkali, 1932), modelled upon ~ Toniaimaniala catakam, on Velalar Peru rna! of Pantinatu, Aiyar, Swaminatha, V.V.Dr. ~ Caminat 'Aiyar, U. Ve. Aiyar, V.V.S. ~ Vehkaieca Cuppiramaniya Aiyar, Varakaneri. Aiyati-c Ciruveq. Teraiyar (Can kam), author: Purananuru 363. Aiyatika] Katavarkon (7), one of the 63 ~ nayanmars, Saivite poet, author of 24 ~ venpiis in ~ Tirumurai XI. Considered to have been Pallava ruler turned Saiva devotee, most probably Paramesvaran I (c. 670-685/700 A.D.), though this identification is not supported by strong evidence (accord. to some scholars, he was identical with Simhavarman III). ~ Periyapuranam iAiyatikal, 3) states that he renounced his crown: "He disliked kingship as troublesome and entrusted it to his handsome son, and took to the service of religion." It also says (ib . 3.15) that he reigned to develop arts in both Tam. and Skt. (vatanuty. worshipped the dance (tirukkuttui of Niruttanar (Siva Nataraja) and composed ~ venpas. His work, entitled later Ksettirattiruvenpa, highly praised by ~ Cekki lar as centamilin venpii and vantamilin venpa consists of 24 st. in ~ antati arrangement, of which 22 are devoted to the following sthalas: Cirrampalam, Kutantaikkilkkottarn, Tiruvaiyaru, Tlruvarur, Tirutturutti, TIrukkol ika, Tiruvitaivay , Ttrunetunkularn, Kulittantalai, Tiruvanaikka, Tirumayilai, Uficenai Makalam (Ujjain), Valaikulam, Tiruccaykkatu, Tiruppacilacciram, Tirucciramalai, Tirumalaipati, Tiruvayppati, Tiruvekampam, Tiruppananta], Tiruvorjtyur and Tirumayanam, St. 10 and 23 are of general nature. The main interest of this poet consists in the fact that for the first time he was "a Pallava king expressing himself in Tamil". Cf. T.P. Meenakshisundaram, A History of Tamil Literature , Annamalai: Annamalai Univ., 1965, pp. 133-4; A.S. Doraiswami Pillai, Saiva Literature (in Tam.) , Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ., 1957, pp. 177-82; Va. Cupa. Manikkarn (ed.), Tamil-p pulavar varalarruk kalaiiciyam, Part I, Annamalai Univ., 1974,341-3; K,V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/K6In, E.J. Brill, 1975, 137-8.

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AIYUR MULANKlIe.AR-AKAM CONVENTIONS

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Aiyiir Miilanki!ar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 21. Aiyiir Mutavagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 216, Kuruntokai 123,206,322, Narrinai 206, 334, Purananuru 51, 228, 314, 399. akala-k-kavi, voluminous work of poetry (also termed akalam, lit. width, expanse); poet who composes such work; also termed akalappii. Cf. Ilakkanavil. 763, 767 comm. , Yenpap , Cey. 5. Akalaitkan (12). Author of inscriptional poem in Saiva temple, Katalur. Akalankattakam (12?), lost poem on -) akam. akalavurai, elaborate comm. also termed akalam alias -) viruuiyurai. akam (lit. inside, house, place, agricultural tract, breast, mind, DEDR 7), in Tam . rhetoric and poetry, the supergenre (Zvelebil)/division (Marr)/genre (Ramanujan, Takahashi)/category (Takahashi) of intimate, private, love poetry, dealing with five settings (-) tifJai) of well-matched love and two settings of ill-matched love . Classified also as "erotic" in contrast to "heroic" genre. The following -) Cahkam antholog ies and poems are classifiable as akam poetry: -) Kuruntokai, -) Narrinai, -) Akananuru, -) Aihkurunuru, -) Kalittokai, -) Kuriiicippauu . Cf. also -) mixed genres. Cf. J.R. Marr, The Eight Anthologies, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985; A.K. Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ . Press , New York, 1985, Afterword; T. Takahashi, Poetry and Poetics - Literary Conventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Utrecht, 1989; K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, E.J . Brill, Leiden, 1973, pp. 65-118 . See also -) akapporul, Cahkam literature, puram. akam conventions. Classical Tam. literature is highly conventionalized. -) akam, one of the two main categories of classical (-) cankami poetry deals with "inner" or "private" life, more specifically, with love between man and woman. For akam conventions, cf. Manickam, V.Sp., The Tamil Concept of Love, Madras, 1962, Hart, G.L., The Poems ofAncient Tamil, Univ. of CaliforniaPress, 1975,Periakaruppan, Rm., Tradition and Talent in Cahkam Poetry, Madurai, 1976, Ramanujan, A.K., Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ. Press, 1985, Zvelebil, K.V., Literary Conventions in Akam Poetry, Madras, 1986, Takahashi, Takanobu, Poetry and Poetics- Literary Con ventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Ph.D. dissert. , Univ. of Utrecht, 1989. Cf. further, Dubiansky, Alexander, "Ritual and Mythological Background of Ancient Tamil Love Poetry", Journ . (of the Inst .) of Asian Studies 2, 1 (Sept. 1984) 85-104; Kuppusamy, T.S., "Tamil Akam Poetry: Forerunner of Indian Snngara Muktaka Tradition", ibid. 1, 2 (March 1984) 127-51; Murugan, V., "Nature treatment in D.H. Lawrence and Classical Tamil Love Poetry: A Comparative K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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AKAMMATU IPI~ KATIR MUKAIY ALTI~-AKANA~OBU

Study", ibid., 3.2 (March 1986) 31-44; Samuel , G. John, "Nature of Erotic Poetry, The, as Revealed in Netunalvatai", ibid. 1, 2 (March 1984) 111-26. Akammatu Ipin Katir Mukaiyaltin (19) of Kilakkarai. Author: Tirunatai valiyalahkaram (1895), Muslim panegyric poem on Sayyid Ibrahim Avuliya. Akammatu Kajji Marakkayar (19), Muslim author of Kassan kannilai carittiram (1908 ). Akammatu Leppai (18 ), Muslim author: Taymakal ecal, mocking quarrel between mother and daughter, possibly on Islam. Akammatu Makuti (Ahmad Mahudi), Muslim poet, author of a collection of 369 poems entitled Tavupamalai on the ways Muslims should live. Date: early modern. Akampag Malatanar (Cankam). Other name: Ata!! of Akampal (identified as Akamalai, Periyakulam, Madurai Dist.). Author: ~ NarrifJai 81. akagaintinai (Tam. rhetoric), the five true models ( ~ ain-tinaiy of love poetry (~ akam); cf. also ~ akappatal, ~ akapporui, ~ alJPi'l aintinai, ~ tinai. Akananfiru (The Four Hundred on Akam), known also as Akappiutu (Songs on Akam ), as Netuntokai (The Collection of Long [Poem s]) or Akam, cla ss. Tam. anthology of 400 st. in ~ aka val metre ranging from 13 to 31 line s, ascribed to 145 poets; poems 114, 117 and 165 are anonymous. Topic of poems is love ( ~ akapporu() in various conventional situations (~ tinai). Invocatory st. on Siva by ~ Peruntevagar. St. are arranged accord. to a peculiar scheme: poems bearing odd numbers are on ~ palai, poems bearing numbers 2, 8, 12, 18 etc. are on ~ kuriii ci , those bearing numbers 4, 14, 24 , 34 etc. are on ~ mullai, those numbered 6, 16, 26, 36, etc . are on ~ marutam, and those numbered 10, 20, 30 etc. are on ~ neytal. A. is divided into three parts: Ka{irriya'lai nirai (The Rank of Bull Elephants, 1-120), Manimitai pavalam (Rubies and Coral, 121-300) and Nittilakkovai (Necklace of Pearls, 301-400). Relatively long poems of A. allow scope for historical allusions (288) and detailed description of customs etc. C. 150-250 A.D. There is an old anon. comm. of ~ kurippurai type covering only the first 90 st. Publ. first in print by Ra, Irakavaiyankar, 1920. Cf. for dating and/or partial transl. , S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras , 1956, pp. 27-28, 52-53; J.R. Marr, The Eight Anthologies, Inst. of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985, 330-36; K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan , EJ. Brill , Leiden, 1973,53-54; K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill , 1975,92-3; A.K. Ramanujan,

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AKAPpATTU,AKAPpATAL--AKAPPORU~

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Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1985, passim; George L. Hart III, Poems of Ancient Tamil, Univ. of Calif. Press , 1975, passim.

akappattu, akappatal (DEDR 7 inside, mind + 4065 song), poems of akam, subjective idealized experience of love between man and woman gathered in so-called ~ Cahkam or classical bardic corpus of Tam. literature that flourished about 1800 years ago. Traditionally, akam theme is divided into seven tina i which are included under a!JPi!J: ~ aintinai (five themes of mutual love), ~ kaikkilai about onesided love, and ~ peruntinai or unrequited and/or improper love. ~ kuriiici, ~ mullai, ~ marutam, ~ neytal and ~ palai are the five tina i on mutual love, and the themes treated in them are love at first sight and its consummation, patient waiting of the heroine (~ talaivi) , sulking of hero (~ talaivani and heroine, anxious waiting of heroine, and separation of lovers respect ively. In the entire corpus, 1868 poems deal with aintinai, 10 with peruntinai and 4 with kaikkilai. Cf. Zvelebil, Kamil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden/E.J. Brill, 1973, 65-118; Sundaramoorthy, G., Early Literary Theories in Tamil, Madurai , 1974; Hart, George L., The Poems of Ancient Tamil, Univ. of California Press, 1975; Periakaruppan, Rm., Tradition and Talent in Cankam Poetry, Madurai, 1976; Ramanujan, A.K., Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ. Press, 1985; Marr, John Ralston, The Eight Anthologies, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985; Takahashi, Takanobu, Poetry and Poetics- Literary Conventions of Tamil Lo ve Poetry, Ph.D. dissert., Univ. of Utrecht, 1989. Akappeyccittar (date?), Siddha (~ cittar) poet of 90 distichs forming a structured expose in simple diction of Siddha doctrine and practices , addressed to his mind (akam) as demon (pey). Cf. K.V. Zve1ebil, The Poets of the Powers, London , 1973, 109-10; id ., Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 1975, 242. akapporu] (Tam. rhetoric) , subject-matter of love literature; lovetheme(s) in Tam. literature ttamil akapporul in ~ Nampiyakapporul 1); love-literature (ibid. 215); grammar of love poetry; pleasure of love, sexual pleasure; inner meaning. See also ~ akam; ~ Nampiyakapporul. Cf. Hart, G.L., "The Monsoon in Ancient Tamil and Indo-Aryan Poetry", Proc. of the 2nd Intern. ConferenceSem of Tam . Studies, Vol. II, Madras, 1971, 162-67; id., "Common Elements in Early Tamil and Indo-Aryan Literature", ibid. 168-70; id ., The Poems of Ancient Tamil - Their Millieu and Their Sanskrit Counterparts, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley

- Los Angeles-London, 1975; Lienhard, Siegfried, "Akapporul and Sanskrit Muktaka Poetry", Proc. of the 3rd Intern. Confer-

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AKAPPORU~ KaV AI-AKARATI NIKA!':lTU

ence-Sem. of Tam. Studies, Pondicheny, 1973, 111-18; id., "Bauem , Berge, Nacht und Winter", Ksiega pamiatkowa ku czsi Eugeniusza Sluskiewicza, Warsaw, 1974, 137-42; id., "Tamil Literary Conventions and Sanskrit Muktaka Poetry", Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Asiens XX (1976) 101-10; Ramanujan, A.K., Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ. Press, 1985, Afterword; Takahashi, Takanobu, Poetry and Poetics - Literary Conventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Utrecht, Utrecht, 1989; Zvelebil, K., The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1973,90-101. See also ~ Cahkam literature - select bibliography. akapporu] kovai, genre of 400 st. in ~ kattalaikkalitturai metre on 12 components of love as ~ akam, manifesting ~ kalavu, ~ karpu and ~ varaivu. Sometimes referred to simply as ~ kovai, lit. string, arrangement. The earliest extant a. is ~ Piintikkovai (8th c.); other famous kovai's; are ~ Tirukkovai by ~ Manikkavacakar and ~ Taiicaivan ankovai by ~ Poyyamolippulavar. There are about 55 kovai'« extant and discovered. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 202-204, and id., Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, passim. Akapporu] vilakkam (Elucidation of Subject-Matter of akam, 1314) by ~ Narkaviraca Nampi, systematic treatise on content of love-poetry, composed probably under Maravarman Kulacekara I (1268-1308/9) in 6 parts: Preface, Akattinaiyiyal, Kalaviyal, Varaiviyal, Karpiyal, Olipiyal; 252 aphorisms. Ancient anonym. comm. and mod . comm. of Vaittiyalinkarn Pillai of Jaffna. Eds. : Madurai Tamil Sangam, 1926 ; Ka.Ra.Kovintaraca Mutaliyar, Madras, 1943 (repr. Kalakam, Madras, 1973). Germ . version (Karl Graul) in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Bd . XI, 1846, 369-395 . Cf. T. Takahashi, Poetry and Poetics, Literary Conventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Univ . of Utrecht PhD dissert., Utrecht, 1989, 39-41. akappurappattu, poem describing love which is unreciprocated (~ kaikkilaii or unequal (~ peruntinaiy, cf. ~ Nampi's Akapporul 250. akarati, lit. "alphabetic order" - dictionary arranged in the order of Tam. alphabet. The term was coined by -~ Irevana Cittar (1594) in his ~ Akariiti nikantu, and has since come to mean "dictionary". Akarati nikantu, (1496 or 1594), Tam. - Tam. dictionary, first attempt at alphabetical arrangement of words in Tam. The term akarati meaning "alphabetic order" (a-karam "letter a" + ati, "beginning") has come to mean "dictionary (alphabetically K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

AKARATI NIKA~TU-AKATTIY A!i

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arranged)". The work, by ~ Revana Cittar, is said in the preface to consist of 3368 sutras (3331 s. in print) in 10 parts, and was composed in Saka 1516 = A.D. 1594 (accord. to other sources in 1496). It mentions a number of ~ puriinas thus enabling their dating as preceding it. Publ. in print at Tamilccanka muttira calai, Madurai, 1921. Cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalainagar, Annamalai Univ., 1977, 266-7; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 1975, 236-7. Akarati nikal}tu2. The palmpleaf ms. of this dictionary was found by ~ Cuvaminat'Aiyar, D.Ve in private house at Alvartirunakari. It has 2 parts: one devoted to words beginning with short V and short CV, the other to words beginning with long \T and long C\T (a unique practice). The 2 parts are termed kurreluttakarati and netteluttakarati. It contains 7500 entries to explain usage of 22 .500 words , might have been modelled on ~ Beschi's Caturakarati, and compiled during 19th c. Publ. by Swaminatha Iyer Library , 1983. Akastiyar, Es. (Kurumuni, b. 1926) of Sri Lanka, author: 9 novels, e.g. Manni! teriyutoru tor ram (A Shape Appears in the Earth), Irulinulle (Within Darkness). aka-t tarni], Tamil literature dealing with love tTirukkovaiyar 70) . aka-t tinai, love as psychological state of lovers, experienced in seven forms, and formalized in Tam. classical liter. conventions, cf. ~ kuriiici, ~ mullai, ~ marutam, ~ neytal, ~ palai, ~ kaikkilai, ~ peruntinai. Akattinal (date?), lost poem on love, mentioned with 3. st. in ~ venpd quoted in comm . on ~ Nampi 's Akapporul, and on ~ Kaiaviyarkarikai. Akattiyag. Although, in later (medieval and mod.) Tam . oral and written tradition, Agastya the sage, Akattiyan the Siddha, and Akattiyar the author of the (lost or non-existent) grammar ~ Akattiyam have merged into one single legendary or mythical personage of superhuman proportions, one must critically distinguish at least among these three . For Tam . literature, only the Siddha and the (supposed) grammarian are truly significant. The essential stuff of the Agastya-Akattiyan myths is Sanskritic in nature and origin, going as far back as Rgveda. In Tam. tradition there is no direct and specific reference to A. in any of the early (Cahkam) texts. The earliest (?) appearance of A. in Tam . sources is in ~ Paripdtal (c. 350-400 A.D.), ~ Cilappatikaram (c. 450 A.D.) and ~ Manimekalai (c. 500-550 A.D.). It is prob. that A. must have been known in Tam. lore at least from c. 350

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AKATTIYA~

A.D. onwards. Accord . to Tam. trad. accounts, he learnt Tam. from Siva, taught it to his 12 disciples (q.v .), one of whom was the author of ~ Tolkiippiyam, and himself composed a grammar , Akattiyam, first mentioned only around A.D. 700 in ~ Nakkirar's comm. on ~ Iraiya!1iir Akapporul, Of this grammar possibly only a few fragments have survived in medieval comm. In 1912 , Ca. Pavanantarn Pil lai (d. 1932) publ. in Madras Perakattiya-c ciatiram and Pericai-c cuttiram ascribed to A. , but almost certainly forgeries . About the middle of 19th c., Muttukrishna Pillai publ. 5 chapters of Eluttilakkanakkantam supposedly of Perakattiyam (cf. H. Nau, Prolegomena zu Pattanattu Pi((aiyiir's Padal, Halle, 1919, p. 26 ftn. 1). A work called Akattiyarpauiyal is mentioned as representative of late type of grammars tpdttiyai) dealing with "minor" poetic forms; it has not survived (cf. ~ Paraficotis Citamparappiutiyaly. A number of medieval medical and alchemical treatises are ascribed to physician/alchemist Akastiyar. Cf. Simon Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, Colombo, 1946, s.V. Agastier. For detailed synopsis of the A. problem cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature , E.J. Brill, 1992, 235-49, with bibliography on p. 235 ftn. 1. Pertinent entries for Tam. culture and literature: Gunasegaram, S.J., "The Historicity of Agathiar", Tam . Culture VII (1958) 48-55 ; Mahadevan, I. , "Agastya Legend and the Indus Civilization", paper read in 3rd Intern. Conference on South Asian Languages and Linguistics, Mysore, Jan. 13-16, 1982; Rajagopalan, K.R., "Agastya-His Non-Aryan Origin", Tam. Culture VI (1957) 296-93; Sastri , K.A.N., "Agastya", Tijdschrift voor lndische Taal- , Land- and Volkenkunde LXXVI (1936) 4; Sivaraja Pillai , K.N., Agastya in the Tamil Land, Madras, 1930; Viswanath Khaire , "Tamil-Sanskrit Interaction in the Agastya Myth", Journ . Tam . Studies 13 (June 1978) 40-63 ; Zvelebil, K.V., Mythologie der Tamilen and anderer drawidisch sprechender Volker, in: Worterbuch der Mythologie (ed. W.H. Haussig) 85960. Cf. also David Dean Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths, Princeton Univ. Press, 1985, who sees the A. legend as "an origin myth

explaining the beginnings of Tamil culture". Accord. to him, "Agastya's greatness appears to lie in his command of both traditions: he is well trained in the Sanskrit works of Vyasa , and he learns the science of Tamil from the god who is master and examiner of Tamil, Murukan, Agastya is thus a symbol of Tamil learning, not as independent from or opposed to Sanskrit, but rather in harmony and conjunction with it."

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AKATTIY AN- HIS DISCIPLES-AKATTIYAN'S

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Akattiyan. - his disciples. The 12 disciples of ~ Akattiyan are given as (1) ~ Tolkappiyan, (2) Atati.kottaca!!, (3) Turalinkan, (4) Cemputceey, (5) Vayapikag, (6) Vayppiyan, (7) ~ Panamparan, (8) Kalararnpan, (9) Avinayan, (10) ~ Kakkaippatini, (11) Nattattan, (12) Vamanan. Some of these persons are quasi-histor. in that they are mentioned independently and that to some various texts are ascribed; other names sound strange and we do not know anything about their bearers. The 12 disciples are supposed to be joined authors of ~ Pannirupasalam. grammar on purapporul now almost entirely lost (cf. also ~ Purapporulvenpamalaii . (1) is author of ~ Tolkappiyam . (2) is mentioned in prefatory verse to Tolkappiyam. About (3) we know nothing. (4) is said to have authored Kurriyal which is lost (cf. ~ Nakkirar's comm. on ~ Iraiyatlar Akapporul 56) . About (5) we know nothing. (6) is credited with v ayppiyam, almost completely lost. (7) is author of Specific Preface to Tolkappiyam; supposed to have composed ~ Panampiiram, lost, and ~ Kuruntokai 52. Of (8) we know nothing . (9) was author of ~ Avinayam which seems to have been grammar of high merit, widely used before 10th c. Its author seems to have been Jaina of great esteem, and many aphorisms of his have been preserved in various sources (cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Le iden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 66-7 and ftn. 129-131). (10) must have been widely popular authoress; many aphorisms of Kakkaippatiniyam have been preserved (cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the Hi story of Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill 1992,49). A few aphorisms ascribed to (11) have been preserved in comm. About (12) we now nothing. Another disciple of A ., Cikantiyar, is mentioned in Uraippayiram to ~ Cilappatikaram as author of Icainunukkam , lost grammar of 2nd Academy (cf. Nakkirar's comm.). For Tam. lost erudite liter. cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies, E.J. Brill, 1992 , 47-54. Akattiyan's gram. school. Though the trad. accounts of ~ Akattiyan's gram. school are fragmentary and covered by layers of legends, it is obvious that it was once vigorous and influential school of thought. ~ Civafiana Munivar (d. 1785) in ~ Kaiicipuranam has expressed the assumption that as there was Panini, the first great grammarian of Skt., so there was Akattiyan who was the first to systematically observe and describe linguistic properties of Tam. It is possible that Akattiyan was ineed main exponent in Tam. of a non-Paninian Aintiram (Aindra) system of gram. description, and perhaps the first to formulate the conception of Tam. as "triune" phenomenon (~ muttamii), Cf. Aravanar], Ka.Pa., Aintiram , Madras, 1974; A.C. Burnell , The

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AKATTIYAPPA MUTALlY AR-AKILAti

Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians - Their Place in the Sanskrit and Subordinate Literatures, Mangalore, 1875; P.S. Subramania Sastri, History of Grammatical Theories in Tamil and Their Relation to the Grammatical Literature in Sanskrit, 1934; K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, EJ. Brill, 1992, App. 3. Akattiyappa Mutaliyar (19) of Perunakar (Tontainatu), Tam. scholar. Author: detailed comm. (-7 virivurai) on -7 Tontaimantala catakam . Akattiyar -7 Akattiyan. Akattiyar pattiyal (date?), lost text of presumably a -7 pdttiyal grammar, mentioned in one line of -7 Citamparappauiyal by -7 Paraficotiyar (16). akattulinai, theme of victory of besiegers over besieged iPurapporui venpamalai 6:22). Akaturkovai, Akatturkovai. -7 Kohkumantalacatakam st. 82 says that one Ulakutaiviran carried the palanquin of the poet who composed Akatttiurkovai. lnscr. of Sundara Pandya (11) records gifts donated by Ulakutaiyanayanar of Vijayamankalam. He might have been patron of the kovai which is not available now. akaval, (lit. screach of peacock, calling, addressing, high tone , DEDR 10 akavu to utter a sound as peacock, sing, dance as a peacock, call, summon) alias aciriyam « Skt.); cf. -7 Tolkappiyam 1338, metre which prefers feet of the -7 iyarclr type in the -7 aciriyattalai linkage; it also admits -7 vencir, -7 ventalai and -7 vaiicittalai, and occasionally temahkani and pulimahkani types of feet. The number of lines (-7 ati) is unlimited, and there is no rule for the number of feet in each line. Prob. the earliest Tam. metre. akaval., genre of devotional and later poetry defined formally as poem composed entirely in the -7 akaval . metre, cf. -7 Manikkavacakars (9) Porrittiruvakaval (4th part of -7 Tiruviicakam) about creation of Universe; -7 Kapilar's critical Akaval (cf. Ch.E. Gover, The Folk-Songs of Southern India, 1st ed. 1871, 2nd 1959, 163-5). akavajpa, type of st. employing -7 akaval metre, of four kinds (-7 nericai, -7 inaikkural , -7 nilaimantilam, -7 aiimarimantilami. Akilakalavallavag Ceraman Vaiicimarttal)tan (A.D. 1448). Known only from an ins cr. in verse on the gopura of Miivaliir Salva temple. No work has survived. Akilan (Akilantam, PLVL, noms-de-plume Akilon, Ahilon, 27.6.1922 - 1988), one of the most prolific and best-known mod. Tamil

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AKILAN

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prose-writers. Active in All India Radio, Madras; as journalist; traveled widely; well-read. Great story-teller about love, sex, manwoman relationship. Began writing aged sixteen. At twenty-one published first novel Pen (Woman ), awarded liter. prize by ~ Kalaimakal, Novels: Inpaninaivu (Sweet Memories) , Tunai vi (Wife), Cinekiti (Woman-Friend), Neiicin alaikal (Heart's Waves, 1973, Tamil Academy Award), Avalukku (For Her), Valvu ehke (Where Is Life), Pavai vilakku (Damsel Lamp , 1958), Venkaiyin. maintan (The Son of Venkai , Sahitya Akademi Award) , Cantippu (Encounter). In earlier novels the theme is limited usually to family problems, mainly husband-wife relationship, the characters are idealized, the plots romantic. Pen may be compared to ~ Venkataramani's novel of 1930 in that a civil servant joins Freedom struggle, is for a while spurned by the girl he loves, but in the end welcomed by her when he returns from prison. Pavai vilakku is in praise of various aspects and types of love: The protagonist (Tanikacalam, a writer) is confronted by four different women (Tevaki , Cenkarnalam, Kauri , Uma) and lives through constant struggle between intellect and emotion, rea son and passion. Cittirappavai (Painted Image , 1968, Bharatiya Jnanpith Award for 1975, Engl. transl. 1981 by Prema Nandakumar as Portrait of a Woman) shows conflict between good and evil, beauty and utility, art and money in the dramatic story of characters from lower middle classes of Mylapore and Adyar, stressing in particular the transition from ethos of yesterday to competitive compulsions of today. After Putu vellam (New Flood, 1964), Ponmalar (Golden Blo ssom) and Ka yal viii (Carp-like Eyes , State of Tamilnadu Award) came Ehke pokirom (Where Do We Go, 1973, Raja Sir Annamalai Prize), Kol l aikkaran (The Robber) , Verrittirunakar (Sacred City of Victory) and Pdlmara-k kaUi[!ile (In the Gum-Tree Forest, 1977). In These later novels A. became creative writer observing reality keenly, and sharp critic of mod. Tam . society. The heroine of Ehke pokirom takes rebellious and revengeful attitude towards people and, unable to marry because of the dowry system, turns prostitute, has sexual contacts with bureaucrats, ministers, big businessmen, and charges them heavily. Dual standards of these people, black-marketing, cheap journalism and silly movies are subject to author's merciless criticism. After this novel (in ca. 1970-1988), A. becomes powerful critical realist highly conscious of social evils ; he offers Gandhian solutions, his social analysis is often fragmentary and shallow, filled with didactic preaching, but at his best he stands next to ~ Janakiraman, ~ Jeyakanthan, ~ Indira

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AKILA~

Parthasarathy, ~ Neela Padmanabhan and ~ Rajam Krishnan as one of the group of best mod. Tam. engaged novelists. Piilmara-k kattinile (In the Gum-Tree Forest) is the first Tam . novel about the life of Tam. plantation-workers in Malaysian rubber-estates . Palan, a young teacher, is called upon to lead the oppressed Tam. workers, fighting on Gandhian principles. He loses his job and, to accentuate his martyrdom, A. weaves a tender romantic story around Kannamma, his uncle 's daughter and his sweetheart who is driven by the merciless society to commit suicide. The protagonist leaves the plantations carrying her picture and Gandhi 's Autobiography, mounting the bus to Kuala Lumpur where he intends to join the main trade-union office of rubber-estate workers. Among his almost 20 collections of short stories, A. deals with wide ranges of themes - family life, children, sex, prostitution, poverty, social injustice, and achieves rich portrayal of great variety and depth of characters. Melodrama, patriotism and heroic womanhood are characteristic of the early stories. Compassion with widows , poor children and beggars are typical for later narratives . These stories manifest author's ripe and sensitive handling of Tam. language (e.g. Cati Caste in Paciyum ruciyum, 1974), growing realism and optimi sm (e.g. Canti Peace, ib .) and antiasceticism (cf. Kataliranta katai Story of Dead Love, ib.) : this fantastic tale, set as it were outside time and space, wants to discredit ascetic way of life as false pretense. Some of the bestknown storie s are AfJ-PefJ Male-Female (1950) , lnpaui Fire of Delight (1950), Munruve(ai Thrice (1954) , Aruvikkaraiyil At the Waterfall (1954), Kulateyvam Family Deity (1957), Caktivel (1957) about a small beggar-boy , Koyil vilakku Temple Lamp (1957), Malaikku otunkiya itattil In the Shelter From Rain (1970) from the collection Erimalai Volcano, awarded the price of Literary Thinkers Forum mainly because of its famous title-story depicting the outburst of a call -girl over society's hypocrisy, and Intiranukku vimocanam Indra 's Salvation (1974) : in an original solution of the 'Ahalya myth A. maintains that a frustrated wife is entitled to commit adultery. Eluttum valkkaiyum Life and Writing (serialized in Tipam, 1973, publ. 1978) is book of highly interesting autobiography notes. A. also wrote plays (e.g. Va[vil inpam Life 's Delight, Puyal The Storm), four collections of essays, four books for children, travelogues (Na!1 kama Rasya The Russia I Saw, 1980) and translated Maupassant's short stories, writings of Malayalam author Keshav Dev, etc. His works were translated into many Indian languages as well as into English, Russian, German, Czech and Polish. His drawbacks were his escapist trends

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AKILECA PIPAI, VE.-AKKIM MUKAMATU NICA

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leading him to the world of adventurous romance and sex crimes; his attraction to eerie supernatural events, his sentimentality and didacticism. He was, however, a master of language, diction and style, of variegated plots, psychological insight, skilful narration, and in later writings manifested critical vision and social conscience. In Sept. 1974, Vniv. of Madurai devoted a full-fledged four-day seminar to the writings of A. as the first living Tam. writer to be so honoured. Cf. Portrait of a Woman, Madras, Macmillan India Press, 1981; "Oh! These Humans", The Plough and the Stars, London, 1963, 1-6; Chidambaranatha Chettiar, A., "The Short Story and Its Development in Tamil", Tam. Culture IV, 3 (July, 1955); A. Chandrasekharan, "A Discussion of Akilan as a Short Story Writer", Proc . of the 1st International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Studies, Vol. II, Kuala Lumpur, 1969, 296-303; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 262, 263, 264, 278, 286-7; Prema Nandakumar, "Akilon's Chittirappavai", Ind. Literature, Jan.-Febr. 1978, 18 ff.; "Svet v chrame", "Zloj duch" (transl, into Russian), in: Svet v chrame Novelty tami!' skix pisatelej, Moskva, 1971, 45-64. Akileca Pill ai, Ve. (1853-1910), of Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, son of Alakaikkon Veluppillai. Studied lexicography and didactic texts with Kumaraveluppillai, and also Engl. and Skt. grammars and literature. 1871 teacher, 1882 left the job for studies of Tam. and Saivism. Author: Tirukkona Ndyakar patikam , Kantacami kalivenpa, Civakiimi Amman uncal, Pattirakali un cal, Verpattu. Moyirpattu, Tanippiualkal , Kanti natakam, Neiicarimalai, Kantacami viruttam and a large number of other devotional poems. Ed. of Tirukkaracaippuranam, Tirukkonacalavaipavam, Konecar kalvettu and other Saivite texts.

akkara-c cutakam « Skt.) verse composed with a word-play, a word by gradual elimination becoming different words with different meaning iTantiyalankaram 95). Akkarakkani Naccumagar (10? early medieval?) . Author: ~ Tiruvalluvamalai 46. Cf. Simon Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, ed. 1946, 4-5. akkara varttagam « Skt.) verse composed with a word-play, a word by gradual addition becoming different words with different meanings (Pirayokavivekam 26, comm.). Akkim Mukamatu Nica Mukalyattn Cayapu (18?) of Pappuracapuram, doctor in Yiinani system of medicine, author: Kutumpa camratcani, didactic book on how to conduct oneself in active life. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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AKKIYA!iA NIV ARA~AM-Al,AKARKII,J;,AIVITUTDTU

Akkiyana nivaranam ("Dispelling Ignorance"), anonym. Christ. work dealing with attempts to introduce the then mod. Western technological advancements and scientific know ledge to Tam. readers. Archaic language represents typically Tam. style of Christ. missionaries of 17th - 18th c. Ascribed to ~ Nobili, to L.(F.?) Cinnami (or Cinnamo) and others. Accord. to S. Rajamanickam, "who the author is, is not clear ... not later than 1738". Akora Civacariyar (16), Adisaiva of Citamparam, reported to be teacher of ~ Ativirarama Pantiyan, Skt. and Tam. scholar, author of Akorapauati, also known as Patinenpattati, manual of ritualistic rules used by Siddhanta Salvas. Akora Mugjvar (first half 17), known also as Akorat-t Tampirag, Akoraciva-t-tiyakaraca Pantaram, Akora-t Tevar. Salva ascetic in the lineage of ~ Karnalaifiana Pirakacar, lived at Tiruvarur temple, presented as donor many gifts to the temple, his portrait is found in Northern gopura. D. at Kanchipuram. Skt. and Tam. scholar. Studied Tam. with Vanmikanata Tiyakaraca Tecikar, father of ~ Vaittiyanata Tecikar the author of ~ Ilakkana vilakkam, Skt. with Tirumalikai Tevar of Citamparam. Teacher of Vaittiyanata Tecikar. Author: Kumpakonappuranam (13 chapters, 1118 ~ viruttam st., publ. 1898), Yetaraniyapuranam (77 chapters, 3243 viruttam st.), Tirukkiinapperppurdnam (17 chapters, 650 viruttam st.) . Cf. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 3rd ed., Oxford Univ . Press, 1966, 387. Yetaraniyapuranam printed in Madras, 1898 . Akumatu Levvai Alim Cakipu (18), Muslim author of Tay makal ecal, an insult (~ ecal) poem, publ . 1874. Alagirisami, K. ~ Alakiricami, Ku. Alagiriswamy, K. ~ Alakiricami, Ku. Alakappan (17) of Pakai. Author: Yatamalai venpii, 108 ~ venpa st. on Tirumalai Nayakkar's representative at Tirunelveli, Kavai Vatamalaiyappa PiHai. A!akaracan (20), mod. poet, author: Katal viii (Eye of Love). Alakarcami-p Pillai (20) of Madurai, author: prose-version of Tirunelveli puranam. Alakarkillaivitututu (late 17 - early 18). Poem of the messengergenre (~ vitutiuus on deity Alakar of Tirumaliruficolai, an ancient shrine in southern Tamilnadu. The soul (= bride) falls in love with Alakar (who is also Cauntararaja-p Perumal). She sends a parrot (ki((ai) to the Lord as messenger. The 239 couplets were composed by ~ Palappattatai-c Cokkanata Pillai Pulavar. The poem offers beautiful description of Alakarmalai and praises of gods

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A1,AKAR KUBAVANCI-A1,AKIRICAMI, KU.

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Tirumal and Ilakkumi. The parrot is described as vehicle of Manmatan and associated with the gandharva form of marriage. There are allusions to myths associated with Alakarrnalai and to Vaisnava festivals of Madurai. Since the two wives of the god are very proficient in Tam. , the heroine advises the parrot to convey the message of love to the hero in Telugu - this fact showing the importance of Telugu in the refined culture of 18th cent. Tamilnadu. The author handles various metres and prosodic patterns as well as ~ ciletai very skilfully. He also utilizes all the synonyms for the word kili parrot in the ~ nikantus. First publ. in print in 1905, reedited by V.V.S. Iyer in 1938. Alakar kuravafici (1840) by ~ Kavikuficara Parati . Ed. by K. Nakamani, Madras, 1963. Alakecakatai ~ Nalu mantiri-k katai. Alakesa katha, Tam . folk narrative. Cf. ~ Natesa Sastri, S.M. (transl .), Alakesa Katha . The King and His Four Ministers . With Notes by W.A. Clouston. Madras , 1st ed. 1889. 2nd ed. (G.W. Taylor) , Madras, 1889. Alakecarajan katai ~ Nalu mantiri-k katai. Alakiricami, Ku. (K. Alagiriswamy, 9.6.1923 at Itaiceval, Tirunelveli Dist. - 5.7.1970), journalist, editor , scholar, prose writer, essayist. Lived in poverty, suffered tuberculosis. First short story collection Alakiricami kataikal (1952, foreword by ~ Kalki). Short story collections Teyvam pirantatu (A God Was Born, 1960), Iru cakotararkal (Two Brothers, 1962), Kiil i varam (The Boon of Kali, 1962), Tavappayan (Fruit of Penance, 1963), Cirikkavillai (No Matter For Laughter, 1963), Karpaka virutcam (The Kalpaka Tree, 1965), Varappiracatam (Divine Grace, 1966), A!JPa(ippu (Dedication, 1967). Edited first four books of ~ Kampag's Ramayana, ~ Kavaticcintu by ~ Annamalai Rettiyar and other texts. Wrote essays on Karnpan tKaviccakkaravartti. 1963) and other figures and works of Tam. literature, including attacks on ~ Putu-k kavitai, modern avantgarde poetry. Posthumously published: N ii!J:. kanta eluttalarkal (Madras, 1988; brief sketches on life and works of selected Tam . authors); novel Putu vitu, putu ulakam (New Home, New World, Madras, 1988). His stories abound in lively characters and gentle humour, are filled with genuine humanism, based mostly on plausible and engaging , but sometimes bizarre, plots, and told in austere diction , balanced form, realistic, simple, lucid style; however, often filled with very traditional, ultraorthodox Hindu-Brahmanic ideology. The title story of Teyvam pirantatu is typical: The son born to his Brahmin father after "the fire of his penance had burnt away his mental

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A1,AKIYA AMPALAVANA.!"{AR-Al,AKIYA CIRRAMPALA-K

stains" is educated in the best ethical tradition. When the boy goes even beyond his father's ideological purity and moral arguments, the father is deeply moved: looking at the picture of child-god Murukan teaching Siva as Svaminatha he is convinced that a living god has been born to him in his child. Apart from his other works stand his stories about children, as he can portray children animated by pure selfless love as well as children who are horrid and amoral. E.g. a mother accustoms her children to a cruel game by occasionally pretending to be dead at their arrival; when she really dies, the children do not believe it and keep on beating the corpse till they grow exhausted. In another story, a blind beggar's children amuse themselves by pouring sand into another blind beggar's rice-filled begging bowls (Peta imai Ignorance, 1960). Cf. "A Real Man", New Orient Bimonthly (Prague) 3.1 (1962) 28-30; "Raja Has Come", The Plough and the Stars (London, 1963) , 7-19; "Word and Its Meaning", Sameeksha (Dec. 1965) 127-31 ; "Triveni", Tamil Short Stories (New Delhi, 1980) 105-11; "The Vision", Ind. Literature (March-April, 1983) 40-48. Cf. also K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 254. Alakiya Ampalavanagar, Maturai (first half, 20), author: novel Eyiniyum Nakanum allatu Ilantamil katalar ("Eyigi and Nakan, or The Lover of Young Tamil", 1938) based on the classical, ancient Tam. themes, topics and aesthetics of ~ akam and ~ puram . Alakiya Cirr.ampala-k Kavlrayar 1 (17) of Mamallapuram, sang praises of Venkalappa Nayakkar who ruled Cirrur on behalf of Tirumala Nayakkar, and was given for his Venkalappa Nayakkar kuravaiici village of Mitilaippatti (Tiruchi Dist.) in 1648. Taiacin kamalai praises the liberality of Talavay Vicaya Irakunata Cetupati after he had received Tirumalai; this poem, composed in ~ kaualai kalitturai, is fragmentary (cf. Centamil 6). Mitilaippatti has remained seat of the poet 's descendants, and of traditional Tam. learning. It is a matter of dispute, whether the Venkalappa Niiyakkar kuravaiici should not be rather classified as ~ kuram. The poet was also known as Mitilaippatti-k Kavirayar, and is credited with two satirical ~ vitutiuus, viz . Kalutai vitututu (Donkey Sent As Messenger) and Kukkal vitututu (Dog Sent As Messenger). Alakiya Cirr.ampala-k Kavirayar, (end of 18) , lived at court of Cinna Makipan of Mitilainakar (Mitilaippatti) , grandson of ~ Alakiya Cirrampala-k Kavirayar. , scholar-poet, mentioned in ~ Cinna Makipan kuluvanatakam 2. Alakiya Cirr.ampala-k Kavirayar, (1853-1910) of Mitilaippatti, great-grandson of ~ Alakiya Cirrampala-k Kavirayar., scholar

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Al,AKIYA COKKANATA-P -Al,AKIYA MA~AVAt--A-P

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and poet, donated several Tam. manuscripts to Dr. V.V . Swaminatha Iyer (cf. -7 Caminat 'Aiyar, U.Ve ., En carittiram, 1950, ch. 112). Sometimes credited with authorship of -7 Cinna Makipan kuluvandtakam; this is a false ascription. Alakiya Cokkanata-p Pillai (19) of Taccanallur, author of dozens of minor poetic works, mostly devotional and panegyric, many -7 kirttanais and other short forms : Mutucami-p Pill ai katarpirapantam, 860 -7 vencenturai st., panegyric (1868); Irii caimanakaril virrirukkum Komatiyammai peril patikam (11 st. on deity of Cankaranayinar koyil, 1883); Kantimatiyammai peril innicaippii mantamalai (46 st., 1883) , Sri Yilliputtur-k Kotaiyantati (on -7 A~!al, 100 -7 kalitturai st., 1885) , Kirusnan kummi mutalanavai (1886), Kotai kummippatalkal (27 st. on A~!iil), Cinkara kavita maiicari, Kiintimatiyammai pillaittamil, Nellai Nayaka malai etc. Ajakiya Cokkanata Varotayan (19) . Author: Civapucaiyantati (1880), 127 -7 viruttam st. on Salva ritual worship. Alakiya Manavala-c Ciyar (? 13 ? 15), Vaisnava -7 acarya and comm., of Srirargam; disciple (?) of -7 Periyavaccan Pill ai after having been his cook (?). Author: 12 exegetical works, most import. among them Pannirayirappati (12,000), comm. tbluisya) on Dramidopanisad (= -7 Tiruvaymoli); Bhagavadgita venpa (following Ramanuja's interpretation of the text). Alakiyamal}.ava!aperumaJ C lyar (17), Vaisnava -7 iicdrya and comm., author: comm. in -7 manipravala on compositions of -7 alvars; Dravidopanisatsamgati ("The Appropriateness [of the term] Tamil Upani~ad"), Veddntasastradravidagamddi adyadasakadvandvaikakanthyam ("The Identity of Meaning of Yedantasastra [= Upanisadsi with the First two Decades of Dravidagama [= Tiruvaymoliu . Alakiya Manavala-p Peruma] Jtyar, Yatlkkecari (14) , Vaisnava acdrya, disciple of -7 Periyavaccan Pillai, author : comm. in 12.000 pari on -7 Tiruvaymoli; Tiruviruuaviyakyanam, Tattuvatipa-p pirakacam, Carirakaikkantiyam , Pakavatkitai venpd (223 -7 venpa st . + 13 st. of -7 payiram, publ. Sriran karn, 1906, with notes of Es. Caminataiyar and Pi.Ar.Kirusnamacariyar). The Bhagavadgita venpd follows interpretation of Sri Ramanuja, Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava Manipravala, Bombay: Ananthacharya Research Institute, 1978. Alakiya Manavala-p Perumal Nayanar (late 13-early 14), also A. Manavalanayinar, of Srirangam. Son of Vatakku-t tiruviti-p Pillai, younger brother and disciple of -7 Pillai Lokacarya, one of the greatest Vaisnava scholars. Apparently went through con-

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A1,AKIYA MA~A VA~A-A~AKKAR NA1,ALAR

troversy with ~ Vetanta Tecikar, Unmarried, samnyasin. Author: Aciirya hrdayam ("The Heart of the Preceptor"), in ~ manipraviila, composed of phrases borrowed mainly from ~ iilviirs and ~ d cdryas; very difficult work. It expounds greatness of ~ Nammalvar following Pillai Lokacarya (and not Vedanta Desika): the al yar was greater than Vyasa, greater even than Sri K~I)a; his ~ Tiruvaymoli is "a golden pot" whereas the Vedas are a "mud pot" (since they get polluted when used by other s than dvijas); the work manifests vast erudition (quoting from Bhagavadgita, Valmiki, Mahabharata, Visnupurana. etc. as well as from alyars' works; ~ akam poetry is explained in terms of Vaisnava philosophy of ~ prapatti). Other works: comm. on ~ AI)taJ's ~ Tiruppavai in 6000 granthas (iir.iiyirappati), in simple style but detailed; other comm. on Tiruvantati , Amalanatippiran. of ~ Tiruppanalvar, Kanninunciruttampu of ~ Maturakavi (placing Nammalvar on a par with God); Manikkamalai; Aruli-c ceyal rahasyam, exegetic work on mantras and similar esoteric matters. Famous is his dictum (ex Aciiryah(dayam 41) that Tam. language of Agastya is as eternal (aniiti ) as Skt. Eds.: Aciiryah(dayam (in Telugu script) , 2 vols. , comm. of Tirunarayanapurattu Ay and Manavalamamunikal, Madras, 1905; with comm. of ~ Manavalamamugika], Kalaratnakaram Press, Madras, 1906; Kaficipuram , 1966; rendered into Tam. by B.R. Purushothama Naidu , Univ. of Madras, 1965. Cf. Gopalakrishnapillai, Aciiryahrdayasiirasafigraham, Kalaratnakara Press, Madras, 1892; K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava MaIJ ipraval a , Bombay, Ananthacharya Research Inst., 1978. Alakiya Manavala Tacar ~ Pit! ai-p Perumal . Alakiyanampi Tatar (18) , author: Vaisnava Kuruparamparai, fundamental work on the lineages and biographies of Sri Vaisnava ~ dcdryas (preceptors). In two parts (~ kiintam ): 4 st. of Preface, 1582 st. in 1st part, 1383 st. in second part. Cf. ~ manipravala, ~ acarya. Also author: Alviir va{i tirunamam, Campirataya cantirikai, Tirumuti ataivu, comm. on ~ Tiruviruttam and ~ Tiruvanuiti. A!akiya Tiruccirrampala Tecikar (17-18), tampiran of Corkkapuram matha , author of Salva devotional and philosophical texts, partonized by kings of Tanjore: Arivananta camuttiram , Arutpamalai, Anuuanaviti, Yinavurai, Cittananta niccayam, Tiripatartta tipam, a kilivitutiuu on his preceptor the 8th Head of Dharmapuram. Alakkar Nalalar Makanar Mallanar ~ Mallandr. • •• .0 _

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A!eAKUCUNTARAM-ALARMELMANKAI AMMA~

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Alakucuntaram (1873-1941). Reverend Francis Kingsbury of Jaffna, son of ~ Tamotaram Pill ai, CLVaL Excommunicated for unorthodox views. One of the authors-editors of Madras University Tamil Lexicon. Research and teaching of Tam. at Colombo Univ. Published many essays in ~ Madhaviah, A., Paiicamirtam. Author: Nii!l en kiristuvan ii!le!l (Why I became Christian), Ecuvaralaru (Life of Jesus), Akapporutkural (The Kura] of Love), Iramankatai (Rama's Story), Pantavar katai , Cantirakacam; many solitary st. In Engl., Life of Jesus, Jesus of Nazareth. With G.E. Phillips, Hymns of the Tamil Saivite Saints, London, 1921. Cf. Sherwood, Eddy, Eighty Adventurous Years . An Autobiography, New York: Harper and Row, 1955, p. 52. Alakumuttu-p Pulavar (18 or 19) of Nakappattigam, said to have become poet at direct order and inspiration of god Murugan. Became ascetic and devotee, travelled throughout India, is worshipped as saint in Tiruttalamutaiyar Koyil near Cikali. Author: Meykanta Velayuta Catakam, Meykanta Yelayuta ula, Meykanta Tiruppukal, Kiiyiirokarnkkuravaiici. AHiiacuntaram Cettiyar, P. (1907-1982), author: Cuntaracolloviyam (Madras, 1983), essays broadcast on All-India Radio, 1947-59. Alalacuntaram, Po. (b. 1907), scholar and writer, author: essays on Tam. language and literature tKauurai viruntu, Iyarramil, Ilakkiyaccuvai), comm. on Cennai Kantakottattalapuriinam, the ~ sthalapurana of Kandasami Temple, Madras. Alamperi-c Cattanar (Cankam), author of Akananuru 47, 81, 143, 175, Narrinai 152, 255, 303, 338. alankaram ("ornament") , rhetorical embellishment; also, a kind of later panegyric and devotional poetry, e.g. ~ Arunakirinatar's Kantaralankaram "The Ornament of Skanda". alankarapaficakam, poem in 5, 25 or 100 st. in 5 different metres in ~ antati arrangement; the metres are ~ venpii, ~ kalitturai, ~ akaval, ~ aciriyaviruttam, ~ cantaviruttam (vannami, in this order. Cf. VeIJpiippiittiyal Ceyyuliyal 22, Navanitappattiyal 17, Pirapanta marapiyal 14, Citamparappiutiyal Marapiyal 71, Ilakkanavil akkam 844, Tonnulvi( akkam 282, Muttuviriyam Yiippatikdram Oljpiyal147, Pirapanta tipikai 24, Cuvdminatam 169. Alankuti Vankanar (Cankam). Akananiiru 106, Kuruntokai 8, 45, Natrinat 230, 330, 400, Purananuru 319 . Ascribed: ~ Tiruvalluvamalai 53. Alarmelmankal Amma], K., author Tiravita matam (Dravidian Religion), Palamcottah, Saiva Sabha, 1914. The book propagated principles of Salva Siddhanta as the religion of the Dravidians.

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ALATTOR KI!"AR-ALIYAR PULAVAR, KA.

Alattiir Ki!ar (Cankam), Author of Kuruntokai 112,350, Purananiiru 34, 36, 69, 225, 324. A!avantapiHai Aciriyar (13?), one of ancient commentators. His lost work is mentioned by --7 Naccigarkkigiyar in his comm. on --7 Pattuppattu --7 Malaipatukatam 145. A!avantar (0) alias Yamunacarya, of Viranarayanapuram (known also as Yamunaitturaivar), grandson of --7 Natamuni (Nathamuni); one of the greatest Vaisnava scholars and --7 iicdryas (preceptors), head of Srirangam matha, teacher and predecessor of Sri Ramanuja, His Skt. works represent early systematic exposition of Vaisnava Visistadvatta. Author: devotional works like Sristotraratna, lsva~~siddhi, Purusanirnaya etc. Date of birth is given as Kali 4017 = A.D. 914, but other dates are also quoted (26.6.918, and 917). Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava Manipravala, Bombay, Ananthacharya Research Institute, 1978; Mesquita, R. "Recent Research on Yamuna", Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Siidasiens XVllI (974) 183-208. A!avantar Matavapattar (8) of Virai near Vernpattur (Madurai Dist.), author: Na!lavacittam, a series of discourses said to have been delivered by sage Vasistha to Rama on the attainment of the highest spiritual state amidst the pomp of royalty. Based on Skt. original, said to have been reported by Valmiki for his pupil Bharadvaja in 100 thousand st. of which 36 thousand are extant (Yoga Vasistha Maharamayarai, reduced to 6000 by Abhinandana as Laghu Yoga Vasistha, The Tam. version consists of 43 chapters of 2,055 quatrains. Publ, first with comm. of Arunacalacami of Piraisai in 1843; two next eds. 1850, 1851. The text expounds Vedanta doctrines in Sankara's interpretation with endless variety of illustrations in the form of stories. Cf. --7 Arunachalam, Sir Ponnamba1am, Studies and Translations - Philosophical and Religious, Colombo: Dept. of Hindu Affairs, 1981, 14-51. alavati (Ta. metrics), standard line of four feet. A!aviyanar 00 or earlier), ancient grammarian. His name is mentioned in --7 Yapparun kala viruttiyurai (0). alavu (Tam. metrics), lit. measure; verse-length. A!ici Naccattanar (Cankarn), Also known as Alifici Naccattanar Kuruntokai 271. and Cattanar. Ali Utumag (19) of Sri Lanka, Muslim poet, author of Kirtti maiicari and many solitary stanzas. Aliyar (Can kam), author: PUrana!lUrU 298. Aliyar Pulavar, Ka. (late 18), Muslim poet, known also as Acan Ali-p Pulavar. Author of 5 --7 pataippor poems: lpuni AlJra!l, Intirayan pataippor, Ucci pataippor, Taki pataippor, Yatokki

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A~KO~TA VILLI KOVINTACARIY AR-A~UKA~ICCIT AR

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pataippor. The first is also known as Iniyavantan pataippor and Ipuniyan pataippor. Printed separately, in 1878 in one vol. entitled Aintu pataippor, 2950 st. Topic is five battles connected with the life of the Prophet. One of them under the title Ipu!J..iyiilJtii!J.. pataippor is said to have been composed c. 1830, and wa s printed in 1893. This trad. is apparently wrong, since the poet of these war ballads describing legend. exploits of •All b.Abi Talib is also dated 1738, and this seems indeed to be the correct date. A'ko~tavilli Kevintacarlyar, author: The Divine Wisdom of the Dravida Saints (Selections from Bhagavadvisayam), Madras, 1902. alkujalvaral (~ Tolkappiyam Porul 263.1), situation in ~ akam in which the woman holds fast to the folds of her garment when greatly agitated by her lover's presence. Allankjranar (Cankam), author of Narrinai 245. Allappiccai-p Pulavar (19), Muslim poet, author: Kaualoikkalitturai, Cukapullimanenju valanka ninra lmanutai payankal , Saiku Tavutu oli yulla peril pdtalkal , Halarat Cayitu .. . peril patalkal , a long preface to Aiturucu Nayinar Pulavar's Navamanimalai (Mukiyitin puranami. See ~ Ceyku Aptul Katir Nayinar Leppai. Alii Arjuna natakam, folk-play on episode from Mahabharata, rich in characters (Allirani of Maturai, Pavalacena, Cenkarnalam, Arccunan, Pantuvig puttirar, Kirusnan etc.) and plots. Alii Maraikkayar (19). Muslim poet of Nakiir (Tanj ore Distr.). Author: altogether 128 poems, e.g. Imam Acoin Ku cainantavar peril tacarattinam , Neiicarivuruttal, Pankala-c cirappu-p patikam (1884) glorifying in 14 st. his patron at Nakiir. Wrote in various form s, e.g. ~ antati, ~ tutu, ~ patikam etc . Ten of his compositions pub!. in 1878 as Pirapantakkottu , containing 1 ~ ammiinai, 2 ~ vitututu , 1 ~ na vamanimalai etc ., on the Prophet and various heroes of Islam. Alliyaracagimalai, narrative folklore poem ascribed to ~ Pukalenti on Arjuna's marriage to princess Alli of Madurai, and his establishment of Pandya kingdom there. In print 1884, 135 p. Allor .. Nanmulan - ~ Nanmidan. Allor Nagmullaiyar (Cankam). Also known as Nanmullai. Akananuru 46, Kuruntokai 32, 67 , 68, 93, 96, 140, 157, 202, 230, 237 , Purananuru 306. -Alukagiccittar (15? or earlier?), also Alukuni/Alukuni, Tam.Siddha (~ cittar) poet of 32 st. in ~ kallittalicai metre mostly on Yoga and tidnam (superknowledge), addressing Sakti as the mystic child e!J.. kannamma. Good examples of ~ ottani, a figure of speech. Three interesting loanwords occur in his verses: kaiica «Urdu) Indian hemp, cammii arici kind of rice , venkii yam onion, pointK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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AI"vAR

ing to relatively late date. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, The Poets of the Powers, London, 1973; 2nd ed., Integral Publishing, Lower Lake, 1993. alvar « DEDR 396 iiI to sink, plunge, dive, be deep; be absorbed, immersed; alvar one who is immersed, absorbed sc. in meditation on the Supreme Being). There are ten canonized Vaisnava saints and twelve iiIviirs - Vaisnava canonical poets. The discrepancy is caused by the fact that tradition (begun by ~ Maturakavi) regards ~ Nammalvar as incarnation of Visnu, hence not a "mere" saint, and ~ AI).!al, being a woman, is left out. ~ Kuruparamparai 3000 names as first 3 iiIviirs ~ Poykai of Kaficipuram, ~ Putam of Mallai and ~ Pey of Mayilai; they were supposed to have been born in the same month of Aippaci of the same year Cittarti, and each of them to have lived 3325 years by their Yogic powers. In one of his verses, Poykai mentions vinnakar (abode of Visnu) of Ilankumaran, this word may refer to the "ever-youthful" god, but also to the prince: the allusion may thus denote temples of Visnugopa (called Yuvamaharaja, end of 5th c.) or those of Kumaravisnu. ~ Tirumalicai A!var, regarded as contemporary of the three, was also born in the same year, possibly either in A.D. 539 or 599. However, the most probable date for them is, historically, c. 650-700 A.D. It is important to note that in their works the first three had a Catholic view of religion, regarding Siva and Visnu as equal. Next comes ~ Tiruppanalvar, found in a paddy field in Uraiyur and adopted by a childless Untouchable ~ piinar (c. 825 A.D.). Vipranarayana alias ~ Tontaratipoti A!var was a Brahmin of 9th c., whereas ~ Kulacekara A!var (A.D. 9th c.) was a ksatriya. The 8th poet-saint is Periyalvar alias Visnucitta (9th c.). Goda alias ~ AI).!al (9th c.) was found under a tulasi bush by Periyalvar. The 10th poet-saint was the most prolific of all, ~ Tirumankai of the caste of robbers (kall ar; but in fact ruler and feudatory of the Pallavas, c. 800-870), and the 11th and probably the greatest Vaisnava poet-saint was ~ Narnmalvar (c. 880-930), a vellala (cultivator of the sudra varna). The last a. ~ Maturakavi, was a Brahmin pupil of Namrnalvar. Vaisnavas all over Tamilnadu used to celebrate the birthdays of the iiIviirs annually; for these celebrations, the naksatra (asterism through which the moon passes) was more important than the year of birth. Hence in course of ttme the year was forgotten and the naksatra and tithi (lunar day) were remembered in traditional accounts. E.g. Anta] was born in Nala Ati sukla caturdasi Tuesday on Palkuni naksatra in Srivilliputtur. Some histories (like

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A!,.vAR

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Kuruparamparai 3000 or

~ Kuruparamparai 6000) have preserved the year also. Thus there are as sources for dating of iilviirs the traditional chronicles of 14th c. and later, stray verses in ~ Koyiloluku, Tivyacuricaritai (plus 12th c.) and inscriptions. Although the iilviirs hailed from many different strata of society (Brahmin, ksatriya, sudra, robber, untouchable) traditionally every a. is incarnation of something connected with Mahavisnu: Poykaiconch, Putam-staff, Pey-sword, Tirumalicai-discuss, PeriyalvarGaruda , AI)~al-BhiimidevL The other poet-saints are considered incarnations of the god's banner (Vaijayanta), his jewel (Kaustubha), the mark on his chest (Srivatsa) and his bow, while Nammalvar is straightforward incarnation of Visnu himself. Their hymns were composed to be sung (except for portions known as ~ iyarpay. The original musical scores are not available; today the hymns are sung in various ways . All of them are chanted once a year during the 20-day festival (Adhyayana utsava) in South Indian Vaisnava temples. There are three important features of their works : passionate monotheism which is in their work the corollary of ~ bhakti; the belief in subsequent incarnations (avatiira) of Visnu which offered them a wealth of concrete data based on Ramayam, Bhagavatapurara and Yisnupurana; and the belief that the various shrines dedicated to god are indeed real abodes in which Visnu dwells as visible idol (arciivatiira) . At the same time, the whole cosmos is the body of god (viriit svarupai. Another important idea is that man is nothing without god, but god is nothing without man (Tirumalicai in Niinmukan tiruvantati 7: "I am nothing without Thee, Lord / And Thou, Thou art naught without me"). But the path of self-surrender (prapatti) which the alvars advocated is characterized by no restriction as to knowledge, social status or high moral attainments. Since their works are primarily poetry, later Vaisnava theologians, well-versed in Ramanuja's philosophy and Sanskrit, have made elaborate attempts, in ~ manipravala comm., "to link line with line, stanza with stanza, decade with decade", trying to evolve a continuous, logical stream of theological thought in their poetry. The poems of the iilvars were arranged, in the 10th and 11th c., in the Vaisnava canon called ~ Nalayirativyaprapantam, compiled in its kernal portions by ~ Natamuni, prob. of the end of 9th - beginning of 10th c. By c. A.D. 859-900 the a. movement was mostly over and the ~ Acarya movement began Bibliography: Govindacharya, Alkondavilli, The Divine Wisdom of the Dravida Saints. Madras, 1902; The Holy Lives of the Azhwlrs, or the Dravida Saints. Madras, 1902; Gopinatha Rao,

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A!AVEDASAGARA-DUPUIS , LOUIS -SAVINIEN, ABBE

Dravidavedasagara ~ Tiruvaymoli. Dupuis, Louts-Savinien, Abbe (1806-1874), author: Notice sur la poesie tamoule , le Rev. P. Beschi et le Tembavani , par un membre de la Congregation des Missions-Etrangeres, Pp. 81. Pondichery , 1851.

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E ecal, lit. "reproaching, abusing, slander"; poem in which each of two protagonists extols himself/herself and depreciates the other; very productive genre in folk poetry and popular poetry . eccarikkai (lit. "warni ng, caution", excl. of attention uttered in advance on approach on an exalted person), hymn sung before an idol; each of its S1. ends in this word. Editions, of Cankam texts: -) Kalittokai (Ci.Vai. Tamotaram Pillai) 1887; -) Pattuppauu (V.Ve . Caminat'Aiyar) 1889; -)Puranii!luru (V.Ve. Carninat'Aiyar) 1894; -) Ainkurunuru (V .Ve. Caminat' Aiyar) 1903 ; -) Mullaippattu (Maraimalai Atikal) 1903; -) Patirruppattu (V .Ve. Caminat'Aiyar) 1904; -) Porunararruppatai (Makateva Mutaliyar) 1907 ; -) Narrinai (A. Narayanacami Aiyar) 1914; -) Kuruntokai (Ti.Sau. Arankacami Ayyankar) 1915 ; -) Tirumurukarruppatai (A[umuka Navalar) 1917; -) Paripatal (V.Ve. Caminat'Aiyar) 1918 ; -) Akananiiru (Ra. Irakavaiyankar) 1920; -) Pauinappalai (Po .Ve, Comacuntaranar) 1930; -) Netunalvatai (Kopalakirusnarnacariyar Vai.Mu.) 1931; -) Cirupanarruppatai (Kopalakirusnamacariyar Vai.Mu) 1932; -) Perumpanarruppatai (Kopalakirusnamacariyar Vai.Mu.) 1936; -) Maturaikkiiiici (Po.Ve. Cornacuntaranar) 1956; -) Kuriiicippauu (Po.Ve. Comacuntaranar) 1956 ; -) Malaipatukatam (Po .Ve. Comacuntaranar) 1956. Ekacantakkiraki -) Alakappan , Pakai . Ekampara Mutaliyiir (early 20) , author: novel Mdhkalya-p piccai allatu karpukkarac i (Alms of Marriage-Badge, or The Queen of Chastity), based on the part Karpalahkari katai of -) Vetanayakam Pillar's novel Piratapa Mutaliyar carittiram (1879). Marriage Badge was written prob. in 1912 (cf. its review in Yityaviharinii. Ekampara Mutaliyar, Cenci (late 19 - early 20), famous as cittirakkavi and astrologer. Author: Kanna maharacan natakam, Mayiliravanan natakam , Maturaivira alahkaram, Carvavitamurippu miilamum uraiyum, Kalaikkiyana maiicari viyakkiyiinam , Cotita Kotcara Cintamani (with comm.), Nutanapanaikkuri cattiram (with comm.), comm. and ed . of Paccikai cdttiram ascribed to Cakatevan (1905) etc. elappattu , folklore song-poem ba sed on boatmen's song in which the words elo elelo occur repeatedly .

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ELLAPPA NAvALAR-ELLAPPA NAYI~AR

Ellappa Navalar (17-18), alias Caiva Ellappa Navalar, Caivakavi,

Tivyakavi, b. in Iratanallur nr. Tiruvenkatu, educated at Dharmapuram, co-student of -) Pillai-p Peruma] Aiyankar. Author: Cevvantipuriinam (c. 1000 st., on Tiruchirappalli), Tiruvehkattuppuriinam, Tirttakirippuranam, Tiruccehkdttdhkutippurdnam, (Tiruvuirur-k kovai on SrI Tyagaraja, Arunaikkalampakam, and even -) Arunacalappuranam, ascr. to -) Ellappa Pupati, are also ascr. to this poet. In M.S. -) Purnalingam Pillai's Tamil Literature (1929 , pp. 309-10) as well as in K.A. Nilakanta Sastri's account (History of South India, 3rd ed., 1966, p. 388) the two Ellappas are merged into one. -) Irakavaiyankar, Mu., has shown conclusively tCasanauamilkkavi caritam, pp. 172-9) that the two poets were different persons. Cf. V. Cupa. Manikkam (ed.), Tamil-p pulavar varalarru-k kalaiiciyam, Part I, Annamalai Univ ., 1974, pp. 330-32; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/K61n, E.J. Brill, 1975, p. 228; D.D. Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths, Princeton Univ. Press, 1980, passim. Tirttakirippuranam in 14 chapters was publ. in print 1870. Ellappa NaYinar (c. 1542-1580), b. at Talainakar nr. Tiruvannamalai, known also as Ellan, Ellanayinar, Ellankalinkan, Ella(ppa) Pupati, Ellappa Navalar, Kalinkarayan Unnarnulai Ellappa, Salva scholar in Skt. and Tam. of Vanniyakulacattiriyam. Inscr. M.E.R. 419 of 1928-29 (dated A.D. 1572) mentions his poems under the name Kalinkarayan (gotra name), Unnamulai Nayinar (father's name) Ellappa (pers.name). He was different from -) Ellappa Navalar, Caivakavi, as shown decisively by -) Irakavaiyankar, Mu., Casana-t tamilkkavi caritam (1937) 172-9, cf. also Tamilp pulavar varalarru-k kalaiiciyam, Annamalai Univ., 1974,33031. Author: Arunacalapuranam (13 books, 649 -) viruttam st., or 12 books, 586 st., ascr. also to Ellappa Navalar), of high poetic quality; ed. Raya, Cokkalinkam, with ancient comm. and detailed introd. by -) Jakannatan, KLVa., Tiruvannamalai, 1970 (3rd ed. 1974), old ed. Madras, 1901, with comm. by -) Makalink'Aiyar, Malavai. Prose version of books 2-4 pub!. in Madras, 1927; Arunaiyantati (102 -) kalippii st.), Tiruviriiicaippuranam (8 chapters, 370 st.), Tiruppalaipp antalula (inscr. 401 of 1938), Arunaikkalampokam, Tiruvarurk kovai (396 st.), comm. on Tam. version of Sankara's Saundaryalahari by -) Kaviracapantitar (16), 3 st. on the construction of 3 gopurams of Tlruvannamalai temple under Tanjore king Cevappa Nayakar in Saka 1494 (= A.D . 1572). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/ K61n, E.J. Brill, 1975, 228; also The Tamil Plutarch, ed. 1946, 26-27 .

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ELA TI-ElYINTA!"!, YAI.

Kovarttanar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 66, 194. Kovenkai-p Perunkatavagar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 134. Koventan, Ta. (Kaveri-k Kavirayar, b. 1932), author: poetry Kaviiian katali (Poet's Sweetheart), Pecum oviyahkal (Speaking Pictures), Colanai-p piuuven. (I'll sing about the Chola), etc., translations of Soviet literature. Kovintacaml Aiyar, Mu, (early 20), author: movel Manonmani (1914); identical with -7 Kovintacami, Mu.? Kovintacami, Mu. (early 20), author: novel Mi!lii16ca!li (1909). Kovintacami Raja, Pi.Ci, (late 19 - early 20), worked in the office of Collector of Anantapur, died aged 40. Author: novel Marakatavalli (1st ed 1901?, 2nd 1902, reviews in Nii!lapoti!li, April, 1902, and Vivekacintamani. July, 1902). The novel, written in -7 centamil natai, creates types from contemporary life; apparently, the somewhat wicked protagonist (turned virtuous), Marakatavalli, as well as virtuous Kamalamma], were modelled upon author's second wife Cuntarammal (cf. Amirta KUlJa Potini, March, 1933). To take as protagonist a negative character was an innovation during the period when all writers created only virtuous characters as heroes. It seems the novel was written in 1898 and publ. in instalments in a Madras journal. Accord. to the review in Yivekacintamani, author's close friend -7 Iramalinka Mutaliyar, Tirumayilai, rewrote in 1901 almost the entire story of Marakatavalli as first part of his novel Iivarattinam under the heading Cuntaravalli, perhaps with author's consent. Marakatavalli is also mentioned in a review of Pandit Natesa Sastri's Tinatayalu, Madras Christian College Magazine, 1902. Cf. also -7 Iramalinka Mutaliyar, Tirumayilai. Kovintan kolai cintu, ballad composed by P.M.S.C. Rajan alias Killiraja of Nellur. Based on illicit sexual relations of a young second wife of an old man with a young servant. Kovintan, the elder son of the family, kills all three, the wife, her lover and her husband. The motive for triple murder is the attempt to wipe off the stain on the family's honour. The moral drawn from the story: the women become immoral due to the influence of cinema. Her young low-caste lover Kuppag died because of his illicit love. The husband died due to his foolishness and impotency. The murderer Kovintag was hanged in Vellur prison, but whole village mourned his death and folk-judgment proclaimed him a hero. For detailed contents see N. Vanamamalai, Interpretation of Tamil Folk Creations, Trivandrum, 1981. Kovintall, Vai. (20), folklorist, ed. Tamil ruittu palankataikal (Old Stories of Tamilnad), New Century Bookhouse, 1965. 7 folk-narratives.

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KOVIT A~. VE.-KOYIL01,UKU

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Ve. (Vintan, 1916-1975), well-known prose writer with pronounced message of deep humanism and social reform. Short story collections Ore urimai (Just One Obligation, 1952), Camutdya viroti (The Enemy of Society, 1953) , Vintan kataikai (1956), Mulla ikkotiyai (She ' s Like a Jasmine Creeper, 1956), Niilai nammutaiyatu (Tomorrow Is Ours , 1960), Irantu riipa» (Two Rupees, 1967), novels Kan tirakkumii (Will the Eye Open?) , Piilum pavaiyum (Woman and Destiny). In this novel, the heroine Ahalya is a persevering woman who despite her having been deceived before attempts to begin a new life. Continually frustrated in her striving by society's prejudices she commits suicide. K . criticizes the narrow-mindedness and the smothering concept of chastity (karpui so dear to Tam . society and tradition. He uses the basic outline of the original Ahalya myth to work out completely mod., contemporary tragical story. Cf. transl. of a story into Czech in Novy Orient 7 (1952) 6.100. Kovinta Pillai, VLMa. Tiricirapuram, Makavittuvajj (d. 1890), author: Vaisnava Mannarkayil puranam (1868) on Tirumal (in print 1904); Salva Nakaippuriinam (1898) on Taficai. Ed.: ~ Kampari's Ramayanam , comm. on its Cuntarakiintam. Kovintaraca Mutaliyar, Ka.Ra. (1874-1949 or 1952). Studied Tam. literature with various scholars and poets (including ~ Iramalinka Cuvami). 1895 began teaching, was engaged in teaching for ca. 50 years. Ed. many commentaries or grammatical works (~ Nakkirars on h:..aiya!1ar Akapporul , on ~ Nanniil, on ~ Yapparunkala karikai, on ~ Neminatam , ~ Ilampuranar's on Tolkappiyam Eluttatikarams , composed own comm. on minor classical works (~ Nalavenpii, ~ Tirikatukam , ~ Iniyavai ndrpatu, ~ Innanarpatu etc.); was also original poet of devotional and didactic poetry. Author: scholarly analyses of ~ Tiruppiivai and ~ Mullaippattu. Many prose-works on literary heroes (e.g. Kovalan caritai) and literary figures (e.g. Alvarka( varalaru on the history of Vaisnava poet-saints). Had many students, most famous among them ~ Venukopala Pillai, Me.Vi. Knvurktlar (Cari.kam) , author: Kuruntokai 65, Narrina! 393 , Pu rana!1iiru 31, 32, 33, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 68, 70, 308, 373, 382, 386, 400 Koyil Kantatalyannag (15), Vaisnava poet, disciple of ~ Manavala Mamuni, author: Kanni nun ciruttamp u, panegyric poem in 13 ~ kattalaikkalitturai st. ~ antati arrangement. Koyiloluku, chronicle of Vaisnava Srirangam temple. An important source: from emergence of the temple prob. in 5th c. A.D. to Muttuvirappa Nayaka of 16th c., traditions of wor ship as well Kovitan,

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PILLAI, HENRY ALBERT

as works of construction and renovation have been regularly recorded. Its core may belong to 13th - 14th c., but final redaction prob. 16th - 17th c. Eds. Kirusnamaccariyar, 1888; Pandits, Ananda Mudraksara Sala , Madra s, 1909; V.N. Hari Rao , Koil Olu gu , The Chronicle of th e Sriran gam Temple, with Historical Notes ,

Rochouse and Sons, Madras, 1961. Koyljpuranam (1st half, 14), --7 stha lap urana on antiquities, legends and traditions connected with the Temple (koy il) , Le. Tillai-Citamparam, in 5 chapters , 415 --7 vir uttam st. by Umapaticivaccariyar. Eds. Kaficipuram Capapati Mutaliyar, Madras, 1867; Arumuka Navalar with his comm., 1868. Krishanamachariar, V. (19), author: Select Papers , Speeches , and Poems in English and Tamil Connected with Pa chaiyappa Mudaliyar . . ., Madras, 1892.

Krishnamacharyar, Vempakkam, Divan Bahadur (early 20), scholar and editor; ed. --7 Murukataca's Pulavarpuranam, 1901; author: Panniru pulavar carittira cdram (brief biographies of 12 Tam. poets, together with essay on --7 muttamil and navarasam , poetic sentiments) , 1906. Krishnamurthi, R. --7 Kri snamurti, Rd . Krishnan, Rajam --7 Rajam Kirusnan. Krishna PiIlai, Henry Albert (Kaviyaracar Kirusnapillai , 18271900), besides --7 Viramamunivar-Bescht the most significant Tam. Chri stian poet. 1852 appoint. Tam. teacher in a mission school. Journalist. Cooperated with P. Percival as Tam . pandit, Presidency College, Madras. Became Christian 1858. Teacher, Maharaja 's College, Trivandrum. Liter. advisor to Chri stian Literature Society, Madras. Author: Iratcaniya yattirik am, Tam . adaptation of John Bunyan ' s The Pilgrim' s Progress (first part of this work appeared in Tam. in 1793, entire poem in Tam. version publ. in Jaffna, 1853; another Tam. version 1882). K .P. composed his Tam. version in 1894 in 5 books subdivided into patalams (c. 4000 st. in 47 chapters), modelled in diction and style on --7 Kampen's epic (as he himself says in the Preface). Most of the characters, personifications of abstract qualities , are retained from Bunyan even with their allegor. names, trans . from Eng. into Tamilized Skt. However, the work has 9 lyrical devotional hymns in pure bhakti trad. scattered throughout the text in 144 verses; they belong to highlights of the book. Life of Jesus in c. 500 st. is woven cleverly into the figurative story of 2nd book . Other works: Porrittiru akaval (1884, modelled on --7 Tiru viicakam) , lratcaniya manokaram (1899) , collection of songs in praise of the Lord (written in manner and style of --7 Tevaram hymns and

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KRISHNASWAMI AIY ANGAR-KRI~~AMDRTTI. RA.

363

of -7 Tayumagavar); Iratcaniya camaya nirnayam (1898); prose works. Eds.: Iratcaniya yattirikam, 1st part, Cennai Kiristuva Cankam, 1927; 2nd part, 1931; abridged version, ibid. 1977. Cf. Gnanasigamani, G., The Conversion Story of H.A. Krishna Pillai and His Family, Ayanpuram, 1977; Jothimuthu, P., "Krishna Pillai (1827-1900), General Evaluaiton of the Tamil Poet", Tam. Culture IX (1961) 3.301-04; Mary Masilamani, "H.A. Krishna Pillai's Contribution to Tamil Literature", Proc. of the First Intern. Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Vol. II, Madras, 1969,22431; Yesudas, D., "The Pilgrim's Progress and Iratcaniya Yaatirikam", ibid. 232-36; Kirecu Celvaraj , "Kaviyaracar Kirusnapillai", in: Tamil ilakkiya-k kolkai, 3, Madras, Intern. Inst. of Tam. Studies, vol. 3, 1978, 249-82. Especially, Appasamy, A.J., Tamil Christian Poet - The Life and Writings of H.A. Krishna Pillai, United Society for Christian Literature, London, 1966. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, S. (1871-1947), first professor of Indian history and archaeology, Univ. of Madras (1914). Author Ancient India, Madras, 1911, Pref. by Vincent Smith, Beginnings of South Indian History , Madras, 1918, Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture, Calcutta, 1st ed. 1923, 2nd ed. 1942, Ancient India and South Indian History and Culture, 2 vols, Poona, 1941. Krishnaswami, T.B. (20), author: South Arcot in Sacred Songs, anthology of devotional poetry in Engl. transl., Omalur, 1937; trans. of ancient Tam. didactic collections Ten Tamil Ethics, 2nd ed. Madras, 1950, reed. 1957. Krishnaswamy, Sucheendram Yegnanarayana (b. 1906), author: Anglo- Tamil novel Kalyani' s Husband, Madras, 1967, 308 pp. Krlsnaiyankar Cuvami (20), author: Colamalai-k kuravaiianci. Krisnamnrtti (Kirusnamurtti), Ra. (nom-de-plume, Kalki), who appeared on liter. scene in c. 1921-22, is the creator of Tam. histor. romance, the greatest raconteur in Tam. literature, whose popularity is based on his great gift of story -telling, his healthy humour, his minute study of social and cultur. aspects of the current period, his creation of picturesque and unforgettable heroes, and his easy diction and smooth style. He was also an immensely prolific writer who created at least 35 vols. of novels, stories, essays, travelogues, causeries, biography. Life: B.9.9.1899 in Salva Brahmin family at Puttamankalam, Tanjavur Dist. 1917 study at Tiruchchi. 1921 leaves school to engage in freedom struggle; in Sept., meets M.K. Gandhi. 1922 spends one year in jail. First serious attempts at writing. 1923 meets -7 Rajagopalachari. Oct.: sub-editor of -7 Tiru. Vi.Ka. ' s Nava cakti.

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KRIS~AMDRTTI ,

RA.

1924 marriage . 1927 first publ. book Carataiyin tantiram mutaliya kataikal ("Sarada's Schemings and Other Stories", 8 stories, reed. 1930, 1962). 1928: leaves Navacakti, meets ~ Vacan, Es.Es. Aug.: first essay under pseudo Kalki publ. in ~ A!lantavikata!1 . 1930: 6 months in jail. 1931 joins staff of A!1antavikata!1. 1932 meets

~

TLKe.Ci. 1937 appears in installments first popular novel

Kalvanin katali ("The Brigand's Darling"). 1938: trip to Sri Lanka. 1938-39: novel Tyakapumi ("Land of Sacrifice"). 1941 leaves A!1antavikata!1. In jail for 3 months . Magazine Kalki founded. 1944: Civakamiyin capatam ("The Vow of Sivakami", most popular

hist. romance) . 1945 engaged in film making. 1947 construction of Bharati mantapam in Ettayapuram, due to his efforts. 1950 begins writing Ponniyi!1 celvan ("The Darling of Ponni"), his largest hist. romance. 1950-51, 2nd and 3rd trip to Sri Lanka. 1951: president, Tamil elutuilar can kam. Dies 5.12.1954 . Large narrative works : K . has written and publ. at least 14 large novels, romances and narrative works (Ka(va!li!l katali, 1937, Tyakapumi, 1938-39, Makutapati, 1942, Parttipan kanavu, 1941-43, Civakamiyin capatam, 1944, Apalaiyin kannir, 1974 , Colaimalai ilavaraci , 1947, Alaiyocai, 1948, Ponniyi!1 celvan , 195055, Tevakiyin kanavan, 1950, Mokinittivu, 1950, Poyman karatu, 1951, Punnaivanattupuli, 1952, Amara te-o. 1954). In Kaivanin kdtali ("The Brigand 's Darling") he described the protagonist a thief, an entirely antisocial hero - with great sympathy and sense of humour. The romance became instant success. Tyakapumi ("The Land of Sacrifice"), made into film scenarios, tells the sad life of Savitri. Like ~ Matavaiya's Muttuminaksi, she suffers in the paternal house from her stepmother, and after marriage from her mother-in-law who is equally cruel. Her father-in-law is quite indifferent, and her husband does not please her either. Finally, she is chased out of the house . She becomes rich, a court orders her to return to her husband but she avoids this by letting herself be imprisoned for participation in struggle for Independence. In this novel, K . has proved that he is able to compose a serious and dramatic work. In addition, he introduces the figure of Campu Castiri who with his bhajans mingles with the Harijans and accepts them as equals . K . also depicts well scenes of freedom struggle, jailings, official repression. In Apalaiyin. kanavu (1947), the protagonist, all through his life, fights against black market, but in the end K . makes him buy sugar from a black marketeer. Parttipan kanavu C'Parttipan 's Dream", Oct. 16, 1941 - Febr. 10, 1943) is th first mod. Tam . hist. novel. It takes place in Pallava period of 7th c., and inspiration came to K. on the seashore

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of Mamallapuram as he was accompanied there by TLKe.CL His most popular hist. romance is Civakdmiyin capatam (The Vow of Sivakami") which deals again with 7th c. Pallava history during reign of Mahendravarman, and some truly unforgettable characters appear in it (Civakami herself, the Pallava crown prince and later king Mamalla, ~ Paraficoti, king Pulikecin, the "villain" Nakananti), The book reads as well as the best of Alexander Dumas or Walter Scott. In Colaimalai ilavaraci (1947) , structurally the most complex of his novels, K . skilfully alternates chapters from Ind. history with contemporary events. He relates events of 1842 when British forces established themselves firmly in India to the great August movement of 1942, the culmination of anti-British struggle. Thus this novel combines histor. and sociopolitical writing. Alaiyocai ("The Sound of Waves", begun in 1948, 1950 Sahitya Akademi award) is probl. his best true novel. Its background are national events between 1930-48: Salt satyiigraha (1930), Quit India movement (1934), 2nd World War (1935-45), Japan's invasion of Malaya and Hiroshima-Nagasaki (1945) , great August movement (1942), Indian National Army, Indian independence (1947), Pakistan, cruelties of razzakars and communists in Hyderabad and Telangana, integration of Indian states, and assassination of Gandhi, Jan. 30, 1948. It is undoubtedly one of the great novels of Tam. literature, portraying how individuals, families and human relationships are affected by the struggle for Independence. Personal lives of its characters and histor. events complement each other. The narrative is based on the course of the heroine's (Cita) life. K. attempts to give complete picture of 20 years represented from the angle of Gandhian principles, but does not avoid portraying other views, to the left and the right of Gandhi (e.g. pro-Japanese Indians speculating on alliance with the Axis as well as critics of Gandhi 's economic policies from the left). All major cities of India figure prominently in the novel, and the picture of violence during the partition is also included. The reader witnesses Gandhi's assassination and its impact. The style is absorbing, language rich , narrative well controlled. Ponniyi!1 celvan ("The Darling of Ponni") is the largest of his hist. romances; it unfolds in 5 vols. (1950-55) and is about 10th c. Chola history. This is the last great novel of K. Poyman karatu (1950): this novel develops without any major incident. Although a horrible murder happens there, nobody dies; there is a fire accident, but no one is injured. On the other hand, there are some delightful and humourous scenes, like Cenkotan's first experience of seeing a cinema. One must

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admit that hist. narratives of K., are rather romances than true hist. novels. Picturesque heroes go on performing series of adventures, and sometimes it seems that the author is led by his plots instead of controlling them. Various motifs and incidents repeat themselves in several novels. Social history mostly escapes him; he does not offer total picture of the people (unlike e.g. W. Scott) but rather like A. Dumas unfolds thrilling plots and creates lively characters. From both these authors K. has adopted certain cliches (the device of creating original and duplicate - e.g. Nakananti and Pulikecin in Civakami, a la Dumas; or characters in disguise - e.g . Narasimhavarman in Civakami, or Curiya in Alaiyocai disguised as ascetic, a la W. Scott). The first interesting figure in his novels is the thieving hero in Kalvanin katali; the reader feels as much sympathy with him as his sister Apirami and his sweetheart Kaliyani, A great character is the Buddhist monk Nakananti; and quite interesting are the three heroines of Alaiyocai (Cita, Lalita and Tarani), He began his literary career with short sketches, causeries, essays and stories (Carataiyin tantiram mutaliya kataikal , 1927, reed. 1930, 1962; Ettikkuppotti - hasya viruntu , 1930, reed. 1947). At least 10 story anthologies of his appeared: Orrai roja ("Single Rose", 1952) , Karirulil oru minnal ("A Lightning in Black Darkness" , 1952) Matattevan cunai (" Ma~ attev a!!' s Fountain", 1957), Ma yilviliman (1962 ), V[IJai Pa vant (1965 ), Ma yilaikkiiiai ("The Bullock of Mayilai ", 1968), Svarnalokam ("Indra' s Heaven ", 1962), Carataiyin tantiram (reprint of 1927 stories), Kanaiyaliyin kanavu ("The Dream of Signet Ring", 1971): many of the stories included in these anthologies were of course written much earlier (in the 30s and 40s) and publ . in journals and magazines. His early stories (e.g. " Kamala ' s Wedding" or "The Poisonous Mantra") have proper shape and form of short story, though they are by no means perfect. In his later stories (say, " Immoral Life") the form cracks and dissolves; the story is usually too long , loose tales describing many scattered incidents and a number of characters, of unsatisfactory structure. He wa s at best in stories manifesting kind humour and gentle irony, e.g . in "The Tiger-King", a soft satire on the puppet rajas of mod. India: The raja, born under the sign of Taurus, will die because of a tiger, since there is animosity between bull s and tigers; hence he becomes famous tiger-killer, but dies from infection caused by the splinter from a wooden tiger toy of his son. In "The Money of God" tCam ipanams, the narrator travelling by train from Calcutta to Madras tells a friendly co-passenger that he is taking to god Venkatesvara of

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Tirupati the money his wife has saved due to a vow. The friendly co-pa ssenger steal s his suitcase. At the bus-stand to Tirupati the narrator sees the thief again and overhears him say that he has made a good catch but, afraid of touching money for god, he will offer it himself to the Lord of Tirupati. This make s the narrator happy: his money will reach its destination, and he may postpone his own pilgrimage to later date and undertake it with his family . In "Sri Kantari's Rebirth" (Sri Kantan punarjanmami a Brahmin widower, awed by a Brahmin woman 's involvement in non-violent freedom- struggle, falls in love with her and joins polit. life. When he learns that she had left her husband because she was mistreated by her mother-in-law, he agrees: the fight for social freedom is more important than struggle for political liberty. Both go to prison. When she is released few months after him she learns that he stopped his polit. activities and celebrates his marriage to a l3-year old girl (in extraterritorial Pondicherry to evade new law raising minimum age of marriage). "Ketaris Mother" tKetariyin tayarv: Ketaris mother has been abandoned by her husband for an actres s. Despite her poverty she sends her son to college, and thanks to his brilli ant achievements and good behaviour a rich orthodox man offers him his daughter in marriage. The mother does not ask for dowry but only that her son is sent to England for further studies. During his absence news arrives that her husband has died, and to comply with her orthodo x in-law s she agrees to have her head shaved. When Ketari return s form England he is so shocked at seeing his beloved mother disfigured in a widow' s attire that he falls ill and dies. His beautiful teenage widow has to undergo the same horrid treatment. "Tappili Cup" is a story based on Guindy racetrack , and generally on the custom of betting on horses. Two friends - one writer, the other actor - are practically broke; so the writer writes a play about horse race (called "Tappili Cup"), and it is staged to full house. Its message is of course that betting on horses is criminally wrong and sinful. The first thing the two friends do - after enormous success of the play - is that they go to the race track stadium and bet the 5000Rs the play brought them, on horses. Other works: Parati pirantar (on Bharati, the "national" poet of Tamilnadu whom K . admired) , Tahir taricanam (on R. Tagore ' s work) , Ilahkaiyil oru vdram (on the trip to Sri Lanka), Makatma vum miikaviyum , Munru mata-k katuhkdval etc. Cf. "Kedaris Mother" (Ind. Literature 9.1, Jan.March 1966, p. 33), "Tappili Cup" (Mahfil VI, 1970,2-3, 10511 ), "The Governor 's Visit" (R.S. Kennedy, Publi c Voices, Private K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Voices, 1980,96-102); in Russian, Sum voln (trans. of Alaiyocai, Moscow, 1964). See further, K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar, Kalki, The Indian PEN Club 21, 3, Bombay, March 1965 (very informative) ; R. Dhandayudham, "Special Features of Kalki 's Novels", Proc. of the First Intern. Conference Seminar of Tam . Studies, 1969, II, 288-95; V.A. Makarenko, "K charakteristike tvorcestva Kal'ki", Literatura Indii, Moscow, 1973; Meenakshi Murugarattanam, Kalkiyin cirukatai-k kalai, Maturai, 1976; R.S. Kennedy, Public Voices, Private Voices, 1980, 103-20. kujili-k katai, evening bazaar; shop in evening bazaar selling chapbooks, between c. 1800 - c. 1987. kuj ilikkatai books, cheap booklets of songs, ballads, folk narratives and folk plays published mostly in print in Madras, sold in the bazaar called Kujilikkatai in the Southern end of Devaraja Mudali Street, George Town, Madras. Cf. ~ chap-book, chapbook. Kukai-k Kc}!iyar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 364. Kukai Namaccivayar alias Kukai Namacivaya Tevar (16), Salva ascetic who spent most of his life in Yogic meditation in a cave (kukai) on the Arunakiri (Tiruvannamalai) hill and was prob. also first Head of the Kukai Namacivaya ~ matha there. His disciples were ~ Arumuka Cuvamika] and ~ Kuru Namaccivayar. Author: Arunakiri antati (1548 A.D., 100 venpa + 1 + 3 st.), philos. poem celebrating Siva, with ~ Siddha ideology, ed . with comm. by Ve. Arumuka Mutaliyar, 1965, and of Atikalaciriyar, Tanjore M.S.S.M. Library, 1967; Conakirimalai. Kukapriyai (20) , authoress of novels and short stories. Novel Cantirika (1935) won 1st prize in A!1antavika{a!1 contest. It is the story of an unfortunate family which goes through a series of misfortunes. A young man joins the Independence movement and is imprisoned. His sister disappears. Thereafter, Pataficali Castiri's family which had moved from village to town undergoes further hardships. The wife of Castiri goes mad. His youngest boy tries to commit suicide, but is saved by a friend. At the end, with the help of a svdmi, all members of the family are reunited and happy ending follows. The novel is written in the manner of early 20th c. novels filled with mysterious happenings, seemingly tragic events, romantic adventures and improbabilities. Other works: short novel Mallika (1948), story collection Jivakalai (1945) etc. The lady-writer was very popular precisely because of the romantic sentimentalism and mysterious suspense of her writings, although there is some attempt at realism and description of contemporary events. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Kulacekara Alvar, Vaisnava poet-saint. The dating for this poet by R.G. Bhandarkar - 12th c. AD. (Vai~1JL1vism, pp. 49-50) - is clearly wrong, since one of his hymns tTirumoli 2.1.1) is mentioned by its first words, tettaruntiral, in inscr. of AD. 1088 (S././. III, p. 148; cf. K.A.N . Sastri, The Colas, p. 658). He was a Ceral king who calls himself king of Kolli, Konku , Kutal and Ko]i (this would not be possible before c.AD.800) . B. in Tiruvaficaikkalam, accord. to Kuruparamparai 3000 in year Parapava, Suklapaksa of month Maci , on tvataci, punarvacu of Friday, i.e. 29.1.706 A.D. When ~ Periyalvar sought advice of ~ Nammalvar for dedicating his adoptive daugther ~ AI)taJ to Ranganatha, K . (and ~ Tontaratippoti) were present. In his Perumal tirumoli 2.2.62 he uses the words tontaratippoti which relates in some way to the alvar of that name. Hence it is very probable that the two were contemporaries (the verse says, " if we bathe in the tontaratippoti - i.e. dust from the feet of holy devotees - who sing and dance and cry after Arankan, there is no need to bathe in the Ganga"). K. sings of the Tiruccittirakkutarn temple of Govindaraja which was built in 750 A.D ., hence he must have lived after that date. Accord. to legends, his religious preoccupation proved increasingly embarrassing to his ministers : thus, e.g., he wa s on his way to Sri Lanka to rescue the captive SUa and had already plunged into sea to swim the straits when Rama appeared in person with SUa to assure him that his help was no longer needed. Other storie s are told of his devotion. At last he abdicated and devoted himself to Tam. and Skt. literature. We may possibly ascribe to him foundation of Rama worship in Tam. India. His verses on Rama "are among the most fascinating ones on the subject in Tamil before the days of Kamba-ramayana" (Jesudasan, A History of Tamil Literature, 1961, 98). One of his poems is a Ramayana in miniature. Author: Perumal tirumoli, 106 hymns in I st Thousand, most interesting among them st. devoted to KJ;~I)a and Rama, He may also have been author of favourite devotional poem in Skt. Mukundamiilii of 105 st. (cf. Srimukundamala, ed. by H. Rama Pisharoti, Annamalai Univ., 1933). Two Skt. dramas are attributed to him - Tapasi samvaranam and Subatra tanaiijayam . These Skt. works are not recited in temples. Prob. date c. 850 AD. Cf. K.O. Sesha Aiyar, "Kulasekhara Alvar", Kerala So ciety Papers, Series 1 (1928) 30-9; Te. Po. Minatcicuntaranar, Kulacekarar , Koval Kalaikkatir, 1961 ; Alkondavalli Govindacharya, The Holy Lives of the Azhvars or the Drtivida Saints , Mysore , 1902. Trans. V. Raghavan, The Great Integrators , 4th ed., Delhi, 1979, 98 tPerumal Tirumoli 3.8). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Kulacekara Varakuna Rama Pal}tiyan (16), prob. relative of ~ Ativirarama Pantiyan; may even be identical with ~ Kulac~kara Varatuilka Pantiyan. Author: Ampikaimalai in praise of Sakti. Ascribed to him: Tam. version of Liiigapurana, llinkapuranam in 2 books tPiuvakaniam, 108 chapters, Uttarakiintam, 46 chapters) in 2056 ~ viruttam st.; attrib. also to Ativirarama. Tam. version of v ayucankitai (ascribed also to either Ativirarama or Kulacekara Varatunka). Kulacekara Varatunka Pal}tiyan (16), elder brother or cousin (?) of ~ Ativirarama Pantiyan; alias Apiraman Varatunkaraman of Kacinatu. Author: Piramottarakkaniam in 1310 ~ viruttam st. (22 chapters) on greatness of Paii caksara mantra (namaciviiya), of sacred ash , and of Siva's sacred days; melodious, devotional 3 antati poems on Tirukkaruvai (attributed also to Ativirarama); prob. also Civakavacam . Ascribed to him: Tam. version of Kokkokam (335 st. in 6 chapters) on modes of sexual union; Tam. version, Viiyucailkitai (attrib . also to ~ Kulacekara Varakuna Rama Pantiyan) . kulamakag ("youthful son") , poem in which women praise the worth of a young hero; in ~ kalivenpa. Cf. Yenpopiu, Cey. 27, Ilakkanavii. 87 etc . Kulam Katiru Navalar (1833-1908) of Nakur, well-known Muslim poet and scholar, studied with ~ Minatcicuntaram Pillai , became one of the scholars of ~ Madurai Tamil Sangam, author: Tirumakkd tiripanuiti (pedantic and learned poem on Mecca), Nakurppuranam (1893), Matura ikkovai, Cirapurana vacanam, Nannul vilakkam, Pulavar drruppatai (Messenger - Poem for the Poets) based on ancient genre of ~ arruppatai. inaugurated under ~ Pantitturai-t Tevar, Author directs a wandering poet to the newly established Tamil Academy of Madurai. Showing him the way and the means how to reach the city , he introduces fascinating description of an innovation - the train: its mouth full of fire, it breathes like a demon, rolls on like a millipede and is likened to a thunderous cloud. Edited 34 liter. works, prepared Arabic - Tam. dictionary. Kulampanar (Cailkam), author: Narrinai 288. Kulampatayagar (Cailkam), author: Purananuru 253 . -Knlankai-t Tampirag (alias Kulankaiyar, b. 1699? - d. 1795), b. at Kaficipurarn, became Salva monk at Tiruvavatuturai, lived in a matha in Tiruvarur (?) where he was apparently falsely accused of a crime, was maimed (hence his nickname "maimedhanded"), settled in Jaffna with the help of Vannai Vaittiyaliilka-c Cettiyar, admired Christianity but most prob. remained Saivite K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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and yet composed poems with Christian themes: Yoseppuranam (1023 st.) , preserved only in fragments, and Teyva-p piracaiyin tirukkatai (Sacred History of the People of God, containing the story of Jesus); taught Tam. to Father Gabriel Pacheco (supposed or actual author of the Sacred History?), taught Tam. grammar to Nellainata Mutaliyar, studied Dutch and Portuguese. Phil. de Melho (q .v.) was his close friend . However, accord. to ~ Purnalinkarn PiHai, M.S., Tamil Literature (1929, p. 321), "he was a Siddhantin about 140 years ago; his arm was by nature too short, and hence his nickname"; he authored Citti Viniiyakar tiruvirattaimanimalai. His most import. work is detailed comm. (~ kantikaiyuraii on ~ Nannul, ed. by A . Dhamotharan, Heidelberg, 1980. Cf. Introduction. Kulantaicami-p Pillai, AT.Pi. (early 20) , author: novel Cattiyavalli (1909 or 1910): first Tam. histor. novel with setting outside Tamilnadu (on Rajasthan's history). Kulantai-k Kavirayar (18) of Mitilalppatti, Civakankai, son of Mallaiyiir Alakiya Cirrampala-k Kavirayar, author: Manvitututu (Deer-Messenger, ed. U.V.S.Iyer, 1936) on Tantavaraya-p Pillai; Tinakavitai-p pustakam on god Murukan of Kunrakkuti (5117 st.), critically edited with introd. and notes by J. Raju Mudaliar, vol. I, GOML, Madras, 1956 , vol. II by M. Rajakkannu, GOML, Madras, 1956 . Kulantai Mutaliyar (date?), author: lriikavar pillaittamii (GOML, Madras). Kulantai-p Pulavar (b. 1.7.1906 near Erode), son of Muttuccarni-k Kavuntar, teacher of Tam., poet, commentator, author of grammars on Tam. prosody (cf. Yappatikaram, Madras, 1959 , Totaiyatikaram , Madras, 1967), plays (Tamil valka , Cinnamalai), poetry : Iravanan kaviyam (1st ed. 1946, 2nd 1971), epic poem in 5 books, 57 cantos, 3100 st. The hero is Iravanan, noble and cultured Dravidian who is ultimately killed by the despicable Aryan villain Iraman, The entire poem is permeated by the contrast and clash between "Aryam" and "Tamil" civilizations. Aryans are portrayed as ruthless conquerors, animal-slaughterers, meateaters, drunkards and fornicators , whereas acurar (i.e. Tamilians) are gentle and cultured vegetarians. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, "Ravana the Great in Modern Tamil Fiction", JRAS 1988.1: 126-34. Kulantai Veluppillai, Vilupuram (early 20) , co-author, with ~ Acalampikai Aruma], of Tiruvitaiyur-t talapuranam (1909) . Kularrattan.ar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 242 . Kulavalinkajj (alias Kuravailinkan ; date?), author: Tiruvitaikka littalappuranam on Murukan in 2280 ~ viruttam st., unpubl. Kulottunkacola caritai ~ Tirunarayana Pauar. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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kuluva natakam, type of popular street-play developed in 18th c. and early 19th c. in particular in Ramanatapuram and Tirunelveli districts as street-shows to be inacted, with the protagonist being member of the Harijan kuluva (bird-catcher) community . Introd. portion in akaval precedes actual action giving account of the poetic hero (usually patrons, local rulers, chieftains in southern Tamilnadu). Main action is mostly about bird-catching, the actants being kuluvan , Cinkan and Cinki . Kuluvan and Cinkan go birdhunting, spread nets, catch birds, share them with their ruler, obtain presents, return to their mountain. Cinkan searches for Cinki who comes with gifts given to her for her fortune-telling . Cinkan and Cinki meet and become affectionately intimate. Play ends with praise of gods and patron. Only small number of the plays have so far been printed (~ Kottur Nayinar kuluvanatakam, ~ E£u Nakarattar peril kuluvandtakam, ~ Cinna Makipan kuluvanatakamy. Other k. plays were (or are) in existence (Tirukkurriila-k kuluvanatakam, Arunacalam Ceuiyar peril kuluvanatakami. The story of k.n. is basically the same as that of the 2nd part of ~ kuravaiici, with one major difference: in kuravaiici, Cinkar; is the main hunter; in k.n., the main hunter is kuluvan. See also ~ kuram , ~ kurauippiutu, ~ kuravaiici (naiakam), Kumaracami Pillai Pulavar, A. (1853-1922) of Cunnakarn, Jaffna, scholar and editor, member of Madurai Tamil Sangam (19011922) . Author: Cicupalacaritam (1912), Rakuvamca caritamirtam (1922) Hitopatecam (1912) for children in simple style , Kannakikatai (1900), Tamil pulavar carittiram (1916) , biographies of Tam. poets, Ramayanam-Palakantam (1981) with scholarly notes ; gram. work on Tam. verbs Yinappakupata vilakkam (1913) ; Mekatuta karikai (1902); ed. of ~ Yapparuhkalam with note s (1900), ~ Venpappattiyal with note s (1900), ~ Taniiyalahkaram with notes (1903), ~ Yapparunkalakkarikai with notes (1908), ~ Akapporulvilakkam with notes (1912), dictionaries ~ Uriccolnikantu, ~ Ciuamaninikantu, a number of other works of Tam. literature (~ Nitinerivilakkam, 1901 , ~ Tiruvatavurar puriinam, 1904, etc .); compiled classical Tam. dictionary Ilakkiya Collakarati (1914), as sisted in compilation of other Tam. dictionaries (by ~ Katiraiverpillal etc.) and Tam. Lexicon (Chandler), wrote over 100 essays publ . in Centamil (1901-1922) . Kumaracamiyar (17) of Paluvur, author: Tiruttavatturai-p purdnam (on Lalkuti in Tiruchirappalli Distr.), A.D. 1665, 765 st. in 18 chapters, Salva. Kumara Caracuvati (16), one of the court-poets of Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529), author: occasional stanzas. Cf. Irakavaiyankar, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Mu., Peruntokai, Madurai 1935-36, no. 1242, and note p. 606; Centamil 22, 284-5. Kumaracinka Mutaliyar (late 18 - early 19) Christian vellala poet and physician. Took part in protest against imposition of tax on ornaments by Governor North (1800 A.D.) at Mannar, was tried for sedition and sentenced to be whipped (!) . While being whipped, composed series of stn. on Virgin Mary. Author: Catholic devo tional poetry. Cf. Simon Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, ed. Colombo, 1946, 54-55. Kumaracuvami Avatani (16), author: Teyvaccilaiyiir viralivitututu in honour of a Nayaka agent in Tirunelveli. It is possible that this work from end of 16th c. is the earliest known -7 tutu poem. Cf. -7 tutu, -7 vitututu, -7 viralivitututu. Kumaracuvami Mutaliyar, (late 19) of Valluvetti, Jaffna , son of Katirkama Pupati, author: Arulampalakkovai, Tiruvir Cuppiramaniyar patikam, Mu(iiy ccitti Viniiyakar uncal, Nallai-k kalitturai, Kantavanandtar uncal, Intirakumiira natakam. Kumaracuvami Mutaliyar 2 (20) of Celam, author: Kantapuriina-k kirttanai. Kumaracuvami Mutaliyar, M. (late 19-early 20), author: narrative prose Matana Lilavati (Madras, 1901). Kumaracuvaml Mutaliyar, Utuppitti (19), author: collection of poems Kumiira Cuvami Mutaliyar kavi-t tirattu (Valvai, 1887). Kumaracuvami-p Pillai (20), author: Pavanippatirruppattantati. Kumaracuvami-p Pulavar, A. (1850-1922), b. in a velala family in Cunnakam, son of Ampalavanar, student of Murukeca Pantitar and Nakanata Pantitar, scholar, poet and translator. Author: Tamil-p pulavar caritam, Vina ippakupa vilakkam, Cicupiila caritam , Mekatuta -k karikai, Iramotantam, Canakkiya nitivenpa. Kumaracuvami (Kurnarasvami), Ta . Na . (pseud. Vacistan , b. 1907). In 1935 transl. Bankim Chandra 's novel from Bengali into Tam . as Vi$a viruksam (Poisonous Tree); subsequently, many other works of Bengali literature incl. works of R. Tagore, Tarasankar Bannerji, R. Bannerji, Santosh Kumar Ghosh etc. This activity was very important for development of Tam. prose fiction. K . authored five novels and many stories. Novel Ottucceti (Sticky Grass, 1955) with the memorable characters of Conku, Katirvelu and the woman between them, Kannamma, as well as excellent pictures of village life offers deeply moving insights into human heart, and this quality distinguishes almost all his writings. Story collections Cantirakirakanam (Moonrays, 1955), Ikkaraiyum akkaraiyum (At This Shore and At That Shore, 1959), Karpakavalli (1968), Kanniyiikumari. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Kumaracuvami Tecikar (early 18) of Viravanalliir (Tirunelveli Dist.); lived in Tiruccentiir Ati!!am. Author: Kumaracuvamiyam, an astrological poem in 4 cantos, 54 chapters, 4312 st. (publ . 1869). Kumaracuvami Tecikar, Kaficipuram (19), scholar, author: comm. on -t Na itatam (1842) and on -t Tiruvataviirar puriinam (1896) . Kumaracuvami Upattiyayar, Kauvai (late 19), author: lraniyavilacam, Madras, 1899. Kumara Cuvamiyar (19?), author: Cihkisvari paricata ndtakam , Kumara Kulacinka Mutaliyar (1826-1884), Christian author of Sri Lanka, author: Pativirata i vilacam . Kumarakuruparar (? - A.D. 1688), one of the most prolific poets of Tam. literature. Date: As disciple of -t Macilamani Tecikar (4th Head, Dharmapuram matha, 17th c.) he wrote Panuiramummanikkovai (philos. poem in his praise) . The 5th Head of Tiruppananta] matha after K., Tillainayakacuvami, is dated in 1720-56 A.D . There were 3 managers of the monastery before him and after K . All this points to late 16th c. for K. There is also a trad. that K . lectured on -t Kampan in Benares, and that Tulsidas attended his lecture s and was influenced by him ; obviously unhistorical, since Tulsi (1532-1623) began his poem in A.D. 1574 while K . arrived in Benares sometime after 1655. Full (partly legendary) biography : B. at Srivalkuntam (nr, Tirunelveli) to pious Salva velala parents. Was dumb till his 5th year. Parents took him to Sri Subrahrnanyasvami temple, Tiru ccentiir, where by grace of Murukan his disability disappeared. The boy suddenly attained powers of poetry and on the spot composed Kantarkalivenpa. Having learnt Tam. from his father Sanmukacikamani Kavirayar, he took to austere way of life, left home, wandered throughout Tamilnadu composing poems on temple deities, and at Dharmapuram became student of Macilamani Tecikar. After initiation to samn yasa asrama he was sent to Benares. While being court-poet of Tirumalai Nay aka in Madurai, one day when inaugurating his poem in praise of Goddess Minaksi, the goddess appeared as a young girl and sat on the lap of Nayaka king and, taking off a pearl necklace, put it round the poet's neck. When K. arrived in Benares, his fame reached the mughal court in Delhi. Emperor Augrangzib expressed desire to see him, and the poet-saint (who had in the meantime mastered Urdu) rode to court on the back of a lion, symbol of pride and courage. The Emperor wa s so much impressed that he bestowed on K. a plot of land in Benares near Kedar Ghat, and there K. built Kumarasvami monastery which became heart of religious activities. He lived in Benares till the K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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end of his day s except for short visit to the South to pay respect to his guru. For legend. and histor. accounts of life cf. A.V. Subramania Aiyar, Tamil Studies 2, Tirunelveli, 1970, 28-31, and Ka, Cuppiramaniya Pillai , Kumarakurupara Atikal, varalarum niilaraycciyum, Kazhagam, 1st. 1932; reed. 1963; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, 1974, 214-15; id ., Tamil Literature, Leiden, 1975, 229-30. The 5th Head of Benares monastery returned to the South and established Kacimatam at Tiruppananta] (Colanatu), appointing someone else to take care of the Benares matha. After him, the Tiruppanantal matam remained the main establishment. Succession of the Heads was then Kumarakurupara Cuvamika] II (1756-90), Citamparanata (1790-98), Cataiyappa (1798-1836), Kanapati (1836-38), Iramalinka (1838-41), Cokkaliilka (1841-52), Kanapati II (1852-53), Iramalinka II (185380); 1880-94, by order of court, no head; Ponnampala (189498) , Cornacuntara (1898-1914), Cokkalinka II (1914-19), Cokkalinka III (1919-30), Cuvarninata Cuvamika]. Author: Tiruccentur-k Kantarkalivenpa, 122 2-line st. in ---7 kanni metre on god Murukan at Tiruccentiir, which constitutes together with ---7 Arunakiris Kantaranuputi and Kantaralahkaram the Parayanatrayam (Trinity of Verses for Recitation), chanted daily by all Subrahrnanya devotees; Minatciyammaippillaittamil (102 st.) on goddess of Madurai; ---7 kuram and ---7 irattaimanimalai on the same deity (uncertain authorship); Muttukkumaracuvami pillaittamil on Murukan of Vaitticuvaran koyil (when young ---7 Cuvaminat'Aiyar wished to pray daily to the deity of Tamil, he recited this poem every morning, cf. Autobiography p. 280); Maturaikkalampakam (102 st. on Siva of Madurai); Tiruvarur nanmanimalai (40 st. in four metres on Siva Tyagaraja of Tiruvarur); Kayilaikkalampakam (on Siva of Kailacapurarn); Kacikkalampakam (on Siva of Kasi); Kdci Vinayakar patikam; Civakamiyammai irattaimanimalai; Citampara mummanikkovai (on Siva Nataraja); Cakalakalavallimalai (10 st. in praise of Sarasvati, said to have been composed in Benares to gain proficiency in Urdu so as to be able to converse with the Emperor in Delhi); Pantaramummanikkovai (in praise of his teacher Macilamani); Citamparacceyyutkovai, on Tam. prosody (yiippu) , defining and illustrating different metres; well-known Nitinerivilakkam ("The Lamp in Path of Righteousness"), 102 ---7 venpa st. on moral subjects. Ed .: Sri Kumarakurupara Cuvamikal pirapanta-t tirattu, ed . with notes and critical analysis by U.Ve. Cuvaminat' Aiyar, 1st ed . Madras, 1939, reed. Annamalai Univ ., 1988. Cf. Adam, J.B., Les petits poetes tamouls, comprenant . . . Nidinerivilkakkam, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Karaikal, 1880; Arunachalam, H. (trans.), Kantarkalivenpa, Madras, Bharati Vijayam, 1949; Balasubramania Mudaliar, N., "Gleanings of Tamil Poets", Siddhanta Deepika V (1902) 11.177-80 (st. from Citamparamummanikkovaiy; id., in ibid. II (1899) 11.24950; Nallasvami Pillai, J.M., "Some Stanzas from Tiruppa", ibid. V (1902) 11.185-87; Stokes, E. (trans.), The Nitinerivilakkam of Cumara guru para Tambiran, containing a hundred and two stanzas on moral subjects, with an Eng. translation, vocabulary, and notes ... Madras, 1830; Walker, J. (trans.), Nidimozhittirattu, A selection from the writings of Tamil moralists, for the use of schools, Madras, 1841 (contains trans. of Nitinerivilakkami. Kumarakurupara Tecikar (early 18), author: AtmariimiiyalJam and Nanakkuravaiic i. Kumarakurutaca Cuvamika], Pampag (alias Pamban Svami, 1850 or '53-1929), Salva ascetic, devotee of Murukan, author of large number of Salva religious and philos. poems, essays on esoteric philosophy, Salva catechisms, etc. His most import. and popular works comprise: Tiruppa (1st ed. 1899 by E. Irattinavelu Mutaliyar, 2nd ed. 1920, 3rd. 1974), relig. and philos. poetry in many different metres with comm.; Takaralayarakaciya mulamum uraiyum ("The Mystery of the Shrine of Innermost Heart") in 2 books (~ kiilJram) with his own comm., 1st ed. 1912, 2nd 1973; Salva esoteric philosophy; mostly on Murukan; Tivotya cauucarapotam ennum Civaiuina tecikam (1893); Vetauai-k kuritta vittiyacam (1903), Irama Cetumanmiyam (1897, on Ramesvararn), Cuppiramaniyam enpatai-k kuritta viyacam (1899, on Subrahrnanya), Srimat Kumdracuvdmiyam (1923, 2nd ed. by Pari Accakam, 1966, 5 kantam's , on Kumara) , Kumarakurutiica Cuvamikal patal (81 ~ prabandhas), Tirupporur-c canniti mural, Civaiiana tipam (1921, reed. 1961), Aruma1Jrala-p purana-t tirattu (poetry, 1973), Centan centamil, Arunakirinata cuvamikal caritacurukkam (short biography of poet ~ Arunakirinatar, 1966), Caiva makimaiyum curukka anuttanavitiyum (1967), etc. etc. In 1901, his poems appeared as Kumarakurutaca Cuvamikal patalum Tiruvalan karrirattu mutalam irantam kaniamum (6666 st.). K. has large number of followers and devotees; some of his writings are regarded as scriptures by them . Kumaralinkar kujavafici, Anonym., of A.D. c. 1630 or c. 1750. On a Pandya vallal named Kumaralinkan. Ed. K.V. Jagannathan and Pandit Balasaranathan, Madras, 1982. Kumaramalai Maruntar (date?), author: Salva Tiruttinainakar-p puriinam in 16 chapters, 853 st. Kumarag akaval, anonym. devotional poem in ~ akaval form, Dr. V.V. Swaminatha Iyer Library Cat. No. 1408 b. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KUMARA pARATIyAR, PUTUVAI-KU~ACAKARAR2

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Kumara Paratiyar, Putuvai (date?), author: Cara vana Tecikar tottiram , Tiruttontar malai. Kumaratevar (18), maharaja in Karnataka, renounced throne, became disciple of Cantalinka Cuvamikal, lived under a sacred fig tree, became ma ster of ---7 Citampara Cuvami of Tirupporur and of Retti Citampara Cuvami. Author of a number of Virasaiva religious and philosophical works in ver se and pro se : Attuv itavu nmai, Viiiiiii!J:.aciiram, Pirammanupiai vilakkam, Makara ca turavu, Akama neri -y-akaval, Piramanupava- v-akaval , Vetanta taca av attai -k kaualai, Yetanta taca kariya-k kattalai, Nanavammdnai , Piramacittiy-akaval, Upateca cittanta-k kattalai , Ci vatarican a-v-akaval , Camaraca- v-aka val , Cuttacakam , Cakacanittai , comm. on ---7 Tiru varur-p puranam etc. Kumarave], Pattukkettai (b. 1925) , author: Pecum kankal (Speaking Eyes, 15 short stor ies, Madras, 1985 ), Cantanakkoppai (Madras , 1985 ). Kurnaravelu Mutaliyar (19? ), author: Til/a i venpa malai. Kurnara Vicai yakiri Vela-c Cinnovaiyan (Cinno!!, 18), zamindar and Ta m. sc ho lar and poet of Vai yapurinatu. Author: ---7 Yaiyapurippallu, c. 1770. Kumattiir-k Kannanar (Cankam), author: Patirruppattu 11-20 , 2nd decad on Imayavarampan Netuficeralatag . kummi , dance w ith rhythmic clapping of hands to time, and singing , mainly by girls; poem composed in metre adapted to k. dance. Cf. A.N . Perumal (ed.) , Kummippatalkal , M adras, Intern. Inst. of Tam. Studies, 1982. Kumpakavi (17 ) of Ku tantai, kammalar (s mith) by ca ste , rival of ---7 Patikkacuppulavar w hom he va nquished in poet ic contes t at the court of Tontaiman. Obtained land exe mpt from tax from Raghunath a Sethupati. Cf. ---7 Peruntokai nos. 1704 and 1792. Kumpakonapuranarn (date?), a no ny m. ---7 sthalap uranam on Kurnpakonarn in 1406 st. + payiram . A later K. in 23 84 st. was composed by ---7 Mlnatcicuntaram Pillai, Kumpanata Cettiyar (date?), author: ---7 patikam' s on A.tikumpecar. Kumulifialalar Nappacalaiyar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 160. Kumutacantira Pal)titan Tirunarayana Pattag, Kavi (A.D. 1097), author: lost Kulottuhkan caritai , biography of Chola emperor. Kumutini ---7 Rahkaniiyaki Tiittam. Kunacakarar, (10 ), Jaina scholar, teacher of ---7 Arnitacak arar, the author of ---7 Y'appa ruhkalam and ---7 Yiipp nrunkalakkdrikai. Mo st prob. date c. 950-1000. Kunacakarar, (mos t prob. II ), stude nt of ---7 Amitacakarar, the author of ---7 Yiipparunkalam and ---7 Y'apparunkalakkarikai; author: K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

378

KU~APATTIRA.!'i, KU~APATTIRAMU.!'iIVAR-KU~TALAKECI

fine comm. on the karikai. The Preamble to the text gives his name as Kunakkatarpeyaron ("The one whose name is Ocean of Virtue"). The name he took is identical with the name of his teacher's master, Kunacakarar. , His most prob. date is 1025-50. Eds. of the comm.: earliest, 1853; Me .Vi . Venukopala Pillai ed ., 1968. Kunapattirag, Kunapattiramugivar, Jaina scholar supported by Krishna II Rashtrakuta. Identical with Kunapattiran of Tirunarunkunrai who appears in ~ payiram to Ciuamaninikantu as pos sible teacher of ~ Mantalapurutar? Apitanacintamani states that he might have been Mantalapurutar' s student. Kunatittaj; Cey (12) of Muvalur, Tiruvaluntur, author: Kdkuttan katai (1170 A.D.). Kunavira Pantitar (alias Neminata Atikal, late 12) of Kalantai, Tontainatu. Jaina grammarian, student of Vaccananti of Kalantai, contemporary of Kulottunka III Chola Tribhuvanadeva (11781218), author: ~ Neminatam, grammar on ~ eluttu and ~ col in 96 st., inaugurated under Pantitamuni. Also author of ~ Venpappauiyal alias Vaccanantimalai in 100 st. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/K61n, EJ. Brill, 1975, 193. Kunrakkuti Atikal (1925), Salva monk, involved in social and cultural politics, author: book of 42 essays Kurat celvam (2nd ed . 1984) and other books. Kunram Putanar (Cankarn), author: Paripiual 9 Katavui valttu, Paripatal 18 Katavui valttu . Kunra-t Turaiyag (date?), author: Srivacana piisana mimamsii (in ~ manipravaia diction) . Kunriyanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 40, 41 , Kuruntokai 50, 51,117,238,301,336, Narrinai 117,239. Kunrfirki!ar Makanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 332, Purananuru 338 . Kunrutaiyan kataiyum patalum, anonym. folk ballad, ed . by Kannanar, P., Calakantapurarn, 1968. Kuntalakeci, lost Buddhist narrative-polemic kavya, accord. to trad . one of the "five major epics" (~ aim-peruh-kappiyami. Mentioned four times in ~ Yiipparunkalavirutti (11-12), twice in comm. (12) on ~ Yiracoliyam . Comm. (15) on ~ Nilakeci gives the gist of its story . 19 st. preserved in ~ Purattirattu (14). ~ Tiruvorriyur NiiQappirakacar in his comm. (16) on ~ Civaiuinaciuiyar quotes its st. K. must have been in all probability intact in 14th c. Ascr. to Natakuptanar (Nathagupta). The heroine Kuntalakeci ("the female with hair in rings") wa s a Vaisya (merchant-class) maiden. A Vaisya youth, Kalan, who was a handsome gambler and robber K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KUt;lTUKAT pALIYATA~AR-KUPPUCAMI MUTALIYAR , ARA~I 379

(but also a Buddhist) was being escorted under sentence to death to prison when Kuntalakeci saw him and fell at once in love with him. Her father approached the king, begged him to pardon Kalan, and gave him his daughter in marriage. One day during their honeymoon Kuntalakeci in one of her love-sulks accused Kalan of being a rascal; the furious youngster wanted to kill her by pushing her down from a steep hill (and robbing her of her jewels), but she was quicker. As he fell he realized Buddhahood and obtained liberation. Kuntalakeci, struck with remorse, renounced the world, held disputations with exponents of various religions, and attained liberation. This story is found in several North Indian Buddhist sources in Skt. and Pali. The late Tam. work Vaiciyapuranam (1855) quotes an entirely different story which had been connected with the story of Kuntalakeci, The poem belonged prob. to 9th or 10th c . Cf. May ilai Cini. Venkatacami, Maraintupona Tamil nulkal, 1959, 216-27; K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, 1992,69-72. Cf. Burlingam, E.W., Buddhist Legends Translated from the Original Pali Text of the Dhammapada Commentary, Part 2, Harvard Univ. Press, 1921, 227-32 (contains trans. of Pali version of K . story) . Kuntukat Paliyatanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 220, Purananuru 387. Ku.Pa.Ra. ~ Rajakopalan, Ku. Pa . Kuppai-k K6!iyar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 305 . Kuppucarni Aiyar, Ma. (Makeca Kumara Carma, early 20), transl. Bankim Chandra Chatterji's famous Bengali novel Anandamath (l. !1antamatam, Madras, either 1906 or 1908 ; several years earlier, prob. 1902, transl. from Engl. version by Tiruccirrampalarn Pillai); it was very influential in development of Tam. polit. and histor. novel. Author: novel Nirmala (1907). Trans. of Bankim Chandra Chatterji's Candrasekhar (orig. 1877, Tam. version Cantiracekaran, 1908). Kuppucami Mutaliyar, Kajkulam (early 20), ed. of Ceyur Murukan pillait-tamil (1902), ~ Nalatiyar (1903), Minatciyammai pillaittamil (1903), Oruturaikkovai (1905), anthology of devotional st. Tiruppatarrirattu (1905). Kuppuccami Mutaliyar (early 20) , author: Anucuyai venpa . Kuppucami Mutaliyar, Aral}i (early 20), author of many novels of entertainment. Beginnings of his liter. career are not known: his novel Matanakanti is reviewed in Nov . 1911 issue of Centamil. In A!1antapoti!1i (ed. Nakavetu Municarni Mutaliyar), K. publ . his Irattinapuri irakaciyam in instal. in 1915 . Began pub!. under K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

380

KURALATI-KURATTIPpATTU . ' ..

his own name in 1917. By that time, 31 novels of his had already appeared in A!J.antapoti!li; writer and editor were close friends; their cooperation earned both tremendous popularity. K. belonged to the group of 3 novelists who had much in common (the other two being ---7 Turaicami Aiyankar, Vatuviir Ke., and ---7 Rankaraju, Je.Ar.): all were prolific in composing rather superficial novels of suspense much in imitation of Eng. novels of crime and detection, or direct adaptation of Eng. romantic novels; all wrote and publ. fast; all earned quick popularity. There were also differences among them: the most accomplished and gifted novelist was undoubtedly Turaicarni, although valuable pages are found also in Rankaraju, K. was author of at least 43 novels, mostly of suspense, crime and detection, or mystery novels. The most popular one is Maiicai araiyi!l marmam allatu Tuppariyum apiirva camarttiyam (Secrets of the Yellow Chamber), 7th ed. of which was publ. in Madras in 1951. Other well-known works: 1916: Alakanantan, Patmacani, lntirani, Rankanayaki, Ratnapuri rakaciyam (Secret of R), 1918: A!lantaci!1, Matanapusani, Karkouai, 1919: Mincara Mayavan, Ampujaksi, 1922: Kamalacekaran , 1923: Umar Pdsa, Karpaka Cuntari, 1924: Lila, 1928: Rajamani, 1931:

Kirusnacin.

kuralafi (Tam. prosody), short metrical line of two feet. kujal venpa, frequent stanzaic structure, esp. in gnomic poetry: distich consisting of 2 lines the first of which contains 4 feet, the second 3 feet , organized accord. to rules valid for ---7 venpii. Employed typically in ---7 Tirukkural. kugam, poem developed prob. in 16th c. about fortune-telling of the kuratti as central theme; in contrast to ---7 kuravaiici which contains two stories (god/king - lady and kurava!l - kuratti), k. contains only one, the story of god/king - lady; whereas kuravaiici is composed in dramatic dialogue, in k. only kuratti speaks. So far, we know some 16 k. poems, of which 11 are available today. The earliest seems to be M1!lafciyammai kuram. Cf. ---7 kuravaiici,

---7

kurattippiutu,

---7

kuluva natakam.

Kujamaka] Ilaveyijji (Cankam), author: Purananuru 157. Kuramaka] Kuriyeyini (Cankarn), authoress: Narrinai 357. kujattippattu, poem in which a Kurava woman is represented as describing to a young woman her fortunes in her love-affair tTonnidvilakkam 283). It is of 10 S1. Before ---7 kuram "fortunetelling" became a theme of ---7 kalampakam, it prob. formed basis of k. There are no known instances of k. which would have survived. A description in ---7 Pannirupattiyal mentions main character of k. (i.e, kuratti who knows past, present and future , and that it K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KlTRAVAI LINKAN-KURAVANCI (NATAKAM)

381

has 10 st.). However, it does not even say what actually the fortune -telling woman does or what she predicts . We may presume, as hypothesis, that k. was the kernel out of which developed the dramatic monologue of kuram genre which led to the development of dramatic dialogues of -7 kuravaiici and -7 kuluvaniitakam as enacted performances. Cf. -7 kuram, -7 kuravaiici tnatakami, -7 kuluvaruitakam. Kuraval Linkan (date?) , author: Tiruvitaikkali-p purdnam in 3200 st., 18 chapters. Salva. kuravafici (natakam), genre so-called because the most typical and diagnostic character is a kura -vaiici, i.e. woman of Kuratva) tribe, fortune-teller (alias kurattii. Type of -7 muttamil play, composed to be performed, accompanied by music, songs and dance . One can think of k. text as a libreto of a romantic/comic opera. There are 2 parallel stories both dealing with love, the first with love of high-born lady for a lofty hero (king or god), the second with love between two low-caste people. Hence, the love story is a kind of mirror-image offering simultaneously contrasts between serious and comical, "high" and "low". The 2 stories are connected through the fortune-telling kuratti who is usually the one best described, and the actual protagonist. In part 1, the hero (king/prince or god) rides in procession through a settlement, a high-born young woman sees him, falls in love, suffers in longing, sends her friend as messenger to him. A fortune-telling woman of the Kuravar community arrives and predicts that ultimately the hero will marry the lady . In part 2, a hunter and his friend go hunting, while the hunter is also looking for his sweetheart/ wife. He finds her, and after a quarrel they are reunited . Minor events and descriptions, conventionally prescribed, are added. The characters: young, handsome, high-born hero; his friend/charioteer; young, beautiful, high-born heroine; her confidante; kuratti, pretty intelligent fortune-teller; the hunter; his sweetheart/wife; his friend. This can be exemplified on Kumaralihkar kuravaiici (77 st.), of anonym . author ship, c. 1750 (ed. K.V. Jagannathan and Pandit Balasaranathan, Madras , 1982): King Kumaralinkar rides through town. Young lady Virakamokini (lit. "Lustful seductive female") sees him and falls in love. Pining away with desire, she sends her friend Navacitrarekai to him as messenger. A kuratti fortune-teller, Cinki, arrives and predicts that Kumaralinkar will come and marry Virakamokini. The heroine rewards the kuratti (1). Cinkan, a hunter, and his friend ikuluvan, bird-hunter) go hunting birds . Cinkan searches for his wife Cinki. He finds her, and after a slight and comical quarrel they are reunited. In addition, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

382

KUB.AVANCI (NATAKAM)

king Tatulinkar, the hero's father, and a herald are mentioned. K. was very productive genre between c. 1680-1830, but there are also quite recent works of the kind. It prob. developed from erotic but sublimated "balet" that originated when feudal lords and rich landholders in late middle ages began to utilize templedancers as instruments of entertainment. A pantomime with appropriate costumes became play with stereotyped plot: young unmarried girl chances to see a handsome high-born and rich person and falls in love; she invites a fortune-teller to tell her the future; the maid carries a love-message, the hero appears (usually in disguise) before the girl but she does not yield, steadfast in her love; satisfied with her fidelity, the god or lord reveals himself and marries her (cf. the plot in the last canto of ~ Kantapuranami. The vocalist of the orchestra sang the songs composed as substitutes for dialogues. This kernel developed in the hand of accomplished poets into important and productive liter. genre. In addition, the motif of fortune-telling woman of Kuram community , which is as ancient as the class. bardic poetry of ~ akam, and which became part of ~ kalampakam, developed in 16th c. into separate genre, ~ kuram . Possibly the earliest k, known so far is anonym. Taiicaivellaippiliaiyar k. (unpubl., The Tanjore Saraswati Mahal Libr. Ms. No. 614 [aD discovered in 1925 by L. Ulakanata Pillai (who gave it its title) , cf. The Journ . of the Tanjore Sar.MahLibr. XVI, 3, 1962. Its author praises Vicaiyarakavan, i.e. Vijaya Raghava Nayaka, ruler of Tanjavur, 1633-73. Best-known kuravaiici '« are Kump ecar kura vaiici by ~ Papanaca Mutaliyar (c. 1680), Taiicai Maratti ya mannar Cakaci kuravaiici (c. 1685), Tiyakecarkuravaiici (c. 1685), Mokinivilacar kura vaiici (in 3 languages, Tam., Skt. and Telugu, c. 1685), the best of all, ~ Tirukkurralakkuravaiici by ~ Iracappa-k Kavirayar (1718), Poyyamoliyicar kuravaiici (1740), Kumaralinkar kuravaiici (1750), Muttanantar iianakkuravaiici (1750) , Ampolappalli Atimulecar kuravaiici (c. 1780), Karaikkuravaii ci (c. 1780), Nallainakarkkuravaii ci (c. 1780), Muttukkiruuinan kuravaiici (1830), Kac ceri Mutaliyiir kuravaiici (1830), Alakarkuravaiici (}840). Dozens of k. plays were composed, incl. Muslim (e.g. Nanaratnakkuravaii ci of Pir Mukammatu, 18th c.) and Christian (e.g . Petlaken kuravaiici by Vetanayaka Castiri, 1774-1864, ed. CLS , Madras, 1964) play s, in pre-mod. and early mod . periods. A number remain as yet unedited and unpubl. in print. Cf. also ~ kuram , ~ kurattippattu and ~ kuluvanatakam. Cf. Kulathuran, G. , "Folk Influence in Pallu and Kuravafici", Journ. [Inst. of] Asian Studies VI.l (Se pt. 1988) 93-101; Niramala, G.D. , K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KURINCIPpATTU-KORMAPURANAM .. .

383

"Kutavanjci and other minor poetry", Proc. of the 5th Intern. Conference-Seminar of Tam . Studies, 2, 7b-25-35; Sathiasatchy, Ponnu. Andrew, "Understanding the Kutavanjci Naadakam", ibid. 2, 7b-37-48 (very informative). Kujjficippattu (A Poem of Kuriii ci, The Song of the Mountains) alias Perunkuriiici (cf. ~ Naccinarkkiniyar 's comm. on ~ Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram Akattinai. 10, and ~ Parimelalakar's comm. on ~ Paripatal 19.77) , ascribed to ~ Kapilar, one of the ~ akam poems of ~ Pattuppattu anthology, contains 261 lines in ~ akaval. Accord. to the colophon accompanying the comm . it was composed by Kapilar to instruct the Aryan king Pirakattan (? Prahasta) in Tamil (love-poetry). This tradition, and the catalogue of 99 flowers typical for the ~ kuriiici region appear to agree with the suggestion that the poem was composed as a model. It tells the story of a chieftain who falls in love at first sight with a maid, and his love is reciprocated. The girl' s fostersister help s the lovers to meet. The parents, finding the change in their daughter strange, invite exorcists to treat her " illness"; when they are told that her lover had saved their daughter twice (once from drowning and once from a rogue elephant), they give their consent. There has been some doubt about Kapilar's authorship (Sivaraja Pillai, LR. Marr) which, however, seems unsubstantiated. Cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harassowitz, 1974, 19-20; id., The Smile of Murugan, Leiden , EJ. Brill , 1973, 58-9; P.N. Appuswamy (transl.), Love in the Valley (Kurinjippattu], Calcutta, 1973; For the catalogue of flowers cf. P.L. Samy, "The Plant Names in Kurificlppattu'', iTS 1 (Sept. 1972) 73-103, S. Vithiananthan, The Pattuppauu - a historical, social and linguistic study (PhD thesis, Univ. of London, 1950), p. 20, X.S. Thani Nayagam, Nature in Ancient Tamil Poetry, Tuticorin, 1953; K. Kailasapathy , Tamil Heroic Poetry, Oxford, 1968, p. 131; M. Varadarajan, The treatment of Nature in Sangam Literature, Madras, 1956, p. 62 . kugippu (Tam. rhetoric), that which is implied or understood, in opposition to the obviously expressed (velippataiy ; sugge stion, symbolic term, word indicating a meaning by implication (= kurippuccol, kurippumoliy; kurippuvamai implied simile, metaphor ; kurippu designates also mental response to the nine sentiments (TL). Cf. Ma.Ra.Po. Kurucami, Tamil niilkalil kurippu-p porul, Madras, 1980. Kuriyiraiyar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 394. Kurmapuranam (late 16 or early 17), in 3714 or 3717 st. by Ativirarama Pantiyan, in 2 books tPurvakantam, Uttarakantami . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

384

KURRALAKKU~UVANATAKAM--KURUKKU~ANCIKATAI

Based on Skt. model. Said to "flow like milk". Comm. by ~ Citamparanata Kaviracar and ~ Katiraiver Pillai. ~ Tattuvarayar's lcurakitai is based on Uttarakanda of Skt. Kurmapurana . Kurralakku!uvanatakam, anonym. dance-drama praising greatness Dancers-actors kuluvan, cinkan, of Sri Kurralanatar. . - cinki. In verse. U.V. Swaminath 'lyer Libr. Cat. 4, 1962, no. 2097. Kurralam Rajappa Kavi ~ Iracappa-k Kavirayar. Kurrao Kumaragar (Cankam), author: NarrilJai 244. knrru (lit. utterance, declaration, word, speech), in Tam. rhetoric and poetics, utterance of one of the dramatis personae of a class. Tam. poem of the ~ akam hypergenre. In each akam poem, there is a character who functions as speaker of a descriptivenarrative monologue, and speaks to himself/herself or to a listener or listeners (~ ketpor), The ketpor are not receivers of the text (i.e . readers or audience) but belong to the dramatis personae. In contrast, poems of the ~ puram category and, in fact, all later poetry (didactic, narrative-epic, devotional etc.) are personal monologues of the poet or the poet's utterances destined for audience/ readership. Cf. T. Takahashi, Poetry and Poetics - Literary Conventions of Tamil Love Poetry, Ph.D . dissertation, Univ. of Utrecht, 1989. Accord . to ~ Tolkappiyam Porul 490-1, the following 12 speakers are identified: parppan (Brahmin [?]), ~ piihka!l (hero's friend), ~ toli (maid-friend of the heroine), cevili (heroine's fostermother), the hero, the heroine, ~ panan (bard), kiatan (dancer), ~ virali, parattai (courtesan), arivar (wise men), kantor (onlookers). Kurucami, Ma.Pa. (Ponmari, b. 1936), author: poetry Malarkkottu (Bunch of Blossoms), novels, Ilamai-k kanavu (Young Dreams) etc., six plays, many essays. Kurucami, Ma.Ra.Po. (Vernpan, b. 1922), author: essays on Cilappatikaram, classical poetry , works of ~ Varataracan, Mu ., Assamese literature, etc. Kurukai-p Peruma] Kavirayar (16), Vaisnava vellala scholar and poet of Alvartirunakari (Tirunelveli Dist.) . Author: well-known treatise on rhetoric Maranalahkaram (so entitled in honour of Marar; = ~ Nammalvar); Tirukkurukamanmiyam, ~ talapuriinam on Alviirtirunakari (birth-place of Nammalvar); Miira!lki(avimal}imalai, Maranakapporul, Namperumdl mummanikkovai, Tiruppatikakkovai, prob. also Miira!l pappiivinam. Kurukai Vaikuntar (date?), author: lramayana-c cintu. Kurukesa ~ Tirukkurukai-p Piran Pillai . Kujukkulanci katai, folk ballad of 633 verses, located in Kaficipuram. Tuntimuttu, young man of Mutaliyar community, falls in love with a Brahmin girl, Puranavalli, daughter of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KURUK.sETRAM-KURUNA~ACAMPANTAR

385

Ramacastiri. Aware that society will not approve of their union they flee to a distant region in the South (Kottarakkarai), The girl's parents die of shock, and her elder seven brothers pursue the fugitives . Caught, the lovers are put to gruesome death. The dead Puranavalli transforms into a ferocious male deity, taking the name Kurukkulafici and, refusing to be contained either by magic or witchcraft or propitiation, roams about destroying men and things like a wild beast. K. settles finally as the tutelary deity of Kopalacamuttiram. Publ. first with Engl. transl. in The Wandering Vo ice (trans. V. Murugan, ed. R. Nirmala Devi), Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1987 . Kuruksetram (Madras, Tamil-p puttakalayam, 1968), path-breaking mod. liter. anthology under editorship of -7 Nakulan, containing poems, a play, a novelette, short stories and essays by avantgarde Tam. and Malayalam (transl. into Tam.) authors: -7 Jesutacan, Hepsipa; Ma . Ilayaperuma]; -7 Panu Cantiran, Pirernil (-7 Tarumu Civaramu); Tevit Cattiyanecan; Ma, Taksinamurtti; -7 Patmanapan, Nila; Tirumalai; -7 Acokarnittiran; -7 Manni; -7 Rankarajan, E s. ; Carvakan, Nakulan; Si. Jecutacan; -7 Srinivacan, Hari; -7 Vallikkannan; -7 Cuppaiya, Sanmuka, Cf. P. Mahadevan, "Review of Kurukshetram: A Compilation, ed . by Nakulan", Indian Writing Today 6 (Oct.-Dec. 1968) . Kurukur-k Kavi -7 Kurukai-p Perumal Kavirayar. Kurukurppallu (alias Parahkucappallui, c. 1700, by -7 Catakopa-p Pulavar of Tirunakari, on -7 Nammalvar, similar to -7 Tiruvarurppailu, but artistically more accomplished. Kuru Namaccivayar (16), Salva religious poet, disciple of -7 Kuka i Narnaccivayar. Of Citamparam. Author: Citampara venpii , Annamalai venpii , Paramarakaciya malai etc . D. 1592 or 1607 . Inscr. of 1588 and 1592 (Venkatapatidevaraya) mention him. Kurufiagacampantar (alias Nd!J:.acampanta Tecikar, c. 1550-75) of Civilliputtur, Salva velala, brilliant student of -7 Kamalaifianappirakacar; first head of Tarumapura (Dharmapura) matha (at Dharmapuram nr. Mayuram), author: import. works of Salva devotion and philosophy: Civapokacaram, Cokkanata venpd (100 . st. on god Cokkanatar), Paramananta vilakkam, Mutti niccayam, Tiripatartta tacakariya akaval, Navarattinamalai (on his master in -7 kauaiaikkalitturait, Pantara-k kalitturai, Cokkanata kalitturai, Perananta Cittiyar, Ed. Civapokacaram, ed. by K.M. Venkataramayya, with Eng . tran s. by J.M . Somasundram Pillai. Tiruppanandal, 1960. Cf. Arunachalam, M., Guru Jnana Sambandha of Dharmapuram, Tarumapuram, 1972. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

386

KURUNKIRAt{AR-KURUPARAMPARAPPIRAPAYAM

Kujunklragar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 382. Kurunkoliyar Kilar (Canka rn), author: Purananiiru 17, 20 , 22. Kujunkutl Marutagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 4, Kurunt okai 344 . Kujuntokai (The Collection of Short [Poems]), cla ss. Tam. anthology of 401 st. in --7 akaval metre ranging from 4 to 8 line s, ascribed to 205 poet s. Poem s 307 and 391 hav e nine line s each. Topic of poems is love ( --7 akapporuii in various conventional situations (--7 tinaii. Invocatory st. on Murukan by --7 Peruntevanar, Accord. to tradition --7 Per aciriyar wrote a comm. on all but 20 st., and --7 Naccinarkkigiyar either supplied the glo ss or wrote a complete comm. Neither is available . Mod. comm . by --7 Caminat'Aiyar, U.Ve. (1937). Other mod . comm. are available. Contains 27 historical allusions. C. 100-250 A.D. Publ. first in print by Ti. Sau. Arankacami Ayyankar in 1915. Engl. transl., Shanmugam Pillai , M., and David E. Ludden (trans!.), Kuruntokai : An Anthology of Class ical Tamil Lov e Poetry, Madurai: Koodal Publishers, 1976. Cf. also, for dating and/or partial tran sl. , S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras , 1956, pp. 25 and 49 ff.: 1.R. Marr, Th e Eight Antho log ies, Inst. of Asian Studi es, Madras, 1985, 338-39 and pa ssim ; K. Zvelebil , The Smile of Muru gan, E.J. Brill , Leiden, 1973,51; K.V. Zvelebil , Tamil Literature, E.1. Brill , Leiden/Koln, 1975 , 89-90; A.K . Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War , Columbia Univ. Press, New York , 1985, pa ssim ; George L. Hart III , The Poems of Ancie nt Tamil, Univ. of Californi a Press, 1975 , pa ssim; id., Poets of the Tamil Anthologies, Princeton Uni v. Pre ss, 1979, pa ssim . kuruparamparai « Skt. guru para mp ard- lit. "lineage of preceptor(s)"), --7 man ipra vala genealogies of Vaisna va preceptors describing kuruparampariyam , i.e. regular succession of gurus, with hagiologies of --7 alvars and --7 dcdryas; edited and unedited texts of such nature. E.g. Guruparamparaprabhavam, Yartamdlai, Periyatirumutiyataivu. These texts tend to exaggerate, particularly when it comes to dates. Thus e.g . the life of --7 Tirumalicai Alvar tell s us that he renounced all other per sua sion s including 1ainism as unworthy and lived for 2.300 years meditating before the image of Peru man, General tendency to overstatement and disregard for critical time mea surement is omnipresent in the se texts; and yet they provide us often with valuable tradition and important data. Kuruparamparai-p puranam, Vaisnava biographical purana in 4361 st. by Drai Vicayarakavag (date?) . Kuruparamparappirapavam, Vaisna va --7 kuruparamparai text in 2965 st. Author: Vativ alaki ya Nampitacar (da te?). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KURUPARAMPARApRAPA VAM-KUTAMPAICCITTAR

387

Kuruparamparaprapavam, prose hist. of Sri Vaisnava ~ alvars

and ~ acaryas, ascr. to Trtiya Brahmatantra Svatantra Svami; ed. by Tirukkutantai Tattai Krsnarnacaryar, Madras, 1857; by P.K. Rankaracarya, Madras, 1890. Kuruparamparaprapavam (Arayirappati), attributed to ~ Pinpalakiya Peruma] Jiyar (13? 15?). Important work classified as Vaisnava sampradaya grantha, in 6000 granthas , which narrates biographies of ~ alydrs and ~ dcaryas. It contains trad . account of collection and preservation of the hymns of dlvdrs as scriptural corpus (Vaisnava canon) . K.K .A. Venkatachari seriously doubts the authorship of Pinpalakiyaperuma], cf. his Srivaisnava Manipravala, Bombay , 1978, 159 ff. Ed. Cennai, Kaneca accakkutam, Parapava varusam; S. Kirusnasvami Ayyarkar, Tirucci, 1968. Earlier eds.: Citrakutamkantatai Tiruvenkatacaryar, Madras, 1892; with comm. by S, Krsnamacaryar, V.M. Kopalakrsnamacaryar and V.M. Srinivaca Ayyankar Svami, Madras, 1906. Kuruparamparaprapavam (Pannirayirappati), legend. biographies of Vaisnava ~ dlvdrs and ~ acaryas in 12,000 granthas, ascribed to piavacaryarkal ("ancient masters"). PubI. Komalecuvaranpettai, 1909. Kurupata Tacar (early 18) of Pulvayal (Putukkottai), author: Kumareca catakam in praise of Kumara of Pulvayal in 100 ~ viruttam st. "Each stanza is flowing and musical and contains good practical maxims worthy of being memorized by our young men" (~ Purnalinkam Pillai, Em.Es.). PubI. in print, Madras, 1905 , repr. 1974. Kurusvami, Ti, Ar. (Mahi, b. 1923), author: novels Malar manam (Fragrant Blossom), Itayattukku oruiti (A Woman of One's Heart) etc., collections of stories Ratavin nehcam (Radha's Heart) etc., essays, poetry. Kutalcankamattupparani, lost anonym. ~ parani on Chola victory at Kudalasangama over Chalukyas between 1066-1068 under Virarajendra Cola (1062/63-1069/70). The information is contain in illustrative ~ venpa's in comm. on ~ Yira coliyam. Cf. Mu . Arunacalam, Tamil ilakiya varalaru, 11th c., pp. 363-65 . Kutalinkam Pillai, Es. (early 20), author: hist. novel Mankammal (1903), 3rd Tam. hist. novel after ~ Caravanamuttu's Mokananki. Kiitaliirkilar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 166, 167, 214, Purananuru 229. - Kutalur Palkannagar (Cankarn), author: Narri1)ai 200. Kutampaiccittar (The Siddha with the Earthen Ring, 15?), Tam. Siddha (~ cittar) poet, author of 32 st. cast in simple form addressing the "earthen ring" of the soul. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, The Poets of the Powers, London, 1973, 11-12. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

388

KUTAPULAVIYAMAR-KUVALAYAMANTAM

Kutapulavlyanar (Cankam) , author: Purananuru 18, 19. Kutavayijklrattagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 44, 60, 79, 110, 129, 287, 315, 345, 366, 385, Kuruntokai 79, 281, 369, NarrilJai 27, 42, 212, 379, Purananuru 242. Kutirai-t Tariyanar (Cailkam) , author: Narrinai 236 . Kiittaniil, lost treatise on dance-drama, mentioned twice by ---7 Atiyarkkunallar (comm. on ---7 Patikam 88-9, ---7 Cilappatikaram V. 23). Kutti Kavuntar (20), author: Aracampala viruttam. kuttu., dance-drama; enacted story; epic -related dramatized mythology; danced enactment of stories, usually from mythology ; ritual performing art. In more technical sense, popular play based largely, though not exclusively, on oral tradition. A k. text follows the following pattern: opening routine; entrance of kauiyakkaran (guardian of the king, herald and comedian, also called pUpU!1 < buffoon); introduction of the play by kauiyakkaran; successive entrances by various other characters; closing routine . The story is built up by the interaction of different characters in spoken prose-episodes and various forms of sung verse . The central figure is kattiyakkiiran. This theatre is important vehicle for transmission of tradit. concepts and value s that are common property of the society or its part(s). In northern Tamilnadu, k. refers specifically to a genre of ritual folk theatre in which kattai or wooden head, shoulder and breast ornaments are worn. Elsewhere it can denote other theatrical forms . Cf. also ---7 terukkuttu. See Frasca, Richard Armand, The Terukkuttu : Ritual Theatre of Tamil Nadu. Ph.D . diss., Univ. of California, Berkeley, 1984; Hiltebeitel, Alf, The Cult of Draupadi . Mythologies: From Gingee to Kuruksetra. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1988; Hanne M. de Bruin, "Analysis of an Oral Theatre Text: Preliminary Findings", Journ . of the Inst. of Asian Studies VIII, 2 (March 1991) 98-130. kiittu 2 , Tam. dance-drama, usually of three parts: nattu-p patal, folk-songs, kummi, song accompanying kummi dance (female dance with clapping hands and singing) and connecting prose tvacanami. Sometimes called natoti natakam, folk-play . Accord . to N. Vanamamalai, such plays originate from pre-Vijayanagar period. Cf. Malten, Thomas, "Kiatu - Tamil Village Drama", South Asian Digest Vol. 10 (1981) 29-37. Kuttuvag KaQl,lanar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 179. Kuttuvag Klrajjar (Cailkam), author: PUrana!1Uru 240. Kuvalayanantam, title of 2 treatises in verse on ani "rhetoric". Ed. critically with introd. by Cuppirarnaniyam, Ca.Ve., Mad ras, 1979. Kuvalayanantam-Z was originally publ. in Madras, 1895. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

KUVA.!'i MAINTA.!'i-KUYIL RAMAYANAM

389

Kuvan Maintan (Cankam), author: Narrinai 224. Kuvajjjrl, anonym. treatise in Tam. on well (kuval) divining. Prob. 18th-19th c. Ed. by S.V. Subramanian with introd., note s and index, Madras, 1980. Kuyili ~ Riijesvari, Es . Kuyil Rarnayanam, anonymous Tam . poetic version of Ramayana, so named after the refrain Kuvay kuyile Cuckoo, sing, occurring in the last line tmakutami of each stanza. Also called Kokilaramayanam.

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L Laksmi, ~ Tiripura cuntari, Es. Laksmi, (Ampai, 20), contemporary female prose writer; spent time in USA as research student; teacher in a Delhi College. Author: novelette Anti malai (Early Evening, Madra s, 1967), psychological drama about one man between two women, in 3 parts; short story collections Cirakukal muriyum (The Wing s Will Break, Madurai, 1976, incl. excellent play Payahkal Fears), Vi!fi!l midaiyil oru camaiyalarai (A Kitchen in the Corner of the House, Madras, 1988). Cf. "Mother had committed a murder" in Tamil Short Stories (ed. Ka.Naa. Subramanyam , New Delhi , 1980) 188-98. Hili, 1. song consi sting of eulogies, praise s, congratulations etc., sung at weddings and other auspicious occasions, every line ending in " lali" ; 2. lullaby (= talattu ). Latcumana Paratiyar, T. (late 18 - early 19), author: Civanmalai-k kuravaiici.

Latcuminarayanan, Va. (Apayan, b. 1919), began publ. 1939. Author: many novel s, e.g. Uyirppommai (Live Doll), Piraya ccittam (Atonement), Inpam ehke (Where Is Happiness?), Uyirukkuyir (Life For Life) , Y ijayanantini, Pakal nila (Day Moonlight) etc.; short story collections, history , translations, literature for children. lexicography: cf. Dhamotharan, A ., Tamil Di ctionaries; A bibliography. Beitrage zur Siidasienforschung, Heidelberg, Band 50. Wiesbaden, 1978 (730 entries). Reviewed by F. Gros, BEFEO , LXVII (1980) 346-58; Shanmugam Pillai , M., "Evolution of Lexicography in Tamil", Pro c. of the 5th Intern . Conference Seminar of Tam. Studies 2.15.37-53. libraries, in ancient and medieval Tamilnadu. Earliest reference to library may be in ~ Manimekalai XIII. 106 which mentions celuhkala niyamam in connection with Cinta (goddess Sarasvati"): accord. to some comm. , this refers to the institution of library in Madurai; other comm . glos s it as "the beautiful temple of goddess Cinta " (in ~ Cilappatikaram XIV.8 the same word means "temple"). An inscr. from Ranganatha temple , Srirangam (13) records setting up of images of Sarasvati, Veda Vyasa and Rayagriva installed in the hall built as adjunct to Sarasvati pantaram "library". 3 inscr. in Tam. from Citamparam temple K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

LIBRARIES , TA., MOD.-LlLA, ES.

391

(period of Jatavarman Sundara PaI.19ya I, 1251-70) record the order of Pallavaraiyan regarding organization of Sarasvati pantdram and grant for maintaining it; the term refers to " treasury; warehouse; store" but in these contexts most prob. to "s tore of books; library", since name s of 20 scholars are given who were engaged to write down list s (of book s?) , documents etc. Another grant of land wa s provided for maintenance of several employees of the library. Another inscr. (Appag temple , Ceranmatevi, Tirunelveli Dist.) ascribed to king Tribhuvanacakravarti Koneri Meykantan, 13th c., records order to grant 2 ma of tax-free land to Sarasvati pantarika in the temple. An inscr. in Varadaraja Peruma] temple, Kaficipuram, d. 1359 A.D., records directions to establish a matha with lands necessary for its maintenance saying that books procured by Brahmatantra Svatantra Jiyar (Vaisnadasa) should be left with him. Libraries, Tarn., mod. Tanjavur Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore: 1800; Govt. Oriental Manu script Library , Madras: 1837; Library of the Theo sophical Society, Adyar: 1886; Connemara Public Library : 1896; Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. V.V. Swaminatha Iyer Library , Madras: 1943. Connemara Library wa s the first free publ. library of printed book s of any considerable size. Foundation stone laid by Lord Connemara (Governor of Madras 1886-90) on 22.3.1890; open for public 14.4.1896. Libraries, travelling. First travelling I . in India (drawn by a pair of bullocks) wa s a Tam. I. founded at Mannarkuti, inspired by an orig . drawing of S.V. Kanakasabhai Pillai , engineer at Mannarkuti (Tanjavur Dist.) who designed and built the cart , provided the capital for its upkeep and bought the orig . stock of book s. Inaugurated by S.R. Ranganathan at Melavacal village, 21.10.1931. By 1932, 75 out of 242 villages of the area have been made its service posts. Thi s led to opening of other travelling libraries (1932 , South Arcot, 1936 Tanjavur) . Between July 1936 and Dec. 1938, Tanjavur Library visited 471 villages travelling 12,000 miles , beginning with orig . stock of 1380 vols. About 17,000 villagers made use of it, and as result, 17 villages opened their own local libraries and reading rooms. The bullock cart was called Nallaratam ("Chariot of Knowledge"). Cf. V. Thillainayagam, "Library Movement in Tamilnadu", Araycci, July 1971, 3.2.353-62. Lila, Es. (b. 1942 at Calicut, Kerala, pseudo Celvi), female novelist, author: social novel Kaivannam , on problems of Hindu womanhood and motherhood, trying to solve the problem whether a woman can and should be of support to her husband under any K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

392

LORENCU-P PULAVAR

circumstances and indefinitely. Story collection Antippolutu (Evening Time, 1969) etc. Lorencu-p Pulavar (Lorenzo Pulavar, 18), b. of velala parents at Pacikulam (Mantotte), Catholic poet of Sri Lanka, author: hymns in praise of Jesus and the Virgin, many popular extempore poems. Cf. The Tamil Plutarch (ed. 1946) 57-8.

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M macalam (cf. Ar. mas' ala) , Islamic catechism (genre introduced into Tam. by Muslims). Maccamuni (date?), author: Vatanikaniu, treatise on alchemy . Maccapuranam (1706/7, Tirunelveli), Tam. version of Matsyapurana in 5008 st., 175 chapters, by ~ Vatamalaiyappa Pillai . In simple language, skilful prosody , pleasant style . Maccu-c Cettiyar ~ Arul Namaccivdya Tecikar. Macilamani-c Campantar (16) of Nalvayil, Tontainatu, disciple of ~ Kamalai Na!!appirakacar (1525-75), author: Tiruvuttarakocamahkai-p puranam in 11 chapters, 456 elegant and melodious st., telling the story of ~ Manikkavacakar. Macilamal}i Mutaliyar, P. (early 20), author: novellkaiyilii irattina-k kalaiiciyan (The Treasurer of Undonated Jewel, Madras, 1915). Macllaman! Tecikar (1625-58), 8th Head of Tiruvavatuturai matha, author: Tiruiianacampantar pillaittamil. Mackenzie Collection. A number of ms. on the history and culture of South India were collected by Colonel Colin Mackenzie (1754-1821) between 1810-1815 when he was Surveyor-General in Madras for the East India Company. He was assisted by four Indian pandits; the mss. are in Tam ., Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada and Marathi, They were catalogued by H.H. Wilson in "Mackenzie Collection, A Descriptive Catalogue", Calcutta, 1828, and by W. Taylor in "Catalogue Raisonne of Oriental Manuscripts in the Government Library", 3. vols ., Madras, 1862. After Mackenzie 's death, the remarkable collection had difficult history. Large parts were sent to London before his death , most of the remainder that did not deal with South India followed in the 1820s, and these London holdings were catalogued by Wilson . The South Indian collection lay in the Madras College in a mess, until in 1837 the Madras Literary Society persuaded government to support W. Taylor's efforts to produce his catalogue. The collection contains poems, stories, historical works, epics, puranas, religious discourses, treatises on medicine and astrology, erotic manuals, plays, and 8000 inscriptions - "a mammoth and quite extraordinary source" (Ch. Baker) . Cf. H.H . Wilson, The Mackenzie Collection, Calcutta, 1828, republ. by Higginbotham, Madras, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

394

MACKENZIE MS.

1882; W. Taylor, A Catalogue Raisonne of Oriental Manuscripts in the Government Library, Vol. III, Madras, 1862; W .C . Mackenzie, Colonel Colin Mackenzie : First Surveyor-General of India , Edinburgh and London, 1852 ; Blagden, C.O., The Mackenzie Collection, London, 1916. Mackenzie ms. 6.3. Histories of the Pandyas, Colas and Sethupatis. Shelf 17-4-44, 17-B-5-1. Wilson p. 420, no. VII-3, Taylor III : 41-2, 371. After Ramas killing of Ravana (brahmahatya), Rama was advised by ~ Agastya to set up a sivaliiiga at Ramesvaram. Subsequently, Rama sent Guha to the South, and Bharadvaja made him ruler of Ramesvaram with the title Cetukkavalan (Guardian of Rama's bridge). Madurai Nayaka Pandya, a vellala from the North, came on pilgrimage to Ramesavarm and set up the Madurai kingdom. Hi s descendants ruled the country. Princess Minaksi married Cokkanatar, The large temple of Cokkalinkam and Minatci was built upon the grave of these two. Arjuna married another Pandya princess, made the ruler of Ilarn (Sri Lanka) pay him tribute, and defeated Northern king Devendra. One of the Pandya kings embraced Jainisrn and another created the ~ Cankam . Tayamananalli Cola, a vellala from Ayodhya, came on pilgrimage to Rarnesvaram, set up a sivalinga on Trisira hill, and founded the Cola kingdom. 43 members of the dynasty ruled the country, building irrigation works on the Kaveri. Kulottunka Colan had a bastard son, AtOIna!!, by a dancing girl (Nakinakarattinam). Atontar; ruled Tontairnantalam (Kaficipuram), A Pandya king marrying a Cola princess succeeded to the Cola and Tontaimantalam regions. Cetupatis were Maravar serving under Pandya rulers. Marava women marrying 3-4 husband in succession increased enormously their population, defeated the Pandyas, and placed a Cetupati on Pandya throne. The sons of the Pandyas served Cetupatis as ministers for 500 years. The 12th Cetupati di smissed Pandya minister and the Maravar ruled the country alone for 98 years. Meanwhile, Colamantalam and Tontaimantalam were under the rule of low-caste Nandas, and they in turn were succeeded by Maravar. Then the Kurumbas, Anaigondi Raya and Alakapuri Raya annexed the territory , Visvanatha Nayaka conquered Trichinopoly, Madurai and Tirunelveli, while Cevappa Nayaka invaded Tanjore and his successors ruled it for 4 generations. Madurai Nayakas ruled for about 300 years and destroyed Marava rule in the so uth. When the Nayaka kingdom was endangered by Mughal invasion, Makavarani Cetupati saved it; later Kilavan Cetupati protected it from Mysore peril. Details are given about K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MACKENZIE MS. NO. lO-MAHABHARATA, TAM. VERSIONS

395

battles among Marathas, Tanjore Nayakas and Madurai, and Muslims of Arcot. The unreliable nature of the statements of Veta Nayaka who is credited with authorship of the chronicle is dealt with by W. Taylor in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 6 (1837) 148-9. Mackenzie ms. no. 10 (shelf 17-5-41) . Paper ms. of 40 pp.: catalogue of books in Skt. and Tam. It shows that "at the outset of the British occupation in Southern India when indigenous learning was at a discount, the compiler was able to gather names of some 1200 books on different subjects" (T.V. Mahalingam, Mackenzie Manuscripts, Vol. I, 1972, p. 141). Large space is devoted to mss. dealing with the cittar (Siddha) school of thought. Madurai Tamil Sangam (maturai tamil cankami was established mainly due to the efforts of -7 Panti-t Turai (carni-t) Tevar, Tam . nobleman and scholar (b. 21.3.1861, son of Ponnucami-t Tevar). In 1901 he suggested the foundation of a cankam in Madurai; the suggestion was enthusiastically welcomed. The "4th Academy" was founded on Sept. 14, 1901, at Madurai Sethupati High School. The ruler Paskara Sethupati was very helpful. As part of the Sangam, whose aim was to promote Tam. learning, Narayana Aiyankar founded a Centami] College, library and research institution under the supervision of -7 Irakavaiyankar, Ra., with participation of Ceo Cuppiramaniya Kavirayar, Ceo Arunacala Kavirayar and CeoKantacami Kavirayar. As teachers at the College were appointed Aracan Canmukanar, Cuntaresvara Aiyar, Kopalaiyar, later Na. Appan Aiyankar. In 1903, the scholarly journal -7 Centamil was founded under the editorship of Ra. Irakavaiyankar, Mu. -7 Irakavaiyankar and Narayana Aiyankar. The Cankam (Academy) has played an active and important role till this day in fostering mainly traditional and impartial Tam . learning and scholarship. magazines, liter., in Tam., cf. Swaminathan, V., "Little magazines in Tamil", Indian Writing Today 10 (Oct.-Dec. 1969). Mahabharata -7 Mahabharata, Tam . versions. Mahabharata, Tam. versions. The Mahabharata (MhBh) story was familiar to early classical Tam. poets (cf. -7 Puranii!J:.uru 2, -7 Akananuru 233, -7 Cilappatikaram XXIX) . Inscr. evidence is available for ceremonial participation of S. Indian rulers in the great battle. One of the early poets, -7 Paratam patiya Peruntevanar is known as "the P. who sang the Paratam" . There was an early Southern recension of Skt. MhBh (cf. V.S.Sukthankar, ed., The Mahabharata, Adiparvan, Poona, 1933, p. viii). The larger Cinnamanur plates refer to early Pandya ruler who "e stablished K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

396

MAIYOTA-K KOVA~AR-MAKALINKAM, VI.AR.

a Maturai cankam which ... Tamilized the MhBh" (AR 1907, § 17, p. 65; SII, III, p. 454, I, pp. 102-3). The first extant version is the fragmentary poem (Paratavenpai by ~ Peruntevanar (9) , a poet different from the Peruntevanar mentioned above, and also from a Jaina Peruntevanar (12). Between this version and the great MhBh of ~ Villiputtur A.lvar there must have been another Tam. version mentioned in inscr. at Tiruvalankatu in A.D . 1210 (ER 182 of 1905) which says that one of the officers of emperor Kulottunka III translated "the Paratam into sweet Tam.", producing a Salva version. The finest of all Tam. versions of MhBh is the grand epic poem of Villiputtur A.lvar (c. 1400). After him, there were at least 2 complete Tam. versions : by ~ Nallapillai (begin. 18), and by ~ Ramanujacariya (late 19 - early 20) in prose. Parts of MhBh have often inspired Tam. poets (cf. ~ Arankanata-k Kavirayar, ~ Ativirararna Pantiyan, ~ Cupramaniya Parati). Cf. A.V. Subramania Aiyar, Tamil Studies, First Series , 1969, 103-8; V.l. Subramaniam, "The influence of Tamil in Mahabharata", Proc. of the First Conf-Sem . of Tam . Studies I, 132-7; Mu .Irakavaiyankar, Casanattamilkkavi-c caritam, 1937, 90-1. Maiyota-k Kovan.ar (Cankam), author: Paripatal 7 (on Vaiyai). Makalink' Aiyar, Malavai (19) of Malavarayanental nr. Madurai, of Virasaiva descent, scholar, teacher, editor, prof. of Tam., Presidency College, Madras. Publ, ~ Tolkappiyam Eluttatikaram with ~ Naccinarkkiniyars comm. in 1847-48 (at Cennai Kalvikkuta Accakam, Madras): this was the first time that a truly ancient Tam. work was brought out in book form in print. Edit. text of ~ Tirukkural (1840), author: Malavaiccinkaraccatakam (1856) , llakkanaccurukkam (1879, a Tam. grammar used widely in schools), Potavacakam. Comm. on ~ Periyapuranam and ~ Arunacalapuranam (1898). Teacher of ~ Tantavaraya Cuvamikal of Tiruvavatuturai. MakaliDkam, Ki. (Pakiratan, b. 1919), began publishing 1945, author: novels Tenmoliya] (Her Speech is Honey) etc., short stories Kaiti conna katai (Tale Told by a Prisoner), essays (Vata Intiya yattirai, North Indian Journey) etc. Makalinkam, Vi.A.r. (Calai Ilantiraiyan, b. 1930), prof. of Tam. in Delhi, scholar, writer, poet. Research volumes on Tam. literature and culture (Putiya tamil-k kavitai Modern Tam. Poetry, Tamilil cirukatai Short Story in Tam., Putuitamil munnotikal Forerunners of Modern Tam., 1969, etc.), essays Ulakam oru kutumpam (The World is One Family), Tamilukkaka (For the Sake of Tam.), Kelvikal ayiram (A Thousand Questions) etc., collections of poetry K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MAKALUR KIl,A)'i-MAKATEVA)'i, AR.

397

Ilantiraiyan kavitaikal, Annai ni dtaventum (Mother, You Must Dance), and five more. Founder and President of Delhi Tamil Sangam (Tamil Eluttatar Cankami, active in Indian Tamil Univ. Teachers' Union . His most interesting poetic work is Kakkai vitutiuu (the Crow as Messenger) in imitation of the ~ vitututu (messagepoem) genre; in this one, the wife sends a mes sage of love to her husband in Delhi. Other works: Cilampin cirunakai (Bracelet's Smile, narrative poem about the goldsmith in ~ Cilapaptikarami, Kottiyum ampalum neytalum polave (Like the Marigold, the Water-lily and the Lotus, 1968, based on the story of Kumpakarnan in ~ Karnpan's Ramayanai , Kalanati tirattile (On the Shore of the River of Time), Puratci-k kaviiiar kavitai valam (on ~ Paratitacan). Makaltlr KHan. (alis Camunti-t Tevar, date?), author: comm. on ~ Purapporul venpamalai. Makapakavatam (Saka 1465 = A.D. 1543) by ~ Arulalatacar, Tam. version of Bhdgavatapurana, known also as ~ Yacutevakatai, in 132 chapters, 9147 (9151) ~ viruttam st. It tells the 10 incarnations of Visnu-Tirumal; particularly dramatic and lovely is the part on Kannan, First reading: 1543 at Srirangam, Printing history: Pavani Palaparati Muttucami Aiyar, Tiruccirrampala Pillai and Tirumalaikonta Nayakar publ, the "Second Book" as Makiipdkavatam irantam puttakam in 1891 (4483 st.). In 1886, Ekatacipuranam (315 st.) were publ. with Tiruvenkata Latcumana Tacar's comm. In 1890 , Amparisappatalam and Maccavatarappatalam were publ. with Muttucami Aiyar's comm. as Tuvataciccarittiram. Later eds have 9167 st. For dating cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ., 1977, 245-6. Makapurana ammagai, ed. by T.P. Meenakshisundaram, Madras, 1954 . Cf. ammanai. Author Virapattirag, 17 - early 18. Speaks of usefulness of ritual bathing in the sea/river on the naksatra of Maci. Makara Netunkulai-k-katar pillaittami], anonymous Vaisnava ~ piliaittamil, ascribed to Rakunata Pattar who makes the 12 ~ iiLviirs protective deities of Makara Netunkulai-k-katar. Ed . by T. Chandrasekharan, Pillaittamilkkouu, GOML, Madras, 1959. Makatevan, Ar. (nom-de-plume Tevan, 1913-1957), journalist (Allantavikatall), prose-writer. Some critics do not even regard M. as serious writer; others (e.g. R. Dhandayudham) praise his writings as very important social novels. All his novels appeared in instal. in Allantavikatall. Author: Mistar Vaiintam, his most popular novel, deals with the protagonist who is b. in well-toK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

398

MAKATEVA~,

VI.TI.-MALAI

do family in Tuttukkuti, comes to Madras where he starts life as writer and journalist, but remains from beginning to end a naive person, almost a simpleton used to village culture, in confrontation with complex and often dangerous urban milieu. In the novel, filled with bright humour, M . created in Vetantam an unforgettable character, and used his own experience in introducing many interesting types from the milieu of journalism and writing (Venkat, Ram, etc.). Latcumi kataksam ("The Grace of Lakshmi"): its hero Turaicami is a clerk. M. uses the technique of letters written by 5 different characters to introduce the family of the heroine Kantamani. The web of the story is rather complex, and the novel is again pervaded by humour, with the two protagonists well portrayed. Kalyani is, in contrast, a sad story , with excellent potrayal of its heroine. Ja stis Jakannatan is devoted to the description of victory of truth over falsehood. Dealing with a lawsuit (concerning murder), author shows detailed acquaintance with legal matters, and keep s the reader in high suspense. Sriman. Cutarcanam is the story of a confused clerk who uses the office money to help his own household. Rajattin manoratam ("Rajam's Desire") describes the struggle of a small middle-class family to be able to build a house. Many characters are seen with sharp eyes of the author (e.g . the building contractor, the gardeder, bank-clerks). Other novels: Komatiyin katalan ("Komati's Lover"), Rajamani, Mis Janaki . All characters of his novels are small middle-class people of many various profes sions, and M. writes about topics and "heroes" previously ignored by other writers. A greatly appreciated feature of his writings is the almost always present sense of humour. Very popular is his Tuppariyum Campu, combination of crime story, detection and bizarre humouristic writing. Makatevag, Vi.Ti. (early 20), trans. into Tam. from Eng. William Le Quex's novel Who se Findetli a Wife as Ella! allatu Nalla manaiviye nalla porul (1914) , foreword by Ka.Ra.Kovintaraja Mutaliyar. Makattaga-p puranam (alia s Makapuranam, date?) , anonym. work on greatness of month Makarn (11th lunar) in 23 chapters. Makecakumara Carma ~ Kuppu cami Aiyar. makutam (lit. "crown"), finishing part of poem; last line of st. malai ("garland, wreath of flowers"), hypergenre of poems defined formally as to number of st. connected by some structural principle . There is great number of subtypes, the main being (cf. Pannirup. ISO-55, 183-87, 193-95) 1. palcantamalai garland of many kinds of ~ cantam, 2. inaimanimalai, 3. iraitaimanimalai, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MALAIKKO~UNTU

KAVIRAyAR-MAMDLAR

399

4. mummanimalai, 5. nanmanimalai, 6. kalampakamalai, 7. navamanimdlai (poem in 9 st. in ~ venpa, ~ aciriyappa, ~ kalippa and ~ vaiicippa organized as ~ talicai, ~ turai, and ~ viruttam), 8. kaikkilaimalai on one-sided love (~ kaikkilaiy, 9. tarakaimalai in 27 different st. and in ~ ciletai (Sle$a, dealing simultaneously with 2 topics) , 10. centamilmalai in 27 st. in class. metres on any subject, 11. varukkamalai. Malaikkoluntu Kavirayar (20), of Kotimuti, author: Tiruttontar catakam (1914) many solitary st. Malaimaran (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 245 . Malaipatukatam (Echoes on the Mountain). The title is taken from line 348; the orig. title was perhaps different. A poem of 583 lines in ~ akaval belonging to ~ Pattuppattu anthology by Perunkunriir Perunkaucikanar, celebrating Nannar; the son of Nannan, and describing various aspects of life in different communities of his territory . It contains some exquisite pictures of nature. Dated c. 210 A.D . Another name: Kuttararruppatai (Guide Poem for Actors). Cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 24-5 . First publ . 1889. Malaiyanar (Cankam), author: Nattioa! 93. Malaiyappa Pantltar (early 20) , author: Utumalaippeuai Cenkuntar kula tipikai (1905) . Mallai Colltsvarar varukka-k kovai (A .D. 1634), publ. in Konkunatu, cf. ~ Konkumantalacatakam st. 71 . Mallaiyar, Palavayil (early 20), playwright, author: Tara cankiraka vicayam ennum Tara cankiraka natakam (1905) . MaHanar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 72, NarrilJai 204 . Mallikam Mutaliyar (19), author: Na!1otayam (Yalppanam, 1841), Tarcamaya catci (1845). Mamilatan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 46 . Mampala-k Kavi (Mampala-k Kaviccinka Navalar, b. 1836 at Palani in kammala caste), blind poet patronized by many chieftains. Devotee of Murukan , Author: Palanippatikam, Kumarakuruppatikam , Centir patikam etc., occasional poetry. Received title Kavicinkam (Lion Among Poets) and became court-poet of Ramnad. Mamiilanar (Cankam, c. 245 A.D.), Brahmin poet, one of the last of the early class. age, Very prolific, author: Akananuru 1, 15, 31,55, 61, 65, 91 , 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201 , 211, 233 , 251,265 ,281 ,295,311 ,325,331,347, 349, 359,393,Kuruntokai 11, Narrinai 14, 75 . Mamular (date? 9?), author: lost ~ pattiyal treatise, Mamidam; might have still been available in 17th c. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

400

MA~AKKAL NAMPI-MA~AVALAMAMUt':J.IKAI"

Manakkal Nampi (10?), Vaisnava poet, author: ~ tQl]jya!1 of 2 st. to ~ Kulacekaralvar's Perumal tirumoli. Manakkutavar (13?), alias Manakkutiyar or Manakkutaiyar, author: comm. on ~ Tirukkural , One of the earliest (prob. second) of the ten comm. on the text, most prob . earlier than ~ Parimelalakar; Jaina. His comm. is simple, lucid and authoritative. Cf. Peruntokai No . 1538 . Ed. : Ka. Ponnucami Nattar, 1925; Dharmapuram ed. of Tantapani Tecikar, 1952; Tiruppanantal Kaci matam ed. 1957-59. Manavacakankatantar (13) of Tiruvatikai, S. Arcot, one of the disciples of ~ Meykantatevar. Salva Siddhanta philosopher. Au thor: Unmaivilakkam (The Lamp of Truth), 1245 or 1255, simplest of the manuals of Salva Siddhanta doctrine in 54 ~ venpa quatrains. Old comm. available; also, Kurumoli vina-v-akaval. Manavai-k Kuttar (15) is mentioned in Tirumeyyam inscr. of Putukkottai, Saka 1420 ( = A.D. 1498). A solitary st. mentions him as good poet. No work has survived. Manavai Tiruvenkatamutaiyag pillaittami], anonym. ~ pillaiuamil noted for sweetness of style and rhythm, compares the excellence of the kiss (muttam) of the child Ttruvenkatamutaiyan with that of pearls (muttam) of different kinds: long expose on the origin, qualities and defects of various pearls is interesting. Compared to the spotless kiss of the child-god, pearls are all defective . Ed. by T. Chandrasekharan, Pillaittamilkkottu, GOML Madras, 1959. Manavalamamujjikal (alias Yatintirappiranavary , Vaisnava ~ dcdrya, author and comm. B. 1370, A.!vartirunakari. Disciple of ~ Pillai Lokacarya; active teacher and writer, lived mostly in Srirangam but traveled widely; d. 1443 . The first acarya to comm. extensively on ~ man ipravala works of other acaryas. Held in high esteem by Tenkalai Vaisnavas, on apar with Sri Ramanuja and ~ Narnmalvar. Author of works in pure Tam., manipravala and Skt: comm. on Tattvatrayam by Pillai Lokacarya; on Rahasyatrayam by the same; on Srivacanabhusanam by the same; on Aciiryahrdayam by ~ Alakiyamanavala-p Perumal Nayanar; on Jiianasaram by the same; on Prameyasaram by the same; on Periyalvar tirumoli by ~ Periyalvar: on ~ lramanucaniurantati by ~ Tiruvarankattamutanar. Other works: Tiruvariidhanakramam (in manipravdlas about everyday worship in home shrines; Upatecarattinamalai (in Tam). 71 ~ venpa st., on Tenkalai Vaisn ava doctrines received from ~ Tiruvayrnoli-p Pillai; Tiruvaymolinurrantati, supplying 100 ~ patikam' s of Nammalvar's poem with one venpa each (in Tam.); Arttippirapantam (in Tam.), 60 st. in different metres; Yatirajavimsati (Skt.) . His style is simple,

K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MA!,!AVAI,-ATACAR-MA!'!I, CI.

401

easy to understand. He also has to his credit 3 reference-sources (tiratru) on ltu, Tattvatrayam and Srivacanabhusanam. which collect date and documentation. He had many students, some of them active as authors (e.g. Erumpiyappa who wrote Yaravaramunicaritam, biogr. of his teacher). Ed.: Upadesaratnamalai with comm. by Pillailokafijiyar, Sriniketa Press, Madras, 1877 (in Telugu script); Upatecarattinamalai, Madras, 1970; Yatirajavimsati (comm. Pillailokafijiyar). Triplicane, Alvar Year 4677 (Telugu script); Madras, 1920; Tiruvaymoli niirrantati, Madras, 1920. Manavalatacar (date? 16/171), Vaisnava Brahmin poet; real name, very prob., ~ Pillai-p Perumal Aiyankar. Author: Tiruvenkatamalai in 100 st. Prob. identical with (Mailkai?) Manavala Tacar, author of Alakarantati and Tiruvarankattumalai in ~ Astappirapantam; prob. even with Alakiya ManavalaTacar, author of Tiruvaraika kalampakam, ibid. "It is very difficult to establish the identity of these authors" (T.P. Meenakshisundaram) . So far, no one has succeeded. Cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ. , 1974, 263-5. Manaviir-p patikam (9?), lost Buddhist work, 2 st. quoted in comm. by ~ Camaya Tivakara Vamana Munivar on ~ Nilakeci, 1 st. found in comm. on ~ Viracoliyam . Ma"', Ci. (S. Mani, b.1936), next to ~ Piccamiirtti, ~ Cupramanyam, Ka.Na., ~ Rajakopalan, Ku.Pa., ~ Cellappa and ~ Vallikkannan, the most influential and import. poet of the ~ putu kavitai ("new poetry") movement ' s begin. and early stage. Wrote also under noms -de-plume Ve.Mali and Ci. Manitan Celvam. Characteristic traits of his poetry are imagination combined with depth and originality of thought, masterly command of words, new approaches to the form of poetry, and the daring to attack contemporary burning problems in long, powerful poems, as well as in haikulike comments of 3 lines . Author: Narakam ("Hell", 1962), true milestone in Tam . poetry. Its minor theme - unfulfilled relationship between man and woman - is set in the major theme of life of corruption in the city (nakaram) of Madras. Raw naturalism and surrealistic vision blend in the poem of 334 lines which reads like " a panavision movie with stereophonic sound track" (S. Gopalie). Varum pokum ("Coming and Going", 1965) describes with supreme skill, in mixture of naturalism and phantasy, a man who returns tired after his day's work and is waiting at a Madras bus-stand. Many small things happen to him, his fellow travellers and the passers-by; he watches , and the poem is his comment on life in the Tamil metropolis. Paccaiyam ("Ribaldry", 1966) is poetic invective against those who accused M . and other K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

402

MAJ':lI,

JI.ES.-MA~I,

S.

avantgarde poets for writing about sex, describing their poems as obscene - this accusation being totally unjustified. His poems were publ. under his own name and the 2 pseudonyms in journals Eluttu, Natai , Kanaiyali, Kacatatapara and Nanaratam, as well as in 2 exquisite collections, Varum pokum (contains apart from short pieces the 3 long poems mentioned above; Cre-A, Madras, 1st ed. 1974) and O{i-c cerkkai ("Gathering of Light" , Celarn, 1st ed. 1976). Cf. K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1973,320-21; id., Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, O. Harrassowitz, 1974, 81-2. Mani, Ji.Es. (b. 1919 at Vizagapatam, Andhra), Tam. prose-writer; novel Putu ulakam (New World, 1946; prize of Kalaimaka{); short story of coll, Nii!JJ (The Sage, 1963). Mani, S. (Manni, Mowni, "the silent one"), "the Tirumular of short story writing" (~ Putumaippittan), Salva Brahmin, b. 1907 in a village or. Kumbakonam (Tanjavur Dist.), attended high school in Kumbakonam and college there and in Tiruchirappalli, graduated as B.Sc. in Mathematics (1929), married, returned to family home, remained there till 1943. In 1933 met ~ Ramaiya on whose suggestion began writing brief prose. During 1935 wrote 6 stories, sent them to Madras where Ramaiya published them in ~ Manikkoti, beginning with E!] (Why) on 16.2.1936. Between 193639 wrote 12 stories, ending with publ. of Miirii!!am (Distortion) on 2.1.1939. During the same period sent one story each year to Tinamani Malar (ed. by Putumaippittan), and one story to Hanuman yearly in 1937. These 15 stories represent more than half of all the short stories (24) he was to write during the "early" period. Since 1943 M. lived in seclusion in Chidambaram running a ricemill and ancestral property of land. In 1948 he was persuaded by M.V. Venkataraman to write and publish again: he wrote 2 stories (Ninaivu-c cuvatu Traces of the Mind and Manakkolam Hallucinations), then stopped writing till 1954. Since then he wrote a story every year until 1971 when he pub I. his last story Tavaru (The Slip). Being one of the best and most creative Tam. prose writers of 20th c. he has also been one of the least accessible. His pseudonym Mauni was given him by Ramaiya because of his reticence. Two collections of his stories have appeared: Aliya-c cutar (Indestructible Glow, Star Publications, Madras, 1959) and Mauni: Kataikal (Madras, 1967) with forewords by ~ Civaramii, Tarumu and ~ Cupramanyarn, Ka. Na, The two collections contain a number of identical stories. An early novella was lost in ms. form. M. claims that his greatest liter. influence was Franz Kafka whom he echoes through his use of symbols, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MA~I ,

S.

403

tone of romantic agony , bizarre scenes and surreal atmosphere as well as detached, almost coldly objective style, but lacking his humour, irony and guilt. An existentialist, he shares the anxiety with his Western predecessors (Kafka , Kierkegaard, Sartre), dealing with meaninglessnes s of existence, but remains truly Indian in his belief in Advaita Vedanta, and the masterly description of the setting of his stories. There is an overemphasis on atmosphere built up pain stakingly at the expense of plot development. He is not interested in social relations but in mental and emotional proces ses , expressing with subtlety tedium, disappointment, alienation and sadness, pain and suffering. His most frequent motifs are death and travel. Thus e.g. The Universal Musi c (1936) is about a girl who falls ill developing a heart condition. She is advised by doctors not even to sing. When getting married, she is challenged to sing, and after an hour of enchanting music she collapses and dies. A Loss of Identity (in Tamil Short Stories, 1980, 57-63) is one of the typical enigmatic and highly symbolic stories, not concerned with any overt plot or event, but with the complex psychological state of an anonymous male character obviously left by his wife (or sweetheart), and containing brief but excellent description of an Indian railway station. Inde stru ctible Glow (1937) is the story of a man in love with a girl whom he met in the temple nine years ago. He then promi sed to do anything she wanted him to. Since then he has given up going to the temple; now he sees the girl (grown into a young woman) at wor ship in the temple, she bid s him do something for her but he is not sure what she means. Two teardrops fall from her eye s, and with that the man ' s hold over himself is loosened. Next day he is not to be seen anywhere. The story contains Mani's famou s words, " Are we mere resemblances? Who se walking shadow s are we?" In Devastated Ground the main tone is isolation of a dying old man. Several stories are comparatively realistic, e.g. In the Breadth of Awareness (1960) which consists of the conversations and thoughts of a young man and a girl who meet at Madras beach; before the man returns to his wife in the village he is killed by an auto, and the girl wonders if in fact she wa sn't his wife all along. The keyword in Mani's writings is restraint. In his relatively simple language and apparently dry style, every single word counts. Each of the limited number of his stories is a unique contribution to Tam. prose. He is a great and independent creator who se stories must be reread to be fully appreciated. Cf. Nakulan, " Introducing Mowni", Thought , May 19, 1968; "Mowni: The Silent One", Book review, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

404

MA~ICEKARA!"'l., KOVI-MA~IKKAM, VA. CUPA .

Times of India, March 23, 1969; V. Swaminathan, "Mowni and his world of articulated silence", Sameeksha (ed. M. Govindan, Madras, 1970); R.S. Kennedy, Public Voices, Private Voices: Manikkoti, Nationalism and the Development of the Tamil Short Story, 1914-1947, Univ. of California (Berkeley) Ph.D. dissertation, 1980, 222-49; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 250-51; Tarmu Civaramu, "Mauni: Kataika]", ~ Kuruksetram, 1968, 111-25; trans!.: "A Loss of Identity", Tamil Short Stories (ed. Ka.Naa. Subramanyam, New Delhi, 1980),57-63; "Relationships, Bonds, Attachments", Literary Studies : A Quarterly Review of Literature and Criticism from the Punjab, I, 4 (Fall, 1970); "In the Expanse of Consciousness", Sameeksha (ed. M. Govindan), Madras, 1970; "Pradakshinam", Adam International Review Nos. 355-360 (1971); "Born of Death", New Writing in India (ed. Adil Jussawalla, Penguin, 1974); "Transformations", R.S . Kennedy, op. cit. 217-21. Manicekarag, Kovi (b. 2.5.1927), began writing 1947, author of innumerable short stories and novels , most of them historical: Kaiicikkatiravan (on Mahendravarman I Pallava), Kankai ruicciyar (on Tirumalai Nayakkar), Munkil ilai mel (on Kampan) , Cempiyan celvi, Cutantira pumiyil vellai naraikal (White Herons in Free Country), Ceran kulakkoti (The Banner of Chera Clan) etc. Realistic and social novels, e.g. Manoraitcitam (Mind's Delight), ~ Oru tipam aintu tirikal (1976), Oru vftiyi!1 katai (The Story of One Street, 1976) on the life of a number of women in one Madras street, Tennankirru (The Split and Braided Leaf) on the anxieties of the parents of a young girl and her married life; his novel Yakacalai (Sacrificial Hall) received liter. prize of Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar. Short story coll .: Tdyum ceyum (Mother and Child, 1956); Valvi!1 vilakkukal (Life's Lamps, 1960), Uyirum oliyum (Life and Light, 1964), ltayankal (Hearts, 1963), Verum vayiru (Empty Belly, 1967), Cerukatai-c celvam (A Wealth of Short Stories, 1970) and several others. Mal}ikkam Pillai, Ma. (20), trans!' and editor of Bhartrhari's poetry in Tam.: Partruhari Cinkaracatakam (1925). Mal}ikkam, Turai (20), poet, author: narrative poem Aiyai composed in tanittamil ("Tamil only") purist diction. Mal)ikkam, Va. Cupa. (V.Sp. Manickam, b. 1917), scholar, playwright, poet, began publishing 1947, author: The Tamil Concept of Love (Madras, 1962) and other scholarly works in Tam. and Eng!. (on ~ Tiruvalluvar, ~ Kampan, etc.), essays tTolkappiya-p putumai The Novelty of T.), plays tManaiviyin. urimai Wife's Right, Nellikkani Nelli Fruit etc.), poems tKotai vilakku Lamp of Gift etc.). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MA~IKKANAY AKKAR, CD~AI-MA~IKKA VACAKAR

405

Mal}ikkanayakkar, Culal, author of Mahatma Kdnti Arrestu Pattu, Madras, 1928, a popular, demi-folk composition in -7 piutu form on the arrest of M.K. Gandhi, with strong political message. M~kka Nayakkar, Pa, Ve. (1871-1931), linguist, lexicographer, author: Aiiiiii!lam (Ignorance) and other books in Tam . and Engl. on Tam. Ma~ikkavacakar, the greatest poet among the four Salva samayagurus. B. in Brahmin family in Tiruvatavur on river Vaikai, hence his pr. pers . name Tiruvatavurar. Manikkavacakar (cf. Skt. manikya-, Pkt. manikka-s means "he whose utterances are rubies" (name mentioned in -7 Paraficoti' s Tiruvilaiyiuarpuranami Father belonged to iimdtya- (councilor) class and was adviser to Pandya king. Son followed father, became chief minister of king Arimarttanar, turned from worldly matters to become Salva poetsaint. The story of his embezzling royal funds set aside to buy horses and using it for Salva temple may symbolize his act of renunciation. His legend . life is treated in -7 Katavunmamunivar's Tiruvatavurarpuranam (15th c.?) (cf. French resume, pp. 91-102 in La legende des jeux de Civa a Madurai, Pondicherry, 1960; see also G.V. Pope's Tiruvacagam, 1900, xvii-xxxii, Part I). Date: Encycl. Britannica, Vol. 25 (Tamils), Reinhold Rost dates M . in 13th-14th c. relying on fallacious note in Burnell's ftn. in South Indian Epigraphy. On the other hand, K.G. Sesha Iyer, "Manikka Vacagar and His Date" (Tam .Antiquary I, 1909, 4.1-55) maintains that he preceded earliest -7 Tevaram hymnists by 2 centuries , and dates him in 3rd-4th c.A.D. Both extremes are grossly erronous. Other dates: 1st-2nd c.A.D. (Thirumalaikolundu Pillai, S.A., Siddhanta Deepika V. 6, 7, 8. Also V.G . Suryanarayana Sastri, The Indian Review, April 1901, and T. Ponnambalam Pillai, The Malabar Qly. Review III, p. 202); 3rd c.A.D .: Vedachalam Pill ai, Madr. Christian Col . Magaz ine 1904. 7th c.A.D.: H.H. Wilson, Descriptive Catalogue of the Mackenzie Collection, repr. Higginbotham, p. 39. About 7th or 8th c., not later than 9th : G .V. Pope. 9th c.: J. Vin son , The Malabar Qly . Review VII, p. 112. Also, The Indian Magazine and Review, Dec. 1900, and Imperial and Asiatic Qly . Review, Apr. 1902 (Innes, High Court Judge, Madras). Between middle of 8th-10th c.: Rev . Gondie, Madrs . Christ. Col. Mag ., Aug. 1902. M. "crossed over to Ceylon in 819 A.D .": Nelson in Madura Manual I, p. 53. End of 10th - beg. of 11th c.: Gopinatha Rao, Madr. Christ. Coll . Mag. June 1905. Glenn Yocum (1976) gives 6 key reasons for 9th c. date (suggested by Mu.Irakavaiyankar, Ilakkiya cacanavalakkdrukal, 139-46): 1. M. is not included as one of 63 -7 niiyanmar's by -7 Cuntarar (between end of 7th - beg. of 9th c.), hence should be K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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later than Cuntarar; 2. M. makes deprecating reference to Mayavada (~ Tiruvacakam 4: 54-55) which indicates familiarity with Sarikaras philosophy (Sarikara died c. 820 A.D.); 3. ~ Tirukkovaiyiir 306 and 327 refers to Pandya king Varakunan, There are two, both of 9th c.: Varaguna I (756-815) and Varaguna II (862-880, cf. K.A.Nil. Sastri, History of South India, 3rd ed., 156-7, 172, 174-5); most scholars think that he refers to Varaguna II; 4. M. explicitely refers to Cantecuvarar and Kannappan (15 :7, 10:4 and 15:3), and might have had ~ Tirufiapacampantar in mind in his mention of Kalumalam ( = Cikali, 2:88) and Cuntarar in his mention of Tiruvarur (2:73-4), cf. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, Studies, 1936, p. 99; Tiruvacakam 5:30 is almost certainly echo of ~ Appar's Tevaram 6:98:1; so, M. came most prob. after Appar, Campantar and Cuntarar; 5. His Tiruvempavai and ~ A.l)!al's (mid-9th c.) Tiruppavai bear remarkable resemblance. Because pavai songs are "an exceptional form in Tamil literature" (J. Filliozat, Tiruppavai d' A1)tii!, 1972, xiii), it is prob. that M. and A.l)!a! were contemporaries; 6. There is evidence from Sinhalese chronicle Nikayasangrahaya that Sinhalese king Sena I (833-53) was converted to Saivism at Chidambaram, and that his daugther was cured of being dumb by "an ascetic clad in the robes of a priest" (K.K. Pillay, South India and Ceylon, p. 57). This story correlates with events related in 6th carukkam of Tiruvatavurar purdnam which tells how M . defeated Buddhists from Sri Lanka in debate, converted a Sinhalese king, and miraculously cured his daughter. There is also unfavourable reference to Buddhists in Tiruvacakam 15.6. The story of Siva's changing jackals into horses, and the fact that this event is mentioned in Tiruvacakam (2:36, 38:1, 50:7, cf. Appar's Tevaram 4 :4:2) refers prob. to an old legend that does not reflect Manikkavacakar's autobiographic incident (as noticed already by Schomerus) . On the whole, "the case for claiming that M. lived in the ninth century is substantial" (Yocum, 1976, 49). Early story of dating is traced by H. Nau's Prolegomena (Halle, 1919) 41-4; cf. also K.A.N. Sastri, "The Date of M.", fORM 1927, 127-30; KR. Subrahmanyam, "Age of the Nayanars'', fORM 1927, 287-96; M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Tamil Studies, 1914, 401-9; Es.Vaiyapuri PiHai, Tamilc cutarmanikal, 1959, 115-26, and "Sidelights on Tamil Authors II, Date of Manikka-Vasagar", fORM VII, 1. For the poet's biography cf. Katavunrna munivar, Tiruvdtavuratikal puranam, ed. with comm. by Pu.Ci.Punnaivananata Mutaliyar, Madras, Kalakam, 1967. Pope summarized the text in his introd. to Tiru vacagam, xvii-xxxii. Cf. also Glenn K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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E. Yocum (1976) 51-4; and T.P.M. Mahadevan, Ten Saints of India , Bombay, 1965, 61-73. Germ . trans . by H.W. Schomerus, Siva istische Heiligenlegenden , Jena, 1925, 193-286. For M . in general : Editor, Siddhanta Deepika, "St. Manickavachakar", S.D.V (1902) 12, 202-5; J. Vinson, "Manickavacagar and the Problem of Tamil Literature", S.D. IX (1908) 2.35-38; but especially, Glenn E. Yocum, A Study of Manikkavacakar' s Tiruvacakam : The Setting and Significance of a Tamil Devotional Text. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1976; id., Hymns to the Dancing Siva, New Delhi, Heritage Publishers, 1982. Author: ---7 Tirukkovaiyar (in ---7 Tirumurai 8, 400 st.) and ---7 Tiruvacakam (ibid., 51 chapters) are the two great works composed by M . The second represents the peak of Salva bhakti poetry. For early trans ., see Arunachalam, Ponnambalam, and G.V . Pope, A Few Hymns of Manikka Vachaka and Tayumanavar, Madras, Siddhanta Deepika Series I , 1897, 46 pp.; Arunachalam, P., Studies and Translations from the Tamil, Madras, 1898; Schomerus, Hilko Wiardo, Die Hymnen des Manikka-Vasaga, Jena, 1923. There are scholars who doubt M. 's authorship of Tirukkovaiyar which is however ascr. by ---7 Nampi AI)!ar Nampi to M . (Koyil tiru-ppanniya viruttam 58 states explicitely that the same poet composed both poems). Virasaivites hold M. in high esteeem and take him as their own ---7 acarya. Manikkotl (Tam .) jewelled banner; the phrase draws on two poets, ---7 Karnpan and ---7 Parati, Cuppirarnaniya. Bharati used it as title of his poem Look, the Jewelled Banner of the Motherland, in imitation of Kampen's phrase which appears in Palakantam of his Ramayanam. As Rama and Laksmana enter Mitilai, Rama sees the flags of the city welcoming him and speaks of them as celu-mani-k-koti "graceful jewelled banners". The phrase was then used by ardent nationalists who founded the ---7 Manikkoti journal. Manikkot] (The Jewelled Banner), liter. magazine marking the beginning of truly mod. Tam . literature. Name taken from a poem by ---7 Parati, Cuppiramaniya, Founded by ---7 Cokkalinkam, TLEs., ---7 Srinivacan, K. and ---7 Rarnacami, Va. Two nationalist magazines were directly connected with rise of M.: Kanti (Gandhi , establ. 1925 by T.S. Chockalingam, joined with M. in 1934) and Cutantira canku (Horn of Freedom, establ. by Canku Cuppiramaniyan in 1930, ceased publ. 1934). Cutantira canku introduced writers like ---7 Cellappa, ---7 Piccamiirtti, ---7 Citti and ---7 Paratitacan, and in Dec. 15, 1933 issue appeared favourable review of the famous dancer Balasaraswati. First issue of M . appeared Sept. 11, 1933. Its first editors were V. Ramaswami and T.S. Chockalingam, their K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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advisors K. Srinivasan and T.K. Sidambaranathan. Already early numbers of M . introduced important essays on topics of liter. criticism. From March 3, 1935, under editorship of V. Ramaswami and B.S. Ramiah, M . appeared as fortnightly liter. magazine and became the most important platform of liter. renaissance and avantgarde writing, particularly in the field of short story, essay and criticism. Ramaswami left in 1936, Ramiah and C.S. Chellappa became the most influential persons in the group of a new generation of creative writers gathered around M .: ~ Putumaippittan, ~ Canmukacuntaram, ~ Cupramanyam, Ka. NiL, ~ Citampara Cupramanyam, ~ Rajakopalan, Ku. Pa., ~ Piccamurtti, ~ Manni, ~ Citti M. published, too, translations of non-Tamil Indian and extra-Indian stories, etc., even a Japanese drama (Jan. 15, 1937) . It led a fierce polemic with ~ Kalki (1936) concerning S. Bharati, and accusing Kalki of plagiarism. During 1938, the group gradually dispersed. Under the two editors K. Ramachandran and P. Ramaswamy, a few new talents emerged (notably ~ Ramamirtam), but in June, 1939, M. ceased publication. manimalai, poem of 20 ~ venpii and 40 ~ kalitturrai st., cf. Tonnulvil . 279, Muttuvir. Yap .Olip, 95 . Manimekalai ("The Jewel Belt"), one of the so-called "twin epics", long Buddhist narrative poem with is rather, like ~ Cillappatikaram, totarnilaicceyyul, i.e, "connected", "continuing poem" (cf. ~ perunkappiyam - its redefinition for Tam .). Ascribed to ~ Cittalai-c Cattanar of whom we know nothing but that he was most prob . kulavanikan (grain-merchant, or, accord. to V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, corn-chandler, cf. Preface to Cilappatikaram 89); accord. to Preface to M ., "prosperous grain merchant". Accord. to G. Obeyesekere, he was Buddhist healer. There is also no doubt that he was staunch and very intelligent Buddhist and great poet. Accord. to trad . accounts, he first composed M ., and then requested ~ Ilankovatika] to compose his poem on the anklet (cilampu; thus in ~ Atiyarkkunallar's comm. on Uraippayiram of Cilappatikiiram); hence the designation of the two poems as "twin epics ". J. Vinson (1900) questioned this tradition, and it is, indeed, most improbable, though there are some mod. scholars who agree with it. If it is correct, then there was no con siderable interval in time between the two. M . must be later than ~ Tirukkural which it quotes exactly (XXII. 59-61: Tirukkural 55) adding that this was a saying of poy-y-il pulavan "poet without falsehood". Since the same images, phrases and sentiments occur in both poems, and their language and diction shows practically identical state of development, it seems that they are almost K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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contemporaneous (although not of "circa 800 A.D." as claimed by Vaiyapuri Pillai; this date is definitely too late) . Both poems must have been composed in the period after the end of the classic (Cmikam) age and after Tirukkural , and before the flourish of Salva and Vaisnava bhakti. If a date of c. 450-475 A.D. is accepted for Cilappatikiiram, then a date of c. 500 may be the best available for M . If, on the other hand, Cilappatikiiram XXV .66 indeed refers to Cittalai-c Cattanar (tantamil iicii!1 cattan ihturaikkum "the great Tamil scholar Sattan . .. addressed [the king] .. .. thus "[Dikshitar's trans .]), then the trad . account may be correct, and the two poems are indeed contemporaneous, or M . is even earlier. Essentially , the story of M. concerns, explains, and justifies female renunciation (Paula Richman), a theme not found in other Tam . texts of that period, but the courtesan-turnednun appears in several other Ind. Buddhist texts. It is the account of a courtesan's daughter who became Buddhist nun. The heroine, Manimekalai, abandons out of her own decision the duties of her courtesan jati in order to become female renouncer. As Richman points out, the poem can thus be read as account of a woman's religious progress. Main story: First part describes Prince Utayakumaran's increasing fascination with the heroine, and her attraction to him . The courtesan Matavi (Manimekalais mother) speaks of Kannaki ' s greatness, and announces that she will not dance at the annual city festival in Pukar. The unjust death of her lover Kovalan (Kannaki' s husband and Manimekalai's father) has convinced her to leave the life of dancing girl and to follow the Buddhist path. She wants to turn her daughter from public dancing to taking vows of austerity . The weeping Manimekalai and her companion Cutamati go to the garden to pick some fresh blossoms where they are followed by Utayakumaran who had just subdued sexually-maddened rutting elephant. The prince finds only Cutamati who tells him of her own conversion to Buddhism. Suddenly the prince catches sight of Manimekalai who, in fleeing from him, fights her own passion, trying to free herself from human ties . She has locked herself in a glass pavilion in the grove in order to escape from the prince. He departs frustrated but vows that her grandmother, the matriarch of the courtesan community, will arrange for him to enjoy union with her granddaughter. Manimekalai confesses to her companion that her heart has followed after the prince, but hope s to overcome her feelings . After Utayakumaran 's departure, goddess Manimekala (after whom the girl was named) comes to her rescue, carrying her off to Manipallavarn island. She shows her a dharma seat where K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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the Buddha once sat and reveals that she feels drawn to the prince because she wa s his wife in a former birth. She also teaches her special magical formulae to change her bodily form and to fly and, in addition, M. acquires a begging bowl which once filled will never be empty. She returns to Pukar and seeks out the Buddhist sage Aravana Atika]. Then Atirai, known as chaste and virtuous hou sewife, places the first alm s to Manimekalai' s bowl, and M. distributes food to the needy in the city which suffers from famine . Utayakurnaran becomes increasingly obsessed with his passion for the young girl. He seeks out her grandmother Cittirapati who before an assembly of dancing girl s vow s that the prince will have his way with her grandaughter. To escape the attentions of the prince, Manimekalai takes on the form of another woman, Kayacantikai whose husband sees the prince in intimate conversation with a woman whom he takes for his wife. Burning with fury and jealousy, he lies in wait, and when late that night the prince arrives at the temple where Manimekalai dwells, the husband slices the prince to pieces with his sword. When the queen learns of her son's death, she determines to wreak vengeance upon Manimekalai. She attempts in succes sion to have her drugged, raped, and suffocated, but Manimekalais mantras protect her. Finally she repents, begs for forgivene s, and the king set s Manimekalai free. She then goe s to worship at Kannaki 's temple in Vafici, then returns to Kafici both to end its famine with her mira culous bowl and to study with Aravana Atikal; she ha s learned and rejected all other philosophies, and embraced Buddhism fully . The composition ends with a kind of Buddhist manual (S.N. Kandaswamy), " a chapter den sely packed with explanations of key Buddhist tenets" (Richman), and Manimekalai ' s final renunciation and her commitment to the Buddhi st path. Some scholars are of the opinion that its final portion is missing. M . is thus clearly Buddhist text, but the exact type of Buddhism it belongs to is impossible to determine. Its author never argues for a particular sectarian perspective; as Richman says, he was "concerned with persuading non-Buddhists that they should become Buddhists and assuring Buddhists that they should remain Buddhists." Also, it is a popular text. Sprouting from the central story are 16 "branch" stories (Richman ' s felicitou s trans. of the Tam. term ---7' kilaikkataiy, some very short, others quite lengthy . The poet has drawn upon class. Tam. poetic conventions (e.g. in using the ---7' palai tinai in exemplifying ba sic Buddhi st notion of ani cca " impermanence", in using ---7' akam conventions of cla ss. eroticism , etc. ) but he ha s al so drawn on K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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pan-Indian katha literature and, of course, on Buddhist sources in Pali and Skt. To some critics, M . is more interesting that Cilappatikaram, to others it is much inferior of the two. Some of the imagery is ghastly : thus in The Story of the Comic Place which, accord. to Richman, "best demonstrates Cattanar's rhetorical skills", when the poet describes "the drawn-out shriek of a vulture piercing and consuming a naked mound-of-venus, the unrestrained howl of an evil dog who had snatched and torn apart a severed arm stacked with bangles, and the crunch of the hungry kite seizing and eating beautiful, erect, young breasts adorned with sandal paste" (Richman's trans.). This, of course, to demonstrate the absurdity of sexual love in the light of life 's impermanence. There is also pronounced Buddhist humanist tendency in the poem: Cattanar's Buddhist community is open, it offers itself to those born as courtesans, kings, former cannibals, and all others inrrespective of caste, who can persue virtuous life without the mediation of Brahmins and their sacrifices. The courtesan is perceived as an object of sexual gratification: Manimekalai grows up in a jati where she learns from her mother and grandmother how to make herself sexually attractive to men, use her beauty to entice clients, extract their money , and abandon them to penury (this basic motif goes on through the entire history of Tam. literature up to such works as late medieval ~ katal poems) . Cattanar structures his entire text around the transformation of a courtesan into a Buddhist nun whose greatest concern is compassion with the hungry. Popular inexpensive versions of the text have been publ. , along with paraphrases and Eng . translations, a few children's books based on it, several dramas derived from its events, and a film made. Cf. ~ Paratitacan, Manimekalai venpa , Madras, 1962; ~ Metta, Mu., in Kannir pukka! (1974), poem based on Aputtiran; plays: Palacuntararn, T.M., Manimekalai ennum mankaittaravu (The Young LadyAscetic Called M.), Tanjore, 1923 ; Venkatacalarn PiHai, E., Man imekalai - Oru natakam, Kazhagam, 1946; Peruma], E.E!!., Ilakkiya natakankal ; Nakarkoyil, 1973; Carni Citamparanar, Aputtira!l allatu Camuka uliyan, Madras, 1974 . Eds.: In 1891, Vidvan Canmukarn Pillai publ. bare text reproducing readings he had found in palmleaf mss. without any comment. The Classified Catalogue of Books Registered from 1890-1900 at the Office of the Registrar of Books (Madras, 1932) notes ed. of M . publ. by M. Shanmukam Pill ai Aiyar (?) in 1894 (regist. no. 235). J. Vinson mentions another ed. of M . of 1894 by Ka. Murugecacetti (L eg. bouddhistes . . . Vol. I , p. 179). ~ Caminat'Aiyar, V.Ve . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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gave his ed. for printing on 5.6.1896 , it came out in July 1898, with introd. , the life of the Buddha, an account of Buddha's teachings, and of the Sangha. In 1898 (Viveka Tivakaran issue of 7.3.), an ironical attack appeared on Dr. Aiyar as "the Master Propagator of Buddhist Sacred Text" , signed A.!!anta.!!. It ended: "The possibility is certainly there that as a reward for Mr. Aiyar 's efforts he will be born in his next incarnation as a Buddhist guru. May indeed the Enlightened One of the Buddhist Faith grant to Mr. Aiyar such grace!" His later ed. of 1921 has been repeatedly reprinted, serving for comm. of later scholars, cf. Na. Mu. Venkatacami Nattar and Auvai Cu. Turaicami Pillai (the most detailed and valuable comm. of 1946), and Po.Ve. Comacuntaranar (1971). Repr. 1931, 1949, 1956, 1965, 1981. Partial trans. and paraphrases: Vinson, Ellie Honore Julien (1843-1926), Legendes bouddhistes et djainas, traduites du Tamoul. Paris, Maisonneuve, 1900. 2 vols. Vol. I : Le Sindamani. Le Silappadigaram . Le Manimegalai. Vol. 2. Le Manimekalai (suite). Vocabulaire explicatif; C.U. Pope, Mani-Mekhalai, a great epic and one of the Five Great Clasics of Tamil , rendered into English [in epitome] by . .. Repr. from the Siddhanta Dipika. Madras, 1911 (cf. SD VI, 1911, 7.306-13, 8.343-50, 9.385-95, 10.438-51, 11.481-89, 12.529-41, XII (1911) 1.11-13. Earlier, Anavaratavinayakam Pillai, S., in SD IV (1900) 5.109-15, review of Cuvaminat ' Aiyar 's 1st ed., and SD X (1909) 3.75-82 gave prose rendering of philos . portion of Canto XXVII; A. Madhaviah, Manimekhalai [An English epitome of the poem of Sattan], Madras , 1923; synopsis in S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Manimekalai in Its Historical Setting , London, Luzac, 1928; Panjapakesa Ayyar , A.S., Manimekalai, Madras, Alliance Co., 1947 (cf. Panchapagesa Ayyar, A.S., The Story of Manimekalai, Vellore, 1943); Ludden, David, Manimekalai (partial trans.), in photocopy, Philadelphia, 1979. Cf. further, Balusamy, N., Studies in Manimekalai , Univ. of Madras M. Ltt. thesis 1964, Madurai, 1965; Gunasegaram, S.1., "Manimekalai", Tam . Culture X (April-June, 1963) 2.42-52; Hiko saka, Shu, "Tracing the Origin of the Tamil Epic Manimekalai", Journ. [of the Inst.] of Asian Studies I.l (Sept. 1983) 84-115 (one of the models of M. was the Mahayana text Gandavyuha; date of M., between 890-950 A.D.); Kandaswamy , S.N., Buddhism as Expounded in Manimekalai, Annamalai Univ., 1978; Krishnaswami Aiyangar, S., "The Buddhism of Manimekalai", Buddhist Studies, Calcutta, 1931, 1-25 (repr. Delhi, 1983); id., Manimekhalai in Its Historical Setting, London, Luzac, 1928; Richman, Paula, "Classical Tamil Poetic Convention in Manimekalai, a Buddhist Epic", 11 th K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Annual Conf. on South Asia, Madison, Wisconsin, Nov. 1982; id. , "The Portrayal of a Female Renouncer in a Tamil Buddhist Text", Gender and Religion : On the Complexity of Symbols (ed. Caroline Bynum et al.), Boston, 1986, 143-65; id. , "Religious Rhetoric in Manimekalai", Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Chicago, 1983; id., Women, Branch Stories , and Religious Rhetoric in a Tamil Buddhist Text, Syracuse Univ ., 1988 (the best book on M. to date); Sesha Aiyar, K.G., "The Date of Manimekalai", Journ. Orient. Research Madras 1, No.4 (Oct. 1927) 321-29; Suryanarayana Sastri, S., "The Manimekalai Account of Samkhya", Journ. Ind . History VIII, No.3 (Dec. 1929) 322-27;, id. "Buddhist Logic in the Manimekalai", ibid . IX, No.3 (Dec. 1930) 330-36; Wallden, Ruth, "The Presentation of Sarnkhya in the Manimekalai", Kalyanamitraraganam (ed. by Eivind Kahrs), 303-12. Most recent full trans . Nandakumar, Prema (trans.), Manimekalai, Thanjavur, Tam. Univ., 1989. Manippay akarati ~ Cantiracekara Pantitar: manipravala (Skt), a style of Tam. which consists of Tam . words interspersed with Skt. words "even as ruby tmani) and coral tpravalai strung together alternately in a necklace". The earliest definition of m. in Tam. refers specifically to poetry: the grammar ~ Viracoliyam (11) states that if there is an intermixture of Skt. syllables in Tam. writing it is called viraviyal ("mixture"), and that if there is an intermixture of Skt. words in Tam. it is called manipravdla. In later times, the term is applied to Tam . prose of the Vaisnavas and Jainas between the 12th-15th c. This m. does generally contain Skt. noun/verb endings , and is in prose. Accord. to Vaisnava scholars, this m. is intelligible to all Srivaisnavas, even to women and sudras (~ Manavalamamunika], comm. on Tattvatrayam 227). Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, The Manipravana Literature of the Srivaisnava Aciiryas (12th to 15th Century AD.), Bombay : Ananthacharya Research Institute, 1978. One can sympathize with mod. criticism of m. expressed by some scholars (e.g . ~ Curiyanarayan a Castiri) who designated it as hybrid jargon which should be entirely abandoned, and yet the opinion of J. Filliozat is also valid: "Le m. est un des temoins de l'union feconde des deux cultures" (Le Tiruppavai d'A'ltii!, 1972, XXII). As Venkatachari (op.cit) says, one must not forget that m. is a situational language, formed for specific purpose and used in specific contexts. manipravala ("gem and coral"), its historical origins, social conditions and development. From the days of Sri Ramanuja (10171137?) down to the days of ~ Manavalamamunika] (1370-1450) K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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there have been a number of writers who wrote glosses on Vaisnava canon. One of the first such authors was -7 Tirukkurukai-p Piran Pilla!! who wrote his comm., the A[liyirappati (Six Thousand) on -7 Nammalvar's -7 Tiruvaymoli . The sentence construction, syntax, and a large portion of the lexicon was Tam. but most of religious terms and some phrases as well as a few gram. markers and constructions were Skt. In mss. and printed texts, Skt. words were printed in -7 grantha characters; hence one unfamiliar with Skt. and grantha script cannot read such texts. Early publishers of these commentaries, financed by Telugu-knowing Vaisnavas around Madras, printed Skt. words in Telugu script. Certain classes of ceui community and others (mainly traders, businessmen, entrepreneurs etc .) who had settled in Madras were ardent followers of Ramanuja's Vaisnava creed. They understood Tam. language but did not know Tam. script. They had therefore entire -7 Nalayiram with its comm. and allied literature (by Vaisnava -7 acaryas, which was in manipravalai printed in Telugu script; thus, most of the Vaisnava m. works were preserved, and even today some of them are available only in Telugu script (they had not even been printed in Tam.). M . was taken up by the Jainas: thus -7 Jivacampotanai (Jaina philos. work in prose + -7 venpa st.) employs m. for prose portions. -7 Sripurana is composed entirely in m. prose. In contrast, Saivites never attempted the "gem and coral" style excepting the solitary instance of -7 Civakkira Yokis comm. on -7 Cittiyar. The earliest reference to m. seems to occur in Skt. comm. by Jinasena (837 A.D.) on Jaina work Sadkhandagama . Abhinava Gupta (11 th c.) in his comm. on Natyasastra refers to Bharata's opinion that natya can be staged in language formed from mixture of Skt. and local speech , and compares this style to daksinapatha manipravala, m. prevalent in South India, cf. Abhinavabharati IV.379. Maniyammai, I.Ve.Ra. (1917-1978), political activist and orator in the Dravida Kazhagam party: Annal IYe.Rd. Maniyammaiyarin cintanai muttukkal (Pearls of Thoughts of Mother LV.R.M ., 1978), anthology of her speeches and writings. Mal)iyan. (20) , novelist; most of his novels deal with male-female relationship, problems of marriage, family etc . Cf. novels Itaya vinai ("The Heart's Vina"), Itaya curankam ("The Heart's Cave"), Mokam muppatu varusam ("Lust Lasts for 30 Years"), Acai vetkamariyum ("Desire Knows Shame"). mankal (Tam. rhetoric) girl of 11-14 or 12-13 years of age; cf. also -7 ulii. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Mankaipaka Kavirayar (18), descendant of ---7 Alakiya Cirrampala-k Kaviray ar., author: Kotunkunrappuran am, Manvitututu on Muttuvirappa Pillai, another poem of the same type on Periyatampi Pillai , varukkakkovai in praise of Zamindar Cokkalinka Nayaka (A.D. 1713; received for it the hamlet of Pucarippatti): and a few other panegyric poems. mankalavellai / - vallai , poem on chaste woman of noble birth in 9 st. in mixed ---7 venpa and ---7 vakuppu , or 1 ---7 kalivenpa plus 9 st. either in venpii or vakuppu. Cf. Pannirup.l!lav. 108, Venpdp, Cey. 32, Ilakkanavil 828 etc . Mankamma] kolai, anonym. Tam. ballad with the theme of a mother's illicit love , murder of the daughter and suicide of the son (based on real incident at Tiruppattiir, N. Arcot). Manikkam Cettiyar marries Mankamma] , many years younger than himself. Son Krisnan and daughter Pakkiyam are born to them. Their father dies, Mankarnma] marries off her daughter to Renkan, Krisnan is sent to Madras to study. The young widow falls passionately in love with her son-in-law who first refuses her, then succumbs and neglects his wife. Pakkiyarn informs her brother of their mother's conduct, while Mankamma], wishing to get rid of her daughter, accuses her in a letter to Renkan of immoral conduct. Renkan resolves to kill his wife; he slashes off her head which falls into a well while the body falls outside. Krisnag returns to Tiruppattiir and, disguised as fortune-teller, sits in front of his house singing. Mankamma] and Renkan invite him inside. Krisnan cuts off Renkan's head with butcher's knife, but his mother escapes. Their pet dog leads him to the well where he finds the mutilated body of his sister. He commits suicide. Mankamrnal reports to the police that her son had murdered her son-in-law. The dog leads the police to the well. Searching Krisn aI}'s body, they find his sister's letter, Mankamma] is arrested and sentenced to long imprisonment. Pub!. by K .A . Madurai Mudaliar Shanmugananda Book Depot, Park Town, Madras, s.d. Mankuti Marutagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 89, Kuruntokai 164, 173,302, Narrinai 120, 123, ---7 Maturaikkaiici, Purananuru 24, 26, 313, 336, 372, 396. Mannarmannan (b. 1928), author: Karuppukkuyilin neruppukkural (The Fiery Voice of the Black Nightingale, Viluppurarn, 1985), biography of ---7 Cuppurattigam, Kanaka (Bharatidasan). Mannar Peru mal Pulavar (18), author: Tirumalai nontinatakam in c. 1500 lines of vigorous, simple language. The nonti (lame man) narrates how he lost all his gold on a prostitute in Madurai; when she found out, she drove him away, he went in the garb of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

416

MAt{O!,,!MA~I AMMAIYAR, PA~TITAI-MAPURA~AM

a sannyasi to the poligar's camp at Kurralam during the visit of Vijayaranka Cokkanata Nayakkar (1706-1732) whose riding horse he stole at night; how he was caught and maimed, became devotee of god Subrahmanya of Tirumalai who healed him. Early part of the n. is modelled on ~ viralivitutiau and gives vivid portraiture of prostitutes and their clients. The poem contains also many details of 18th c. social conditions on life under poligars. See also ~ nontiniuakam, ~ nonticcintu. Manonma~i Ammaiyar, Pantitai (1863-1908), of Mannivakkam nr. Kunrattiir, daughter of ~ Murukeca Mutaliyar. Well-versed in Tam. and medicine. Authoress of many vols. of devotional poetry and medic. treatises: Palanippamalai, Palaniyirankal, Viruttappatikam, Palanivenpa-p patikam, Tiruvamattur Alakiyandtar paiicarattinam, Cennai-k Kantaciimi-p patikam, Tiruvanaikka Akilantanayaki antati, Tirumullaivayil Kotiyitainayaki antati, Tirumayilai-k Karpakavalli aniati. Tirukkalukkunram Tirupuracuntari malai, Palanicanniti mural, Palanicinkaramalai, Puvaiccinkara catakam, Kunrattur Ponniyamman patikam,Putuvai-k Kamatciyamman patikam, Tanippatarrirattu, Pala patarrirattu, med. treatise Ma!lo!lma'1iyam etc. Mantalapurutar (16), Jaina lexicographer, author: Ciuamani nikantu, excellent poetic lexicon in 989 st. arranged in 12 chapters, composed at suggestion of his teacher Kunapatrag, most prob. contemporary of Krsnadevaraya (1509-1529). King Krsna is mentioned in the lexicon IX. 10 and is identified either with Rastrakuta Krsna III or with Krsnadevaraya which is more probable. Author also mentions a Tiruppukal puranam which may refer to ~ Sripuranam. If indeed he knew this puriina, then the two works corroborate each other in dating Sripuranam in 15th c., and Ciuamani in 16th c. Cf. also ~ Sripuranam, ~ Kunapatran, ~ Jinacenacarya. Mantiratipa Kavikalaficiyan (early 20), author of Vetalakatai, Madurai, 1919. Poem of 865 lines based on the Skt Yetalapaiicavimsati. Mappana Mutaliyar (d. 1827) of Elutumattuva] (Jaffna), author: plays Comakecari natakam, Parimalakaca natakam; also, Virataniccayam, Acauca viti; detailed comrn. on Tiruccenturppuranam. Mapuranam (date?), lost early gram. treatise supposed to have been normative text of the "second (middle) Academy" (~ itaiccankami, mentioned and quoted in ~ uraipayiram on ~ Iraiyanars Akapporul, in ~ Peraciriyars comm. on ~ Tolkappiyam Porul, 96, and in ~ Naccinarkkiniyar's comm. who describes it as one of four grammars preceding Tolkappiyam. 14 aphorisms preserved in medieval sources, in mixture of ~ venpii and ~ nurpii. Cf. Mayilai Cini, Verkatacami, Maraintupona tamil K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MABAI-MABAIMALAI ATIKAJ,-

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nulkal, Madras, 1959 101-105, K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/K61n, E.J. Brill, 1975, 76. marai, lit. "the hidden/prohibited [book]", ancient Tam. term for the Veda(s) . Majalmalal Atika] (18.7 .1876, Katampati nr. Nagapattinam 15.9.1950), scholar, novelist, philosopher, orator, radical speaker of the Tamil purist movement. B. as son of Cokkanata Pillai and Cinnamai, his given name was Vetacalam. Studied in Wesleyan Mission school, learned Skt., Engl., Salva Siddhanta and trad. Tam. grammar , between 1898-1911 taught Tam. at Madras Christian College. Publ. his earliest essays in monthly Nakai Nilalocani, in June 1897 became editor of Tam. version of Siddhanta Deepika, 1902 founded monthly journal Na!J:.acakaram, 1916 established pubI. house. On 27.8.1911 quit life of householder, became Hindu monk known as Svami Vedachalam, but soon Tamilized his name into Maraimalai Atika] . First book, on ~ Tirukkural, publ. in 1898. Took up the trend started by ~ Curiyanarayana Castiri to write and speak in "pure, chaste" Tam. (~ tanittamil, ~ ceniamili. Authored more than 100 books, essays, dramas, novels, poetry, textbooks, polemics, political pamphlets, oratory etc. Orig. poetry : Tiruvorriyur Murukan mummanikkovai (1900), composed 1898, 30 st. of devotional poetry of high lyrical quality with lengthy comm.; Comacuntara-k kiinci (1901), Tamil-t-tay (Mother Tamil, 1933), posthumous anthology Maraimalaiyatikal pamanikkovai (1977). Essays: Cintanaikkauuraikal (1908), Arivuralkkottu (1921), Ciruvarkkana centamil (1934), llaiiiarkkana inramil (1957), Arivuraikkovai (1971), Uraimanikkovai (1972). The comm. Mullaippattaraycci urai (1903) was of enormous ideological importance since it represented a new type of ~ urai combining textual analysis with social analy sis and criticism of trad. commentators ; Pattinappalai araycci urai (1906) ; study of ~ Manikkavacakar's times and life (1930), of Sakuntala (1935) , of Tirukkurai (1951); Murkala pirkala tamil-p pulavar (1936) , Comacuntara Kaiiciyakkam (1901), Comacuntara Nayakkar varalaru (1957) . Transl. of Sakuntala (1907); orig. drama Ampikavati Amaravati (1954). First novel, Kumutavalli allatu nakanattaraci (1911) is a bad liter. work in imitation of the "sensational" novel Leela by G.W.M . Reynolds . Important for development of Tam. novel is second novel Kokilampal katitankal (The Letters of K., 1921) in imitation of S. Richardson's Pamela, composed in form of 17 letters written by Brahmin widow Kokilampal to her non-Brahmin lover Tevyanayakam; taking part in Madras, Bombay and other parts of India, it introduces superK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MARAIMAI'~nKKAM PII;J;,AI-MARAINA~A CAMPANTAR 2

natural incidents and deals with sad situation of widows, drawbacks of Brahmin social structures and customs, problems of family life , intercaste marriages, Salva Siddhanta philosophy, picture of town-life etc ., but as liter. work it falls flat. Other writings comprise mixture of religion, philosophy, psychology and anthropology: Pantaikkala-t Tamilarum Ariyarum (Ancient Tamils and Aryans, 1906), a study of Salva Siddhanta (1906), Ve!d!a nakarikam (important treatise on culture of velala community, 1923), Maranattin pill manitar nilai (1911, on afterlife), Tamilar matam (Tamil Religion, 1941), Inti potu moliya ? (Hindi - a Common Language?, 1937, fierce attack on Hindi as a compulsory " national" language). In Eng!. : Tamilian and Aryan Forms of Marriage (1936), Ancient and Modern Tamil Poets (1939), Saiva Siddhanta as a Philosophy of Pra ctical Knowledge (1940). He also wrote an Eng!. diary (1899-1950). His impact on all subsequent developments in ideology, culture and politics wa s enormous . In 1905, he founded Saiva Siddhanta Maha Samajam with the aim to prove that Salva Siddhanta was un-Aryan, purely Tamilian system of thought, and to revive "pure" Tam. language, culture and religion. The ve la la community were original Dravidians, degraded by Aryan Brahmins. Eng!., not Hindi, should be adopted as common language of India. Tam. should evolve new scientific and technical terminology, and all teaching should be done in Tam. Modern Carnatic music was mainly Tamilian, later corrupted by Aryans. Cf. Tirunavukkaracu, Marai, Maraimalaiyatikal varalaru (in Tam.), Madras, Kalakarn, 1959; Arunachalam, P., Maraimalai Atikai (1876-1950) - A Critical evaluation of his contribution to Tamil culture. M. Litt. dissertation, Annamalai Univ. 1960. Maraimanikkam Pillai, supposed author of lost heroic poem Pervaiici (13th c.?). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies , E.J. Brill, 1992, p. 645. Maraifiana Carnpantar. (late 13-early 14), velala of Tirukkalaficeri, well-versed in Vedas (~ marais, disciple of ~ Arunanti Civacariya, teacher of ~ Umapati. Author: accord. to Mu. Arunacalam (Tamil ilakkiya varalaru - Nurramu 14, 1969, 134 ff.), M .e. authored Catamanikkovai (publ. 1898 by ~ Marairnalai Atikal/Na. Vetacalam Pillai; 1949 by Ta.Ca. Minatci Cuntaram Pillai) in 107 ~ nericaivenpa st.: outstanding Salva catechism. M.S . Purnalingam Pillai in Tamil Literature (1929) p. 251 merged this author with ~ Maraifiana Campantar.. This merger is to be rejected. Maraifiana Campantar, (16) of Kukai matam, Citamparam, very prolific Salva author: ~ Kamalalaya puranam (Saka 1470 = A.D. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MARAINAt-!A CAMPANTA TECIKAR-MARAPU

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1548) , 1066 st. in 20 chapters on Tiruvarur: Tolkappiyam Civamayam; Civatarumottaram (1553), famous work in over 1200 st. in 12 sections, ba sed on Salva agamas, dealing with cosmology, theology, temples and their constitution (pubI. Madras, 1888); Patipacupacappanuval, 336 ~ kural venpa's, 6 chapters, on Salva Siddhanta basic tenets; Cankarpanirakaranam in 421 kural venpa' s: lraivanurpayan, Paramopatecam (both in kural venpay; Caivacamayaneri ("The Path of Salva Creed"), 727 st. in kuralvenpii in 3 sections (relationship between guru and disciples, daily religious observances); Muttanilai (19 venpa'sv; Cakalakamacaram; Paramatatimirapanu; Comavarakarpam; Tirukkoyirkunram: Cirrampalanati miilai and venpa; Makacivarattiri karpam . Some of these works are of doubtful ascription. A number of other (as yet unedited) writings are attributed to him . Some of his many works seem to have been lost. Cf. ~ Cinkaravelu Mutaliyar, A., Apitanacintamani, s.v. The whole question of his writings is vague and open. See also J.M . Nallaswami Pillai (trans.), partial free trans. of Caivacamaya neri, Siddhanta Deepika VI (1902) 2 and 3, 25-27; 6 and 7, 85-88. Different from ~ Maraifiana Campantar. and, most prob., from ~ Maraifiana Campanta Tecikar. Maraifiana Campanta Tecikar (c. 1525/1550) of Cirkali , student of ~ Maraifiana Campantar., author : comm . on ~ Civananacittiyar; Arunakirippuranam (commenced in 1555), prob. also ~ Tiruvdrur puriina m (in 24 chapters, of 1547 A.D.) . However, may be the same person as Maraifiana Campantar. , majam, genre of "harsh heroism", poem on a heroic deed or heroic attitude. The two earliest poems of this genre are ~ Kal latateva Nay anar ' s on TiI)I)a!! Kannappanayanar, and ~ Nakkirateva Nayanar's on the same Salva saint, both of ~ Tirumurai I I . As part of ~ kalampakam , m. describes refusal by Maravar to give a girl of their tribe/caste to a king in mar riage. Also part of ~ panmanimalai. Cf. Pannirupattiyal 148, Pirapantatipam 95. Mar.an ~ Nammalvar. Mar.anakapporul (16) , erudite work on ~ akam and ~ ani , with illustr. st. of Tirupati kovai (listing various Vaisnava shrines and towns), by ~ Kurukai-p Perumal Kavirayar. Maranalailkaram (1575), grammar on rhetoric, citing many earlier writers, in honour of Marar; (= ~ Nammalvar), by ~ Kurukai-p Perumal Kavirayar of .A!vartirunakari. marapu, lit. rule, established usage or order; that which is sanctioned by custom; in gram., use of language sanctioned by ancient authorities; ancestral line, lineage; good conduct. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MARIADAS PILLAI-MABUMALARCCI NATAl

Mariadas Pillai (Maridas Poulle), Tam. scholar of Pondicherry, 18th c., trans. into French Tam . Piikavatam, publ. in Paris by Foucher d'Obsonville, 1788 (cf. Revue historique de l'lnde francoise , IV, 1, Pondichery-Paris, 1920). Mod. ed. by H. Hosten, Le Bhagavata, d' apres un texte en Tamoul. Nouvelle traduction de Maridas Poulle de Pondichery, 1739-95, Pondichery-Paris, 1920. See also B. Bissondoyal, "A note on Mariadas Pillai", Tam. Culture XII.4 (1966) 315-18. Marlmuttu-p Pillai (d. 1787) of Tillaivitankan (Citamparam), son of Tevaperumal Pillai, vellala. Prolific author of many various genres: popular Nataracar kirttanai, important Ampalappalli Atimulecar kuravaiici and Yarun apuri-k kuravaiici, excellent Tiruvitankan nontinatakam portraying the life of a thief brought before king Pratap Singh of Tanjore, Aniti natakam, Puliyur venpa, Citamparecar virali vitututu, a -7 paliu, collection of -7 cittirakkavi, etc. Cf. Government Tamil Catalogue , 1597, M.R. Arunacala-k Kavi, Tamilcceyyul cintamani p. 248, British Museum Catalogue, p. 187. Mariyappa Kavirayar (19), author: Pakavata ammanai (1893). Mariyatai (I) raman (katai) . Tam. folk narratives . The hero, Mariyatai (Ijraman, is a supremely just and shrewd judge whose decisions are faultless. Each narrative is illustrative of a Tam . proverb or popular saying. Cf. Ramachandra Rao, P. (transl.) Tales of Mariyada Raman, Madras, 1902. Markkacakaya Tevar, Varakavi (18) , author: devotional poem Tiruvirifi cai Murukan pillaittamil (1891) in 101 st. on god Murugan. Markkanta Municami Pillai (19) of Salem, author: play Yirakumara ndtakam (1868), one of the first plays printed in Madras. MarkkaJ.lteyan ammajjai, anonym. poem in praise of Markkanteyan, devotee of Siva. Ed. Pa. Cinivacan, Taficavur, 1987. MarkkaJ.lteyanar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 365 . Markkanteyatevar (date?), author: -7 pillaittamil on childhood of Murukan of Tiruvirificai. Marokkattu-k Kamakkanni Nappalattanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 377. Marokkattu Nappacalaiyar (Cankarn), author: Narri'1ai 304, Puranii!1uru 37, 39, 126, 174, 226, 280, 383. Marpittiyar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 251, 252. majumalarcci natal, the literary Tam. style of the Tam. renaissance , characterized by relative simplicity, directness and clarity ; its first great representatives were -7 Parati (Bharati) , Cuppiramaniya (1882-1921) and -7 Ramacami (Ramaswamy), Va. (1889-1951). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Marunkurkilar Perunkannagar (Cankam), author: Akananiiru 80. Marunkurppakai Cattan Putagar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 327 . Marunkurppattigattu-c Centajj Kumaragar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 289. Maruntumalai Tecikar Cltar (date?), author: Ci vanantapotakam. Marutampatiya Ilankatunko (Cankam), author Akananuru 96, 176, Nattino! 50. Marutanayakam Pillai, Tam. folk-ballad, dealing with the life of a wicked man who by foul means tries to seduce the wife of his elder brother. Realized as ~ vilpattu . Marutanilanakanar (Cankarn), very prolific poet of both ~ akam and ~ puram poems, author: Akananuru 34, 59, 77, 90, 104, 121,131,184,193,206,220,245,255,269,283,297 ,312,343, 358, 365, 368, 380, 387; Kalittokai on ~ marutam, 66-100, Kuruntokai 279, 367 , Narrinai 21, 39, 103, 216, 283 , 290, 302, 326, 341, 362, 392 , Purananuru 52, 55, 138, 139, 349. His st. are most variegated and rich in concrete detail. Prob. the greatest of later Cankam poets. Cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 270-71. Marutavagappuranam, on Tiruvitaimarutur, Salva, ascr. to ~ Civappirakaca Tecikar, Na!!akkiitta. marutpa « marui wonder, confusion + pii ), poem in which ~ venpii and ~ aciriyappa occur alternately. Cf. Tolkappiyam Porul. 398, Ilakkana vii. 749 , Muttuviriyam Yapp , Olip, 157-9, Na vanitap . Cey . 30 etc. Marutur Apatuttaral}ar (c. 1575/1600), said to be disciple of ~ Kurufiana Campantar, author: Pukolavilacam on Siva of Marutiir, in 899 ~ kanni in ~ kalivenpa. matakku, identical foot, word or line repeated throughout or in any part of a st. with different meaning. matal, poem in ~ kalivenpii describing disappointed lover riding on palmyra stem; genre developed from ancient theme ~ matal erutallurtal. Vaisnava canon has 2 m. poems (2673, 2674) both by ~ Tirumankai A!var: Ciriya tirumatal (77 couplets), Periya tirumatal (148 couplets). In both it is the woman who threatens to ride the palmyra-horse if god will not return her love. Most productive age of m. was prob. 15th-16th c. In m., the hero would design out of palmyra frond s figure of a hor se and fasten it to his chariot. The heroine 's figure is then drawn on a piece of cloth, the hero holds it in his hand as he rides the doll-horse which is drawn by the youngsters of the place. Threatened in this way, the lady-love should agree to marry him; or, in slightly K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MATAL BRUTAL(ORTAL-MAT A~AKAMARAJA~KATAI

different situation, the maid-companion of the heroine should agree to convey the message of love. The genre developed into subtypes: ~ uliimatal, in which the hero dreams of the woman , wakes up and announces that he will ride the "horse"; and valamatal which praises pleasure tkama-v-inpami as exceeding virtue (aram), wealth (porul), and even deliverance (vlru), and mentions hero's name in ~ etukai of the verses. Cf. Pannirupatt. 146-7 (lnav, 62-3), Yenpap , Cey. 28, Navanitap. Cey . 22, llakkanavil. 856 . matal erutal/iirtal, lit. "mounting/riding the matal". mara I designates flat leaf of palm, plantain and screwpine; jagged stem of palmyra leaf; "horse" made of palmyra leafs or stems on which a thwarted lover mounts to proclaim his grief and win his love. This custom formed one of the import. themes of class . lovepoetry : a frustrated lover threatens to fashion a "horse" from roughed-edged stems of palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis) leaves, decorate it with bells and garlands, and "ride" this device, screaming, through the village streets . He hopes that the threat will induce the woman to agree with the meetings with the lover, out of fear that his performance would reveal his clande stine affair and shame her. The custom will be resorted to whenever lovepassion of the man comes to a climax and cannot be endured. matal kurru designates the hero announcing to mound the "horse". There are at least 13 poems in class. Tam. poetry describing the custom . It developed into narrative poem in ~ kalivenpii metre. See ~ matal. Cf. Kamil V. Zvelebil, Literary Conventions in Akam Poetry, Madras, Inst. of Asian Studies , 1986, 22-28. Matalur Ki!ar (Cankam), author : Kuruntokai 150. matam « Skt matha-i hermitage; monastery, convent for celibate monks; mutt. Cf. also ~ iitinam; ~ Dharmapura mutt; ~ Kaci mutt; ~ Kafici-Nanappirakacar atinam: ~ Tiruvavatuturai iitinam. Their endowments have helped for centuries to support scholars, poets and artists (musicians, sculptors etc.), and propagate their respective religiou s philosophies. Occasionally, mutts were seats of ~reat and important liter. activity. Mutts in Tamilnadu belong to Saiva, Virasaiva and Vaisnava denominations, both Brahmin and non-Brahmin. Matanakamarajan katai, folk-narrative (ascribed, certainly wrongly, to ~ Pukalenti) of stories set into frame-story about prince Matanakamarajan and his friend , minister's son Putti Caturiya. Prob. 18th c. First printed prob. by ~ Ponnampalam Kavirayar, Madras, 1855; again in 1880, 1882, etc. Trans. : ~ Nateca Castiri, The Dravidian Nights Entertainments: Be ing a Translation of Madanakamarajankadai, Madras, 1886; V.A.K. Ayer (trans.), Sto K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MATANTAI-MATAVAIYA, APpAVAIYA

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ries of King Madana Kama, Bombay, 1962; K,V . Zvelebil (trans.), Two Tamil Folktales : The Story of King Matanakama . The Story of Peacock Ravana. Unesco, Paris/Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1989 (with introd. and notes). matantai (Tam. rhetoric) woman of 14-19,15-19 or 15-18 years of age; cf. also ~ ula. Mataplmag Malalyukacurag cantai (Maddened Bhima's Fight with Malaiyukacuran), folk play about revenge-seeking son of demon Baka, defeating and imprisoning Bhima; Draupadi finally destroys the demon by planting a thumb-nail, letting it grow into warriors' tumpai flower, and killing the demon by attaching the flower to an arrow . Matajucakipu Pulavar (late 18), author: Muslim epic chronicle Mitinu cunama. Matavaiya, Appavaiya (Matavayya, A. Madhaviah), next to ~ Nateca Castiri, the most important representant of Tam. novel writing of the post-Rajam Aiyar and pre-Ka1ki era, largely educated in Skt. and Eng ., many-sided author of short stories, essays, novels, poetry and translations. Preferring the realism of ~ Rajam Aiyar and hence not following ~ Vetanayakarn Pillar's romantic fantasies, he offers in contrast to Rajam Aiyar (who was interested in religious and philos. questions rather than social reform) indepth analysis of social problems as well as portrayals of intellectual journey of mod. Hindu, often confused and searching for solution. Wrote both in Tam. and Eng . B. 16.8.1872 in Perunkulam, Tirunelveli Dist., in Brahmin family . As village Brahmin boy, moved 1888 to Madras to study in Christian Col lege, where he came under influence of R. Ingersoll and Annie Besant. He also imbibed nationalist ideas, theosophy, and studied writings of George Eliot, the Bible and the Vedas . After having obtained B.A. and M.A. (1893) degrees, he held govt. post (in "Salt, Akbari and Customs Dept., Madras"), writing "in hours of fitful leisure". Later in life he also ed. own magazine Paiicamirtam (1924-25). His first attempt at Tam. novel , Cavittiri carittiram, appeared in June-Nov. 1892 1st issue (1.2-7) of Yivekacintamani, but after 6 chapters was discontinued, and M. took up writing Patmavati carittiram which appeared in 1898 (as a book without being serialized in any journal). After its completion resumed the story of Cavittiri and publ. it changing the title to Muttuminaksi, a decade later. He did not expect much success, but his first novel was well received, and M . wrote a number of others. D. suddenly 1925. Works: In June 1892 , in Vivekacintdmani 1.2 appeared first pages of Cavittiri carittiram (under the name of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MATAVAlyA, APpAVAlyA

Cavittiri, i.e. written as autobiography without Madhaviah ' s signature); it ceased to appear suddenly in Dec . issue No.7. In Febr. 1893, Rajam Aiyar began publ. his Kamalamp al carittiram. M . began writing Patmavati carittiram which wa s reviewed by V.G. Suryanarayana Sastri ("Padmavati Charitram: A New Tamil Novel ") rather positively as "the first effort in Tam. fiction of A. Madhaviah " in Christian Call. Maga zine XIV (1896-97) 671-73. Its first 2 vols. appeared in Palghat in 1898-1900 in book form , whereas a 3rd parts was added only in 1928 almo st as afterthought. The first 2 part s deal with the difficulties under which four of the main characters try to fit themselves into life in Madras. It is deep analysis of the decay of feudal family of landlord Sesha Aiyar, and narrate s the movement of its younger members from village to town. The family fall s apart because of inner ten sions (Sesha Aiyar' s greedy marriage, his son-in-law' s evil ways, Nagamaiyar' s womanizing, his wife Sala' s adultery ) and external causes (Eng. education, capitalist mode of production, Briti sh administrative apparatus). The narrative is preo ccupied with Savitri, wido wed sister of Narayanan. Gopalan, Nar ayanan' s friend, also migrates to Madras with the younger memb ers of the famil y, for further studies . There is enough temptation for him there in the form of actre sses and prostitutes, and for a while he is their victim. Added to this, he comes under his friend ' s suspicion as the cause of his wife's imagined infidelit y. However, the story has the trad. happy outcome. 3rd part written in 1925 make s Gopalan intere sted in adopting Chr istianity to be able to marry a Chri stian woma n. The novel remained finall y without end ing since M . died suddenly whil e atte nding a meeting of the Madras Univ . senate (Patmav ati caritt iram , oru tamilniutu-k katai, 7th ed., Madras, 1958). The other 2 Tam. novels M. wrote became more eng age. Whereas in Patmavati he criticizes the custom s of his ca ste, marriage, famil y life in late feudal society, in his next novel, Vijayamartuin tam katarpattu karpuppattu (l st ed. 1902 or 1903, 2nd 1922) he take s critical interest in other castes as well : Maravar the agri culturalists, and Nattukkottai Cettiyars, the usurers; he also attacks zamindari sys tem, and portrays decadent life of petty raj as. It is his 3rd book which established M. as a leading Tam. novelist: Muttuminaksi, oru piramanappen cuvac aritai ("Muthumee nakshi, the Autobiography of a Brahmin Girl ", Madras, 1903; tran s. from Tam. by one of his daughters, with an introd. by Sir C. Sank aran Nair, Madras, 1915), repr. 1984. It is powerful attac k on marriage customs of Brahmin community , on child marr iage, on treatment K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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of widows, on joint family system. The heroine is married at age 9 to a widower of 30. She is scared but consoles herself with the thought that life with her husband will be better than life with her step-mother who is only 5 years older than herself but treats her with cruelty . Unfortunately, her mother-in-law is even harder. When she fails to give birth to a child , many means dictated by tradition and superstition are used, in vain. Then her husband dies of cholera, and she is left alone , young childless widow , the most terrible lot of Hindu Brahmin woman. After a suicide attempt she is driven out of her home and goes to live with her married brother. Finally she marries her childhood friend Somasundaram, violating thus one of the most rigorous rules of orthodox society. The novel does not contain any long digressions of attack on established rules, but it is quite clear where the author stands. It is, unfortunately, covertly very didactic and humourless, but in writing directly, in 1903, about social evils of Hindu society, M . was a very courageous man. As Asher says, "no anti-brahman tract called more vigorously for a more consistently human attitude among brahmans towards the question of the marri age of their daughters" ("Social Comment in South Indian Prose Fiction", South Asian Review 5, 1972, 207-20) . The publication of the book provoked energetic protests, particularly in the daily The Hindu (Madras). Other writings in Tam. comprise trans . of Othello ; prose-drama Tirumalai Cetupati (founded on the story "Guzman the Good" in J.T. Truebay Cosio 's Romance of Spanish History), Madras, 1910; novel Paristar Paiicanatam; short stories written orig. in Eng ., some of them publ . in Tam. in Cutecamittiran, 16; as book in 1924: Kucikar kutti-k kataikal (Light Literature for Tamil Homes - Kusika' s Short Stories) , publ. also in his own journ. Paiicamirtam: Potutarumacankitamaiicari, collection of poems trans. from Eng . (Cardinal Newman's Lead Kindly Light, parts of Arnold's Light of Asia, st. by Longfellow , Lowell, Riley, Clough) as well as own songs in easy style on civic duties and morals; Putumatiri kalyanappattu, easy songs in popular tunes describing celebration of marriages in "new style". His 27 short stories in Eng . publ . in The Hindu, written in 1912-13, publ . as book in 1914, deal almost all with social reform (Harijan injustice, dowry system, bigamy, widow remarriage, education of women, etc.); most of them are formless and strongly didactic, with the exception of Draupadi's Dream showing exceptional imagination. Thil/ai Govindan: A Posthumous Autobiography (London, 1908), his bestknown Eng . work, belongs at least marginally to Tam. literature K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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since its author was noted Tam. novelist, since it deals in detail with Tam. life in Tamilnadu, and since its two Tam. translations (l929, 1944) were very popular and greatly influenced development of Tam. novel. M. began translating the novel into Tam. himself (to be publ. in Tamilarnecani. After a few parts were printed, he entrusted the trans. job to his close relative Ve. Narayanan (one of his intentions being to prove that one can express in Tam. easily and well most complex ideas expressed in Eng .). The Eng . orig. was publ. under acrostich Pamba which stands for Pierunkulam) A.M(atavaiya) B.A. The 1944 Tam. trans. differs somewhat from 1929 version in that the diction is simplified and modernized. It begins with dramatic description of protagonist's birth ; his Brahmin ancestors and family members are introduced, then his childhood and schooling described. He is educated in Eng . missionary school, marries. Subsequent parts tell of his life in Madras where he studies for B.A. degree (educational system in British India is criticized, problems of female emancipation discussed, etc .); problems of love , sex, marriage and divorce(!) are also mentioned. The protagonist contemplates suicide, falls ill, recuperates, tries to study various subjects, fails at examinations, at 25 decides to become policeman. Subsequently, he is in constant inner search among the sages of the West (e.g. Thomas a Kempis, Ingersoll) and East tBhagavadgita, ~ Tayurnanavar, etc .), knowing that he has an "illness of the soul". Frustrated with social, political, cultural and spiritual life of India, tries to "enter" various religions (Islam seems to him very unattractive, but for some time he hesitates between Buddhism and Christianity). All this is permeated by sharp critique of Brahmin community, bitter irony, didacticism, pessimism. Thillai Govindan 's M iscellany are es says on social, religious and other topics. Satyananda is another Eng . novel , The Ballad of the Penniless Bride a poem on dowry system (a few more Eng. poems appeared composed by M.), the play Dox vs . Dox is amusing skit on social reform . Perhaps the best of his Eng. writings is Clarinda, written in 1915. It is prob . the first histor. novel to deal with life of the Tamils after advent of Europeans in India, in the Tanjavur kingdom under Maratha rule during latter half of 18th c. The heroine is based on hist. character, Marathi Brahmin widow of the royal house who adopted Christianity, baptized by Rev . Schwartz. In the novel , Clarinda-Clavirunda, daughter of Murari Rao, Marath i Brahmin preceptor of Pratap Singh, king of Tanjavur, is married to the divan of the raja. On his death she is forced by people interested in the property she inherited to commit sati K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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victim of a conspiracy in which the death of her husband occurred under suspicious circumstances. A Briti sh soldier named Lyttleton fall s in love with her, rescues her and wants to marry her but a missionary steps in raising "technical" objections. The soldier takes her to Palayamkottai where they live as husband and wife (without being actually married). Misfortune befalls them when the soldier is compelled to commit suicide. Clarinda devotes herself to the church, after being baptized by Rev. Schwartz. There is good deal of factual and histor. data woven into the story . M . created some lively characters - the heroine, showing unusual strength of mind and great courage; Pratap Singh the imbecile king, divan Ramanna, wicked and cruel, Kamala Bai, even more villainous, the contemptible Madhava Rao, the noble Sarada. (There is a church in Palayankottai dedicated to Clarinda's memory) . The novel shows its author's deep conviction in civilizing influence of Briti sh rule in India, and his passion for social reform, in particular with regard to the lot of women. (Tam. ver sion by Carojini Pakkiyamuttu, 1976). Another Eng . story is Lieut. Panju : A Modern Indian (Madras, s.d., The Author's Press ). Finally , M . has produced easy Eng . versions of the Ramayana (introd. by P.S. Sivaswamy Iyer) and of Manim ekalai (foreword by S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Madras, 1923). Cf. R.A. Asher, "The Tamil Renaissance and the Beginnings of the Tamil Novel", JRAS , 1969, 12-28. Matavajj, A.. (b. 1933; pseudo Nii!!i), of Tiruvanantapuram, Kerala. Prose-writer. His realistic stories and outstanding novels have regional character. Author: short story collections Kataitteru kataikal (Stories From the Bazaar), Kamini mulam (Because of the Sensuous Woman), Mokapalla vi (Bewildering Refrain), A. Matavan kataikal. Novels: Kirusnapparuntu (Krishna' s Kite), Punalum manalum (The River and Its Sands, 1974): about the sad life of Ankucami, labourer who earns his living by loading lorries with river-sand in Tiruvanantapuram region, his daughter Panki, and Tarnotaran, a young man who is close since childhood to Ankucami's family . Their complex and painful relationships are well dealt with, and the regional dialect of the labourers is faithfully reproduced. Panki hopes that Tamotaran will eventually marry her but he treats her as his younger sister. When, during floods , they all cros s the swelling river in a boat, Panki drowns while the two men survive. Matava Pantitar -7 Cevvai ccutu var. Matavaraya . Mutaliyar, A. (l st half, 20), ed. of Kunapotini; d. prob. in or before 1927 very young. Author of 16 novel s at age K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

428

MATHA-MATURAI-C CIVAPPIRAKAcAR

25: Kanakarattinam (1920), Ankayarkanni (1921), Lokanayaki, Veta valli , Matucutanan, Manikkavalli, Jc katalajakaccoti etc. matha --7 matam. matha --7 mutts , non-Brahmin. Matirttan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 113. Mativ~n, accord. to --7 Atiyarkkunallar's comm. on --7 Cilappatikaram, author of lost Mativanar nataka-t tamil nul, treatise on dramaturgy and performing arts, also called Kiatanul. Matiyalakag, Ke.E. (20), author: short story collections Campanki-c caruku (Dry Leaves of Champak, 1969), Paruvamalai (The Monsoon, 1969), Muttuppantal (Pearl Shed, 1969), Enkirunto vantdn (He Came From Somewhere, 1969), Pillaikkaniyamutu (1969). Mattajjanta Cuvamika] (18), author: Nii!1amatiyuUii!1, allegor. philos. drama. Mattan (Mastan) Cayipu (Sahab), Muslim poet , Kunankuti Mastan, b. c. 1830 as Sultan Ahmad Kadiri Lebbai at Kunankuti. A vendor of attar at Tiruchirappalli, he read widely devotional and spiritual writings in Tam., because ascetic and mystic, in c. 1850 withdrew from active life, lived for years in forest , then wandered from place to place, finally settled in Madras as yogi. Had many disciples, teaching them universal my sticism expressed through more than 1000 st. mo stly devotional and philosophical verse modelled on --7 Tayumanavar, and some --7 kirttanais. Some of the st. crave for the grace of Muhammad as the guru; there is also polemics against Chri stianity (e.g. Kirittumata kantana vaccirat tantamy; among other work s one should mention Akatticar catakam and Nanticar catakam. Ayyacami Mutaliyar (2nd half, 19) composed about him panegyric Kunankutiyar tKunankutinatar) patirruppattantati. Maturai A.ciriyar Kotan Korranar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 144. Maturai A.ciriyar Nallantuvagar --7 Nallantuvaniir. Maturai Alakkar Nalar Makagar MaHanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 33, 144, 174, 244, 314, 344, 353 , Kuruntokai 188, 251, Narrinai 82, 197, 321, Purananuru 388. Maturai Aruvai Val).ikan Ilavettajjar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 56 , 124, 230 , 254 , 272, 302 , Kuruntokai 185, Narrinai 33 , 157, 221, 344, Purananiiru 329. Maturai-c Civappirakacar (2nd half, 15). Author: virivurai (detailed comm.) on --7 Ci vappirakacam, dd. 1488. Disciple of --7 Maturai Na!!appirakacar of --7 Cirrampala Natika] lineage. Ed. Mu. Arunacalarn, Camajam, 1940. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MATURAI-C CUI,.I,.AM POTANAR-MATURAI-K KOLLAN

429

Maturai-c Cullam Potanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 215. Maturai Ilampalacirtyag Centan Kuttagar (Cankam), author: Akandniiru 102, 348, Narrinai 273.

Maturai ItankalJlJi Kaucikagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 309. Maturai Ilankaucikanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 381 . Maturai KaHiA: Kataiyattag VelJlJakanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 170, PUrana!1UrU 316.

Maturai-k Kamakkani Nappalattanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 204 .

Maturaikkanakkayagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 27, 338, 342, Narrinai 23, Purananuru 330.

Maturaikkafici (Advice [Given in] Madurai), longest of

-7

Pattuppattu poems in 782 lines in -7 akaval and -7 vaiici by -7 Mankuti Marutanar on king Netuficeliyan (c. 200-215 A.D.). The poet was also author of a number of st. in other anthologies. It contains detailed description of city life covering a full circle of twenty-four hours; there is no love-element, it is purely a -7 puram poem. There are relatively many Aryan loanwords. Cf. K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1973,60-61 ; id ., Tamil Literature, Lelden/Koln, E.l. Brill, 1975, 95; id ., Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 24; V. Kandaswami Mudaliar, "The Song of Madurai", Tam. Culture V (1956), VI (1957) . Other name: Peruvalamaturaikkaiici. First publ . 1889. Maturai-k Kannattanar (Cankarn), author: Akananiiru 360, Kuruntokai 351. Maturai-k Kantacami-p Pulavar (early 19), scholar, trans. from Skt. Vivakiirasarasamgraham : appeared at Cennai-k Kalvi-c Cankam as Miruti cantirikai (a "taruma nul") in Salivahana 1748, A.D. 1826 . Maturai-k Kantaratattagar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 317. Maturai-k Karulaviyam Kiittanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 325. Maturai-k Kataiyattar Makag VelJr;takanar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 223 . Maturaikkavi (18), Brahmin poet of Perunkarai (Pantiyanatu). Proficient in composing musical poems; only few are extant. Said to have praised Muttirulappa Pil lai, minister of Raghunatha Sethupati. Cf. Irarnacami Pulavar, Tamil-p pulavar varalaru V.27. Maturai-k Kavuniyan Putattagar (Cankarn), author: Akananuru 74. Maturai-k Kollag Pullan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 373. Maturai-k Kollajj VeQQakanar (Cankam), author: Akatuinuru 363, Narrinai 285. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Maturai-k Kfittanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 334. Maturai Marutankilar Makanar Cokuttagar (Cankarn), author: Narrinai 329 , 352. Maturai Marutankilar Makagar Perunkannagar (Cankam), author : Akananuru 247, 364 , Narrinai 388. Maturai Marutankilar Makan Ilam Pottan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 332 . Maturai Nanappirakacar (c. 1450-75) of the line of ~ Cirrampala Natika], disciple of Cattiyafiana Pantaram, author: comm. (virivurai) on ~ Ci vappirakacam by ~ Umapati. In ms. His disciple was ~ Maturai-c Civappirakacar. Maturai Otaikkatal Kannam Pukuntarayattagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 350. Maturai Olalkkataiyattar Nal VeHaiyar (Cankam), author : NarrifJai 250, 369 . Maturai Palaciriyar Centag Korranar (Cankam), author : Narrinai 332 . Maturai-p Palaciriyar Nappalagar (Cankam) , author: Akananiiru 172. Maturai-p Palaciriyar Narramanar (Cankam) , author: Akananuru 92. Maturaip Pataimanka Manniyar (Cankam), author: Puranii !1uru 351. Matal Patiya Matanktranar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 182, NarrifJai 337 . Maturai-p Perurnarutajjar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 241. Maturai-p Perumarutila Nakagar (Cankam), author : Narrinai 251 . Maturai-p Perunkollag (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 141. Maturai-p Pillai (19), author: Maturai venpa malai (1891) . Maturai-p Pottanar (Cankam), author: Akananiiru 75 . Maturai-p Pullan Kal}l}anar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 161. Maturai Putagllanakagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 276 . Maturai-p Puvanta Nakan Vettanar (Cankam), author: Notiino! 317. Maturai-t Tamila-k Kuttajj Nakan Tevanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 164. Maturai-t tarnij-c cankam ~ Madurai Tamil Sangam (established 14.9.1902). Altern. date of its foundation was suggested: 14.5.1901. Maturai-t Tamil-k Kuttanar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 334. Maturai-t Tattan Kal}l}anar (Cankarn), author: Akananuru 335 . Maturai Velacan (Cankam) , author: Puranii !1uru 305 . Maturai Viran katai. Folk -ballad, story of love and marriage of Maturai Viran of the cakkili (cobblers) caste and the daughter of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Nayak nobleman, Pommi. The marriage enrages the nobleman who rallies his castemen to punish the upstart. However, Pommi's father is killed in battle and the lovers escape to Tiruchchi. Maturai Vir ag finds employment in the army of Nayak ruler of Tiruchchi. He is sent to annihilate the robber gangs of Alakarrnalai who pester Pandya kingdom. He is success ful, and is rewarded by Tirumalai Nayak him self. But he soon gets into trouble as he is caught in the attempt to seduce and abduct Vellaiyamma], the fa vourite courtesan of the Nayak. He is ordered to be quartered. Pommi and Vellaiyamma] who fell in lo ve with him burn themselves on hi s funeral pyr e. Alakar koyil nr . Madurai is the cultic place of Maturai Viran who is still worshipped there as Patinettampati Karuppan, The Black [Guardian] of 18 steps. Even elsewhere, he became an important village deity. Ed. of the ballad, S. Sanmukhasundaram, Madras: Poompukar, 1984 . Almo st identical ballad , Maturaiv ir a cu vami katai , calls the hero Maturaiviracuvami and makes him to be onl y raised by a cakkilicci (c obbler woman), but otherwise he is of divine origin. Publ. as cha pbook frequently. Cf. also Maturai Yirappan ammanai. Maturai Vlrappag ammajjai . Folk ballad. A king ' s child born with ominous marks round neck is abandoned in fore st, re scued and brought up by wife of Pomma Nayaka ' s shoemaker. Named Virappa, it grows into valiant youth, is appointed to guard Pommi, daughter of the poligar, during her first men struation (when she is away from town), fall s in love , elopes with her to Kollimalai. Poligar pursues him , is kill ed , and Virappa enters servi ce under Vijayar aiJka CokkaliiJkar, govern or of Tirucirappalli. On order of Tirumala Nayaka suppress es Kallar tribe. His ille gal love with a servant maid of Madurai temple leads to the punishment of hi s mut ilation of hands and legs. He sacrifices his life in fire in front of the temple and his two sweethearts follow suit. His image is in stalled by Nayaka in Madurai temple and worshipped; the queen vow s to name her child to be born Virappa. Cf. Mackenzie ms. no. 49 (three mss. with minor variations). Shelf nos. 16-B-12, 17/B-1-14 and 16-9-23. Cf. Maturai vtroo. katai. maturakavi, 1. poem particularly characterized by mellifluous langua ge, as one of the ---7 narkavi; 2. poet who composes poems in sweet, mellifluous language and diction; 3. cf. ---7 Maturakavi. Maturakavi (8th c. or later?), alias Marankari (cf. A .R. 1906 of A!!aimalai, Narasimha temple, mentioning a Marankavi Maturakavi , cf. also A.R . 1908, § 33 , p. 68, and §§ 15-35, pp. 62-9; uncertain identification), b. at Tirukolur (?TirukoJi) in Isv aracitnrai, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MATURAKAVI pAR ATI-MATURAM POTALINKAM , SRIMATI

sukla caturdasi (Friday, Citra month) i.e. on 14.4.794 A.D. accord. to Vaisnava sources, and lived for 50 years (cf. Koyil oluku , Tirumanka i Pirap ., Alviir caritram) . Vai snava Brahmin, the only ~ alvar who sang not about God but about his master Nammalvar; author: Ka IJIJi!J:uIJ cirutttimpu, hymn in 11 ver ses in 1st Thousand of the canon, in honour of his guru . H. Nau (Pro legome na, Halle , 1919, pp. 62-3) speculates that Namrnalvar may have been son of M. Most uncertain. Maturakavi Parati (alias Kanapati Cuppaiy ar , 19), author: Maturakavi patankal (1 896 ). Maturakavi-p Pulavar ~ Cittampara Tattu valinkaiya n . Matura Kavirayar (early 18), of Amararnpettai , Tontainatu, author : Tirukka ccur nontinatakam; panegyric poetry . Kattan Pillai matanki vitututu . Maturakavi Varataraca Aiyankar ~ Arulalatacar. Maturam Putalinkam, Srtmati (nom -de-lume Kiruttika, Krithika, 20), great mod. Tam. female novelist, prob . the best satirist and sharp soci al criti c of contemporary Ind. society. Her first import. novel Pukai natuvil (" In the Mid st of Smoke", 1953) is a critical reaction to the young independence of Indi a, and to the imitation of foreign wa ys. It takes place in Delhi. Author introduces 3 protagon ists: a man of austere self-discipline who had wo rked for Independence but feel s frustrated over the result s, a Vedantin who analyses intellectu ally life problems but keeps emotionally uninvolved, and a Govt. official who suffers because he has too deep sensibilities for love and beauty. The first man seeks a way out by becoming an ascetic, the Vedantin will parti cip ate in life th anks to hi s wife's patience , the official commits suicide. Viicavecvara m (1966) takes plac e in an entirely different milieu: in a village, and author portray s analytically and critically inner life of its inhabitants. Tarmaksetr e ("On Dharmakshetra/On the Field of Ju stice", the title in imitation of the very first words of Bhagavadgitii, 1969) is penetrating satire of India of 1969; the events take place in Delhi , and ancient legends and myth s serve as allegory for contemporary social critique (cf. Ind. Literature, Dec. 1970, p. 96). Catyameva ("Truth Only"; title reflects satirically the first words of Indian national motto, Satyame va jayate "Truth Onl y Will Pre vail" 1971) can be regarded as second volume of the 1969 novel. In Putiya konahki ("The New Diviner", 1972, cf. ~ Parati, Cuppiramaniya), author pictures a world reflecting the supernormal power of women. Nerriruntom (" Yesterday We Were" , 1975 ) tr ies to find in the charact er of Patrnes the meeting point betw een ge nerations. An affluent family is K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MATURApURI AMPIKAI MALAI-MAYILAINATAR

433

subjected to a series of problems resulting from younger people rightfully claiming the present as their own to shape as they like . Deeply psychological study. Both in Putiya konanki and in this novel, the authoress undertakes (as probably the only one in this depth) the investigation of the problem of mod. Ind . youth. Also, in all her novels, she manifests keen interest and unique and critical understanding of trad. Ind. values in confrontation with Western and foreign ways. Maturapuri Ampikai malai. Anonym. collection of 44 p. of late medieval --7 bhakti stanzas on Maturai Minaksi. Maturapuri Meyppata Pauranikar (early 18), author: Tiruppaiiuiiliuala puriinam, Salva, in 25 chapters: 1708 A.D. Maujji --7 M ani, S. Mavalattajj (Cankam) , author: Kuruntokai 348 . Mayaravanaj; katai, folk narrative poem in --7 antati arrangement. Anuman goes to Pata]a to free Iraman and Ilakkumanar from imprisonment in a box and kills Mayaravanan; he fights with his son Maccamukan, born from Anuman's sweat in a fish. Author's name is given as Periyanayakan, son of Pettunayakan of Mantainakar in Kantivalanatu. Based on folk-narrative about --7 Mayilravanan. No . 551 , Cat . of Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Libr. I, 1964 . Mayatevan, Ma.Ce. (Mayan, b. 1933), author: novel Nircculal (Whirlpool), short story collections Iratta-t tanam (Gift of Blood), Capalam (Craving), essays on --7 Putumaippittan, Tamils in Malaysia, etc ., research work Male ciyavil Tamilar nakarikamum kalaiyum (Culture and Arts of the Tamils in Malaysia) . Mayavi --7 Raman, EsKe. Mayeccuvarar (date?), ancient grammarian praised in comm. on --7 Ydpparuhkalam (30 aphorisms quoted, 23 of his prosodic rules are given). His work (on prosody?) is lost. He might have been the same person as --7 Peraciriyar, Mayel}tan (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 235. Mayilainatar (c. 1325 or earlier), Jaina scholar, author: first comm. on --7 Pavananti's --7 Nanniil . Intern. evidence points to Konkunatu as his home, his name to today's Mayilappur (Madras). His comm. is lucid and brief. He is the first among extant commentators to speak of classification of liter. works as --7 aimperuhkappiyam, --7 enperuntokai, --7 pattuppattu and --7 patinenkilkkanakku. He quotes from many ancient works now lost and mentions a number of customs and manners of his time. If Pavananti, his patron Ciyakankan and M . were contemporaries (which is well possible) , then M . belongs rather to early 13th c. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

434

MA YILEBUM PERUMAJ;.- PIJ;.-I:AI-METRICS, TAM .

Mayilejum Perumal PiDai (17), son of Tantavamurtti Pillai of vellala descent, Tirunelveli, scholar and comm. of 37 st. of ~ Kallatam, ~ Tolkappiyam, ~ Tirukkural and Jaina works, teacher of ~ Cuvaminata Tecikar. Mayilu-p Pillai (19), author: Ndnacavuntari ammanai (Kolumpu, 1900) . Mayilvakana-p Pulavar (1779-1816) of Matakal, Jaffna, student of ~ Kulankai-t Tampiran. Author: Puliyur yamakavantati (with comm. by Katiraiver Pillai) , Yalppanavaipavam; Nii!1iilaflkiira natakam, Kaciyattirai vilakkam on pilgrimage to Benares-Kasi. Cf. Peruntokai No . 1771, Piivalarcarittiratipam p. 221. Ed .: Puliyurantati, Paruttitturai, 1906. Meccumperuma] Pal}tiyan. katai, Tam. folk-ballad about a protagonist who meets his end because of adultery . Ed . Kotumuti Canmuka-p Pirakatam, Konku patippakam, Cennai. mel-k-kanakku (medieval commentators, Tam. rhetoric), poetic works containing from 50 upto 500 st., mostly in ~ akaval, ~ kali or paripatal metres; "major" poems. Cf. Pannirupattiyal 222, 223 . metrics, Tam. Tam. syllabification differs basically from Skt. even though both Skt. and Tam. metres belong to quantitative prosodical systems, which are based on durational difference of short and long vowels. Tam. metrical syllable is rather "morphemic" than phonemic or syllabic: combination of two shorts luul or one short plus one long lu - I may constitute a metric unit called nirai I = I, whereas short luI and long I - I vowels are distinctly separate syllables in Skt.; in Tam. either vowels may constitute a unit called nerl - I. In other words, the fundamental concept of Tam. prosody is that of ~ acai, basic metrical unit. It can be simple or compound. There are two basic kinds of acai: neracai I - I, simple (metrical) unit, and nirai I = I, compound (metrical) unit. A single acai, ner, consists of one and only measure; a compound metrical unit, nirai, consists of 2 measures. Hence, Tam. metre is quantitative, completely independent of dynamic accent; neracai corresponds to a long syllable, niraiyacai to 2 short syllables the first of which is always short either by nature or by position, the second short or long but counting for short even if it is long by nature or position. Skt. prosody did exert influence on Tam. metrics; it reached its peak with the impact of ~ cantam, rigidly set pattern of rhythm based on syllabic quantity (in poets of Vaisnava and Salva bhakti, in ~ Arunakirinatar, etc.). Cf. Beschi, CiL, A Grammar of the High Dialect of the Tamil Language . . . to which is added an introduction to Tamil poetry (trans . . . by Benjamin Guy Babington, Madras, 1822) , K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

METTA, MU .-MEYKA~TATEV AR

435

Part the Second; Chidambaranatha Chettiar, A., Advanced Studies in Tamil Prosody, Annamalai University, 1943 (repr. 1955 and 1957); Marr, J.R., The Eight Anthologies, Madras, Inst. of Asian Studies, 1985, X (390-452); its author says clearly (p. 393): ". .. nothing analogous to the Matra-chandas in Sanskrit poetry was envisaged by these writers (i.e, -7 Tolkappiyar, -7 Amitacakarar and author of -7 llakkanavilakkam, KVZ) on Tamil prosody, and . . ., from the silence of Tolkappiyanar about eluttu in the context of prosody, Tamil metres analogous to the Aksarachandas were not of significance in his day. Such metres are, however, found in later poetry from Tevaram onwards." Pitchai, A., "Sanskritic Influence on Tamil metrics", Journ. of Tam . Studi es 21 (June 1982) 79-87; Subramanyam, S., The commonness in the Metres of the Dravidian languages , DLA, Trivandrum, 1974; Zvelebil Kamil V., Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction, Madras, New Era, 1989. Metra, Mu. (M. Mehta, Kavitev, b. 5.9.1945 at Periyakulam, Madurai Dist.), avantgarde poet, strongly politically engaged, began pub!. 1963, collection of poetry Kannir-p pukkal (Blossoms of Tears, 1974), Urvalam (Procession in Town, 1977), Avarkal varukirarkal (They're coming, 1980), Oru vanam iru ciraku (One Sky Two Wings, 1983), Itayattil narkali (Chair in the Heart, 1985), Ahkahke ampukal (Here and There Arrows, 1985) : interviews with the poet on his poetry and Tam . literature; short story anthology Avalum natcattiram ta!1 (She too is indeed a star, 1984). Many stories pub!. in -7 Kalki, Tinamanikatir, -7 Kalaimakal: story Kil ittakotu (Scratched Lines) awarded great prize of -7 A!1antavikara!1. Further works: Nanum e!1 kavitaiyum (1984, I and My Poetry), Ninaittatu . .. nekilntatu (1984, Thought Out and Forsaken), Kattirunta karru (Waiting Wind , 2nd ed. 1984), Manac ciraku (The Wings of Mind , 5th ed. 1985). Meykantatevar (also Meykantar, Meykantatevan), author of Civaiianapotam, the authoritative doctrinal scripture of Salva Siddhanta. Preface to his work gives the names of the author (orig . Cuvetavanapperumal) , native town (Vennai) and the treatise . Accord. to tradition, was found on temple-tank's steps by Accutar Kalappalar, vellala chieftain of Tiruppennakatam, became student of -7 Paraficoti who named him M . "the one who saw the Truth". Accord. to S.U. Viii, 74 (Tiruvannamalai) and E.l. VII, 208, his date would be A.D . 1232. However, there are other epigr. data which place M . in the begin. of 12th c., or latter part of 11th c. For discu ssion of dating, cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature , Annamalai Univ ., 1977, 163-68. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

436

MEYKKIRTTI-MINATCICUNTARAM PI~~AI

meykkirtti, poem detailing genealogy and achievements of a king , with prayer for his long life and his queen' s, and mention of his name and regnal year, cf. Pannirup. 311. meykkirttimalai, panegyric poem about great deeds of a king, cf. llakkanavil. 805. Meyfifiana Mamunivar, Mayilatutural (date?), author: Salva Paccilacciramappuranam in 505 st., 8 cantos. Meyppata Puranikar (early 18), author: Tiruppaiiiiiilippuranam (1709) in 821 st. meyppatu (lit. body exertion, Tam. rhet.), in --7 Tolkappiyam, integrated psychophysical activity expressive of emotions evoked by dramatic performance or perception of poetry; in aphorism 1197, T. enumeras eight m.; in aphorism 1206, thirty-two m . Mlkamag --7 Arivanantar. Mllaikkantag (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 196. Milaipperun Kantan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 136, 204, 234. Milal Veltittan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 284. Milecca Matantakara Paskarag (19) , author: Nikara nikaranam (refutation of Christianity), Yalppanam, 1891. Minatcicuntara Kavirayar (d. 1895), court-poet of Ettayapuram zamin. Author: Murukaranuputi, Kutiraimalaippatikam , Kalukumalai tiripantiiti. Transl. into Tam. Kuvalayiinandam , and provided for it many illustrative st. Minatcicuntarammal (early 20), authoress: novel J eyac ilan (1912 ? 1915 ? 1917 Macmillan Comp., Madras); the protagonist, a Brahmin boy, studies in Madras, is convinced that women should have the same opportunities and the same education as men, goes to London to obtain higher education , suported by the female heroine Carasvati. The novel, filled with progressive ideology, offers a faithful and realistic picture of life of the educated elite, and critique of regressive traditions and superstitions. There are also elements of detection, mystery , disguise etc., in addition to sharp social criticism and humour: e.g. the embarassment of an elderly orthodox Brahmin accidentally swallowing a fish during his ablutions; the preoccupation of his wife in the kitchen preventing her from coming to his rescue; aspects of personal hygiene pertaining to women are treated with surprisingly candid realism. Minatcicuntaram Pillai, Tiricirapuram, Makavittuvag (8.4.1815 in Atavattiir, Tiruchirappalli Dist. - 1.2. 1876 at Tiruvavatuturai), greatest traditional poet and scholar of 19th c. Father, of Salva vellala community, wa s scholar and teacher, native of Madurai. M . went through trad. schooling, after death of father in 1829 married Kaveriyacci, aged 15. Studied with many teachers of Tam., Skt. , grammar, medicine, astrology etc ., in particular with K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MI!"!ATCICUNTARAM PI':-':-AI, TIRICIRAPURAM

437

---7 Capapati Mutaliyar of Kaficipuram. Began composing ---7 prabandhas early, spent some time in Madras with various teachers, became teacher at Tiruchi, earned most of his living by copying mss., writing occasional poems, teaching. His fame as teacher and poet of puranas and prabandhas increased; so did the group of his students, most illustrious among them young ---7 Cuvaminat' Aiyar, U.Ve. who spent with him 4 years (1872-76). M. became chief vidvan of Tiruvavatuturai Mutt, moved to Mayiiram, went on teaching and composing mostly trad. poetry of various genres and forms, including 22 ---7 sthalapuranas and other large poems. Apart from being original poet in the class. mode of composition (exemplified by such poets as ---7 Civafiana Munivar, ---7 Kacciyappa Munivar and ---7 Civappirakacar) he was great scholar and editor: of Cevvantipuranam (1851), ---7 Kallatam (1868), first part of ---7 Kaiicipuranam etc. Works: M. was la st great master who combined in himself scholar and poet; his was learned poetry, while his enormous erudition, incredible memory (he could dictate, often impromptu, more than a 100 st. per day , and sometimes several different works simultaneously) and skill in oral instruction, lacked truly critical attitudes. His elegant, difficult, high poetry lacks true vigour and innovating originality. Sthalapuranas: Amparppuranam (1007 st., 15 chapters, publ. 1965; on Tiru Ampar, Salva temple celebrated in ---7 Tevtiram; composed spontaneously while traveling in a carriage and dictated to young amanuensis Cuvaminatan, cf. Ll.Ve.Cuvaminat' Aiyar's Autobiography 388: An ancient king, Nantan, who reigns in N. India, comes on pilgrimage to Tiru Ampar, gets his wish and obtains salvation. M . depicts Nantan along the route stopping at many Saiva shrines for worship); ArrilppuriilJam (Saiva; 525 st.); Uraiyurppuranam (on Tiruchi, Salva, 1417 st. in 15 chapters; publ. 1881; kavyalike); Kantatevippuranam (Salva, on Cirumarutur, 884 st. in 20 chapters); Sri Kiicirahaciyam (Salva on Kasi); Kurukkaippuranam (Salva, 5733 ---7 viruttam st.); Koyilurppuranam (Salva, 849 viruttam st., 14 chapters); Ciiraimanakarppuranam (alias Curaikkutip., Salva, 539 st., 11 chapters; with data on Cahkam poets; publ. 1866); Taniyurppuranam (Salva, 202 st. in 8 chapters, publ , 1868); Tiyakariicalilai (fragment. , on Tiruvarur, 699 virtuttam st.); Tirukkutantaippuranam (alis Kumpakonap., Salva , 2384 st. , 70 chapters, publ . 1865) ; Tirutturuttippuriinam (o n KuttalamTirutturutti, Salva, 1627 st., 40 chapters; contains long legend. biography of ---7 Cuntaramiirtti); Tirunakaikkaronappuranam (Saiva, on Nakappattinam, publ. 1869; Cuvaminat ' Aiyar 's study with M. began with analysi s of st. Nauuppatalam 38 of this work in

K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

438

MI~ATCICU NTARAM PII;I;AI, TIRICIRAPURAM

1871, cf. Autobiography 237-9;343-5); Tirupperunturaippuranam (Salva, 1297/1659 st. in 32/33 chapters; contains bio~raphy of Tiruvatavuratikal); Ti rumayilaippu ranam (fra gm., Saiva, on Mayilappur, 2 chapt. preserved in ms. ); Tiru varankulappuranam (Salva, fragm , lO st. ?); Pa tti ccurappuranam (Saiva, fragm .), Mannippatikkaraippuranam (on Taiicai , Salva, 501 st. in 20 chapters); Mayurappuranam (prob. the best-known work of M., Sai va, in 1894 st., 61 chapters; free version of Skt. orig. ; cf. Cuv aminat' Aiyar, Autobiography , 345-6); Va(o(ipurrurppuralJam (Salva , 526 st., 20 chapters); Yiranapp uranam (Salva, 706 st. in chapters). Mahatmya s and caritt iram: Kurupu cai manmiyam: Atikumarakurupara cu vamika~ ca ritt ira m (biog ra phy of -7 Kumarakuruparar); Civaiuina Yokika l carittiram ; Ma yilravanan carittiram. Patikams: Ka cci Yinayakar patikam , Cuppiramaniya Cuvdmikal patikam, Tittakkutippatikam (not available), Maruta vanar patikam . Patirruppauantati's : Tantapani p . (not available) ; Tiru iuina campa ntamu rtti Na yanar p. , Tiru vuraip; Pattie curattuppatirruppattantati (simple, easily comprehensible poem accord. to Cuvarninat' Aiyar' s Autobiog rap hy p. 334), Pala ca ip ., Palaivanap., Pu valurp. Tiripan tati's: Kutantaitiripantati (eulogy on greatness and sanctity of Kumpakonam, chiefly in honour of Siva-Kumbesvar a, cf. Cuvaminat ' Aiyar's A utobiog raphy, p. 257), Tiruppaiiiiiilit., Tiruvana ikkat t. (not available), Tiru vitaima ruturt. , Tiraicaiyan tati (A utobiog ra p hy, p. 33 2); Yam aka vanta ti ' s : Tirucciramalai, Tiruvava tuturai and Til/ai ya ma ka antati's . In addition, Erumpiccaram venpa antati (not avail abl e). Mala i' s: Nayakimalai (on presidin g deity at Tiruvanaikka; glorifies greatness of Urna in elucir kalinetil aciriyam metr e; cont entwise, dependent on -7 Ka cci yappa ' s Tiru viina ikka pu ranam; mo st intere sting st~ries of Siva ' s "s ports", and story of Koccenkatcolan worshipping Siva in form of a spider. Publ, 1961); Karkutimalai; Citamparecarm alai; Cupp iramaniya Tecikar malai (on Head of Tiruvavatuturai Mutt); Ca ccitananta Tecikarmalai (or Tiruvavatuturai), Cavarayalu Nayakar mdlai (on his own student), Cittiraccattirappukalcci malai. Pillaittamil' s: Akilanta nayaki p ., Kantimatiyammai p. , Cekkilar p ., Tiruvitaikkali Mu rukar p ., Tiruvennirrumai p ., Pakampiriyal p. (not available), Piramma vitya nayaki p . (not availabl e), Peruntiruppirattiyar p ., Mankalamp ikai p ., Amp alavana Teci kar p. (17th He ad of Tiruvavatuturai ). Kalampakam ' s: Yatpokki k., Ampa lavana Tecika r k . Kovai' s: Cika likkov ai (shortes t of his kovai poem s, composed to please his friend -7 Vet anayak arn Pillai, then mun sif at Cik ali , cf. Autobiograph y of Cuv arnin at ' Ai yar, p. 273), Kul atturkko vai , K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MI~ATCICUNTARA~. TLPo.

439

Yyacaikkovai; Tiruvitaimarutiir ula: Cuppiramaniya Tecikar neiicuvitututu and Tiinappacariyar tacavitututu (not available); Tiruvitaikkali-k kuravaiici (not available); Tiruvavatuturai ciletai venpa. In addition to various other works (~ kapparpauu,

Kuruparamparai aka val, Tiruiiana campantamurtti Nayanar

anantakkalippu, Ponniical, various benedictory poems, poetic prefaces etc. , and innumerable solitary, occasional st.). There is no critical ed . or even complete list of his works; those that are considered lost may yet be recovered. Cf. Caminat' Aiyar, U.Ve., Millard Cuntaram Pillaiyavarkal carittiram, Parts I and II, Madras, 1933-34; Cuttananta Paratiyar, Yoki , Pulavar Peruman Minard Cuntarampillai, Anpu Nilaiyam, Madras, 1944; Guruswamy, A., A Poet's Poet, Madras, 1976; Kantacami, A., "Tiricirapuram Makavittuvan Minatctcuntarampillai", in: Tamil ilakkiya kolkai, 3, Madras, 1978, 53-92; cf. also Makavittuvan Mi!J:.iird Cuntarampillai (valvum ilakkiyamum), Mappilla! Patippakam 1976; and K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, EJ. Brill, 1992, 167-74. Ed. Mi!J:.ard Cuntarampillaiyavarkal Pirapantauirauu (ed. U.Ve.Ca ., 1910). Mi!!atcicuntara!!, Ti.Po, (T .P.Meenakshisundaran, b. 8.1.1901-d. 27.8 .1980). B. in family of Tam. pandit and businessman S. Ponnusami Gramani in Madras. Graduated from Pachaiyappa's College in 1920 (degree in law); M .A. in hist. 1924, dipl, in economics. Advocate at High Court, Madras; practiced law. Simultaneous studies of Tam., Vaisnavisrn, Salva Siddhanta, Vidvan and P.O.L. exam. at Madras Univ ., 1932 and 1936. Involved in polit. struggle and administration of Madras City , as well as in educational activities. Highly educated in languages (Skt., Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Hindi, French, German) and linguistics (M.O.L. thesis, Univ . of Madras, 1938). Prof. of Tam., Annamalai Univ. (1954-58) and at Presidency College (1954-61). Director, Centre for Advanced Study in Dravidian Linguistics, Annamalai Univ . First Vice-Chancellor, Madurai Univ. (1966-1971 when retired). Involved in Transcendental Meditation movement. 1975 Sahitya Akademi Award. Author: c. 45 scholarly books in Tam. and Eng ., numerous articles and essays, mostly on liter. criticism, compar. literature, hist. of Tam. literature and linguistics, e.g. Tamilmanam ("The Tamil Mind", Madurai, 1962, where he attacks linguist. chauvinism and purism and pleads for Eng., showing even keen interest in Hindi); Tamilum pira panpiitum ("Tam. and Other Cultures", Madras, 1973), Philosophy of Tiruvalluvar (Madurai Univ ., 1969), Mullai-p-piutu-The Idyll of the Jasmine, Orient Longmans, 1958; A History of Tamil LanK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

440

MI~.ATCIYAMMAJ:'{

TIRUPPUKAl,-MOD. POETRY

guage, Poona, Deccan College, 1965; A History of Tamil Literature , Annamalai Univ. , 1965; Sixty-first Birthday Commemoration Vol ., Annamalai Univ., 1961. Cf. Marudanayagam, P., "T.P. Meenakshisundaran as a Comparatist", Journ. of Asian Studies VI, 1 (Sept. 1988), 59-67; Thirunavukkarasu, K.D ., "A Tamil Savant from the City of Madras", Journ . of Tam . Studies 18 (Dec . 1980) 88-102. Minatciyamman tiruppuka], Devotional stanzas on Goddess Mlnaksi of Madurai, ed. by V.R. Madhavan, Madras, 1983. Mineri TUl}tilar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 54. MinnoJiyaJ kuram, a folk -7 kuram poem based on Mahabharata , rich in characters and episodes. Ascr. to Pukalenti. Publ, 1976. Mixed genres (of -7 akam and -7 purami. Accord. to traditional Tam. theoreticians, artful poets may work with overlap of genres (-7 tinaimayakkamy; they may even bring in war imagery into love poems and vice versa. The following -7 Cahkam poems may be cla ssified as mixed genres: -7 Pattinappalai, -7 Mullaippattu, -7 Netunalvatai (although accord . to some authorities it belongs to the puram corpus and to others to the akam category), -7 Tirumurukarruppaiai, and, to some extent, the anthology -7 Paripatal Cf. -7 akam , -7 puram. Moce (Moses), author: Vicuviica patti, Yalppanam, 1844. Moci (?), mentioned in -7 Nakkirars comm. on -7 Iraiyanar's Kalaviyal 1 as a poet of the legendary Middle (Second) -7 Academy (Cahkam). Moci Cattagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 272. Moci Kannattagar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 124. Moci Karaiyagar (Cankam), author; Akananiiru 260. Mocikiranar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 392, Kuruntokai 59, 84, Narrinai 342, Purananuru 50, 154, 155, 156, 186. Moci-k Korran (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 377. mod. poetry in Tam., four mainstreams. Accord. to diction, form and contents, one may roughly distinguish four mainstreams in mod. and contemporary Tam. poetry. 1) Traditional lineage, as represented by -7 Curiyanarayana Castiri, VLK6., -7 Cuppiramaniya Mutaliyar, Ve.Pa., -7 Irakav'Alyankar, -7 Maraimalaiyatika], -7 Tim. VLKa. , -7 Cinivacarakavan, A. etc. 2) Associates and followers of -7 Cuppiramanya Parati, politically connected with Freedom struggle, ideologically proclaiming unity of India, nationalism, Gandhian philosophy, eventually "progressism" and socialism, aesthetically close to great poets of medieval epoch like Kampan : -7 Namakkal Kavifiar, -7 Kavimani Tecikavinayakam, -7 Yoki, Ca.Tu .Cu. , -7 Cuttananta Parati, -7 Rakunatan. 3) The K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

M0HINIVILAcA KURAVANCI-MOl,IVARI

441

lineage of Bharathidasan (~ Paratitacan), characteristic for Drav. nationalism, revolutionary ideas, radical changes in society, atheism, beauties of nature: ~ Curata (erotic poetry), ~ Mutiyaracan, ~ Vanitacan ("Tam. Wordsworth"), ~ Tamilo]i (pessimism of Kannappan kilikaii, ~ Kaliyanacuntaram, Pattukkottai etc. 4) Largely apolitical avantgarde "New Poetry" (~ putukavitais, e.g ., ~ Piccamiirtti, ~ Rajakopalan, Ku.Pa. , ~ Vallikkannan, ~ Cellappa, ~ Cupramanyam, Ka.Na., ~ Ramacami, Cu ., ~ Venukopalan, etc. etc. Cf. Balasubramanian, C. , "Experiments in Modern Tamil Poetry", Ind. Lit. March-April, 1978 , 98-105 ; Gopalie, S., "New Bearings in Tamil Poetry", The Overseas Hindustan Times, July , 26, 1969; Kanakasabhapathy, c., "A New Voice in Tamil Poetry", Books Abroad, Letters of India in Transition, Autumn 1968, 526-29; Subramanian, S.V., "Tamil Poetry Today: the Abiding Search", Ind. Lit . July-August, 1978 , 152-8; Sethuraman, V.M . (ed.) - Krishna Srinivas (transl.), Tamil Poets Today, Madras, 1981; K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, EJ. Brill, Leiden, 1973,313-35; id., "New Voices in Tamil Poetry", Ind. Lit. Jan.-June, 1973 , 153-63. in Tam.: Calai Ilantiraiyan, Putiya tamil-k kavitai (Studies in 20th Century Tamil Poetry), 1st ed. 1966; Cinlvacarakavan, A., Oru nurriil}ru-t tamil-k kavitai, 1st ed. 1970; Vallikkannan, Putukkavitaiyin torramum valarcciyum (Origin and Growth of New Poetry in Tamil), 1st ed . 1977; Vapamamalai, NiL, Putukkavitai murpokkum pirpokkum, 1 st. ed . 1975 , 2nd. 1978. Mohinivllaca kujavanci na!ya natakam, by Mahakavi Saptarisi, composed in 1684-1710 during reign of Sahaji, in mixed Skt., Telugu and Tam . Ed. N. Srinivasan, Sarasvati Mahal Library, Tanjavur, 1985. Mokanarailkan, Alantfir Ko. (Koman, b. 1942), author: novel Ninaittal inippavale (If You Think of It, She's Really Sweet), 15 books for children (e.g. Ciritta mukahkal Laughing Faces), 6 vols. of poetry tMokanarahkan kavitaikal etc.), verse-dramas (Vaira mukkuui Diamond Nose-Jewel, Putu manitan New Man, Y'arukku-p pohkal For Whom Pongal etc .), plays. Mokan, Ira. (b. 1950), scholar and author: Ku.Pa . Rajakopalan cirukataikal (on short stories of ~ Ku .Pa. Ra .), Taktar Mu . Va. vin. navalkai (Novels of Dr. Mu.Va .), anthologies of writings, sayings and thoughts of ~ Varataracan, Mu. and ~ Jey akantan, Mokavatalpparani ~ Tattuvarayar. Molivari (date?), lost gram. treatise ascribed to Nallaran or Nallatan (date?), mentioned in comm. on ~ Yapparunkalam (4 aphorisms survived).

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442

MO~AI-MUKAMATU UCEYI~

mo.nai (Tam. rhetoric) , alliteration on initial sounds, vowels or consonants, cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction , Madras, New Era, 1989, 32-33. Motaca.nar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 229 . Mowjjl ~ Mani, S. Muhammatu Kacim, Es.Em.Es, (Sekko, b. 1929), author: collection of short stories Islamiya-k kataiccelvam , essays on Tam. Islamic culture. Muhyi Altin Karputaiyar Ipin Cinna Ipirakam (late 19), Muslim author of: Napiyullaperil patikamum yanaikkatalum, Jaffna, 1891. Mukaitin Maluk Mutaliyar, KoHaru (late 19), Muslim author of: Meyiiiia[1a-t tiruppatarrirauu, Madras, 1898. Mukamat Aptul Katar Pulavar (late 19), author: Kirttanattiraitu , Singapore, 1896. Mukamat Aptulla (late 19 - early 20), author: YU[1a[1i vaittiya tatuviruui potini (treatise on the Yunani system of medicine , 1893), Pirameka nivaranapotini (1897), Anupoka vaittiyam (1909). Mukamat Aptulla, Papuracapuram (early 20), author: Author and editor of comm. on Akattiyar pallu (1907). Mukamat Cultajj Ipi.n Ahamat Umar (late 19), author: A!J:.anta kirttanai (Penang), Patanantamalai (1890), Ciraccatakam (1900). Mukamat Imam Kacali Ipijj Mukamat Ali (late 19), of Nakur, author; Kala rattu M1ra[1 Cakipu AlJ!avaravarka( karana carittiram (Karaikkal, 1876). Mukamat Ipi.n Mukamat (late 19), author : Pattukulmicir - pakanaca vacana kaviyam (Madras, 1894) . Mukamat K3I;U.lU, Peruma] Tujai (late 19), author: Asakurakkarana kummi-c cintu (1893), Kamsinaparila malai (Kolumpu, 1892) . Mukamat Katir (late 19), author: Tuttinama ennum kili katai (Ma dras, 1892) . Mukamat Mir Yavat (late 19), author: Tolukai raiicita alahkaram (Madras, 1897). Mukamat Mira.n Mastaj; Ipi.n Lukmag (late 19), author: Nana irattinakaram (Madras, 1896) . Mukamat Nicam Muhyi Alti.n Mukamat (late 19), author: Niti vinotakkatai (Colombo, 1883), Kutumpa camratc ani (1896), Makacala irakaciya vilakkam, Makiivikata vinota-k kalaiiciyam , Niticara maiicari (all 1901). Mukamat Tampi Ipin Capin Altin (late 19), author: Manoraiiclta-t tirattu (1901) . Mukamatu Pir (early 20), Tirumeyiiiuinacara nul (1907). Mukamatu Uceyi.n (date?) , author: Antirayavatan i pataivettu, Cantiravatanai katai. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Mukamatu, Viracalam (early 20), author: Pannirantu miilai (1907) . Mukammat Kamal Altin (late 19), of Velur, author: Ahkiimussiyiim (1893). Mukammatu Ipurahim -7 Vannakkaiaiiciya-p Pula var. Mukammatu Kacim, Cittilevvai Maraikkar (19), author: first Tam. novel of Sri Lanka, chronologically second Tam. novel Acall Pe carittiram (alia s Acall Pey katai), The Story of Hassan Bey, 1885; 2nd ed. 1890; new ed. Tirucci Jamal Mukammatu Kalliiri Press , 1974. The author wa s proctor of Ceylonese Supreme Court and proprietor-editor of journal Muslim Necan. The events of the story take place mostly in Northern India and the Near East (action begins in Cairo, move s on to Bombay, Surat, Calcutta, then returns to Alexandria, Beyrouth, etc.). Its protagonist Asan is raised in Cairo, fostered by another family in Surat, educated with the help of a prince in Calcutta, undergoes many adventures and suffers a number of setbacks, to be finally reunited with his parents in Cairo. Because of his admirable courage and accomplishment s, Acan is awarded by the Pasha the title Bey, and marries Pauline, an Eng. girl who of course adopts Islam. There is no division into chapters; the 170 pp. long story is told in one stretch. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, "The Dimension of Orality in Tamil Literature ", in: M. Offredi (ed.), Lan guage versus Dialect; Lin guistic and Literary Essays on Hindi , Tamil and Sarnami. Manohar Publications, Delhi , 1990, 127-69. Mukammatu Uceyig (late 18), author: Penputti miilai, didactic poem on code of conduct for women. Muslim. Mukkal Acan Nalvellaiyar (Cankam), author: Naaino! 272. Mukkutarpallu, anonym. -7 pallu of 175 st., 2nd half, 17th c., attributed (mo st prob. incorrectly) to Ennaiyinap Pulavar (alias Velan Cinnattampi). Nominal hero is god Sri Alakar (Visnu) of Mukkutal (small village in Tirunelveli Dist.). The temple owned extensive lands, and the pannaikkaran (manager of estates) is one of the chief characters. Real protagonist, Alakan the pallan, has 2 wives, one Saivite, another Vaisnavite. Alakan is so infatuated with the younger one that he neglects his first wife and the farm . Rains have arrived. Although reprimanded by the manager, Alakan goe s back to his woman' s lap. Elder wife complains to the manager who puts the pallan in chains. He is released on intervention of elder wife but attacked and injured by a bull. Agricultural work results in bumper crop . After sharp exchange between the 2 wives, reconciliation take s place. Although the characters are rather type s than individuals, poet show s deep insight into human nature, con siderable skill as dramatist, and keen eye for K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MUKKOTTUPPALLU-MU1"!CI

observation (lively descriptions in variety of metres of Alakan and his weakness for drink, of the jealousy of the wives, of details of paddy cultivation, etc.). Rich sociological and cultural information includes list of names of Pallar women, catalogue of bulls ' names, etc . Some of the dialogues are rather coarse. I st printing, 1864. Excellent ed. Mu .Arunacalam, 1st 1940, 2nd 1949. Mukkuttuppallu (c. 1850) , by Palanicami-p PiHaL muktaka poetry in Skt. and Tam. -7 akam poetry, cf. Lienhard, Siegfried, "Akapporu] and Sanskrit muktaka poetry ", Proc. of the Third Intern . Conference Seminar, Paris 1970, Pondichery, 1973, 111-18; "Bauern, Berge, Nacht und Winter" , E. Sluszkiewicz Felicitation Vol., Warsaw , 1974, 137-42; Kuppusamy, T.S., "Tamil Akam Poetry: Forerunner of Indian Sringara Muktaka Tradition", Journ . of Asian Studies 1.2 (March 1984) 127-51. MiilailkiraQar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 73 . Mullaippattu (Mullai Poem, Jasmine Song, Forest Song), the shortest and one of the most beautiful poems of -7 Pattuppauu anthology , on jasmine country and the theme of a woman patiently waiting for her lover's return from a warriors' expedition, in 103 lines in -7 akaval by Napputanar (c. 230 A.D.). The Yavanas (yavanari clad in toga-like garments are mentioned (61) as well as the mileccar « Sk1. mle ccha -, 65-6) and servants speaking the northern tongue (vatamolis . Cf. T.P. Meenakshisundaram (trans\. and comm.), Mullai-p-pattu - The Idyll of the Jasmine, Madras, 1958; K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/K6In, E.J. Brill, 1975,94-5; id ., The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1973, 61. First pub\. 1889. Mulliyar kavittokai (date?) lost prosody, mentioned and quoted in old comm. on -7 Navanitappattiyal. MuHiyiir Putiyar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 173. mummanikkovai ("string of 3 gems"), poem of 30 st. in which -7 akaval, -7 venpa and -7 kalitturai occur one after another in -7 antati arrangement (llakkanavil 815); accord. to Pannirupau. 156, the sequence is venpii , akaval, kalitturai (this being also termed mummanimalai, Ilakkanavil. 820, Pannirup . 152) . Munalyataraiyan magaivi (12) , author of a message of love in the form of a quatrain sent by the wife (manaivii of a high royal official, Munaiyataraiyan, to prison or to battlefield (but, accord. to -7 Tamil tuivalar caritai 188, the poem was composed and sent by a taci - dasi of Tirukkannapuram). Mugc] (early 20) , author: Tiravita illakiya cittanta tipikai (Cennai, . 1902) . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MUNICAMI MUTALIYAR, C0I;AI-MURUKANAR, SRI

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Municami Mutaliyar, Culai (late 19 - early 20), author: plays Aravafl. katapali 0897, 1907), Irajacuya yakam (907), Kirusnan tutu (924), all based on Mahabharata . Munlcami Mutaliyar, Veliir (late 19), author: Tukkariim carittiram (biography of Marathi poet Tukaram, 1887); Pirapaiica urpatti, Madras, 1913. Mugicami PiHai (date?), author : Yisnuvin ceviyinitamaka-p piranta Matukayitacura cammara tuitakam (Madras, n.d.), popular play of Vaisnava persuasion based on Mahabhiirata episode about the destruction (samhara) of an asura. mugisi « Arab.) munshi, teacher of a language; many Tam. scholars of first half of 19th c. were munshis of Tam . to British administrators. Muniyan (date?), son of Murtti of Tirupperai, author: Kirusnalilai in 643 st. Muniyappa Mutaliyar (20), author; llaksana-k kuravaiici. Mapper Nakanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 314. Muppettucceyyu], lost poem prob. of 9th c. (M. Arunachalam); 3 six-line st. preserved in comm. on -7 Yapparunkalam Ceyyul. 40 . Title is unclear. Arunachalam suggests possibility of Muppeuucceyyul l.e. "Poem on ancient palmleaves". Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies, E.J. Brill, 1992, p. 80. Miir (More, 19), author : Kavalappan katai (Yalppanam, 1856). mural} (Tam. prosody), contrast, either in form (moM or meaning iporuit; the figure of antithesis. Muraiiciyiir Mutlnakarayar (Cankarn), author: Purananuru 2. Miirtti, Ca. Ta, (Ist half, 20), author: detective novel Tanapiikkiyam allatu oru atirstavatiyin caritt iram (A Fortune, or The Life of a Lucky Man, 1933). Miirtti, Tur.aiyiir (20), playwright, author : llahkesvaran, mytholog. play based on purdna texts. Murakaiya Cotitar (20), author: Murukacekaram. Murukaiyag, I. (Cevvakan, b. 1935, Sri Lanka), author: poetry Netumpakal (Long Day) , Atipakavafl. (The Primeval Lord), versified plays, essay s. Murukagantag, A.Ce. (20), author of realistic stories and novels about village people of Jaffna (Sri Lanka) . Short novels Pukaiyil terinta mukam (Face Visible in Smoke), Vanticcavari (Cart-Ride, in -7 llake cari 1944). Murukagar, Sri (pseudonym of C.K. Subrahmanyam, b. 1895), devotee of Bhagavan Ramana Maharsi, poet of patriotic, devotional and philosophical songs and stanzas, author: Cutantirakitam (on M.K. Gandhi and the national movement), Kuruvacaka-k kovai K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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(1st ed. 1939, 2nd. 1971, 1254 st. on Bhagavan), Ramana mantiram (with Engl. translation, 1968), Ramana canniti murai (selection of its 18 songs set to music by Sulochana Natarajan, transl. into Engl. by K. Swaminathan, Songs from Sri Muruganar's Ramana Sannidhi Murai, New Delhi , 1975), Sriramananuputi (1960). Cf. Arthur Osborne , "Introducing Muruganar", The Mountain Path, October, 1964. Murukappa Cetti Val}iyampati (late 19), author: Murukappa navaraca ciletai. Murukappa Tevar pillaittami], anonymous ~ pillaittamil on Murukappa Tevar son of Palaniyappa Kuricil of Ilacainatu, youthful, pious, handsome as Tirumal , well-trained in archery, noted for generosity . Ed. by T. Chandrasekharan, Pillaiuamilkkottu, GOML, Madras, 1959. Murukataca Cuvamikal ~ Tantapani Cuvamikal. Murukatas, Pittukkuli Sri (20), author: Kuhaiicali (1953), collection of trad . devotional poetry on Murukan, Murukeca-c Cettiyar, M. (early 20), author : lramayana catakam (1905). Murukec'Aiyar (d. 1830), author: Kuruccettira natakam, Tannai yamakavantati, Tannai Vinayakar uiical. Murukeca Mutaliyar, A.ral}i (19), novel Matar niti (1894) "Women's Shrewdne ss" . Murukeca Mutaliyar, Tirumalai (late 19), author : Nit imaiicari taruppanam (comm. on ~ Nalatiyar, ~ Nitinerivilakkam, and other ethical collections), 1881. Most import., comm. on ~ Tirukkural (1885). Murukeca Pantitar (1830-1899/1900) of Cunnakam, Jaffna, student of Cankara Pantitar, teacher of ~ Caravanamuttu-p Pulavar, ~ Kurnaracuvami-p Pulavar and ~ Muttuttampi Pillai, Tam. pandit in variou s schools in Jaffna , Chidambaram, Kumbakonam, Madras and elsewhere, particularly well-versed in grammar. Author : Nitinuru (100 moral maxims), Mayilanicciletai venpd, uiical, patikam, Cantiracekara Viniiyaka uncal , Patartta tipikai, Kutantai venpa , and other devotional, didactic and occasional poems. Murukeca Pillai, Cunnakam (late 19), author : Nitinuru (1885) , Patartta tipikai (1897) . Muruku, Cuppiramaniyag (Antu, b. 1924), author: Eluttalar Kalki; essays on didactic poetry and Tam. literature. Muslim literature in Tam. Sources; Apturrahim, Muslim tamilppulavarkal (Muslim Tamil Poets), Madras , 1957; Bjerrum, H., "Moslem Literature in Tamil ", Moslem World (New York) XV (April 1925) 115-18; Purnalinkam PiUai, Em.Es., Napinayakamum K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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FORMS-MUTARPORU~

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kavivtinarkalum (Prophet Muhammad and Learned Poets), Tirunelveli, 1942; Subramoniam, V.I. , "Muslim Literature in Tamil", Tam . Culture IV (1955) 73-89; Uwise, M.M. , Muslim Contribution to Tamil Literature, M.A. thesis, Ceylon Univ., 1951 ; Kandy , Tamil Mandram, 1953; id., "Islamic Poetry in Tamil", Tam. Culture III (1954) 292-96; id., "Muslim literary forms in Tamil literature", Proc. of the II Intern . Conference-Seminar of Tam . Studies, Madras, 1971, 82-89; id . "Putukuccarn - Epic Grandeur of the Tamil-speaking Muslims", Pro c. 5 ICTS 2,7c13-19; Zvelebil, K,V ., Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, Leiden/Koln, 1975, 263-64; Shulman, David, "Muslim Popular Literature in Tamil: The Tamimancari Malai", Islam in Asia Vol. I South Asia, The Hebrew Univ ., Jerusalem, 1984, 174-207. Muslim liter. forms in Tam. literature. Muslim poets adopted a number of Islamic liter. forms derived from Arabic and Persian, thus enriching Tam. literature. Most important among them are: kissa story, ma cala que stion-and-answer poem, munajat collection of extempore verses , nama chronicle and pataippor war-ballad of six kinds of armed force s. Cf. M.M. Uwise, ,Muslim Contribution to Tamil Literature, Kandy, 1953; id., "Islamic Poetry in Tamil", Tam. Culture III (1954) 292-6; V.l. Subramoniam, "Muslim literature in Tamil", Tam . Culture IV (1955) 73-89, but esp. M.M. Uwise, "Muslim literary forms in Tamil literature", Pro c. of the II Intern. Conference-Seminar of Tam . Studies , Madras, 1971 , 82-9. Also, K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, E.J.Brill, Lelden/Koln, 1975, 263-4; in Tam. Em.Es. Piirnalinkam Pillai, Napinayakamum kavivanarkalum, Tirunelveli, 1942; Apturrahim, Mu slim tamilppulavarkal, Madras, 1957. Mutaliyantan Tacar (late 19), author: Vetanta caracahkirakam (Madras, 1896). Mutankikkitanta Netun Ceralatag (Cankam), author: Akananuru 30. mutagul, primary, original (mutal) book (nul). All books (nul) are accord. to Tam. trad . conception of 3 kinds: mutal, ~ vali (supplementary) and ~ cdrpu (supportive). Primary (mutal) are those which were "composed by a poet of shining knowledge and vision, free from errors" (~ Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 640). Cf. A.A. Manavalan, "Tolkappiyar on Mutal nul", Journ . Tam . Studies 5 (1974) 51-69. mutarporu] (lit. "first things "), primary subject-matter (of class. poetry), descriptions referring to time (kalam) and place (nilam) which are specific for every ~ tinai; "time and space coordinates". Cf. ~ cirupolutu, ~ perumpolutu, ~ aint inai. Time and place are allotted to the regions in the following way : 1. kuriiici = K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

448

MUTATTAMA-K KAf':l~IYAR-MUTTAIYA, A.L.

kut ir cool season/mu!JPWli early dew season/yiimam mindnight; 2. palai = ve'1il hot season/nmJpakal noon; 3. marutam = vaikarai daybreak / vitiyal early morning; 4. mullai = kiir rainy season/ malai evening; 5. neytal = erpatu afternoon. Mutattama-k Kal}l}iyar (Cankam), author: Porunararruppatai. Mutattirumaran (Cankam), author: Narrinai 105, Kuruntokai 228. Mutiyaracan ~ Turairiicu, Kii. Cu. Muttaiya, A.L. (Kannatacan, Kannadasan , b. 5.7.1926 - d. 16.10.1981 in Chicago, U.S.A.), very popular and immensely prolific lyrical and narrative poet, essayist, novelist and playwright, author of more than 6000 poems incl. film-songs; in 1971 transcribed the Bible into Tam . verse . Ed. of Tenral; travels in USSR, Malaysia, Singapore, U.S.A. "Poet of the silver screen". Author of hundreds occasional verses as comments on polit. issues (often with lack of any principles, praising and scolding Nehru, praising both Kamaraj and Karunanidhi etc.). Almost a folk poet of the masses, owing mainly to popularity of cinema songs. Entered literature in 1944. Many poems set to music ~ icaipptuali, some of them adaptations of class. poetry (e.g. ~NarrilJai 130, ~ Muttollayiram 38, 103) or class . subjects (on Matavi of ~ Cilappatikiiram etc.) . Many poems written in prai se of polit. and cult. figures (e.g . on death of Dr. Somasundara Bharati, in praise of C. Annadurai). Passionate adversary of Hindi which for him was demonness (peyppelJ) to be driven away, bitch to be killed. But also author of moving lullabies, songs about children, lovely love-poems, prose-poetry (e.g. Puspamalikai and imitations of class . forms (e.g . Taippiivai). Later in life, disillusioned with all ideologies, became "poet of questions" (H. Jesudasan) and one of most genuine mod. poets . In spite of being a controversial figure, was great lyrical genius; and although his taste was sometimes questionable, he was concerned with human passion in all its dimensions from religious sublimation to the level of raw sensuality. Language of most of his poetry is simple and spontaneous. Work: Among narrative poems, Mankan! (Tender Mango, 1954) is developed from allusion to Mokur war (Cilappatikiiram XXVII, 124-6 which refers to Cenkuttuvan's battle of Mokiir where the guardian margosa tree of Palaiyan was destroyed); it is a small dramatic epic with much attention to plot in the love episode against the background of the war (in Kannatacan kavitaikal, 1959, 122-216); the poem ends with Ponnaraci entering the path of the Buddha. Kilavan cetupati is a narrative poem based on histor. facts , but introducing love-episode of Cinnammii! as the vital cause of her brave struggle. This heroic, almost revolutionK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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ary woman figure may be compared to -t Paratitacan's Cuppamrna. Prob. the best known among his narrative poems is Arra!1atti Atimanti which, accord. to its author, takes place between 50 B.c. and 37 A.D ., the plot being derived from -t Akananuru 76, 135 and 222, and developed with the intention to expose cult. heritage of ancient Tamils to readers of 20th c. Revival of classicism is salient feature of Tam. renaissance, and this poem is its ripe example. K. has interpreted the plot in agreement with his own times and created Nalliakkotan (Nallltikkon) as the antagonist and Maruti as the first lady-love of the protagonist Ana!!atti. The poem ends in tragic note: the disillusioned Maruti becomes Buddhist nun, and finally commits suicide. Ana!!atti of the royal Chera family is accomplished dancer and master-teacher of dance, besides being a strong valiant man. One of his students is Maruti, daughter of a Nakapattinarn chief. While studying dance with him, she falls in love and her love is reciprocated. King Karikala Chola asks the master to teach his daughter, princess Atimanti. and AnaQatti cannot refuse. For a while, all three enjoy these lessons. In Uraiyur rules prince Nallitikkon, eldest son of Cenkanag. He invites Maruti to dance during a temple festival and falls passionately in love with her. Because she deeply loves her dance-teacher, she does not respond to his passion. Nallitikkon engages Attanatti in war, but Karikalan sends his soldiers to help him and Nallltikkon is beaten. Out of genuine affection and gratefulness Ana!!atti marries Atimanti. The news of their marraige reaches Maruti in Nakapattigam. She is heartbroken, renounces the world, become Buddhist, and goes into seclusion. After torrential rain s river Kaviri is in floods. The king invites Atimanti and Ana!!atti to leave Karuviir and come to Pukar. Ana!!atti almost perishes in the floods, but being strong and well trained, swims as far as the seashore. The fishermen take the half-dead Ana!!atti to Nakapattigam. Maruti and her father take care of him, and after several days, nursed by Maruti, he regains his strength. Inbetween great confusion reigns in Karikalan's palace. Atimanti believes her husband to have drowned and searches for his body. In spite of careful search performed by the servants of the king, Ana!!atti is nowhere to be found. Finally Atimanti reaches the seashore of Nakapattinarn. There she finds Ana!!atti and Maruti sitting near Maruti's refuge, talking and watching the ocean. Atimanti runs and embraces her husband, and Attanatti calms her down. Maruti watches them with utter sadness. When Maruti' s father appear along with the king and the courtiers and greet the reunited husband and wife, Maruti K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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MUTTAIYA CUVAMI , VIRUTTACALAM-MUTTAMI1,

has disappeared. The news reaches them that her dead body was found washed upon the shore. They are heart-broken. Other works; Poetry: 6 vols. of Kannatacan kavitaikal, 2 vols. of film-songs, Kavitaiicali, Taippavai, Sri Kirusna kavacam. Plays: Allarkali, Civakahkaiccimai, Rajatantanai. Novels (social and historical): Ay irantivu Ahkayarkanni, Ayirankal mantapam (Thousand-pillar Temple-hall), Ataivita rakaciyam (Greater Secret), Katal konta Tenruuu (Seaswallowed Southern Land), Oru kaviiianin katai (Story of a Poet), Cihkari partta Cennai (Madras Seen by a Graceful Gay Lady), Yelahkutiuiruvila, Vilakku mattuma civappu (Is Only the Lamp Red?), etc., in all 16 novel s. Short stories: Kannatacan kataikal, Kuuikkataikal (Children's Stories), llatturani (Queen of Sri Lanka) , Ceytikkataikai (Eventful Stories). Religious writings: comm . on Bhagavadgita, comm. on ~ Tiruppavai; Ampikai alaku taricanam (Vision of Ampikai's Beauty), Arttamulla Intumatam (10 vols. , Meaningful Hindu Religion), POll malai (Golden Rain, poetic rendering of a stotra by Sankara). Other works : autobiography Yanavacam (Forest Dwelling, 4th impression, Madras, 1981); essays, comments , liter. impressions, politics: comm. on ~ Apirami antati. ~ Kulappa Nayakkan katal, ~ Muttollayiram (in collabor. with Valliyamrnai Kannatacan), comm . on Kamacastiram; Tirukkural Kamattuppal kauum cukam (Happiness as Shown by Kamattuppal of T.), Va£kkai-y-ennum colaiyile (In the Grove Called Life), Ennahkal ayiram (Thousand Thoughts), Nanamalika (Garland of Knowledge), Rakamalika (Garland of Ragas), llakkiyattil katal (Love in Literature), Kutumpa cukam (Family Happiness), Nan partta araciyal (Politics as I saw It), Tottattumalarkal (Blossoms in the Garden), etc. Cf. V. Murugan, "Kannadasan Placed", Journ . of Tam. Studies 20 (Dec. 1981) 27-36; K,V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1974, 76-7 . Muttaiya Cuvami, Viruttacalam (early 20), author: Cinmayatipikai. Comm. by Iramananta Yoki (Cennai, 1907). Muttaiya Mutaliyar, Ceyyiir (early 20), author : Iraja rajesvari allatu Katalin verri - Rajarajesvari or The Triumph of Love. A new Tamil drama, by C. Muttaiya Mudaliyar. Madras, 1906. Muttaiyap Pigai (late 19), author: Kirittavarkalin iicdramum kurumar potakamum , Palaiyankottai, 1894. Muttaiya Pigai, Ko. (date?), author: Civaiuinapota-c cirruraivilakkam. Muttaiya-p Pulavar (late 19), author: Veta catciyakiya Teva Cakiiyam Pillai Yacakappa (Madras, 1894). muttami] (lit. "threefold Tamil"), Tam. language and verbal art as manifested and realized in the three modes of textual (~ iyal), musical (~ icaii and representational (~ kuttu , ~ ndtakami K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MU- T-TAMI1,-K-KApPIYAM-MUTTOr,.r,.A YIRAM

451

performance, supposed to have been first formulated by ~ Akattiyan in ~ Akattiyam. In concrete practice, iyal refers to "natural" speech as organised in poetry and prose , read or recited; icai to song, l.e. speech accompanied by structured sound, and natakam to play, drama and dance. The earliest reference to m. is prob. to be found in ~ Muttollayiram 39.1 (between end of 6th-8th/9th c.). Cf. ~ Tiruvalluvamalai 10 (ascr. to ~ Cittalai-c Cattanar), ~ Atiyarkkunallar's comm. on ~ Cilappatikaram (ed. Ll.Ve.Caminat'Aiyar, 1950), pp. 10> 11,32,76,120, 188, ~ Peruntokai st. 575, 1348, 1449 etc. Cf. also S.c. Kersenboom, Utrechts Universiteitsblad, Utrecht, 20.2.1987 (in Dutch), K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1991, chapter 5. mu-t-tamil-k-kappiyarn, lit. epic of threefold Tam. (~ muttamily; descriptive definition of ~ Cilappatikaram . Muttarnil-k Kavirayar (late 19), author: Cucintirattalapuranam, Tirunelveli, 1894. Muttan Accari (early 20), author: Cattiyavakku Ariccantira natakam, play on Hariscandra the Truthful, Madras, 1905. Muttaganta Cuvami (?), author: Mati ullan. Muttajjantar, Arrfir (mid 18), author: Muttanantar iianakkuravanci, c. 1750, ed. M.Arunachalam, Madras, 1981. The hero-heroine pair is substituted by preceptor-disciple relationship. Muttanti-p Pulavar, Pacumpog (late 18) of Parakutuppatti, author of ~ Cinna Makipan kuluvanatakam. Muttappa Cettiyar (1760-1836) of Putukkottai; began life as poor roaming vendor, mastered Tam ., became poet, author: ~ catakam and ~ pillaittami] on god Cayankontar; Ceuimar varalaru, versified chronicle of Cetti community. Muttirama Kavirayar (early 20), co-author with ~ Katirvel Kaviraca Pantitar of Makaparata kirttanai (1905) . Muttollaylram (Three Times Nine Hundred), fragmentary poem on insignia of royalty, of 60 st. on the Pandya, 46 on the Chola, 23 on the Chera, and invocation to Siva; anonymous; dated to between end of 6th-10th c. A.D., mostly in ~ venpd quatrains and a few st. of 6 lines. Obtained from anthology ~ Purattirattu. Ed. by ~ Irakavaiyankar, Ra. in 1905, by ~ Vaiyapuri Pillai, S. in 1936-39, and again in 1947 and 1958. Contains some exquisite and delicate verses of high craftsmanship. Some portions showing the king's procession developed later into ~ ulii. The work must have been very popular and influential since it is often quoted and referred to by commentators. Cf. Centamil1905 Suppl. 14; Journ. of Oriental Research, Madras, Vols. I (1936-37) and K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

452

MUTTS, NON-BRAHMIN-MUTTUCAMI AIYAR

III (1938-39); ed. of T.K. Chidambaranatha Mudaliar, Madras, 1947; ed . of N. Sethuraghunathan, Madras, 1958; Thompson, M.S.H., "Muttollayiram", Tam . Culture IX, 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1961) 335--42; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill , 1975, 128-29. mutts , non-Brahmin, as seats of religious instruction and cultural activity. Tam. Salva tradition mentions mutts tmasam < Skt. matha-y; monasteries and colleges of religious instruction organized by ~ Appar and other Brahmin and non-Brahmin teachers ( ~ iiciiryas ). When the temple cult became codified with the help of Gauda Brahmins and other North Indian Saivites during Chola revival, the mutt became necessary adjunct of the temple presided over by Brahmins for supervising rituals. Slowly objection to non-Brahmins becoming students of ritual texts and heads of mutts developed, and non-Brahmin ascetics had to resort to cave s (" kukai mutts "). After the number and influence of nonBrahmin mutt s increased, followers of orthodox priests tried to raze non-Brahmin mutts to the ground (kukai iti kalakam mentioned in inscr. of Kulottunka III ). The name ~ Kukai Namaccivaya , spiritual preceptor of ~ Kuru Namaccivaya (16th c., M.E.R. 349 of 1913, S.1.1. part I, 58) manifests the distinction of kukai and mutt in 16th c., when dispute arose whether nonBrahmins were entitled to become samnyasins. Chinna Chevvappa Nayaka, chieftain of Vijayanagara emperors Krishnadevaraya and Accutaraya, referred the dispute to ~ Civakkira Yoki (a Brahmin ascetic) who decided in favour of non-Brahmins in his elaborate treatise Saiva samnyasa paddhati. From 16th c. onwards, nonBrahmin mutts developed vigorously, and became seats of religious instruction, Salva philosophy and literary and cultural activities. See also ~ Ndnappirakacar; ~ atinam. Cf. ~ Carninat' Aiyar, V.Ve., En carittiram (Madras, 1950; Autobiography); K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 1975, 206-7. Muttucami Aiyankar, Catavatagam (late 19-early 20), asthana vidvan of Rarnanatapuram, author: Cantiralokam, Tam. verse-transl. of Skt. Candraloka by Jayadeva on alahkdras; Kecavapperumal irattaimanimalai; Mana vala Miimuni nurrantati; Kurukai kalampakam; 108 st. on Tirupati, etc. PtUronized by Sri Krsnaraja Odeyar who presented him with parasol, pearl garland, palanquin and bag of gold. Muttucarni Aiyar, C.S. (early 20), author: Vi cuvaniitam Visvanatham. An historical drama in five acts, which narrates the noble thoughts and the commendable deeds of Vis vanatha , the fir st of the Nayak kin gs of Madura. Tanjore, 1906. One of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MUTTucAMI-K KAVIRAYAR, NA.-MUTTUCcAMI cATTIRI

453

the best historical plays of the early era ; its author combines most success fully hist. events (like the relationship between rulers of Vijayanagar and sultans of Bijapur, or Vicuvanatan ' s rule in Madurai ) w it h personal stories, among which the best is the lovely love-romance between Vicuvanatag and Kaficanai, The author ha s proved him self to be both e xcellent playwright and good poet. Also, Anpu vitututu (Love Sent As Messenger). Muttucami-k Kavirayar, Na. (19), author: Captur kuravaii ci. Muttucami, Na, (Muthuswamy, N., 20), author of avantgarde plays , 2 collections of short stories, a novel; adapts folk form s of dram. art to his writings. Nar kalikkarar (Madras, Cre-A, 1974) contains three plays: Nark alikk iirar (transl. in Engl. by Albert Franklin , Adam Internat . Review , enacted in Engl. 6.10.1973), Appiivum pillaiyum (Father and Child) and Kalam kiilamaka (As Time Goes By, tran sl. in Engl. by Ve. Caminatan, Enact ). Cf. "Fortress of Fancy", in: Ka.Naa.Subraman yam (ed.) , Tamil Short Stories, New Delhi , 1980, 148-5 8. Muttucami Pillai , Appu/Appavu (? - 3.9.1840 ), Catholic of Pondicherry , Tam. pandit, College of Fort St. George, Madras. Studied Tam. , Skt. , Telugu , Latin. Eng. Mun shi to Tam. tran slator, Govt. of Madr as. At the wish of F.W. Elli s begean searching for and collecting Tam. mss. (1 816). Author: w ith ~ Tantav araya Mutaliyar, compilation of gra m. rules from various Tam. grammars; Attumavuttiyii!lam (Rom. Catholic prayers, rituals and doctrines, Pondicherry-Madras, 1817); Tikk iiram (polemic work in mixed poet ry and prose to refute attacks on Chri stianity by Ponnampalam); Taravu koccak akkalippii (polemic work in defence of F.W. Ellis); ~ nikalJ{u-type lexicon Nanartta tipikai (Madras Uni v., 1936); Brief Sketch of the Life and Wr itings of Fath er C.J. Beschi or Vira-Mamuni (Madras, J.B. Pharoah, 1840; Tam. ver sion , 1822); Va lliyammai-c carittiram (?) . Muttucami Pillai, Melakaram (date?), author: Cutalaimatacuvami vilpauu (Maturai, s.d.), ballad to the accompaniment of vil ("bowsong") based on folk myth s about Cutalaimatan, son of Parvati, who took to eating corp ses because he was unsatisfied with his mother' s milk. The "Bull-man" (mii{a!l) of the "Burning Ground" tcutalaii commits many hideou s and violent acts, like raping girls and eating them . Muttuccami Aiyar, Kaliyanacuntaram PaHi (early 20), author: play Vicuvaniitam, Tanjavur , 1906. Muttuccami Cattiri (19) of Madras Christian College, author: prose narratives Kata rattinavali (1893) . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

454 MUTTuccAMI KAVIRAy AR-MUTTUKKUMARACUV AMI-K Muttuccami Kavirayar, Utumalaippettai (early 20), poet and playwright, author: Iramayana-k kirttanaikal, Cinkaravelar catakam , drama Pismar capatam (Bhisma's Vow) etc. Muttuccami Mutaliyar (19), author: Yinayakapurana vacanam. Muttuccami Paratiyar (19), author : Yicuvappirama puriinam (1894). Muttuccami Pilla] (1858-1917), journalist, scholar, translator. 1885 established Jubilee Press in Madras, in 1893 bought in Jaffna Vannarpannai, former home of -7 Arumuka Navalar, and founded there Navalar Accakam (Press). Author: Tam. biography of Kalidasa; Apitana kocam (1902), a Tam. literary encyclopaedia; English-English-Tamil Dictionary (1907), Tenmoli varalaru (History of Tam. Language, 1920) and several other works on history and grammar. Muttuccaml Upattiyayar, Tintukkal (early 20), author: Vicuva-p Piramma Ahni-t tipikai (1908). Muttu-c Citamparam Pillai (19), of St Joseph College, Tiruchchi, author: Yappilakkanaccurukkam (1898), brief prosody . Muttu-c Cuppaiya, Pugalveli (early 20), author: play Canaki parinaya niuakam (Tirunelveli, 1901). Muttukkaruppa PiHai (date?), author: medic. treatise Vaittiya caracankirakam, publ. by Madurai Tamil Sangam. Muttukirusnan, Pu.A. (20) , poet, writing in particular for children, author: Ciruvar ulakam (The World of Children): children of many different parts of India and the world describe their ways of life, customs, games etc . in the form of simple songs . Muttukkavi (? 1684-? 1710), author (?): Cakaciracan kuravaiici (Taiicai Marauiya mannar Cakaci mitu kuravaiinciy on Sahji, the Maratha king of Tanjavur. Muttukkirusna Pillai, Tiricirapuram (early 20) , friend of -7 Ponnucami-p Pillai; wrote a pra ise-poem introducing the novelist's -7 Kamalaksi (1903). From its text may be gathered data about Ponnucami ' s early activities: that he founded in Rangoon theatrical companies (Cujana Raiicana Capai and Cukirta Ndtaka Capai) and staged plays of Shakespeare and other authors, etc . Muttukrisna PiH ai (19), published in c. 1850 5 chapters of Eluttilakkanakkantam of -7 Perakattiyam. Cf. H.Nau, Prolegomena zu Pauanattup Pillaiyar's Padal, Halle, 1919, p. 26. Muttukkumara Cuvamikal, A. (20), author: Civaiuina tattuvatipam, C aravanapava malai, Katirkamauantati (on Kataragama, Sri Lanka). Muttukkumaracuvami-k Konar (20) of Tiruccenkotu, author: Yiveka tivakaram. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MUTTUKKUMARA CUV AMI KURUKKAI,--MUTTUPII,-I,-AI, CI.

455

Muttukkumara Cuvami Kurukka] (1853-1936) of Puloli . Author: Salva devotional Pacupaticcuran antati, Civapperuman alankaram. Muttukkumaracuvami Mutaliyar (Coomaraswamy, Mutu, Sir, 1834-1879), son of Arumukam Pillai Kumaracuvami Mutaliyar, well-known scholar in languages, father of -) Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish, Dr. Left for Europe in 1862, became first nonChristian, Hindu English barrister (1863), was instrumental in having Mahavamsa trans. into Eng. and in inaugurating Archaeol. Survey of Ceylon. Knighted 1874 by Queen Victoria. 1875 married Elizabeth Clay Beeby. Ananda b. 1877. Member, Ceylon Legisl. Council. Author: trans. of Suttanipata from Pali (1874); of Dathavamsa (history of the Tooth Relic of the Buddha) from Pali (1874); of hymns of -) Tayumanavar (152 hymns in Eng. prose, printed but not publ., only 2 copies available); "Synopsis of the Salva Siddhanta", Ceylon Branch, JRAS , 1857 . Publ. in 1863 in London under name Mutu Coomara Swamy Mudeliar Eng . trans. of Arichandra, The Martyr of Truth: A Tamil Drama, attributed to Renga Pillai (-) Aranka-p Pillai Kavirayar) of Palavercadu; dedicated and presented to Queen Victoria (cf. Satur day Review , London, 23.1.1864) . B. Disraeli made him a character in one of his novels. Cf. S. Durai Raja Singam, The Life and Writ ings of Sir Mutu Coomaraswamy, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 1973. Muttukkumaracuvami-p Pulavar (late 18) of Iratapuram (nr. Nanguneri, Tirunelveli Dist.), author: solitary st. on the wall of Pillaiyar Koyil, dated 1791. Muttukkumaracuvami, Vai. (Cikamani, b. 1908), began publishing 1925, transl. plays and poems of R. Tagore, essays Navalarukku aiicali. Muttukkumara Kavirayar (1780-1850) of Utuvil (Jaffna), son of Ampalavanar. Christian poet and scholar. Master of -) Tamotaram Pillai, CLVaL Author: Christian yoems Yecumata parikaram, Aiyanar uncal, Nataracar patikam, Niinakkummi (1891), Analaittivu kuravaiici; many solitary st. publ. as Muttaka paiicaka viiicati by Cunnakam Kumaracuvarni-p Pulavar. Muttukkumarappa Kavi, Putuvai (date?), author: Tiripuracuntari pillaittamii. Muttukkumarar (late 18) of Vattukkottai, Jaffna. Author: Kaiicana kaviyam, Yalaivicu puriinam, Tevacakaya natakam, Cimanta ruuakam, Patumapati ruuakam etc. Muttunainattai Mutaliyar (20), author: Paccai Nayakiyamman pillaittamil. Muttupillai, Ci, (Centurai Muttu, b. 1928), scholar and writer, author: novels Manakkouam (Temple of Mind), Mallikaippantal (JasK.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

456

MUTTUPPATTA~ KATAI-MUTTUTTAMPI-P PILLAI,

A.

mine Shed) etc., plays Natpin perumai (Greatness of Friendship) etc., short story collections (e.g. Arum piimpu Dancing Snake), essays (Kumari ndttu-t tamil etc.), book for children tPorvirar kataikai Stories of War Heroes), scholarly books (on ~ Tiruvalluvar, Tiruppur Kumaran), comm. on ~ Tirukkural and ~ Iraiyanar Akapporul. Muttuppattag katai, Tam. folk-ballad, performed as vilpattu in Tirunelveli Dist. Muttuppattan is born after 7 brothers in Brahmin family, enters service of a prince, with his brothers leaves it, on way back home meets two lovely girls of the cakkili (untouchable cobblers) community, falls in love, wants to marry them . They refuse, run home, tell their father who first wants to kill Muttuppattan, then accepts him when Muttuppattan renounces his caste. The brothers, however, reject him. After the wedding ceremony, when he marries the two sisters, Tirnrnakka and Pornmakka, the Vanniyas steel his father-in-law's cattle, Muttuppattan sets out to fight them, and is killed treacherously from behind. Only his dog comes home. The sisters discover his body and enter his funeral pyre. There are indications that the story may be based on some actual events. Ed. by N. Vanamamalai, Univ. of Madurai, 1971. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, "Some Tamil Folklore Texts: Muttupattan katai, Kattavarayag kataippatal, Palaiyanur NiH", JRAS 1989, No.2, 290-303. Muttu-p Pulavar (17) of Nakur, author: 51 st. on Venkateca, patron of ~ Katikairnuttu-p Pulavar. Are the two poets identical? Mutturacar (Mutturacakkaviracar, 18), son of Uraiyur Centiyappan, author Kailaymalai in ~ kalivenpii, tells the history of Jaffna's population. Cf. Peruntokai No. 1772. Pavalarcarittiratipam p.244. Mutturamalinka Cetupati, Raja of Ramnad (d. 1783), devotee of gods Murugan and Valli, author of devotional poems Murukar anuputi, Piravakara malai, Voll) manamalai (Wedding Songs for VaW), Caraca callapamalai, Nitipotam, Catakkaracarap patikam. Mutturama Mutaliyar (late 19), of Madras, author: Makaparatam kirttanam. Muttuttampi-p Pi~i, A. (1848 or 1858-1917) of Manippay, Jaffna, called The Lion of High Tamil Prose tcentamil vacana cinkami, prolific writer, historian, lexicographer, grammarian. Author: Paratacurukkam, giving the essence of Mahiibharata in prose; school readers; Tenmoli varalaru (written 1917, pub. 1920), critical presentation of history of Tam. language and literature, second in sequence (after Tiriivita pirakiicikai by ~ Capapati Navalar); gram. catechism (2 parts, 1904, 1905); Apitana kocam, first Tam. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

MUTTU-T TAMPI-P PULAVAR-MUTUCOL

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encyclopaedia (started 1886, publ. 1902); first Engl.-Engl.-Tam. dictionary (1908), The Civilian's Tamil Grammar (1912) for use of non-Tamils, laffna History (1912), Epitome of Ceylon History (1882, 2nd enlarged ed. 1902) , many essays in Centamil (1901-1917); edited and published --7 Arunakirinatar's Kantaralan kiiram (1911), --7 Tiruvacakam (1912), C. Srikanta ' s Engl. version of --7 Auvaiyar (1914), Vivekananda 's speeches (Vivekii'1anta Cuvami piracan kam, 1897), Pirapota cantirotaya vacanam (1889), etc. Muttu-t Tampi-p Pulavar (late 19), Christian poet of Sri Lanka, author: Yecukkiristu Natarutaiya tiruppattukalin mel oppari, Jaffna, 1892. Muttu-t Tantavar (prob. early 18) of Cikali . Both parents were musicians in the great Siva temple, Cikali. A disease prevented M .T. from following the traditional occupation. He became devotee of Siva Nataraja of Citamparam and used to chant a song every day beginning with the word which he first heard as he entered the temple . His --7 kirttanams belong to the best recitative poetry in Tam ., although they have been criticised for their "licentious imagery" (J . Murdoch, S.C . Chitty). Author: Citampara Capanata kirttanam, Tirunalai-p Povar carittira-k kirttanam (pub1. 1870). Cf. Simon Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, Colombo, 1946: 65; M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalainagar: Annamalai University, 1977: 346. Muttuvirakkaviiiar (19), disciple of --7 Muttucami-p Pulavar, courtpoet of Ettaiyapuram, author: mythological play Valliyammai ndtakam (1871, 1879) in mixed prose (--7 vacanami and verse mostly of the

--7

viruttam metre.

Muttuvirappacuvami piHaittamil, anonymous --7 pillaittamil on a charitable and virtuous patron Muttuvirappa Karuppannan; the author was a staunch Vaisnava. Ed. by T.Chandrasekharan, Pillaittamilkkottu, GOML, Madras, 1959. Muttuvira Upattiyayar (alias Muttuvira Vattiyar, Muttuvira Pamiyan, 1st half, 19), of kammala (blacksmith) community , native of Uraiyur-Tirucc irappalli , scholar, one of the teachers of --7 Mi!!a!cicuntaram Pillai, author: Muuuviriyam, grammar of --7 akam, --7 puram, --7 yappu and --7 ani . Comm. by Tirupparkatal Natan Kavirayar, Publ. 1899. Muttuviriyam (19), five-fold grammar (--7 aint 'ilakkanami , authored by Muttuvira Upattiyayar. In niirpa . mutucol, lit. old/ancient word; prob . proverb, traditional saying; also mutumoli ancient speech. Cf. --7 Tolkiippiyam Porulatikaram 391, 477 and 489. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

458

MUTUKANCI-MOVAR MUTALIKAI,.

mutukafici, poem of admonition and instruction (kiiiici) by old men of ripe (mutu) wisdom to inexperienced youth . E.g . the lost Markkanteyar kahci. Cf. Muttuvir. Yap , Olip , 166. Mutukuttagar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 137,329, Kuruntokai 221,353,371,390, Narrinai 28,58, Purananuru 331. Mutumojikkafici, Advice of ancient sayings, ascr. to ~ Kutalur Kilar (c. 215 A.D .). Collection of maxims in ten sections each of ten verses in ~ venturai metre, characterised for pithiness and lucidity . Its author may have been different from and later than the poet mentioned above, but it may be the earliest of all gnomic collections extant. Between c. 350-500 A.D . Cf. H.S. David, "The Tamil Book of Proverbs", Tam . Culture IX, 2 (1961) 151-80, X, 4 (1963) 67-106. Muturai, collection of 30 moral maxims in 30 ~ venpa st. (all but one ~ nericai v.) by ~ Auvaiyar, (10 or 12). The title lit. means "ancient utterance" (= traditional saying). Eds. : T.M.F. Scott, with Eng. trans ., 1860; Cennai Pantita mittira yantiracalai, 1906 ; Ka . Narnacivaya Mutaliyar (comm.), 1931. Transl. E. Keyworth, "Translations from Miithurai", Christ. College Mag . XX (1902-03) 143-46; R.R. Gunaratnam, "The sayings of Auvai " (entire text. transl.), Siddhanta Deepika XIII (1913) 11.519-22, XIV (1913) 4.170-3 . Mutuven Kannanar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 232 . muvar mutalika] C'the three masters"), term designating Salva poetsaints ~ Tirurianacampantar, ~ Appar and ~ Cuntarar, authors of the first seven vols . (~ atankanmuraii of the Salva canon.

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N Naccinarkkiniyar (14), one of the greatest medieval commentators. B. in Madurai in Bharadvaja gotra in Brahmin community. Very learned and sophisticated. Quotes in his comm. c. 90 liter. and erudite works. Author: gloss on 20 st. of -7 Kuruntokai (unfinished by -7 Peraciriyar), commentaries on -7 To lkappiyam, -7 Pattuppattu, -7 Kalittokai and -7 Civakacintamani. In comm. on Cintamani 2463 quotes from Kapartti karikai tKapardikarikds. Kapardi's son Mallinatacuri lived in late 13th c. N. also knows Peraciriyar's views, and these and other indications point to 14th c. (c. 1375) as his date. Cf. Anavaratavinayakam Pillai, S., "Nacchinarkkiniyar: A Study", Siddhanta Deepika IV (1900) 2.3946,3 .68-71 ,5 .115-18; Mu.Arunacalarn, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, NurriiIJ{u 14, 1969, 115-21. Nacciyappag, Ci.Ejj, (1933), author: novels Canakkiyanai venrava( (The Woman Who Conquered Canakkya), Kutumpame kovil (Family is a Temple), Kuvata kuyil (The Dumb Cuckoo), NI tan pen (You're Indeed a Woman), drama PeIJIJe oru kavitai (Woman Is a Poem) , books for children e.g . Tirumpi vii Papu (Come back, Babu). Nacciyappag, Nara. (Annavi , b. 1927), author: novels Mokanakkili (Enchanting Parrot), Maturai-c cimaiyil putuvai-k ka((a!1 (Pondicherry Robber in Madurai Country), Nanku pakkirkal katai (The Story of Four Fakirs), books for children tKumarittivu, Munravatu ilavaracan The Third Prince, Tankatteni Golden Honey-Bee, Acokar kataikal, Paiicatantirakkataikal etc.), poetry Koyyii-k katal (Unplucked Love), Ciruvar piutu (Song of the Little Ones) etc. Nacciyar -7 AIJ{ii(. Na(y)cciyartirumo!i, one of the best-known parts of the Vaisnava Tam. canon (in First Thousand) by -7 AI)!a! who, in 143 st. (14 hymns) narrates to her maid the dream which she had of her marriage with Krsna (hymn 6). These 11 S1. known as Yaranamayiram (One Thousand Elephants; its first words) is sung at every Vaisnava wedding, and its passionate eroticism is allegorically interpreted as union of individual soul with God . Elsewhere the poetess imagines herself to be a small girl whose doll-house was destroyed by mischievous Krsna (2nd Tirumoli K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Namamtiyiram of 10 st., in fact a ~ pillaittamil). There is also a lovely poem addressed to the god's white conch (7th part Karuppuramnarumo in 10 st. on vencan ku). "Everything left by AI).!al shows a rare sense of word-values, a trembling sensitiveness to beauty and a deep and single-hearted passion" (c. and H. Jesudasan). Cf. V.R.R. Dikshitar, "Krsna in Early Tamil Literature", Ind. Culture 4 (1937); F. Hardy, Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India, Delhi, Oxford Univ . Press, 1983 . Nails (Niles, 19), author: Ciluvaiyin upatecam (The Teaching of the Cross), Jaffna, 1893. Nainaraccam PiHai (early 18), author: Caramopayam (Absolute Surrender as the Means), i.e. absolute surrender to God as final means of salvation (Vaisnava), Naitatam, 1172 or 1176 ~ viruttam st. in 12 chapters, by ~ Ativirarama Pantiyap (2nd half, 16), based on Sriharsa's Skt. Naisadhacaritram (12), elaboration of the Nala-Damayanti episode of the Mahabharata, begun on a grand scale like a large epic, but ending abruptly. Its evaluation varies: " ... there are no real merits worth mentioning. N . is almost unreadable" (C. and H. Jesudasan, 1961); "In spite of sensuous descriptions it remains popular and dignified" (T.P. Meenakshisundaram, 1965). Accord. to M. Arunachalam (1974) the whole poem is a failure although it contains pieces of good poetry . It is very popular for its erotic tone (esp. in Manmatopalampanappatalamy (cf. the saying N. pulavark kautatam "N. is a tonic for poets"), although the queen of ~ Varatunkaraman found it "like the barking of a fastrunning dog". Comm. by Tiruttanikai Caravanapperuma] Aiyar (19). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 145-6. Naiyanti-p Pulavar (19) of Tontainatu, author of occasional st. Nakaiyar (Cankarn), other names Aficiyattai Makagar, Aficiyantai Makanar, Aficil Antal Makanar, Aficilantai Makagar. Author of Akananuru 352. Nakakumarakaviyarn, The Epic of the Naga Prince; Jaina narrative poem of this name might have existed, but is as such thus far not available. Mu. Arunacalam (Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, Nurralf{U 10, 1972, p. 38) mentions a book of this name of 120 S1. apparently prepared for print but as yet unpubl. Cf. ibid. p.97. Nakalinka Mujjivar, Kaiici (1865-1950), son of Caravanapperuma] Mutaliyar, author of Tiruttanikai vannamaiicari, Tenkatampaitturai patirruppattantdti , Vat apolani mayilerum Perumai malai, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Tiruverumpiyurppuriinam, Tiruvamattur vannankal, all devotional compositions on Murugan. Cenkuntar pirapaniattirauu (on traditions of the cenkuntar "weavers" community), ed. Mu.Irakavaiyankar, 1926. Nakalinka Mutaliyar (1865-1950), author: Salva Tiruverumpiyiir-p puriinam (1890). Nakampottajj (Cankam), author: Narrinai 282. Nakamuni-p Pulavar (1891-1933) of Nayinartivu (Jaffna), author: Nayinai nirottaka yamakavantati, Nayinai manmiyam. Nakamuttu Itaikkatar (first half, 20), founder of Engl. college in Jaffna, scholar, author: novels Cittakumdran (1925), filled with Salva religious philosophy and defence of Hindu culture; Nilakantan (1925), with social analysis. In his novels composed in pure liter. Tarn ., author, well-versed in Western culture and science (studied at Calcutta univ.), shows great concern about the growth and health of Indian civilization. Nakanata Pi11ai, Pantitar (1824-1884) of Cunnakam (Jaffna), scholar in Tam., Skt, Sinhalese and Engl., teacher of ~ Kumaracuvami Pulavar of Cunnakam, transl. into Tam. Manavadharmasastra, Chandogyopanisad, Bhagavadgita, Hitopadesa, Meghadiaa; author: essays publ. in Ilan kapimani. Nakaracan (16), author: Tinakaravenpa, praise-poem on Tlgakarapillai. nakara-c cirappu, lit. "excellence of town", i.e. description of outstanding qualities (natural or artificial) of a town (usually the capital of a country); obligatory part of large narrative poems. Nakarajan., Jl., (20), author: novel Nalai marrumoru nalai ("Tomorrow Is Another Day", 1974), about the world of brothels and bylanes of Madurai, with splendid portrayal of characters of drunkards, pimps and prostitutes. An extremely original, powerful, dramatic work, not lacking in humour, one of the most important Tam. novels of the 2nd half of 20th c. Nakarattin.a Nayakar (early 20), trans!' Nyayaprakasa into Tam. (1906). Nakeca Aiyar (19) of Vattukkottai, author: Aruccuna natakam, Cupattirai natakam, Amuta nunukkam (medic. treatise), devotional poetry on Kantacami etc. Naki Cettiyar (20), author: Viracarakkauaiai (1931), Yiracaiva vilakka vinavitai (1933), catechism of Virasaivism. Nakkannaiyar (Cankam) author: Akananuru 252, Narrinai 19, 87, Pu~anii!1u~u 83, 84, 85. Nakklragar Atiniil (date?), lost treatise on prosody quoted in comm. Yapparun kalavirutti 93 and 95. Nakkirar , (c. 190-260 A.D., Cankami, author: perhaps late poems of the early anthologies, and ~ Tirumurukarruppatai (c. 250 A.D.). Cf. Meenakshisundaram, T.P., "Nakkiirar, the earliest Tamil K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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mystic", Tam. Culture VI (1957) 4,309-18; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975,273-5. Cf. Nakkirar 1+2 • Nakklrar.j, (Cankam), ancient Tam. bardic poet. The name Nakkirag/ Nakkirar is very common in class. Tam. literature. To Nakkirar are attributed 16 poems in ~ Akananiiru, 7 in ~ Narrinai, 7 in ~ Kuruntokai. To Nakkirar of Maturai are ascribed 3 poems (~ Purananuru 395, Akananuru 36, 78). A "Nakkirar, son of Kanakkayanar" is supposed author of Akananuru 93. A " Nakkirar, son of Kanakkayanar of Maturai" is supposed author of Purananuru 56, 189, of ~ Netunalvatai, and of ~ Tirumurukarruppatai. The core-part of the name, Kiran (Kirar, Kiranar) occurs about 15 times in early class. literature, and even more often in later medieval literature. It is difficult to decide which ones among the various poets of that name are different persons and which represent only different names of one and the same person. Traditionally, poet Nakkirar (different from the commentator, q.v.) is credited, as one person, with the following authorships: Akananuru 36, 57, 78, 93, 120, 126, 141, 205, 227, 249, 253, 290, 310, 340, 346 , 369, 389, Kuruntokai 75, 105, 143, 161, 266, 280, 368, Natiina! 31, 86, 197, 258, 340, 358, 367, Purananuru 56, 189, 395, Tirumurukarruppatai and Netunalvatai. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 273-75. Nakkirar, (c . 215-270 A.D.), late Cankarn poet, author: ~ Netunalvatai. Perhaps al so later poems of early anthologies. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 273-5. Cf. Nakkirarc., Nakktrar, (c. 650-750 A.D . or somewhat earlier), author: comm. on ~ Iraiyanar ls ~ Kalaviy al (Akapporul i, N. 3 , son of kanakkayanar (accountant, or teacher) of Madurai, must be earlier than c. 1000 A.D. The comm. seems to have been transmitted for 7 generations until written down by a Nilakantan of Muciri (on the West coast), sometime between 650-750 A.D . or later. Either N' 3 or Nilakantan may in fact be regarded as author of the comm. Perhaps N' 3 was responsible for the orig. comm. (uraiy-aciriyari while Nilakantan was responsible for later, definitive, written (?) fixation of the text. It contains as its essential and integral part st. from ~ Pantikkovai, work in honour of Pandya king Netumaran Arikecari Parankuca Maravarman (c. 750-75 A.D.). It is of course not certain who is responsible for insertion of these illustrative st. into the comm., whether N3 himself or, rather, Nilakantan, or some one before him. The comm. is the earliest piece of connected prose in Tam., stylistically rich, ornate and K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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elegant. It also contains earliest developed version of the legend of -7 Catikam. The author's epithet kanakkayanar is derived from kanakkan, " accountant, cashier, book-keeper", more generally arithmetician, or even "teacher", referring to member of intellectual or clerical community (of Madurai). Eds.: S.V. Damodaram Pillai 1883 (repr. 1889); Kii .Ra.Kovintaraja Mutaliar and Me. VI. Venukopala-p Pillai (eds.), Kalaviyal ennum Ir.aiya!liir Akapporul mulamum Nakkiranar uraiyum, Pavanantar kalakarn, Vepperi, Cennai, 1939; Kazhagam ed. (C.R. Namasivaya Mudaliyar), 1943 (repr. 1953, 1958, 1960, 1964 etc.). Nakkirar, legendary. Various poets of this name have merged in trad. accounts into one legend. personality which played import. role in medieval Tam. liter. lore. Nakkirar's earliest exploit was a tussle with a potter over relative superiority of Skt. and Tam.: the potter asserted superiority of Skt., while Brahmin N. superiority of Tam. In the hot controversy N. cursed the potter to death (in Skt.!); the Tam. version of this deadly mantra is found in -7 Naccinarkkiniyar's comm. on -7 Tolkappiyam Porul. Ceyyul. 178. When witnesses interceded on behalf of the dead potter, N. brought him back to life with blessing in Tam. His next exploit was the well-known tussle with Siva concerning the fragrance of Pandya Queen's tresses. His impertinence was punished by Siva opening his third eye on his forehead, and N. had to plunge into the Tank of Golden Lotus in Madurai temple not to be scorched to death. Siva forgave him on two conditions - that he would take instruction in Tam. from Agastya, and make a pilgrimage to Kasi, As the poet was going to Benares, he was seized by a goblin and shut up in a cave with other poor pilgrims, to be devoured by the hungry monster. It was then that he composed -7 Tirumurukarruppatai, and saved by Lord Murukan, When he reached Kalahasti on his way to Kasi, he was permitted to return home, became greater poet than before, and president of the -7 Cankam at Madurai. Cf. also K,V. Zvelebil, "Brief Prolegomena to Early Tamil Literary History: Iraiyanar, Tarumi, Nakkirar" JRAS 1986, 59-67. Nakkirar Nalatinarpatu (date?), lost work on prosody quoted in comm., Y'dpparunkalavirutti 57. Nakklratevanayagar (10)? Salva poet-saint, author: Kayilaipati Kalattipati, 100 -7 venpa st. in -7 antati; Tiru in kay malai elupatu (55 orig. st. + 15 st. added recently by Palur Kannappa Mutaliyar) with beautiful nature descriptions; Tiruvalaiiculi mummanikkovai (15. st. instead of expected 30); Tiru-v-elukiarirukkai (55 lines in -7 inaikkuraiaciriyam metre); Peruntevapani (67 lines in ident. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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metre); Kopappiracatam (99 lines in ident. metre), Karettu (8 venpa st.); Porrittirukkalivenpa (in 10 lines); Tirukkannappatevar tirumaram (dealing with the well-known heroic devotee Kannappar who gave his eyes to his lord Siva; for detailed summary of the legend cf. G.V. Pope, Tiruvacagam, 141-5). All works in ~ Tirumurai, book 11.

Nakulan.

~

Turaisviimi , TiKe.

Nalatiyar, Great Quatrains, alias Nalatinanuru, Four Hundred Quatrains, popular anthology of moral maxims in venpd, one of great Jaina liter. works, joined product of a number of poets, collected and classified accord. to topics by Patumanar (date unknown). Accord. to tradition, selection from 8000 st. by 8000 Jaina saints who brought the verses to king of Madurai who, to test their worth, had the ms. thrown into river Vaiyai. Those palm-leaves that floated against the current were preserved. Compiler is said to have provided a comm. now lost. The work enjoyed patronage of (Peru)muttaraiyar clan (st. 200, 296) mentioned as prominent in inscr. only from early 7th c. Hence the date may be A.D. 675-700 (cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1975, p. 123, ftn. 74). Divided into 40 chapters of 10 st. grouped under headings aram (cosmic/moral order), porui (wealth), kamam (pleasure) . The tone is ascetic and cynical, with clear Jaina ideology. Some st. are very good poetry. Translations: 1892: Naladyar [Ed.] with a clear Tamil commentary and an English translation of the text, by O. Pushpa-ratha Chetti, Madras. 1893 : G.V. Pope (tr.), The Naladiyar or Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil, with Introduction, Translation and Notes, The Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1898: G.V. Pope, "The Poets of the Tamil Lands", Siddhanta Deepika II (1898) 6.140-42, 7.166-68, (1899) 8.190-91. 1900: Anonym. (" ... by an experienced graduate"). Madras. 1903: The Ndladiydr, With a Tamil commentary by the late Pandit C. Rajagopala Pillai, and an English introduction and translation by K. Kuppuswami Mudaliyar, Madras. 1926: Rajagopala Pillai, c., and S. Anavaratavinayakam Pill ai, Madras. 1946: Gnanou Diagou (tr.), Naladhyar. Pondichery. - Pope's tr. reedited by South India Saiva Siddh. Works Publ. Soc., Madras, 1958. Partial transl., Trois chapitres du Naladiyar, Le livre de Lamour, 1889, 101-18. Nalavenpa, easy and moving Tam. version of the story of Nala and Damayanti tMahabharata III, 50-78) in 378 st. (or up to 417 or 424 st., depending on ed.) in ~ nericaivenpa metre in 3 chapters; by ~ Pukalenti, It abounds in splendind nature description and is characterized by graceful rhythm and high phonaesthetic qualities. Because of its relative simplicity and K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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easiness, it is obligatory reading with students of Tam. Prince Nala and princess Damayanti fall in love from afar and marry after she selects him from among other suitors. Nala then loses his kingdom in game of dice and enters the woods with his wife , who, abandoned by him, wanders back to her father' s court. Nala is tricked into seeking her again by the pretense that she is to marry a second time . This story is told as colourful, enjoyable and tender narrative. Prob. date late 13th-early 14th c. Ed. Rajam, 1959.; The Minerva Press, Madras, 1911. Cf. Rajagopala Pillai, C ; The Nalavenpa (by Pukarenti Pulavar) and Nanmani Kadigai (by Kakanar Pulavar) with grammatical and explanatory notes . . . (and an Eng. translation), Madras, 1879; Langton, Maurice, The Story of King Nala and Princess Damayanti, A narrative poem by Maurice Langton from the Tamil by Puhalendi Pulavar, CLS , Madras, 1950; there is also a trans . into Eng . with Tam. text and copious notes, Univ . of Madras, 1898. Nalayirakkovai (12?). Accord. to Colamantalacatakam 94, poem on Putuvai-k Kankeyan composed by Kiittar Kahkeya!! (Ottakkuttar"). Lost. Ist. preserved. Nalayira tivviya-p pirapantam, its origin . The compiler of Vaisnava canon, --7 Natamuni, can be most prob . assigned to end of 9th c. or begin. of 10th c. He was the first in the line of Vaisnava --7 aciiryas who completed the work begun by the --7 alvars . Accord. to trad . account, the 4000 hymns of the Canon were revealed to him by --7 Nammalvar and his disciple --7 Maturakavi, after he had prayed to them and recited 12,000 times Maturakavi's hymns on his master (Tiviyacuracaritam XVI , 13-21). Natamuni wa s temple priest at Ranganatha temple is Srirangam . The Canon comprises works of 14 poets ; 12 of these are regarded as alvars. Recitation of their Tam. hymn s went parallel with recitation of --7 tiruppatikam's in Saivite temples. This is attested by a number of records which cite endowments of land for maintenance of reciters, etc. (e.g. inscr. E.R. 61 of 1891 speaking of recitation of --7 Tiruvaymoli in Srirangam temple etc., cf. K.A.N. Sastri, The Colas , 639-40) . The hymns were collected and arranged, prob . also set to music , by Natamuni, and finally prob . edited by his grandson Yamuna, the second leading figure in Srivaisnava tradition (10th c., cf. J.M.S. Hooper, Hymns of the A!.viirs, 1929, p. 10, and L. Renou-J . Filliozat, L'lnde classique, I, 456). The Canon is called Nala yira tivviya-p pirapantam (or tivyaprapantam) "The Four Thousand Divine Works", and consists of four ayiram's " thousands" of --7 pacuram's (st.) . The principle of arrangement is obviously not chronological since the 3 earliest poets (--7 Poykai, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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~ Putam and ~ Pey) occur only in the Third Thousand. Cf. J. Gonda, Aspects of Early Yisnuism , Motilal Banarsi Dass , Delhi, 1969; Hardy, F., Yiraha-bhakti: The Early History of Kr~IJa Devotion in South India, Delhi, 1983; Parthasarathi Ayyankar, Nalayira tivyaprapanta akarati (An Encyclopaedic Lexicon and Concordance to the Divya Prabandha, Srirangam, 1963); Koyiloluku, ed. by Pandits, A.nanda Mudraksara Sala, Madras, 1909. Nalayira tivviya-p pirapantam, its structure. The Vaisnava canon , called "Four Thousand Divine Works" consists of works of 14 poets , of which 12 are considered ~ alvars . There are 10 canonised Vaisnava saints, but 12 poet-saints in the Canon - a discrepancy caused by the fact that the tradition begun by ~ Natamuni regards ~ Narnmalvar as incarnation of god Visnu (hence not a mere "saint"), and ~ A.1)!aJ, being a woman, was not canonized as saint. The 1st Thousand begins with ~ Periyalvar's Tiruppallaniu (12+I st. of welcoming introductory call) and contains his ~ Tirumoli (5 pattu-decades of 461 st.), A.mars ~ Tiruppavai (30 st.) and Nacciyartirumoli (143 st.), ~ Kulacekara-p Perumal's Tirumoli (105 st.), ~ Tirumalicai A.lvar's Tiruccantaviruttam (120 st.), ~ Tontaratippoti A.lvar's Tirumalai (45 st.) and his Tiruppalliyelucci (10 st.), ~ Tiruppanalvar's Amalandtipiriin (10 st.) and Maturakavi's KaIJIJi nUIJ ciruttdmpu (11 st.) . The 2nd Thousand contains only hymns of ~ TirumaIikai A.lvar: Periya tirumoli (1084 st.), Tirukkuruntantakam (20 st.) and Tirunetuntantakam (30 st.). The 3rd Thousand (called also lyaryii) contains hymns of the 3 earliest alvars , ~ Poykai's Mutal tiruvantati (100 st.), ~ Piitam's Irantam tiruvantati (100 st.) and ~ Pey's Munram tiruvantdti (100 st.), as well as Tirumalicai A.lvar's Nankam (or Nanmukany tiruvantati (96 st.), ~ Namrnalvars Tiruviruttam (100 st.) , Tiruvaciriyam (7 st.) and Periya tiru vantati (87 st.) , and Tirumankai's Tiruvelukurrirukkai (1), Ciriya tirumatal (77 and Periya tirumatal (148 D. The 4th Thousand contains the 1102 hymns of Namrnalvars ~ Tiruvaymoli in 10 tens; as a kind of appendix (not always counted), ~ Tiruvarankattamutanar's ~ Iramanucanurrantati (108 st.) plus ~ Manavalamamunikal 's Upatecarattinamalai (47 st.), Tiruvaymolinurranuui (100 st.); and Iyalcattu (8 st.) with Cattumurai (10 st.) are usually included. The number 4000 is reached as follows: 947 (in 1st Thousand) + 1134 (in 2nd Thousand) + 817 (in 3rd Thousand) + 1102 of Tiruviiymoli (4th Thousand) . Cf. T.A . Gopinatha Rao, Sri Subrahmanya Ayyar's Lectures on the History of Sri Yaisnavas , Madras, 1923; J.M.S. Hooper, Hymns of the A!yiirs, Calcutta, 1929; Ti.Iramakirusnaiyankar, Tivviya-p piranta akariiti, Madras,

D

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J .M.-NALLA~

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1961; Parthasarathi Ayyankar, Nalayira tivyaprapanta akardti (An Encyclopaedic Lexicon and Concordance to the Divya Prabandha), Srirangam, 1963 ; A.K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning : Poems ofNammalvar, Princeton Univ. Press, 1981; F. Hardy, Virahabhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India, Delhi, 1983; in Tam., 1. Cuntaramiirtti, "Nalayira tivviya-p pirapantam", in: Tamil ilakkiya-k kolkai 1, Intern. Inst. of Tam. Studies, Madras, 1975, 163-90. Eds.: Mayilai Matavatasan (ed.), Manali Laksmana Mutaliyar publ., Madras, 1962; P.B. Annankaracariyar Svami, Rattinam Accakam, Madras, 1967; Ki.Venkatacami Rettiyar, Tiruvenkatattan Tirumanram, Madras, 1973; Es.Rajam, in 4 vols. Nallacami PiIlai, J.M. (1864-1920), scholar, translator, one of the foremost exponents of Salva Siddhanta in Tam. renaissance period. Worked on revival of Saivism by trans. Salva Siddhanta sastras. and started in 1897 monthly Light of Truth or Siddhanta Deepika. Was spokesman for Saivism at Convention of Religions, Calcutta, 1907 and Allahabad, 1911. Author: Siva-fiana-siddhiar of Arunandi Sivacharya, Meykandan Press, Madras, 1913; Thiruvarutpayan of Umapathi Sivacharya, Dharmapuram, 1945; Siva-fiana-bodham of Meikanda Deva, trans. with Introduction and Notes, 2nd ed ., Dharmpura, 1945 (1st ed . pubI. by 1. Vinson in 1895; another ed. 1958); Siva-fiana-siddhiar Supakkam of Arulnandhi Sivam , Dharmapuram, 1948; Studies in Saiva Siddhanta . . . with an introd. by V.V. Ramana Sastri, Madras, 1911; two poems of --7 Kalittokai, --7 palai division, not included in standard eds., claimed to have been received from the family of --7 Iracappa-k Kavirayar (Siddh. Deepika XIII, 1912,3:109-11); Eng. trans. of --7 Tirumurukarruppatai in blankverse with notes, Siddh . Deepika XII (1912) 10:407-16, 12:522-26, XIII (1913) 1:14--16. Cf. Balasubramaniam, K.M., The Life of J .M. Nallaswami Pillai (foreword, Suddhananda Bharatiyar), Annamalainagar, 1.M. Somasundara Pillai, 1965; Murugesa Mudaliar, N., "A note on J.M. Nallaswami Pillai", Tam . Culture XII (1966) 1.75-78. The journal Siddhanta Deepika continued in Tam. and Eng . Versions till 1912. Cf. V.A. Devasenapathi, Saiva Siddhanta, Univ . of Madras, 1960. Nallacami-p Pillai, Je. Em. --7 Nallacami Pillai, J.M. Nallaccutanar (Cankam), author: Paripatal 21 Katavul valttu. Nallacivan Pillai, Cu. (1882-1952) of Tirunelveli, author : Maturai-c Cokkandtar varukka-k kovai . Nallalici-yar (Cankarn), author: Paripatal 16 (Vaiyai), 17 (Cevvel). Nallaj; (date?), presumed author of Teyvayanaippuranam, c. 300 st., also ascribed to --7 Nala-p Pillai, on myths of Teyvayanai (Devasena), first consort of god Murukan, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Nallanna Mutaliyar, Poykai-p Pakkarn (date ?), author: Paravaipuriyantiiti, fragm. of 91 st. in -7 venpii, U.V.S. Iyer Libr . Cat. No. 1289. Nallantuvagar (Cankarn) , prob. the greatest poet of late class. age, author: Kalittokai on -7 neytal (118-150), Narrinai 88 (?), Akananuru 43 (?), Paripatal 6 (Vaiyai), 8 (Cevvel), II , 20 (Vaiyai), altogether 40 poems. For problems, cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, Leiden/K61n, 1975, 100-101. Nallaperumal, Ra. Cu. (Cantiracutan, b. 1931), well-known prosewriter, author: novels Kallukkul iram (Tenderness Within Stone, 1969), good dramatic narrative about a youth turning terrorist in revenge for his father's death . Under impact of the girl he loves follows Gandhian ways; goes to see the Mahatma only to witness his assassination; Porattankai (1973, Struggles, a novel depicting very well the social turmoil in post-Independence India); Tirutarkal (Thieves), Kettatellam potum (All That One Has Heard Is Enough), Nampikkaikal (Hopes), Ennankal maralam (One Can Change One's Views): this novel describes conflict in the life of a doctor with an almost cynical detachment, especially in matters of love, depicted again st background of hospital setting; when the protagonist's profes sional skill meets with failure, he finally surrenders to sentiment and basic human emotions. Short stories, literature for children, essays. Received many awards. Nalla-p PiHai (mid-18; d. 1745? 1751?), b. in karunikan (accountant) community in Muttalappettai, Tontaimantalam. Studied Tam ., Telugu and Skt. which he is said to have mastered at 16. Author: Tam. Paratam (Mahiibhiirata) in 14,728 st. based on enlargement of -7 Villiputturar' s poem through addition of portions rendered from Skt. text, and prob. of st. composed by Murukappa Upattiyayar (?). Accord. to M.V. Venugopala Pillai, he was working on the poem between 1732-44 while in his 20s; Teyvaydnai puranam (by attribution) of c. 3000 st. Accord. to Venugopala Pillai, this is work of a different poet called -7 Nallan, Nallaranar (date?) alias Nallatag, supposed author of Nallaran molivari, gram. treatise. Lost. Cf. Yapparunkalavir. Olipiyal. Nallatanka] katai, folk-ballad about misfortunes and misery caused to a lonely woman and her children by her elder brother's wife; her name is symbolic of the tyranny suffered by the cruelty of a sister-in-law. Nallatanka] marries king Kaciraja and her brother Nallannan marries the wicked MI1!i (or Alankari). When there is draught in the kingdom lasting for 14 years, Nallatanka] is forced to seek shelter in her brother' s house, together with her children. While Nallannag is away, his wife maltreates and tortures her K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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relatives, so that Nallatanka] flees into the forest with her 7 chil dren, and they all kill themselves by jumping onto an old dry well. When Nallannan returns home and enquires about his sister , his wife tries to evade his questions. Finally Nallannan finds them dead in the well. He takes revenge by erecting a pantal for the marriage of his son in such a way that it breaks down and his whole family is destroyed. The ballad which has been in print in Madras since 1904 as ~ chapbook, is also transcribed as a drama, Nallatan kai carittiram, staged from 1932 on (composed by Ca.Cu.Cankaralinka Kavirayar) . Nallavirappa PiHai (19) of Kulattur (Ramnad), author: Kotumaliir-k kuravaiici, pallu (on Murukan) . Nallavur Kilar (Cankam) , author: Akananuru 86, Narrinai 154. Nalleluniyar (Cankam), author: Paripatal 13 Katavul valttu . Nalliraiyanar (Cankam), author: Puranii!luru 393. Nallur Ciju Metaviyar (Cankam), author: Na rrifJai 282 . Nalluruttirag (late Cankami, supposed author of ~ mullai part (poems 10 1-117) of ~ Kalittokai. Nallur Vlraikkavirayar ~ Viraikkaviriiyar. Nalukavi-p Peruma] ~ Tirumankai Alviir. Nalu mantiri-k katai "The Story of Four Ministers", a folk narrative in ~ ammanai form, ascribed to Pafifialanatar, about king Teventiran and his choice of four ministers, Potavatittan, Pot a Cantiran, Pota Pusanan and Pota Viyaparan, Transl. into Engl. by ~ Natesa Sastri, S.M., as The King and his Four Ministers [the Alakecakatai alias Nalumantirikkatai] , An old Hindu romance . . . With notes and introduction, by W .A. Clouston, Ma dra s, 1888. In German as Vier Geheimrath-Minister. Eine indische Geschichte in Gleichnissen. Aus tamulischer Sprache libertragen von dem frliheren Braminen Christian Rama Ayen. Hamburg, 1855. nalunku (also nalankui, festive ceremony in wedding when bride and bridegroom daub each other with sandal, saffran, etc. ; naluhkupdttu, songs sung by participants in the ceremony; type of folksongs . Natva]l (lit. "Correct Path"), collection of 40 st. on ethical conduct in ~ venpa metre ~ Auvaiyar, (10 or 12); perhaps her best work. St. 40 refers to ~ Tirurnular and to ~ Tiruviicakam. Prob. date (by internal evidence) 2nd half, 12th c. Its invocation to Vinayaka (beginning with the words Piilum telitenum "milk and clear honey" and mentioning threefold Cankarn Tam.) is famous and popular, as well as its S1. 40. Best ed. Ka.Namacivaya Mutaliyar (comm .), 1931. Other eds .: Arumuka Navalar (comm .), K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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NALVA1,UTIYAR-NAMACCIVAYA PULAVAR ,

Venkatacami Nagar (comm.), Ti.Pi.Kirusnacami Mutaliyar, with Eng. transl., 1937; CennaiPantita mittira yantiracalai, 1906, Es.Rajam, 1959. Transl.: E. Keyworth, "Translations from Nalvari", Christ. College Mag . XX (1902-3) 347-51, as well as in S.Winfred, Tamil Minor Poets, Madras, 1872. Nalvalutiyar (Cankarn), author: Paripatal 12 on Vaiyai. Nalve!Jiyar (Cankam), author: Akananur..U 32, Kuruntokai 365 , NarrilJai 7,47. Nalvettanar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 341 , Narrinai 53, 210 , 292 , 349. Nalvilakkagar (Cankarn), author: Narrinai 85. Namaccivaya Cetti (19), author: Viveka Cuntaram, a novel, Madras, 1888. Namaccivaya-k Kavirayar (late 18-early 19), vellala of Vikkiramacinkapuram (Tirunelveli Dist.), author: Ulakutaiyammai-yantati in praise of the Goddess, Cinkaicciletai -y-antati in praise of Vikkiramacinkapurarn. Narnacivayam Pi!Jai, Ma. (20), author: Nampiyiintar Nampi puriinam in prose. Namaccivaya Mutaliyar, Ka. (1876-1937) of Kaverippakkam, teacher and professor of Tam. , author of Tam. textbooks, in 1917 President, Board of Examiners (Tam.) at Madras Univ., 1920-1934 Head, Committee for Tam. Textbooks. Editor: --) Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram Akattinai Purattinai with --) llampuranam (1920) , texts of --) Eluttatikaram and --) Collatikaram (1922), text of --) Porulatikaram (1924 ), of Collatikaram with Ilampuranam (1927), --) Atticuti, --) Konrai ventan (1931), --) Iraiyanar's Kalaviyal (1932) , --) Taiicaivanan kovai (1943), --) Tanikaippuriinam , --) Tiru vdcakam , --) Tirukko vaiyar, text of --) Pattuppattu , --) Pattinattu Pillaiyar 's poems, etc. Author of comm. on --) Nalvali, --) Nann eri, --) Niti caram and other didactic texts; of stories, plays, essays. One of the first Tam. poets to write verses for children. Raised dignity of teachers and professors of Tam. His eds. are of high critical order. Namaccivaya Navalar (early 19), scholar, teacher of --) Appavaiyar, author: Tiruvaranka-c canniti murai (1928). Namaccivaya PiHai, Mayiiram (late 19), author: Pattanattu-p Pillaiyar carittiracankirakam ( 1899). Namaccivaya Pulavar I (1707-1761) of Tontainatu (or Pantinatu). Author: many occasional and panegyric st. on --) A!!antarailkam Pillai, --) Citakkati, on Muttirulappan (minister of Mutturamalirika Cetupati), --) pillaittamil on the same patron; by ascription, Mii!1 vitututu on the same man (however, cf. --) Kulantaikkavi); and other poems (an --) antdti etc.). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NAMACCIVAYA PULAVAR z-NAMMA1VAR

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Namaccivaya Pulavar, (19) of Jaffna, son of Cuppiramaniya Pillai, studied grammar and literature with many famous scholars, composed many musical -t kirttanais. Namaccivaya Pulavar, (b. 1749) of Accuveli, Jaffna, author: -t venpd st. on god Vina yaka. Namaccivaya Tampiran (Tecikar, 17) of Tiruvavatuturai. Author: comm. on -t Umapati Civam's Vinavenpa and his Civappirakiicam (1677), on -t Civaiuinacittiyar Cupakkam, and on -t Arunanti's lrupavirupahtu (1678). Namakkal, Kavifiar -t Riimalinkam Pillai, Ve. Namalar Makan. IJarikaqqan. (Cankam), author: Narrinai 250 . namamalai, poem in 100 st. in -t kali or -t akaval metres on the greatness of the hero; or, poem celebrating deity or hero by reciting his names in -t vaiicippa tIlakkanavil. 866) . names, of Tam. bardic poets of the classical age: 473 professional poets of the so-called -t Cankam age are known by name or epithet. Cf. S.V. Subramanian, "Personal names in Carikam literature", Ind . Ling. 16 (1955) 170-8; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill , 1975, 80 ftn. 8. Rangaswamy, M.A . Dorai, The Surnames of the Cankam Age - Literary and Tribal, Univ. of Madras, 1968. Nammajvar (lit. "our -t alyar") , Vaisnava poet-saint, regarded as the greatest of the alyars, said to have provided the essence of Rgveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and Samaveda in his Tiruviruttam, Tiruvaciriyam, Tiruvantati and -t Tiruvaymoli respectively. Ta . Vaisnava bhakti reaches its culmination in this powerful poet; also, he is the principal authority on Vaisnava philosophy among the dlviirs, He refers to Visnu's shrines at Civaramarikai (Srivaramangalam) and Varakunamankai (Varagunamangalam) which came into existence in 2nd half of 8th c., or early in 9th c. An inscr. of A.D . 908 (Tirukkannapuram) is the first to mention his pr. name Catakopan (Sathakopa; cf. E.S . Varadaraja Iyer, A History of Tamil Literature, p. 298). An inscr. of A.D . 998 (Ukkal) mentions the local deity as Tiruvaymolittevar; another inscr. of A.D . 1001 (Vijayanarayanam) refers to temple of Sathakopa (S.!.!. III, p. 1 if.). Vaisnava hagiography maintains that N. taught the entire canon to -t Natamuni, the first -t acarya, who is said to have been b. at Viranarayanapuram (Viranarayana was the surname of Parantaka I, 907-55) and died at Kankaikontacolapuram (cf. Rajendra, 1012-1044). His date may have been c. 910-990 A.D. Accord. to Kurupa ramparai 3000, he was b. on Friday, 4.5.798, and lived for 35--45 years. It would seem that N. either lived after or was contemporary of Parantaka

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1. Also, there are many similarities between Tiruvaymoli and ~ Manikkavacakar's Tiruvacakam, and his Tiruviruttam corresponds to ~ Tirukkovaiyar (both dealing with divine love in ~ kovaitturaiy . All these data point to the dates of N . as latter part of 9th c., may be after c. 875 A.D., perhaps to 880-930 A.D. Linguistic evidence also seems to point to such dating (i.e. after the works of ~ Periyalvar, ~ AIHaJ and ~ 'I'irumankai). For dating and connected problems cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 1975 p. 161 and ftn. 201-208. N . was born a sudra of ve/lil]a descent in Kurukur alias Tirukkurukai (now Alvartirunakari) in Tirunelveli Dist. His orig. name was Maran, For 16 years he sat numb, with closed eyes, under a tamarind tree. Roused from his meditative trance by Maturakavi, he experienced revelation of Visnu and burst into his many philos. and argumentative songs which are held in highest esteem. Accord. to Kuruparamparai, N. asked Maturakavi and (king?) Vallabha (Pandya") to arrange the marriage of Al)taJ: Vallabha may have been Srivallabha, contemporary of Periyalvar. His main work is ~ Tiruvaymoli in 1102 st. (4th Thousand of the canon); he is also author of ~ Tiruviruttam (100 st., 3rd Thousand) applying the moods of class . love-poetry to bhakti, Tiruvaciriyam (7. st., 3rd Thousand) on the qualities and appearance of Visnu, and Periyatiruvantdti (87 st., 3rd Thousand). See also ~ Tiruvaymoli, ~ Tiruviruttam . Cf . useful trans. with elaborate comm. by Govindacharya Svamin of Tiruviruttam in Siddhanta Deepika Xl (1910) 1.34-5,2.81-6,3.119-25,4.161-70,5.231-35; Xl (1911) 7.295-8, 8.351-8, 10.471-80, 12.564-9, XII (1911) 1.22-30, 2.72-8,6.265-73, XII (1911) 11.467-75, 12.534-9, VIII (1912) 3.133-41, 6.282-5, XIII (1913) 8.364-9, 9.428-30, 11.493-7. 12.560-3, XIX (1913) 2.69-76, 3.122-29, 5.230-33. Further, Chelvakesavaroya Mudaliar, T., "S1. Nammalvar", Siddhanta Deepika III (1899) 5.100-102; A. Srinivasa Raghavan, Nammalvar. Makers of Indian Literature Series, New Delhi, 1975; A.K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning: Poems For Visnu by Nammiilvar, Princeton Univ . Press, 1981 ; M.R . and Uma Parameswaran, "Singing to the Feet of the Lord : On A.K . Ramanujan's Translation from Nammalvar's Poetry", Journ . of South Asian Literature XIX (Summer-Fall 1984) 2.137-51; Hardy, Friedhelm, "The Tamil Veda of a Sudra Saint (The Srivaisnava Interpretation of Nammalvar"), in Contributions to South Asian Studies I (ed. Gopal Krishna), Delhi, 1978, 42-114; Srinivasan, Padma "Meditative Poetry: The Poems of Tagore and Nammalvar", Journ . of the Inst. of Asian Studies VIII, 2 (March 1991) 84-97. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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For trans., see also J.S.M. Hooper, Hymns of the A!yars, Calcutta, 1929, Tiruviruttam, pp. 58-88. Nampi Aqtar Nampi, Salva poet-saint, compiler of majority of hymns in ~ Tirumurai, the Salva canon, before 1100 A.D. (cf. ~ Salva canon, its origin and structure) . His story is told in ~ Tirumuraikantapuranam of (?) ~ Umapati Civam (14th c.). This work says (5), "a boy was born in Aticaiva family of Naraiyiir, Nampi Aq!ar Nampi ", during reign of "king Rajaraja Apayakulacekara who rules after worshipping Tiyakecar of Arur of Colanatu, adorned by Ponni, listening to several patikam ' s of the trio of Tevaram" , Accord. to K.A.N. Sastri, this king is to be identified with Kulottunka II (The Colas , p. 330). The purana states beyond doubt (26-27) that the 11 tirumurai's were arranged by N.A .N.; the king requested him to do it, and he did. Nampi's own poem must have been classified later when ~ Periyapuranam was added as 12th part of the canon, or N. himself might have added his poems to the king's request. The principle of classification (described in the purdna, 26-27) was this: hymns of the "three saints" (~ Na!!acampantar, ~ Appar, ~ Cuntarar) were arranged as nos. 1-7, ~ Tiruva cakam as no. 8, ~ Tiruvicaippa as 9, ~ Tirumantiram as 10, the rest as 11. Whether NAN. compiled Tirumurai or not, he was responsible for popularizing Tevaram thanks to his obvious influence over a Chola king, prob. Parantaka I, or Rajaraja I, or Kulottunka II. He was dated at end of 9th, begin. of 10th, or early l l th c. Most prob . are the dates either end of 10th, or begin. of l l th c. (cf. Journ. Annamalai Univ. XVI, p. 60; A. Doraiswami Pillai, Saiva Literature (in Tam.), Annamalainagar, 1958; Comacuntara Tecikar, Caivacikamanikaliruvar; K.A.N.Sastri, A History of South India, 3rd, 1966, chapter VIII). Hypercritical view expressed by Graeffe ("The History of Tam . Literature" in P.K.Gode Comm. Vol., Poona, 1960, 128 ff.): the poems attributed to N. (includ. ~ Tiruttontartiruvantati) did not exist in ~ Cekkilar's time; the tradition of one "early" Nampi being the compiler of the canon and author of the poem s is false ; we have to distinguish between N. the arranger of Tevaram, "Pseudo-Nambi I", author of the ~ antati, and "Pseudo-Nambi II", anonymous composer of the other 9 poems attributed to N. This pseudocritical attitude is to be rejected as unnecessary complication. NAN. was author of: ~ Tiruttontar tiruvantati, hagiography of 63 Salva ~ naya!!:.ar in 86 st.; Tirunaraiyur Yinayakar irattaimanimalai tantati in 20 st. in ~ venpa and ~ kaualaikkaliuuraiy ; Koyil tiruppanniyur viruttam (70 st. in antatii on Tillai-Citamparam; Tirunavukkaracutevar tiruvekatacamdlai (11 st. in ~ viruttam) on K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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N AMPIKA~I-NA!"!.ACAMPANTAR

Appar; and Afutaiyapiffaiy iir tiru vantiiti , Afu tai yapiffaiyiir tiruccan paiviruttam, Afutaiyapiffaiyiir tirumumman ikk ovai , A.lutaiyapi.~laiyiir tiruvuliimiilai, A.lutaiyapi.~laiyiir tirukkalampakam, A.lutaiyapi.~laiyiir tiruttokai, all in praise of ~ Na!!acampantar.

All hi s poems are contained in 11th book of the canon. Cf. Sundaram Pill ai, P. , and V.Venkayya, "The Date of Nambi Andar Nambi " , Christ . Coll. Mag. XIV (1896-7 ) 286-9 8 (" bo th Chiruttondar and Sambandha lived in » the opening yea rs of the 7th century« ". ); Simon Ca sie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, Colombo, 1946, " Na mbiya' nda' r Nambi"; K.V . Zv elebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975 , 131-34, 147. Nampikali (12 ), poet, prob. out standing, living during the reign of Kulottunga I and Kulottunga II , spoken about highly in various sources (Konkumantalacatakam, ~ Anatariyappa-p Pulavar etc.). His work ha s not survived . Cf. Mu .Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, NurriifJtu 12-2 , 1973 , 869 . Nampikuttavan (Ca rika m), author: Kurunt oka i 109 , 145 , 24 3, Narrinai 236 , 345. Nampillai (l3th c.), Vaisnav a ~ iiciirya. B. as Varadaraja in Nampur, lived or. Srirangam. Used to attend discourse s of ~ Naficiyar. When once Nafic iyar asked his disciples who could leg ibl y copy his comm. 9000 on ~ Tiruvaym oli they sugges ted Varadaraja, He agreed but when carrying the ms. home he lost it in the river Kaveri. Up set, he started writing from memory . When he gave the copy to Naficiyar, the author noticed that , while the theme of the text wa s identical, the vocabulary and the explanations differed considera bly from original. When Varadaraja confessed, Nafici yar , pleased, embraced him calli ng him Nampillai (" Our son") . Later he appointed him his successor. N. be gan giving discourses in Srirangam . Even Tol appar, granson of Mutaliyantan, the chief aciirya of Srirangam had to acknowledge his greatness say ing, "I wa s iicary a for some Srivaisnavas but you are lokiiciirya (teacher of the world)"; thi s his how N . received the title Nampillailokacarya (cf. ~ Manavalamamunika], Upadesaratnamalai 51 ). Although apparently N. himself did not write hi s discourses down, he is very important in the guruparamparii (succession of teachers) for the comm. of ~ Vatakkuttiruvitippillai, However , his students have taken do wn note s which were lat er pub I. as comments on Tiruvaymoli, ~ Tiruviruttam, Periya tirumoli and ~ Tiruppalliyelu cci of Vaisnava ca non, as well as Nampillai rakaciyam and Nampillai nalu viirttai. Namplyakapporu] ~ Akappo ru] vilakkam. Nanacampantar ~ Tiruiuina camp antar,

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NANACAMPANTAR-NANAMANINATAR . .

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Nan.acampantar alias Camp antamunivar (16), disciple of Nirampavalakiyar, author: Tiruvarurppuranam (1597) in 111 chapters, 2929 -) viruttam st., ed . and publ. 1895 by Va. Comacuntara Mutaliyar. Cf. also -) Maraifiana Campanta Nayanar, Cf. D.O. Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths, Princeton Univ . Press, 1980, passim . Nanacampanta Tecikar -) Kuruiiiinacampantar. Nanacitta Cuvami, Tirukkurukur- (late 19 - early 20), author: Catatara vilakkam ennum Tirumantiram niiru (1894), Tirumalaippatikam (1902) . Nanacitta Mfirtti Cuvamika] (early 20), author: Cenkalunir Vinayakar patikam (1906) , Tiruvenkattatikal patikam (1906) , Tiricirappalli patikanka]. Nanacittar panu (1900) , by Vannarpettai Velayutaccami on Kurukur Nanacitta Cuvarni. NanacivavatakkaHa!ai (date?), anonym. short prose-treatise on the principles of Vedanta. popular. Manonmani Vilasam Press, Madras, 1903 . Nanacuntaram Aiyar, J]. (19), author: Salva Tirukkiivappuranam, 1880. Nanakkfittan (Gnanakoothan, 20), prominent avantgarde poet of -) putukkavitai movement, master of amusing and critical comments on daily life, of satire and epigrams, of economy and clarity of expression. Author: collections Anru ver« kilamai (That Day Another Day, 1st ed . 1973, 2nd 1980), Ciiriyanukku-p pinpakkam (The Other Side of the Sun, 1980) . Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974 , p. 83. Nanakkfittar, (16), native of Venpakkam, Tontainatu, disciple of -) Nirampa Alakiya Tecikar, Saiva poet, author: Tiruvaiyarruppuranam (alias Paiicanatipuranam alias Ceppecapuranami in 437 st., 12 cantos. Ed. Mu.Ra.Arunacalakkavirayar and A. Muttuttantavaraya PiHai, Madras, 1930 . Nanakkfittar 2 (17~, disciple of Cittar Civappirakacarr"), head of Turaiyur Mutt, Saiva poet, author: Yirunacalapu ranam in 435 (438) -) viruttam st. in 14 (18) cantos, on legends of Vrddhacala shrine. Ed. with comm. by Paripakkarn Muniyappa Mutaliyar, Madras, 1876; lost Tiruvitaimarutur puranam. Accord. to D.O. Shulman (Tamil Temple Myths, Princeton, 1980, p. 353) , identical with -) Nanakkuttar. . Accord. to T.P. Meenakshisundaram (The Tamil Plutarch , Colombo, 1946, p. 28) and M.Govindasamy (A Survey of the Sources For the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ., 1977 , pp. 277-8), different from Nanakkuttar.. Nanal -) Cinivacarakavan, A . Nanamal}i Natar (late 19)~ author: Tamil ilakkana cintamani (1893) . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

476

NA~AMDRTTI, TA .E.-NA~A PD~AI;lI

Nanamfirtti, Ta.E. (Arivativan, b. 1911), began publishing 1941, author: novel Mutiraimalai-c celvar (The Rich Man of the Bean Mountain), short stories Avar valaventum (He must live) , plays Teyva oli (Divine Light), Civakami, Putu valvu (New Life), Ponmalar (Golden Blossom) etc., A Critical Study of Civaka Cintamani (in Engl.), essays on literary themes. Nanananta Cuvami (late 19), author : Paiiciucara irakaciyam (1900) . NanappaH u alias T iruviirurpp al]u, ascribed to ---) Kamalai Narrappirakacar (c. 1525-75), probably one of the earliest ---) pallu poems; in framework of pallu , outcaste farm-labourers discuss Salva philosophy. It also goes under title Tiyakeca rpallu. An earlier Nanappallu considered "first" pallu (iitippa!!u) was ascribed to ---) Citamparanata Narrappirakacar, but is lost. Nanappirakacanata Cuvami, Irayapuram (19) , author: Cepattiyanakkural (1878), Antapinta viyakkiyanam (1879). Nanappirakaca Pattarakar (date?) of Tiruvarur, author: Putpaviti. Nanappirakacar, name of a number of Tam. Salva non-Brahmin religious philosophers, poets, scholars, teachers and monastic administrators . Cf. ---) Kacci Narrappirakacar, ---) Kalantai Narrappirakacar, ---) Kamalai Nanapptrakacar, ---) Kafici Narrappirakacar, ---) Maturai Narrappirakacar, ---) Palutaikattiya Narrappirakacar, ---) Tiruvarur Narrappirakaca Pantararn, ---) Tiruvorriyur Narrappirakacar. Nanappirakacar (early 19), son of Taficai Malaiyappa Pilla], produced first printed eds. of ---) Tirukkura] and ---) Niilatiyar, Madras, 1812; done from palmleaf scripts with wooden blocks. Nanappirakaca Tecikar, Yalppanam (late 17), while young went to S. India to study Tam. with many scholars and to Gauda to study Skt. dgamas with a Sudra teacher, after having been refused by Brahmin teachers . Became tampiran of Salva matha in Tiruvannamlai. Composed many treatises and comm. in Skt. Author: comm. on Cupakkam of ---) Civaiuinacittiyar, Nana pii~al}i (Lady-Ornament of Wisdom), early Tam . novel (1896/97) by Nataraja Aiyar, Vi. (Veri katarama Nataraja Ayyar). Badly constructed. Supposed to take place, or at least begin, in 1493, but there are events "dated" as late as 1877 (!). Describes life of nobility in palaces of India, but also some Eng. customs and Western institutions. Events take place in Rajasthan, but the heroine appears to be Tamil. Many pages are in imitation of ---) Vetanayakam Pillais works, particularly Cukunacuntarai carittiram. Some passages and indeed whole episodes are taken over almost word by word from novels of Vetanayakam.

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NA.!'!ATECIKA.!'!-NANJIYAR

477

Nanatecikan (date?), of Tiruvarur, author: Tantivanapuriinam on Tantivanam (Tiruvanaikka) in 14 cantos, 5697 st. Nanavarotaya Pantaram (c. 1425) of Vayaliir, disciple of ---7 Kacciyappa Civacariyar. author: ---7 Upatecakantam of ---7 Kantapuranam, in 2602 st., 85 chapters, usually quoted as 7th book of Kantapuriinam, Cf. K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, 3rd ed., 1966, p. 387; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 1975, 222 ftn. 122, 224-5. The work deals with previous history of asuras, sacredness of vibhuti (sacred ash), rudraksam beads, five-fold mantra, puriinas, puja, etc., and with Salva Siddhanta philosophy, illustrated with stories. Ed. V.S. Chengalvaraya Pillai, GOML, Madras, 1950. Nancil Nafan (20), prose-writer; author: short stories pub!. in journals, 1st novel Talaikil vikitanka] ("Topsy-turvy Intimacies", 1977), promising novel about very young protagonist, Civatanu, who goes through the confusions, doubts and hopes of a youth of 23 years of age. Nandanar or the Elevation of the Downtrodden. 1930 film adaptation by Raja Sandow of ---7 Kopalakirusna Parati's work ---7 Nantaniir carittiram. In the film Nandan, a low-caste devotee of Siva and a loyal servant of a Brahman landlord suffers greatly before he can fulfill his ambition of worshipping the Lord at Chidambaram. He preaches against alcoholism and superstition, and thus leads his co-farm-workers towards a virtuous life. The landlord, observing the impact of Nandan's propaganda, has a change of heart and accepts the Untouchable farm-labourer as his religious mentor. Cf. The Hindu, 16.5.1930. nanikanputaittal, a unit within ---7 kovai pirapantam on erotic theme in which the lady-love hides (putaittal) her eyes (kalJ) with her palm in shyness (niilJi) in the presence of her lover. Any kovai contains one st. of this unit. Cf. ---7 Amirtakaviriiyar. Naniyarafika! (Civacanmuka Cuvamika], 17.5.1873-1.2.1942) of Tirunakeccuram nr. Kumpakonam, son of Annamalai Aiyar, scholar in Skt. and Tam., well-known Virasaiva monk, 5th Head of Tiruppatirippuliyur Tirukkovaliir monastery, author: Tilakiivati Ammai tuti, Nanatecika miilai, many speeches and essay (e.g. on god Murugan).-Speeches pub!. as Nii!1iyiir Atika] ninaivumalar (Madras, 1958). Editor, Viracaivam (a summary work on Virasaivism, 1930). Nafijlyar (1182/1187-1287) of Melkote, Mysore, Vaisnava scholar, commentator and poet , disciple of ---7 Parasarabhatta. Author: Onpatinayirappati (comm. on ---7 Tiruvaymoli in 9000 ---7 granthas); comm. on ---7 Tiruppiivai by AI).ta!; comm. on the ---7 antatis by K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

478

NAt'!.MAI,:HKKATIKAI-NANNDL

-7 Poykai, -7 Putam and -7 Pey; comm. on Kanninunciruttampu by -7 Maturakavi; comm. on -7 Tiruppallantu by -7 Periyalvar. The ratio of Tam. to Skt. words in his texts is c. 5:3; he does not use Skt. endings and avoids long compounds; he provides detailed glosses on every word. Also author of minor independent works of allegorical nature. Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, The Manipravala Literature of the Srivaisnava Aciiryas, 12th to 15th Century A.D., Bombay, Ananthacharya Research Institute, 1978, 66-9. Nanmantkkatlkal, The salver of four gems, collection of 101, 104 or 106 (depending on ed.) -7 venpii quatrains, each quoting four ethical principles. Its Vaisnava author Vilampinakanar (or Nakan of Vilampi) preaches vegetarianism and abstention from taking life. Date c. 650-700 A.D. Cf. Gnanou Diagou (tr.), Vilambi Naganar, Nan Mani Kadhiqai (Coffret a quatre pierres precieusesy, Pondichery, 1954. NaIlma';kk6vai (date?), lost text, prob. didactic maxims, or a -7 kovai, ascribed to -7 Auvaiyar, nagmanimalai ("garland of four jewels"), poem of 40 st. in -7 antati arrangement in four different metres, -7 venpa, -7 kalitturai, -7 viruttam, -7 akaval. First known representant of the genre is Koyilnanmanimalai of 10th c.; the most famous is -7 Civappirakacar's Nalvar nanmanimalai. Thus far, c. 25 poems of the genre are known. Najjmulajj -7 Nanmullaiyar, Nagmullaiyar (Cankam), Author of Akananiau 46, Kuruntokai 32, 67, 68, 93, 96, 140, 157, 202, 237, Purananuru 306. Kuruntokai 157 is ascribed in some mss. to AJj.l1r Nanmulan. Nannakallar (Cankarn), author: Purananuru 176, 376, 379 , 381, 384 , all -7 patan. Nannilam Naral)aIl (19?), author: Cupattira kali yana natakam. naMnl (lit. "good book"), in -7 Manimekalai VI.l69 and XIII . 59, 69 in the meaning of the Veda. Nannfil (c. 1200-1205), "The Good Book", most distinguished and popular grammar of liter. Tam. Its authority is still valid for formal standard language. Considered -7 valinul of -7 Tolkdppiyam, and -7 carpu (collateral writing) vis-a-vis -7 Akattiyam. 461 aphorisms in -7 venpa and -7 akaval dealing with -7 eluttu and -7 col, i.e. phonology, graphics, sandhi, word-classes and morphology. Each of the 2 divisions has 5 chapters. Author: -7 Pavananti. Commentaries: -7 Mayilainatar (13), -7 Antlppulavar, -7 Cankaranarnaccivayar (17), supplied by -7 Civafiana Munivar (18), -7 Irarnaguca-k Kavirayar (19), -7 Arumuka Navalar (1851),

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NANN OR KOVA I-NARACA YYA. KE.AR.APPALA

479

~ Kulankai-t Tampiran, ~ Vicakapperum a] Aiyar and ~ Catakopa Ramanucaccariyar. Eds.: U.V.S.Aiyar, 1918 (subs. 1925, 1946); earlier eds., 1839 (text only), 1840, 1846, 185 1. Cf. H. Bower, Introdu cti on to the Na nnu l: the Tam il text and Eng lis h tra nslation with Appe ndices, No tes and Grammatical Terms, Madras, 1876; J. Lazarus, An English Tran slation of Nannul, Madra s, 1878; also, S. Samuel Pill ai, Tho lcapya -Nu nnool, revised by W. Joye s, Madras, 1858; G. Vijayavenugopal, A modern evalutation of Nannul (e lutta tika ramy, Annam ala inagar, 1968. Be st re cent ed. , A. Dh amotharan, N anniil mulamum Kiila nkaittampiran uraiyum , Wie sbaden, F. Steiner, 1980. Nannfir kovai (date?), lost text , prob . dida ctic maxim s, or a ~ kovai , ascribed to ~ Auvaiyar. Nagpalur Ciju Metaviyar (Cankam), author: Akaniiniiru 94, 394. Nantamarealacatakam, anonymous century of ver ses on Nantan who is said to have been a cobbler, became king, reigned for three hours, and issued leather coins. Appeared in print with comm . by B.P . Tiruvenkatam Pillai, Madras, 1894. Nanticivakkira Yokika] (16), disciple of ~ Civakkir a Yokikal (C iv akkoluntu Tecik ar ) , a uthor: com m. on hi s teach er' s Civa nerippirakacam. Nantikkalampakam (9), prob. the earlies t ~ kalampa kam work in Tam. literature. Anonymous. Allu sion to the name of Nanti (in v. 96) and the victor at Tellaru in ~ Paratavenpa suggest that it was composed for Nandivarman III Pallava (826-49 or 846- 69, S.l.l. XII , no. 56; A .R. no. 144 of 1928/9) as its hero . Of hist. and poetic value; full of vigour and charm , best work of the genre. 116 st., some interpolated . Saivite. Trad. says that the poet told the king that whoeve r would listen to st. no. 100 would die ; the king preferred to hear it to the end even though it might kill him. The poem in simple and forceful language glorifies various qualities and deeds of king Nanti. For detailed di scussion see Mu .Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru , NurrtilJrU 9:1, 353-91 ; A.S . Doraiswami Pillai, Saiva Literature (in Tam.), Ann amalainagar, 1958, 395-406; also, Narayanasvami , M.K., and T.A. Gopinath, "N andikkalambagam", Siddh anta Deepika x (1909) 5.165-67, 6.210-13 , Nappacalaiyar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 24 3. Nappalattagar (Cankarn), author: NarrilJ ai 52, 240. Nappannanar (Cankam), auth or: Pa ripatal 19 Kata vu] valttu. Naracayya , Ke.Ar.Appala (b. 1932 in Berhampur, Orissa), with Telugu as mother-tongue, 1949 joined Indian Navy where he served till 1963, after 1963 in merchant navy and maritime trade. Author:

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480

NARACIMMAIYAR, MA~ANCERI-NARA~A TURAIKKA~~A~

Kataloti (Memoirs of a Sailor) in Tam . prose, Madras, Bookventure, 1972. Naracimmaiyar, Mal}3iiceri (19) , author: Ariccantiropiikkiyana natakalankaram tkirttanai, Madras, 1875). Naracimmalu Nayutu, Celam (late 19 - early 20) , author: lntu Paipil (Hindu Bible), Palicavaru puranam allatu Nayutukaru camastana carittiram , Ariya cantiya vantanam (Aryan Evening Prayers), Ariyaru{aiya cankita ciittirattin carittiram, Takkana lntiytivin carittiram (History of South India), Penkal carittiram (1883), Caracankirakam (1905). His history of S. India served as one of the sources for hist. novel Moka!ldriki by ~ Caravanamuttu Pillai, Ti. Ta. Author's name is sometimes given as Narasimmalu Nayutu Pakatalu. Naracimma Paratiyar (late 19, early 20), author: Ten Tirupati ennum Srikunacilattalapuranam, Vaisnava ~ sthalapurana on Tirumal in 10 chapters (1907), Nallur-p purdnam on Tirurnal in 26 chapters (1908), and with ~ Kiruttina Parati, Anpiliinturai manmiyam ( 1895). NaraciiKan., Srtrarikam (20), prose-writer. His story The Last Rite (Ind. Literature , March-April, 1977, 104-12) won prestigeous award for the best story in 1971. Prabhuram, 2nd son of Ranganathan, was adopted by well-to-do landlord Venkatesan who wa s childless. After some time, he had 2 sons of his own. After years, Prabhuram accepted his adoptive parents as his own . When his adoptive father lay sick, Prabhuram overheard him asking his wife that in case he would die she should see to it that not Prabhuram - his eldest but adoptive son - but one of his own children perform hi s last rites. Venkatesan gets well but Prabhuram's own father Ranganathan suddenly dies . When Prabhuram wants to perform the rites for him , he is prevented from lighting the pyre on the ground that he is legally and ritually not Rangathan's but Venkatesan's son: his gotra has changed. The young man protests; in spite of the social hindrance he lights the pyre as his (own) mother watches on proudly. NaraciIikan. valamatal, anonym. ~ valamatal poem on a patron named Naracinkan Jayatunkan of Kannikapuri. Date? Naraimuti Nettalyar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 339 . Narara Turalkkannag (noms-de-plume Jiva, VeJ, Liyo, Maivannan, b. 24.8.1906) , one of the pioneers of contemporary novel , began publishing 1925, author: Uyiroviyam - Or unnatakdtal cittiram (Picture of Life - The Story of a Lofty Love, 1942), very important in its time as unconventional, original innovation in the field of mod. Tam. novel, burdened, however, with didactici sm, moralizing,

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NARATA CARITAI-NARAYA~ACAMI AIYAR, AR.ES.

481

sentimentality and melodrama. The story of idealized love takes place within two years' time in Madras where a young teacher, Natarajan, falls is love with his student, college-girl Karbaham. It is told in Ich-form. Natarajan, in supreme effort of renouncement, abstains from temptation, Karbaham marries Chandrasekharan, and Natarajan's attitude towards her develops into pure brotherly affection. The novel thus results in a bitter-sweet "happy-end". There are bold and innovative features in the work, and it undoubtedly reads wei!. Other novels : Velaikkari (Servant-Girl) , Vetatari, Putumaippen (New Woman), Natutteru Narayan an (1960, the author 's be st work, realistic and compassionate), Cimiin Cuyanalam (To the Master's Own Benefit), Kokila , Tiyaka-t talumpu (Scars of Renunciation), Tumpaippii (The Tumpai Flower), Tarankini (an excellent novel), Yii!l e!l pennay-p piranten] (Why Was I Born a Woman?), Ivvulakai-t tirumpi-p pdren. (Please Look Back at This World). Plays Tintatar Yiir? (Who Are the Untouchables?), Civakanampi, Caturankam (Fourfold Army) , Pantapiicam (Snare of Bondage), Kumarimutal Kds mir varai (From Cape Comorin to Kashmir) etc., short story collections published mostly under the name Jiva: Alakampikai, Piirvati (1962) , Me!lakii, Ham sananti, Jivavin cirukataika] (2 vols) ; a scholarly book on Tam . drama tTamilil natakami, biographies of Sankara, Rajaji etc. President of Kavifiar Perumanram (a union of writers) and other professional societies and unions of poets, writers, readers and scholars. Cf. "The Cloud", in: The Plough and the Stars, London, 1963; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 265 and 286. Narata caritai, lost work of prob . 10th or 11th c., possibly Jaina narrative poem (thus Vaiyapuri Pillai), biography of Narada (?), mentioned and quoted in ~ Purattirauu and ~ Yapparunkalaviruui. Naravitututu ~ Cattimurrappulavar. Narayana Aiyar (late 19 - early 20), author: prose narratives Manavullacakatai, Madras, 1901. Narayanacaml Aiyar I (late 19), of Kumbakonam Govt. College, trans!. A Midsummer Night's Dream into Tam. tNatuvenir kanavu, 1893). Narayanacami Aiyar, (early 20), author: Cankiraka Iramayanam (Madurai, 1905). Narayanacami Aiyar, Ar.Es. (late 19 - first half, 20), journalist, author: detective novel Akiuitavacam allatu Mantavan minta miiyam (Living Incognito or The Magic of the Dead Brought Back, 1911, reviewed in Yityaviharini of 1911); novel Kalyani, 1912 .

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482

NARA YA~ACAMI AIY AR, PINNATUR, A.-NARAY A~A KURU

Narayanacami Aiyar, Pinnatiir, A. (10.9.1862-30.7.1914), son of Appacarni Aiyar and Citalatcumi, of Pinnattiir (Tirutturaippunti, Tanjavur). Great scholar. Studied Skt ., Veda s, cla ss. Tam . literature, hist. and epi graph y. Expert in ---7 Tolkappiyam Potu]. Prof. of Tam. at Kumbakonam college (from 18.7.1899 till his death). Author of many works of narrative and devotional poetry (Tell Tillai ula, Iyalm olivalttu , Manakkar drruppatai, Kalappalppuranam in 10 books , 1905 , et c.), some of them still unpubl. (e. g. Civakitai, Itumpa vana puriinam, Civappuran am , Maru tappattu , Tamil Na yakamalai , Piraka canna natakam etc. ); prepared his own detailed comm. to his ed. of ---7 NarrifJai (1915). His be st-known student, epigraph . and liter. hi storian Cataciva Pantarattar. Narayanacami Aiyar, Putuvai (late 19), author: Carankataran carittirappa (1899). Narayanacami Mutaliyar, KLMu. (20), author: Patikkacu-p Pulavar caritt iram (1928 ), Ottakkutta r , Iratta iyar , a nd a few other biographies of Tam. poets. Narayanacami Mutaliyar, S.K. (early 20), author: Kapatacanniya ci allatu pokanantar, novel on the story of a pretended ascetic , Madras, 1923. He also compiled lrattaippula var caritam on the life of ---7 Irattaiyar (Madurai, 1909 ), and wrote Cenkuntar kulappirakacikai in mixed prose and verse on the history of the Shengundar (weavers) cas te and their mythic ance stor s. Narayanacami Nayakar , (late 19), author: Anupava nanta tipikai (1893). Narayanacami Nayakkar, (late 19), author: Kuru varutperu (1896 ). Narayanacami PiHai, Parikalur (19), author: Cittirankatti-c cattiyam niruttiya katai (1879 ), M anka]a Valli vilac am (1882), Meykanta Mutaliyar kirtti malai (190 I ). Narayanacami Pilla] , Ti. Ko. (19), author: novel Mami marukiyar valkkai (Life of Mothers-in-law and Daughters-in-law, 1892). Narayanacami PiHai, V. (early 20), author: drama Atirupa Amaravati (Madras, 1913), on the theme of love, in popular style. Narayana Cattirl (19), author: Po ca carittiram (on king Bhoja, Madras, 1900). Narayau'Aiyankar, Tiru. (1861-1947), scholar, editor of ---7 Centamil, b. in Etirkottai, son of Appanaiyankar, tran s. from Skt. into Tam ., ed. ---7 Maranalankaram, Antako]: virutti, Amirtaraiicani, Anumana vilakkam etc. Narayana Kavi (date?), author: Panti ya hili vilacam . Narayana Kuru (1856- 1928), Hindu religious leader and social reformer from Kerala, scholar in Tam. language and literature, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NARA Y A~A MATAVAt{, ORAIYUR-NARCENTAt{AR

483

cf. Kaficana, Narayana kuru Cuvamikalum Tamilum : Oru

kannouam, Nakarkovil, 1984.

Naraya\l3 Matavan, Oraiyiir (1st half, 20), author : Vijayapalapavani, allatu Makamayiyin palikku-p pali (V., or the Vengeance of M.), historical romance in 2 vols. , with many quotations from Engl., French and Latin sources, Madras, 1939. Narayal)a Mutaliyar and Ellappa Mutaliyar (early 20), co-authors: Salva Tiruppanai caippuranam (1910) in 19 ca rukkam on Panampakkam, based on Brahmandapurana of Sivapurana. Narayal)an PiHai (18) of Cenci , author: Karnataka rajakkal cavittara carittiram, chronicle in easy colloquial prose written at the instance of Col. W. Macleod, Collector of Arcot. Collected by ---7 Mackenzie in 1821. First 7 sections deal with mythical prehistory , with Muslim rulers of Delhi etc., with medieval hist. of Deccan, section 8 with hist. of Carnatic. Publ. by Madras Orien. Manuscripts Library, No. LXXXIII (ed. by V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar), 1953. Cf. H.H. Wilson, Mackenzie Coli ., 1828, p. 210 , No. 11, p. 214, No . 26; W. Taylor, Catalogue Raisonne, 1862, III, 34-41 . Narayal)an, son of Mal)iyan (9-10), author: antati of 104 st. found engraved on the walls of a cave on Tirucirappalli Hill. Narayana Parati, Tivviya Kavi, Vel)mal)i (early 18), Brahmin poet of Venrnani , Tontainatu, author: very popular Tiruvenkatacatakam, 100 st. on moral and social duties, composed under patronage of Manavala Narayanan of Amaliir; Tiruvevvaliir antati; ascribed to him: Kovinta catakam. It is not certain whether he is identical with ---7 Tivviya Kavi Narayana Parati and with ---7 Narayanatacar. Narayana PiHai] (19), author: Kau.li nurrelivu. Narayana PiHai z (19), author: Civatiuana parikaram (1889) . Narayana PiHai] (19), disciple of Vallipuram Citampara Natar, author: Yittunu tusana parikaram (1885). Narayanatacar (date?), author: devotional poem Narayanacatakam . Narayana Tacar, Putuvai (early 20), author: Ceyankonta Cauntara Valli katai (1902) . Narayana Tecikar (1851-1911), scholar in Tam. and Telugu, author: Anupavananta tipikai. Narayana Titcitar (17) of Tentirupperai, Vaisnava poet. As landlord he failed to pay revenue to Nayaka ruler, was imprisoned, prayed to the Lord, was freed by the Nayaka' s representative who asked him to complete the prayer as poem; result is the intensely devotional Makaranetunkulaikkatar pamalai of 67 st., publ. by V.V. Swaminath'Aiyar, 1939. Narcentanar (Cankarn), author: Narrinai 128.

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484

NARIVEROUTTALAIYAR-NARRI~AI

Nariveruuttalaiyar (Cankam), author : Kuruntokai 5, 236, Purananuru 5, 195. Nariviruttam (date?), Jaina moral treatise of 51 st. by anonymous poet (often identified with -) Tiruttakkatevar, prob. incorrectly) about a jackal (nari) who happened to run across the path of the poet and his guru. It teaches the instability and transiency of life. -) Appar (in -) Tevaram 214 .7) refers to a nari viruttam (jackal's story), but also to the fact that Jainas wrote stories on eli (rat) and kili (parrot), hence he prob. refers to a different N ., or to a general fable of such type. Najkaviraca Nampi (13-14) of Puliyankuti , Tontainatu, son of Uyyavantar, Jaina scholar. Because of proficiency in four (niilu) kinds of poetry (iicu speedy composition, cittiram beautiful composition, maturam sweet composition and vittaram diffuse composition) was given the title Narkaviracan (Prince of Fourfold Poetry). Author: -) Akapporulvilakkam, Dating in 12th c., cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ., Annamalainagar, 1977, p. 150. najpatu, poem in 40 -) venpa st. Narrainsawmy, W.M. (early 19), author: Selected Tamil Tales. Madras, C. Sample, 1839 . Narramanar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 133. Narrarikor.r.anar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 136. narratives, prose, anonym., early eds. Approx. the 1st half, 19th c., saw a number of prose-narratives by unknown authors, or based on oral folk traditions, publ. in print in -) chapbooks. They became very popular, and continued to be reprinted till c. 1980 : Inimaiyana kataikal (Pleasant Stories, Madras, 1847); Matanakamarajan katai (a large cluster of narratives in a framestory, Madras, 1855, subs . 1869, 1874 etc.); Cittiraputtira Nayanar katai (1868, 1876) ; Mayilravanan katai (1868, 1974, 1875 etc .); Cita vijaya vacanam (1868); Muppattirantu patumai katai (The Story of 32 Statuettes, based on Vikramaditya stories, 1869, 1874, 1876 etc .); Nalu mantiri katai (The Story of the Four Ministers, 1869, 1874, 1877 etc.); Tamilariyum Perumal katai (1869, 1870 , 1876 etc.); Catakanta Riivanan katai (1873); Cakasramuka Ravanan katai , Catamuka Ravanan katai (1874); Mariyatai Raman katai (1875); Tuttinama e!lkira kili-k katai (1871, 1881, etc .). Narril,lai (The Excellent Love-Situations) , class. Tam. anthology of 400 st. in -) akaval metre ranging from 8 to 13 lines, ascribed to 175 poets . S1. 234 is missing, 385 is fragmentary. Topic of poems is love (-) akapporuli in various conventional situations (-) tinaii. Invocatory st. on Mayor; by -) Peruntevanar, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NATAKA ICAI-T TAMI!:-NATAMU~I

485

No ancient comm. is available. Mod. comm. by ---7 Narayanacarni Aiyar, P.A. Contains 59 historical allusions. The allusion to the legend of a woman who tore off her breast (? Kannaki of ---7 Cilappatikarami occurs in 216. C. 100-250 A.D. Publ, first in print by P.A. Narayanacami Aiyar in 1914. Cf. for dating and/or partial transl., S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1956, 24 and 49 ff.,; 1.R. Marr, The Eight Anthologies, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985, 339-42 and passim; K.V. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, E.l. Brill, Leiden, 1973, 51-52; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/ Koln, E.l. Brill, 1975, 89; A.K. Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1985, passim; George L. Hart III, The Poems of Ancient Tamil, Univ. of California Press, 1975, passim. nataka icai-t tami] (lit. "play-and-song Tam."), a kind of play with songs and music, "musical", flourishing in the 18th-19th c.; see also ---7 carittira-k kirttanai, ---7 kirttanai, ---7 ndtakam, ---7 vilacam. nataka-k-kappiyam, dramatic epic; description of ---7 Cilappatikaram. natakam «Skt. nataka - ) theatrical drama; play in general; performing art. Natakuttagar ---7 Kuntalakeci. Natamugi (end of 9 or beg. of 10), compiler of the Vaisnava canon, ---7 Nalayirativviyappirapantam. Prob. identical with Srinatha mentioned in Agpil plates (E./. XV, p. 54; V. 46). First in the line of ---7 dcdryas. Native of Viranarayanapuram. K.S. Pillai (Ilakkiyavaralaru II.381) mentions a tradition that N. lived between 1063-1117. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (History, p. 130) assigns him to 910-990, whereas Mu. Irakavaiyankar following ---7 Koyiloluku and other Vaisnava traditions (which give his birth as A.D. 825) dated him between 825-918. Epigr. and other evidence shows that he could have lived most prob. from 1st half of l Oth to 1st half of lith c. Tradition says that N. once heard visitors from Kurukiir recite lOst. from ---7 Tiruvaymoli of ---7 Nammalvar dedicated to Kutantai temple. He undertook a journey to Kurukiir (the poet's birth-place) in hope of discovering the entire collection. He recited 12.000 times hymns of ---7 Maturakavi on his guru Narnmalvar; pleased by this feat, both Maturakavi and Nammalvar appeared and imparted to N. the knowledge of the four prabandhas. In Viranarayanapuram, N. collected a group of disciples and made them sing the hymns to divine tunes ttevakanami, cf. Tiviyacuricaritam XVI, 13-21. Later sources tell us that all 4000 hymns (not only those composed by Nammalvar) were revealed to N. He also calls the Tiruvaymoli

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486

NATARAcA, EP. CI.CI.-NATARAJAl-!, A.LE.

of Nammalvar "the ocean of Tamil veda" (dravidavedasagarai in his -7 tan iyan to the poems. Both N. and -7 Yamuna (d. c. 920 A.D.) who is said to have been his grandson and who praised him, were priests at the then recently built Ranganatha temple in Srirarigam. Cf. -7 Naldyirativviyappirapantam . Nataraca, Ep. Ci.Ci, (Piramma, b. 1911) of Mattakkalappu, Sri Lanka, began publishing 1933; author: short storiesKannaki valakkurai, essays llamum tamilum (Ceylon and Tamil), Molipeyarppu marapu (on the art and tradition of translation), Mauakkalappu manmiyam (the purana of M.), history of Ceylonese Tamil writing (l[attu-t tamii nul varalarui, an anthology of folksongs of Sri Lanka (llaitu natoti-p piualkaly; received award of Literary Academy of Sri Lanka. Natarac' Aiyar, Marutfir Venkatarama (late 19 - early 20), author: early novels Nii!1apu!jalJi ("Lover of Wisdom", 1896), Lalitanki (1899), Cantiraprapa (1902), Nirmala (1903) , Nanatarcini, Tattuvatarcini. See Nataraja Ayyar, Vi . Nataraca-k Kavirayar I (late 19?), author: Salva Vairavankoyirpuranam in 17 chapters, publ. 1895. Nataraca Kavirayar 2 (N. Pillai, Centankuti, 19), author : Vativutai Amman pillaittamii (1894). Nataraca-k Kavirayar, (early 20), author: Mutticuvarar patikam (1904), Cikali-c Cattainata Cuvamiperil caracacallapa-p patikam. Nataraca PiHai (20), author: Perur narmanimalai. Nataraca Pillai, A., playwright, author: Pukalenti (1935), drama based on legends about the medieval poet. Nataracar, Klragjir (17), author: Cataka alankaram (1665; publ. in print 1867). This astral. treatise in 1445 -7 viruttam st. is one of the few popular astrol. works written in simple and elegant style (M. Govindasamy). Nataraja Ayyar, Vi. (19), author: novel Ndnapusani (1896). Accord. to author, the events of the novel, taking place mostly in royal palaces, take in part place in 1493, but later he describes events in 1877. The background is a princely state in Rajasthan. The work is imitative and artistically poor, and accord . to Ira.Tantayutam, it marks the beginning of decline of mod. Tam. early novel. See Natarac' Aiyar, Marutur Yenkaia rama. Nataraja Mudaliar, R. (early 20), first Tam. director, cinematographer and film-editor. Producer of the first film to be made in South India : Kicakaviitam (19 I 6), followed by Tiraupati vastiraparanam (1917), Mahiriivanan (1919) and Markanteya (1919), all on mythological themes . Natarajarr, A.Le. (Nampi, b. 1909), tran slator, scholar, author: biographies of Mahavira, Buddha, Jesus, Vivekananda, Nanak , K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NATARAJAJ"-l:, ES.-NATECA CASTIRI

487

~ Iramalirika Cuvamika], Lenin; transl. Arabian Nights (8 vols.), Aesop 's Fables , Paftcatantra etc.; Marxist liter. criticism. Natarajag, Es. (Najan, b. 1918), began publishing 1939, author: essays Etucelvam (What is Wealth), Cutantira-c cintanaikal (Thoughts on Freedom) etc., historical treatises tCutantira-p poril Tamilar panku The Tamils' Participation in the Freedom Struggle, Cutantira virarka] Heroes of Freedom etc.), biographies of ~ Civafianam, Ma.Po., Satyamurti, M.K. Gandhi, Andrews etc., philosophical writings (e.g. Ceyarkai-c cantirar) . Nateca Castiri, Pandita Canketi Makalinkam (S.M. Natesa Sastri, 1859-1906), graduated from Madras Univ., spent life in govt. service (Archaeological Survey), folklorist, epigrapher, one of the most import. early 20th cent. novelists. Member, London Folklore Society . Broadly educated in Tam., Skt., Eng. and other languages. Author : several very valuable collections of Tam. and South Ind. folklore (Folklore in South India IIlV, 1884-93, collection of 37 folktales; Tiravita piirvakala-k kataikal, 1886, Tiravita mattiya-k kala kataikal, 1886, The King and His Four Ministers, 1888, Tales of Tennalirama, 1900, Tales of the Sun, or Folklore of Southern India with Georgiana Kingscote, London, W.H. Allen, 1908, Indian Folk-tales, 1908, The Dravidian Nights Entertainments: being a trans. of Madanakamarajan kadai, Madras, 1886, etc.); Hindu Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies, Madras, 1903; Tam. version of Persian tales from Urdu, Vasantotyanam allatu nanku pakkirikal katai, Madras, 1922-23 (2 parts), Tam . prose-version of Raghuvamsa (1901-4), of Valrnikis Ramayana (1901-12), of Mudrariiksasa (1885); Tam. version of several plays of W. Shakespeare (Twelfth Night, Coimbatore, 1892, Measure for Measure, 1893, As You Like It , The Winter's Tale); trans . of inscriptions;

Topographical Notes on Kan chi; A Handbook of Sanitary Science

(in Ta ., 1905); valuable scholarly papers, etc., e.g. on Badagas (Christ. Coil. Mag . 1892, 753-64; 830-43) etc. Of lasting interest and greatest innovative value are his 6 novels and his one book of detective stories. In 1894, NiC, publ., at the request of Ch. A. Porteous, Inspector General of Police, five detective stories (modelled on Eng. and French works of the genre), entitled Ta!J:Gva!J: enra Polis nipunan kamupititta arputa kurrankal "Amazing Crimes Solved by Police Expert Tanavan" (this Inspector Tanavan based on a "very famous detective in England called Dick Donovan"). His first novel, Tinatayiilu (1900) is a serious innovative work, a reasonably realistic picture of the daily life of a Brahmin family in Tam. India. It is the story of Tinataya]u, brought up by his aunt, who, after his father's death, has to cope K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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with the problems of the joint family, including his own wife, four children, a complex and often unsympathetic step-mother, and a good-for-nothing half-brother. Finally, due to his perseverance, courage and diligence, he achieves reasonably high salary and can solve his family problems . The characters, particularly that of the protagonist, of the step-mother, and of Manikkam, the admirable daughter of his boss, are indepth studies in psychology, the narrative is gripping, the novel 's structure tight and well-balanced, the style unpedantic and straightforward. This novel was followed in quick succession by others. A "farcical romance" called Komalam kumariyanatu (The Rejuventation of Komalam), 1902, in which two sister s, former dancing girls, aged 60 and 55, obtain a drug which should make them young again : Kornalam accidentally knocks over the bottle and in her panic drinks an overdose, thereby changing into a small baby . A nurse is engaged to look after her. The other sister, Tanam, is suspected of having killed Kornalam. The impossible situation is solved when the effect of the drug wears off at the end of Tanam's trial. Tikkarra iru kulantaikal (The Two Orphans), 1902, is a pathetic and moralizing story with several plot s combined. The action, which covers a period of some 20 years, deals with the life of two orphaned sisters from their birth to the time when they marry, and the villanous Amirutavalli, their step-mother. Matiketta manaivi (A Wife Condoned), 1903, employs again, like the preceding novel, the technique of flashbacks. A husband discovers, after many years of marriage, that his wife is an adulteress. However, because of their children, the husband and wife come together again. The motif of wife's adultery was quite new in Tam. fiction, and Karpakam, the unfaithful wife, is predecessor of the admirable character, Appu's mother Alankaram, created years later by ~ Janakiraman. Sri mami koluvirukkai (The Motherin-law in Council), 1903, is hist. novel and social criticism combined . It claims that a few palmleaf manuscripts were its source. The narrative is set in Arcot in first half of 18th c., and is at the same time attack on joint family system, and on the tremendous powers enjoyed in family affairs by Indian mothers-in-law. NiC. adapted next very skilfully Douglas Jerrold's very popular book Mrs. Caudle 's Curtain Lectures (1846). The setting and characters of this satire are, however, fully Tamil. In several respects, N.C. was one of the truly important and innovative early Tam. novelists; very good story-teller, with unpedantic, straightforward style and language close to spoken Tam., he set out to prove that what could be done in Eng. could as well be done in Tam . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NATECAN CETTlyAR, VI.VI.-NATECAN, TI.ES.

489

Hence we was constantly seeking new genres and new types of fiction-writing: thus he created the story of detection in Tam., he was the first to realistically describe life of middle-class families, he was among the first to create wonderful female characters, and to write hist. novels. Cf. Asher, R.E., "Pandit S.M. Natesa Sastri (1859-1906), Pioneer Tamil Novelist", Proc. of the Second Intern. Conference-Seminar of Tam. Studies, Madras, 1971, 107-15 . Natecan Cettiyar, Vi.Vi. (early 20), author: long prose-narrative Culaksana (publ. in Yityapanu , 1917). Natecan, Ti.Es. (Cankararam, b.8.3.1895 in Venkarai nr. Celam), wrote like his predecessor Ke.Es. --) Venkataramani first in Engl. (short stories Children of the Cauvery). His famous novel Mannacai (The Desire for Earth, 1940-41) was first written in Engl. , then tran sl. by the author into Tam. It is the first large truly regional novel dealing with village life and rural society , some 13 years after Venkataramani introduced the genre into Tam. literature with works written in Engl. Mannacai is a story of three basic desires - for soil , for woman, for money. In the village of Virarnankalam in the Tirucci region a widow, Minatcl, and her younger brother Mayanti practically rule the community . Poor Venkatacalam gets entangled first in debts, then in the loss of his crops in fire, and of his lands. All his possessions including his labourers leave him. His pious but impractical wife Alamelu is no help. He has no children, but adopts a boy, Velu, the son of his run-away friend. His neighbour's daughter VaW and Velu love each other from childhood, but Virappan and his wife Latcumi do not wish to give their daughter to Velu, Instead they promise her to Mayantis younger son Mallan. On the wedding day Mayanti is killed; suspicion falls on Velu . In the last moment the real murderer confesses - the elder son of Mayanti, Colan, who had run away from home unable to bear his aunt Minatcis despotism, and Velu is released. Due to a large sum of money left as inheritence to Venkatacalam and Velu, the young people can marry, but Venkatacalam, exhausted, dies even before knowing the happy outcome of things. Despite the melodramatic plot and a great deal of naive sentimentalism, the novel reads like poem in prose on South Indian country life. The underlying realism which brings out the essential humanism of the simple folk in facing hardships marks the novel as a great work of art. Other writings: I!JPa ulakam (Happy World, political novel about the state of affairs in India after Independence, 1959), novels Kariyatarici (The Manager) , Pen inam (The Female Sex), novelette Tiyum K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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NATECA PIl,-l,-AI, MAN'KA~AM-NAVANITAt{

vetiyum (Fire and Crack, 1966), short stories Paricalotti (The Ferryman, 1946), Paiicattu anti (Famine 's Devotee, 1952), Pacam (The Tie, 1954), Manamakalin ampu (The Bride's Arrow, 1965), drama Caccaravu (The Dispute, 1938). Cf. "Wound Can Heal Wound", in The Plough and the Stars, London, 1963. Nateca PiJlai, Mankanarn (late 19), author : Cattira vicittiram (1898). Nateca Tecikar (early 20) , author: Tirunirrupperumai (1909). Nattattam (date?), lost treatise, prob. comprehensive and detailed, on prosody/poetics/rhetoric composed by Nattattanar or Narrattanar (date?), mentioned by ~ Kunacakarar as ~ atinul, i.e. source/ root treatise (some 24-27 aphorisms preserved in various comm.) . Nattattanar I (Cankam), author: Puram 218. Nattattanar 2 (date?), supposed to have been one of 12 disciples of ~ Akattiyar. Nattattagar, (date ?), author of lost grammar Nattattam (Yiipp. vir . 119). Nattattanar4 (date ?), author: Tiruvalluvamalai 16. Nattattagar, Itaikkalinattu Nallur (3th c. A.D.?), author of ~ Cirupanarruppatai. nattu-c cirappu, lit. "excellence of country", Le. description of outstanding qualities (natural or artificial) of a country ; obligatory part of large narrative poem s. nature, and classical (~ cankami Tam. poetry. Cf. Nayagam, Xavier S. Thani, Landscape and Poetry : A Study of Nature in Classical Tamil Poetry, Bombay, 1966; Varadarajan, M., The Treatment of Nature in Sangam Literature, Madras, 1969. Navajoti, Ka. (Tarnilttumpi, b. 1941), scholar and prose-writer, author: novel Otipponavan (The Fugitive), research treatise Pallavar kalamum paktik kalamum (on ~ bhakti in Pallava period), study of folksongs . Navalinka lilai, anonym. Vira saiva work of 72 st. Prob . of 15th c. navamanimalai " garland of nine gems", poem in 9 st. of various metres, often in ~ venpa , in ~ antati arrangement. Ex.: ~ Parati, Cu. (1882-1921), Paratamata navarattinamalai "Garland of Nine Gems on Mother India", Vi.Cu.Palanikkumaracuvami, Arkiiru Mavunakuru navamanimalai. Cf. Skt. navaratnamala. Navanltag (alias Navanitaruitanfblavanitanatanj, prob. 14th c., Vaisnava scholar, author: grammar of ~ pauiyal type in 108 ~ kattalaikkalitturai st. dealing with 44 ~ pirapantam types of liter. compositions in 3 chapters: Poruttaviyal, Ceyyulmoliyiyal, Potumoliyiyal. The work is called Navanitappauiyal alias Kalitturaippauiyal. 2 old comm . available; one contains titles and fragments of many ancient works now most prob. lost. Eds. : K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NAVANITA-P pATTIYAL-NA YI~AR LEPPAI

491

S. Vaiy apuri Pillai, Mayilai-t-tamil-c-cankam, 1943 ; Ca. Kali yana Cuntaramaiyar, Kal ak shetram, 1944 , with both old comm. Navanita-p pattiyal (e nd 13 - begin. 14), gr ammar of pro sod y, poetics and rhetoric by Vai snava Nav anit anatan in ~ kattalaikkalitturai of three parts (Por uttaviyal alias Mutanmoliyiyal, Ceyyunmoliyi yal and Potumoliyiyaly in 108 (or 102) st., ed. by ~ Caminat' Aiyar, V.Ve. , and lat er by ~ Vaiyapuri-p Pillai, Es. Navanitikiruttina Paratiyar, Ka.Cu. (1889-1954), orator, tea cher, scholar, author: Ulakiy al viiakkam, Tiru vacaka viriv urai etc . Nayakam Pillai, Kaviraca (early 20) , Salva Tiru ccaykkatu ennum Ca yavanapuranam (1909) in 10 chapters. Nayagappa Mutaliyar, Putuvai (1779-1845) of Pondicherry, Tam. pandit, College of Fort St. George, Madras, editor, scholar. Eds . with comm. : ~ Taiicaivanan kova i (1834), ~ Neminatam (1836), ~ Nalatiyar (1844), ~ Tivakara nikantu parts 9, 10, ~ Cutamani nikaniu pt. 11, Cittampalakkovai, Irakunata Cetupati oru turaikkovai. Planned edit. of ~ Vill iputtiirar' s Paratam but died suddenly 25. 1.1845. Author: Cittanta Cai varkalin unmai nilai (The True Po sition of Siddhanta Salvas). Pioneer of Tam. crit. editi ng. nayagappattu, poem in 10 st. (pattu) in praise of a per son ' s eye s tn ayanam ), in ~ ac iriya virutt am or ~ kalitturai. cf. e .g . llakkanavil . 852, Muttu vir. Yapp . Olip. 143. nayagmars, Sal va sa ints and devotees; lit. (" leade rs, ch ieft ains"). In Jainism , trad. biograph ies ex ist of sai nts and heroes, 63 in number, called tri-sast i-salaka-purusah (Skt.). It is possible th at ~ Cuntaramiirtti Nayanar conce ived of the idea of giving list of 63 Salva devotees as Salva counterpart. Jaina Mahapurana by Jinasena (e nd of 8) a nd Gunabhadra (e nd of 9) gi ve s sto ries of 63 Jaina saints and hero es; like that, ~ Cekkilar co mpose d Salva ~ Periyapuranam of 63 Sal va saints . 3 well known sources deal with live s of Salva n. : Cuntarar' s Tiruttontattokai (hymn 39 of his Te varam ; for trans., cf. D.O. Shulman, Son gs of the Harsh D evotee, Philadelphia, Univ. of Pennsylvani a, 1990, 239-48 ; cf. also J.R. Marr, "The Periya puranam frieze at Taracuram: Epi sodes in the Lives of the Tamil Salva sa ints' , BSOAS 42, 1979, 271-73); ~ Nampi AI).!ar Nampi' s Tiruttontar tiru vantati (in lIth book of Salva canon), and Cekkilar' s Tirutt ontarpuranam alias Periyapuranam (12th book of the Canon). Cf. Deva senapathi, V.A ., " Nayanmars", in: Devotional Poets and Mystics, Part - I (ed. V. Raghavan), Delhi 1978 , 16-24. Nayina Makammatu-p Pulavar (late 18), author: Mukaitin malai. Nayinar (Nainar) Leppai (L a b ba i) Alim (date?), Mu slim author of: Cuvar kkaniti, 33 st. in clo se imitation of Ulakan iti on codes K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

492

NAYI!'!ARACARIYAR, VARAT AcARIYAR-NENCUVITUTOTU

of conduct; Ataikkalamalai, 50 st. of Islamic devotion on surrender to Allah modelled on ---7 Tiruvacakam; many ---7 tiruppukal st. on the Prophet. Nayinaracariyar, Varatacariyar (14), son of ---7 Vedanta Desika, b. 1316 accord. to Vaisnava ---7 kuruparamparai's, died aged 69. Author: many polemic treatises in Skt. In Tam. , praise-poem on his father Pillaiyantati in 20 ---7 kattalaik-kalitturai st. Nayinattai Mutaliyar, Putuvai (18), author: AriyapuriifJa vacanam (1792). Neela Padmanabhan ---7 Nilapatmanapan. Nellaimanakarppuranam, anonym. Salva ---7 sthalapurana on Nellai (Tirunelveli) in 150 st. in 6 cantos. Nellainatar (18), author: Civarattirippuranam . Another, earlier(?) Civarattirippuranam is ascribed to ---7 Varatapantitar. Nellaiya, Ec. (1st half, 20), journalist, editor, essayist, novelist. Ed. of Yirakecari publ. from Colombo (1930). Author: Cantiravatana allatu katalin verri ("C. or Love 's Victory", 1934), romantic hist. novel about Rakulan, a prince who loves Cantiravatana of the royal Marathi family. She hates him first, but after many peripeteias " love triumphs". The novel of c. 1000 pp. is second in sequence to Cattiyavalli (ba sed on Rajasthan 's past), and the trend was taken up by such writers as ---7 Kalki and ---7 Cantilyan. Nellaiyappa-p Pillai (Nellaiyappa-k Kavirayar, 1st half 19), author: Tirunelvelittalappuranam, largest Tam. ---7 sthalapurana, 6912 st. in 120 cantos (carukkam ), Salva, on Tirunelveli, 1829. Ed . Calivaticura Otuvamurtti, Tirunelveli, 1869. Nemi Cantiracir iyar (d a te?), Jaina author of Comacaram , Ilapticaram. Nerninatam (prob. late 12 - early 13), also called Cinnul "The Short Book", grammar on ---7 eluttu and ---7 col in 95 ---7 venpd st. by Jaina scholar ---7 Kunavirapantitar; it takes its name from Jaina tirthankara Neminatha of Tenmayilapuri (cf. ---7 Mayilainatar's comm. on ---7 Nannul). Its first part, Eluttatikaram, has 24 quatrains, the rest is Collatikaram. There are 2 st. of ---7 payiram. Ed.: Kazhagam, 1945, repr. 1956, 1964 with comments by Kovintaraca Mutaliyar (1874-1952). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/ Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975 , 91 ftn. 55 ; 193; 236 ftn. 12. Neminatar ---7 Kunavira Pantitar. neficuvitututu, poem in which the heart (neii cu) is per sonified and sent as messenger to one 's beloved; subclass of ---7 vitutia u prabandha. Neii cu vitututu is also treatise by ---7 Umapati Civam on Salva Siddhanta (one of 14 meykanta sastrasi. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NERACAI-NETUNKA!eUTTU-P PARAJ':lAR

493

neracal, simple (single) metrical unit; is of four kinds : ta!]) netil, single long open unit, e.g. va; tani-k kuril, single short open unit, e.g. -tu; orratutta kurreluttu, single short closed unit, e.g. kal; orratutta netteluttu, single long closed unit, e.g. vel. N. is either long by nature or by position. Symbol: a dash (-) . Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction . Madras: New Era Publications, 1989: 9-10. nericai aciriyappa, most prob. the earliest, "original" type of --7 akaval metre, and hence the earliest prosodic form extant in Tam. All lines have four feet, the penultimate line has three feet. Number of lines (--7 ati) is not determined. Cf. e.g. --7 Kuruntokai 17. nericai venpa, very precise and strictly defined prosodic structure, the kind of --7 venpd most often used. It consists of 4 lines, i.e. 2 --7 kural venpii lines with one detached foot (--7 taniccoli interposed. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction, New Era Publications, Madras, 1989, 54-57. Nerkunraval}ar (12), b. at Nerkunram nr. Madras in family of veiala noblemen (Kalappalar); his proper name was Vanar; known also as Nerkunrankilar. Lived during reign of Kulottunka I and Kulottunka II. Was granted some tax-free lands in 49th year of Kulottunka I (A.D. 1119). Is subject to several anecdotes (e.g. involving --7 Ottakkuttar). Author: Tiruppukaliir antati in 100 --7 kattalaik-kalitturai (plus 2 st. of --7 payiramy , first publ. 1875. Cf. Madras Epigr. Rec. 365/ 1921, 96/ 1927. See Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, 12-2, Tiruccirrampalam, 1973,811-18. netilati (Tam. prosody) , long metrical line of five feet. Nettlmaiyar (Cankam), author : Purananuru 9, 12, 15. Netumpalliyattai (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 178, 203. Netumpalliyattagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 64. Netunalvatai (The Good, Long North Wind) implying by metonymy the cold season, one of the --7 Pattuppauu poems, of 188 lines in --7 akaval ascribed to --7 Nakkirar (c. 250 A.D.); blend of love and heroic genres, with pain of separation as predominant tone; complex and subtle poem, regarded as "tour de force , exhibiting the bard at his best" (K. Kailasapathy, Tamil Heroic Poetry, Oxford, 1968, p. 42). It contains fine description of cold season , of Madurai , of the king's winter camp, and short prayer to goddess Korravai. Accord. to --7 Naccinarkkiniyar, the hero is Pandya Netuficeliyan (c. 215 A.D.). Cf. G. John Samuel, "The Nature of Erotic Poetry as Revealed in Netunalvatai", JIAS 1.2 (March '84) 111-26; K.V. Zvelebil , Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 21-2. First publ. in 1884. Netunkaluttu-p Paranar (Cankam), author: Purananiiru 291. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

494

NETUVE~~ILAVI!'iAR-NIKA~TU

Netuveuuilavigar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 47. Neytar Cayttuytta AViirkilar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 112. Neytarkarkkiyar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 55, 212. Neytarrattanar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 243, Narrinai 49, 130. Nikantaj; Kalaikkottu-t TaQtanar (Cankam), author: NarrifJai 382. nikantu « Skt. nighantu-y orig . prob . glossary of Vedic words, then metric. gloss containing synonyms and meanings of words; ultimately , type of dictionary; also , section of a book . The term appears first in -t Nakkirar's comm. on -t Iraiyanar's Akapporul, then in -t Tivakaram whose author identifies n. with nirukta which is either a scribe 's mistake in the ms., or author's mistake (cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, Niirrantu 9-1, p. 88); however, although he knows the term he does not use it to denote lexicon. -t Pinkalar, knowing the word does not use it for his work (lOth co) either. In 16th c., -t Mantalapurutar calls his work Cutamani nikantu, and is thus the first to employ the term in its technical lexicographic sense, although 4 n. lexicons existed before him tTivakaram , 9, Pihkalam , 10, Uriccol no, 14, Kayatara no, 15). 16th co also created the term -t akarati "dictionary" (-t Revana Cittar who called his work Akarati nikantui . The main feature of n.-type dictionary is the fact that entries are not arranged alphabetically but in sections designating groups of items (e.g. celestial beings, animals, plants, places, qualities, actions, etc.) , and that they give synonyms besides defining meanings. The following are Tam . n. dictionaries: Tivakaram (Tivakakar, Salva, 9th c., 12 sections, 2180 aphorisms, 9,500 entries; 1839); Pihkalam (Pinkalar, Salva, 10th c., 10 sections, 4121 aphorisms, 14,700 entries; 1890); Uriccol nikantu (Kankeyar, Salva, 14th Co , 12 sections, 287 aphorisms, 3,000 entries; 1906); Kayataram (Kayatarar, Salva, 15th c., I I sections, 566 aphor., 10,500 entries; 1939); Ciuamani nikantu (Mantalapurutar, Jaina, 16th c., 10 sections, 2297 aphor., 11,000 entries) ; Akarati nikantu (Revana Cittar, Virasaiva, 16th c., 3334 aphori sms) ; Aciriya nikantu (Antippulavar, Salva, 17th Co, 11 sections, 263 aphor., c. 12,000 entries, not printed); Kailaca nikantu (Kailacar, Saiva, 17th c. c. 15,000 entries, not printed); Parati tipam (Tiruvenkataparati, Salva , 17th c., 12 sections, 737 aphor., 13,000 entries, not printed) ; Palporutciuamani (Icuvara Parati, Salva, 17th c., 3 books, 700 aphor., 12,000 entries, not printed); thereafter, at least 5 lexicons of 18th Co , all publ. in print and 8 lexicons of 19th c., all but one publ. in print. Cf. Mu.Arunacalarn, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, Nurranu: 9-1, 1975, 440-41 and passim. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NIL AK ECI-NIL A.MPIKAI AMM AIY A. R

495

Nilakeci, Jaina narrati ve poem in 894 -7 viruttam st. , 10 -7 carukkam's, with strong Jaina propaganda, prob. of latter half 10th C., ba sed on the myth of NHi of Tiruv alankatu (which must have been widely spread as folk balladic narrativ e kno wn as -7 Palaiyanur NHi ali as Pala vur NHi alias Al ank attu NHi). In Jaina version , the demoness of Kali, converted by Jaina tea cher, sage Municcantiran , refutes in forceful di sputations arg uments of Buddhists (meeting the Buddha in per son! ), as we ll as opinions of Ajivikas, views of adherents of Vedas, Vaisesika, Samkh ya etc . It ha s followin g parts: Taruma vuraiccarukkam (140 st.) , Kuntalakecivata ccarukkam (82 st.), Arukkacantiravata carukkam (35 st.), Mokkalavdtaccarukkam (196 st.), Putta vata ccarukkam (196 st.), Acivakam (7 1 st.), Cank iyam (53 st.), Ya icetikam (41 st.), Yetavatam (31 st.) and Putavatam (41 st.). The se titles suffi ciently manifest the polemic nature of the work. Occasionally , there are glimpses of ordinary human events, e.g . in 5th canto: After her conversion Nilakeci marries a Buddhist. When her husband asks her to prepare a meat-dish for some Buddhi st monk s she is revolted. Therefore she takes the leather slipper of one of the monk s, prepares a meal from it and serves it. When the monk finds out, Nilakeci is accused of having lost her status of right eous woma n. However, her person al deity stands by her; it shuts the gates of the town pro claiming that only a righteou s and chaste woman will be able to open it. No one can open the heavy gate, but for Nilakeci it it just a toy. After thi s feat , kin g and people praise her highl y, and she preaches Jaini sm and atta ins rele ase. Author unknown. Comm . by -7 Camana Tivakara Vamana Munivar (16 ). Comm. on st. 176 preserved story of lost -7 Kuntalakeci . Cf. Chakravarti , A. (ed. and tran s.), Neelak esi: The Original Text and th e Comm entary of Samaya -Divakara -Va ma na -Muni , Kumbakonam, 1936; reed. , Tamil Univ. , Tanjavur , 1984; K.P.S. Hameed, "The Structural Pattern of Two Traditional Narratives in Tamil", Proc. of the Seco nd Intern . Conference Seminar of Tam. Studies, 1971, 2, 196-204; K.V. Zvelebil, " Some Tamil Folklore Texts : Muttupattag katai, Kattavarayan kataippatal, Palaiyanur NHi", JRAS , 1989, 290-303 . nllalmautilavacirlyappa, nilaimantilam (Tam. pro sod y), type of -7 acir iyappa in which all lines hav e sam e number of feet. Nilampikai Arnmaiyar ( 1903- 1945), daughter of -7 Maraimalai Atika], Activ e in anti -Hindi campaigns. Author: Ariiyntetutta 600 palamolikalum avarrukkerra ankila-p palamolikalum (600 Selected Pro verbs and Th eir Corresponding En gli sh Pro verbs, 1931) , Pattinatuir parattiya Mu var (The Three Prai sed by Pa ttin att ar, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

496

NILAPATMANApA~

1935), Vatacor centamil akaravaricaicurukkam (Brief Dictionary Skt. - Liter. Tam., 1939), Tamil natum tamil moliyum munneruva teppati (How to Develop Tamilnadu and Tam. Language), biography of Florence Nightingale, many articles, essays, public speeches. Cf. --7 Tirunavukkaracu, Marai. Nrlapatmanapan (Neela Padmanabhan, b. 26.4.1938 in Tiruvanantapuram, Kerala), perhaps the most complex contemporary Tam. novelist, by profession electric. engineer, began writing when a boy, first story Patil illai (No Reply) written when aged 17 (about responsibility of the death of a boy run over by a lorry), transl. into Engl. by V. Swaminathan, publ. in Indian Writing Today, 1970. Began publishing in 1951. Since then, N. became one of the leading Tam. writers, particularly in the fields of novel, short story and essay, with topics, diction and style vigorously individual. Author: novels Talaimuraikal (The Generations, 1968, transl. into Engl. by Ka.Naa. Subramanyam, Hind Pocket Books, Delhi, 1972; German, Die Mitgift, Yolk und Welt, West Berlin, 1978; Malayalam, Trivandrum, 1981); Pallikontapuram (1970, transl. into Engl. by Maa. Dakshinamurthy, The City Where God Sleeps, Christian Literature Society, Madras, 1982; Hindi, National Book Trust, Delhi, 1975; Urdu, Delhi, 1978; Marathi, Delhi, 1981); Failkal (The Files, 1973, Malayalam version, Trivandrum, 1980); Uravukal (Relationships, 1975, Malayalam version, Kottayam, 1979); Min ulakam (World of Fish, 1976, Malayalam version, 1980); Y.auirai (The Pilgrimage, 1977); Nerru vantaval (She Came Yesterday, 1978); Utaya tarakai (Rising Star, 1980); Yattattin veliye (Outside the Circle, 1980); Pakavati Koyil street (1981); Cattiyattin cannitiyil (In the Presence of Truth, 1985). Short Story collections: Mokam muppatu antu (Confusion Thirty Years, 1969), Cantaiyum camatanamum (Strife and Peace, 1972), Munravatu na! (Third Day, 1974), Irantavatu mukam (Second Face, 1978), Nakammava (Is It Nagamma? 1978), Cirakatikal (Flapping Wings, 1978). Engl. The Incarnation and Other Stories (Madurai, 1982). Essays Citariya cintanaikai (Scattered Thoughts, 1978); Nila Patmanapanin ilakkiya-p parvaikal (critical articles on Tam. liter. scene, Velur, 1988). Poetry Nila Patmanapan kavitaikal (1975); Engl. Surrender and Other Poems (33 pieces, Intellectual Book Corner, Delhi, 1982). In the novels of N., the realistic, regionally localized precision-writings, with bewildering variety of characters and events, and meticulous attention to detail, reached its peak. In The Generations (1968), events of about 70 years are compressed within the life-story of one of the characters; its leading motif is that the only possibility to be free for those who are K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NIMPAI CANKARANARAYA~AR-NIRAMPA-V-Al,AKIYA

497

caught in the process of corruption and disintegration of a com munity is to leave it. The City Where God Sleeps (1970) deals with the life of Tiruvanantapuram (Trivandrum) ; in the tragedy of its protagonist, the reader finds the tragedy of the ancien regime of old India, and the disintegration of traditional Kerala society, caught in vulgar modernization. Thus, the novel depicts the tragedy of a city, a region, a social order, and a deity (Lord Padmanabha). Uravukai (1975) "brings out the grief which affects a son when his father dies, leaving a large family to be supported". The novel abounds with almost every type of human beings that go to make up ancient and complex rural-urban society. It has been adjudged best creative book in Tam. in 1973-76 and won Rajah Sir Annamalai Award 1977. N. has also translated into Malayalam ~ Kuruksetram (ed. Nakulan), 1976, and other anthologies. His novels and short story collections are prescribed for degree classes in several Indian universities. The title Novel aracu ("King of the Novel") was conferred on him by Bharathi National Forum, 1981. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 280-81. Nimpai Cankaranarayanar (14), author: Maturai -k kovai on Cokkeca-p Peruma] in 403 st. Nirampavalakiyar (17) of Venpakkarn (Tontainatu) , author by ascription Paiicanatippuranam (alias Tiruvaiyarruppuranam on Paficanatiksettiram-Tiruvaiyaru or. Tanjavur, 1605); C eppecarpuranam (?) . Both Salva. A more famous Tiruvaiyarruppuranam was composed by ~ Nanakkutrar (16) , and another by ~ Colaimuttuppillai (or ~ Venkatarama Castiri), Nirampa-v-ajaklya Tecikar (first half, 16), b. in Salva vellala family at Vetaraniyam or Tulaiyiir or. Kuruvakuti, scholar, teacher, poet, highly proficient in Skt. and Tam. Accord. to traditon, teacher of ~ Paraficoti, of ~ Ativirarama and ~ Varatunka Pantiyan (no evidence). Was disciple of ~ Kamalai Niigappirakacar, lived in Madurai. Author: Cetupuranam (A.D. 1508 ?) on Ramesvaram in 3436/8 ~ viruttam st., 39/49/51 chapters of fine, difficult diction and complex style, with innovative figures of speech, very popular among scholars; Tirupparahkirippuranam (526 st. in 11 chapters, ed. with comm. by Mu.Ra Arunacalakkavirayar, Madurai , 1928) ; Kuru Nanacampamar malai (by ascription); comm . on ~ Civaiianacittiyar (considered to be the earliest comm. on the text) and on ~ Tiruvarutpayan. His disciple ~ Alakai-c Campanta Munivar composed the Tiruvarupuranam in 1597. For dating cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey for the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ ., Annamalainagar, 1977, p. 253 ; cf. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

498

NIRANCARA!"-IA NATAR-NOCCIMALAI

further M.S. Pumalingam Pillai, Tamil Literature, 1929, 276; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 204. Niraficaraga Natar (date), author: Nakappauinattalappuranam on Tirunakaikkaronam, 1064 st. in 30 chapters. Niscalatacar (19), author: Yicara cakaram ennum Yetania cahkirakam (Kumpakonarn, 1993), Sri Viciira cakaram, Sri Viruttippirapavam ,

Viruttirattinavali . Nitittirattu, anthology of st. of didactic nature arranged accord. to subjects; author's name unknown; careful compilation in 2 parts : 42 chapters (~ atikarami on ~ aram tarauuppal), 86 chap . of ~ porul (porurpiil) . Ms. was discovered by M. Seshagiri Sastri. It quotes from 31 works, some of which are well-known, some of which unknown or lost (?). It also supplies gaps for poems 276,300,315,322,341 and 361 of ~ Purananuru. Nittiyajjanta Cuvami (19), author: Ilakkanavirutti (1888), Attuma niriipanam (1889) , Nii!1a upatecam (1907). Nobili, Roberto de (Sept. 1577 - 16.1.1656), Italian Jesuit missionary, "the first Oriental scholar" (S. Rajamanickam), "father of Tam. prose", Catholic writer in Tam., author: Tam. catechism (KiilJram, alias Nii!1opateca in 5 parts), sermons (Nii!1opatecam), polemic work Tusanatikkaram, Katavul nirnayam, Attuma nirnayam, Punarjanma aksepam (on rebirth), Tevamata carrittiram (biography of Our Lady), Cesunatar carittiram (Life of Jesus), Cinna kurippitam (by ascription), Nittiyajivana callapam (dialogues on eternal life) ; a number of spurious works. N. was first Christian writer of orign. works in Tam . Cf. Crisenoy , de B., Robert de Nobili, Apotre des Brahmes, Paris, 1939; Cronin , Vincent , A Pearl to India : Life of Father Roberto de Nobili, London, 1959; Dahmen, P., Robert de Nobili , S.J. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte del' Missionsmethode und del' Indologie , Munster, 1924; id. , Un Jesuit Brahme, Robert de Nobili, Louvain, 1914; id ., Robert de Nobili, l' Apotre des Brahmes, Premiere Apollogie, Paris, 1931; Pauli, J., R . dei Nobili und C .F . Schwartz, Nuerenberg , 1870; Rajamanickam, S., The First Oriental Scholar, Madras Univ. Ph.D. the sis, 1967; Madras, 1972; Rocaries,A., Robert de Nobili , SJ. ou le "Sannyasi" Chretien, Toulouse, 1967. nocci, Vitex negundo, fine-leaved chaste tree with pale bluish fragrant flowers. noccittinai, situation in ~ puram, successful defence of hill fort by warriors wearing wreaths of leaves and flowers of n. Cf. ~ Purapporul venpa malai, Patalam 5 (9 st.). noccimalai, poem describing defence of fortress , based on ancient war-theme (~ purami of nocci (warriors defending a fort wearing garlands of nocci, chaste tree , Vitex negundo). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

NOCCI NIYAMANKI~AR-NUPUVVATTU-K KAJI:lTAM

499

Nocci Niyamankijar (Cailkam), author: Akandniiru 52, Na rrilJai 17,208, 209 , Purananuru 293 . nonticcintu ~ nontinatakam, Since nonsinatakam is composed in ~ cintu verse, it is often termed nonticcintu. It seems, though, that nonticcintu is the more primitive kernel (a four-st. poem with the crippled thief as protagonist) which has developed into the satirical burlesque play, nontinatakam. nontinatakam, lit. "cripple's play", orig . Tam. dramatic-narrative genre, burlesque with mordant humour of satirical effect, written in honour of gods (including God of Islam) or noble patrons. In form , dramatic monologue with veneer of autobiographic simulation and self-debunking (A.V. Subramania Aiyar, Tamil Studies II, 1969, p. 86). Best known n. are ~ Mannar Peruma] Pulavar's play in honour of Subrahmanya at Tirumalai (1st half, 18th c.), followed by Cinnattampi's play (1st half, 19th c.) . Other wellknown n. are ~ Marimuttu-p Pillar 's Atimulecar n ., ~ Matura Kavirayar's Tirukkaccur n., ~ Kantacami-p Pulavar's Tiruccentur n., and anonym. Muslim Citakkatinontinatakam. Although nominal hero is a god or a nobleman, the actual protagonist is the lame man who has been usually maimed because of some crime, is pitied by a nobleman or god, and cured by a god . Cf. also ~ nonticcintu. Noypatiyar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 67 . nul, lit. thread; expository treatise, erudite text, book in general. Cf. ~ Tolkiippiyam Porulatikaram 391 and 478 . The term has a number of different meanings: in Tolkiippiyam it means "poetry in general" besides "treatise; gram. treatise", once "phoneme" and once (Po rulatikaram 615; interpolated?) "sacred thread". In ~ Cankam anthologies the term occurs 43 times, most often in the meaning "cotton yarn"; also as "cobweb", and as "specific treatise" and "liter. work". Accord. to ~ Ilampurarar's comm. on Porulatikaram 639, works (nul) may be class ified into (l) primary/original works (~ mutal nul) , (2) secondary or adaptive works (~ vali nul) and (3) derivative or allied works (~ ciirpu nul) . In addition, there are refutatory works (etir nul). Best statement on Tam. conception of "book" is in ~ Pavananti 's ~ Nannul (12th or early 13th c.), Potuppiiyiram 24 and 25 . For etymology, cf. DEDR 3726 "web, thread", cf. Skt. siitra - "thread, yarn, string, etc ., sacred thread; short sentence or rule; work or manual containing strings of such rules". Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill, 1992, App. 2, 227-34. nupuvvattu-k kantam (cf. Ar. nuhuwwa "prophecy"), second part of ~ Umaru Pulavar's Cirappuranam. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

500

NOBPA-NORRANTATI

nfir,pa (lit. "metrical stanza [suited for] erudite literature"), metre

employed in gram. and other erudite works, based on ~ aciriyappa. The convention that erudite texts should be composed in n. was first broken by ~ Arnitacakarar who composed his ~ Yapparunkalam in ~ kattalai-k kalitturai metre (evolved from ~ kalippai. Later writers on grammar etc. began also to emply ~ venpii and even ~ viruttam . n. can be of unlimited number of lines, each line consisting of four metric. units (~ ciri; functionally analogical to Skt. siura - . Another term: nurpavakaval. nfir.r.antati, poem of 100 ~ venpd or kalitturai st. in ~ antdti arrangement. Cf. Ilakkanavil. 842. Tonnulvil. 28, Cuvamin. 170 etc.

K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

o ocai, lit. sound; rhythmic effect of metre. Theoretically, there are four: -) akavalocai, -) tuhkalocai, -) ceppalocai, -) tullalocai. Okkur Macattanar (Cailkam), author: Akatuinuru 14, Purananiiru 248. Okkur Macattiyar (Cankam), author : Akananuru 324, 384, Kuruntokai 126, 139, 186, 220 , 275, Purananuru 279 . olai (Tam.) palm-leaf, usually of Corypha umbraculifera Linn. (Skt. tali, Tam. tiili) or Borassus flabelliformis Linn. (Skt. tala, Tam. panaii, used as writing material. Cf. K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, E.J . Brill, Leiden/Koln, 1975, 13-18. otalccuvatt, palm leaf book; olai palm1eaf; writing on palmleaf; letter. oliytantati, poem in 30 st. in -) antati arrangement having 8 or 16 kalai to each line. Cf. Venpap. Cey . 13. Onku knyil puranam (1484), lost -) sthalapurdna by Maraifiana Campantar. oppari (Tam. folklore) song of lamentation, dirge. Sung by women who refer to the personal appearance and good qualities of the deceased. Very productive genre of Tam. folklore. Cf. e.g. S.M.L. Lakshmanan Chettiar, Folklore of Tamilnadu, New Delhi, 1973 , 139-42; NiL Vanamamalai, Tamil-nattup patalkal, Madras, 1964, 535-700. Oppilamani-p Pulavar I (late 17 - first half, 18) of Ponmarai, Putuppattur, Tiruvarur, of Saivacarya community , lived most probably in the days of Sarfoji of Tanjore (A.D . 1711-1728), student of -) Vaittiyanata Tecikar (author of -) Ilakkanavilakkami to whose Nalliirppuranam he wrote a Preface. Was also known as Vitivitanka Peruman Vayil Vittuvan and Tamilmo]i pantaram. Author: Civarahaciyam (based on SivarahasyakhafJ(ia of Skt. Mahaskandapuriina ; first printed 1894) in 2 cantos, 101 chapters, 4090 st. on Salva ritual, ceremonies, Yoga, jiiana, paiicaksara etc . The work is an authority on Salva religious philosophy and practice. It is not definitely established whether the Kumpakonappurdnam ascribed to an Oppllamani ("The Incomparable Jewel") is the work of this author. For dating, cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalainagar: Annamalai University, 1977 : 322 .

K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

502

OPPILAMA~I-P PULUVARz-OTTAKKOTTAR

Oppilamani-p Puluvar2 (19), author: many solitary st., 21 of which contained in anthology ~ Toni- c ceyyut cintamani. Orampokiyar (Cankam) , one of the most prolific and best Cankam poets , author: Akananuru 286, 316, K uruntokai 10, 70, 122, 127, 384 , Narrinai 20, 360, Aihkurunuru on ~ marutam, 511-610, Purananuru 284, altogether 110 poems. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, E.J. Brill , Leiden, 1975, 268. Orerulavan (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 131, Purananiiru 193. Orljplccaiyar (Cankam), author of Kuruntokai 277 . orupavorupahtu, poem in 10 st. composed in ~ aka val, ~ venpa or ~ kalitturai metres. Cf. Pannirupattiyal 219. Oru tipam aintu tirika] (One Lamp Five Wicks, 1976), one hundredth novel of ~ Manicekaran, Kovi. Five brothers, who had lost their father, worship their mother like a goddess. In order to enable the eldest, Tarumaracu, to marry , the other four brothers try to support him and live in harmony . But his wicked wife sows dissen sion in the family. However, Parirnalam, a rich virtuous woman who loves the youngest brother Celiyan, brings the wicked one to her senses , and the family finds due to her its former harmony. Although the characters are rather schematic, the novel is filled with noble sse and trie s hone stly to show that even a poor and simple family should not for sake its dignity and duties. Otalantaiyar (Cankarn), one of the most prolific poets of the Cahkam age. C. 150-200 A.D . Author: Ainkurunuru 301-400 on palai, Kuruntokai 12,21,329, all in all 103 piece s. Cf. A.K . Ramanujan, Poems of Lo ve and Wa r, 1985, 51, 59-62. Otaiian.i (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 77 , 227. Ottakkuttar (12), called "Emperor among poets" (kaviccakkaravartti, cf. M.E.R . 109 of 1927-28, and st. 814 in Takkayakapparanii , lived during the reign of Vikrama Chola (1118-36), Kulottunga Chola (1136-46) and Rajaraja II (1146-62) who wa s his proper patron; composed many works mostly in prai se of these rulers, apart from a large number of occasional verses attributed to him. Was subject of many anecdotes current in liter. lore (cf. ~ Tam il niivalar caritai no. 17, Kazhagam ed . 1972, 102-16). His name, Kiittar "The Dancer", is designation of Siva as Nataraja, Accord. to epigr. evidence (No. 109 of 1908), belonged to Malari (cf. also ~ Peruntokai 1483 ex Tantiyalankaram 48/49 which s pe aks of malari varun kuttan; C entamil C el vi VIII ) nr. Tiruchirappalli (prob. toda y ' s Tiruvarampiir, Tiru-v-erumpiyur). Accord. to other sourc es (Pe runtokai 1704 ex Tontaimantalacatakam 51 which read s Kali/Kali-y-Ottakkuttan, etc.), he may K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

OTTAKKUTTAR

503

have belonged to Cirka]i (which had his special interest). Prob. of cehkuntar community (weavers, but also privates and captains in the army); on the other hand, his name toua = who had fixed + kiatar = dancer/acrobate) would indicate other caste affiliation. He must have been well educated in Tam. and Skt. Received for his poems a village as fief, Kuttanur nr. Puntottam Railway Station (Tanjavur Dist.) where he built temple to Kalairnaka] (cf. Takkayakapparani 813). Other titles: kaviratcacan "giant of poetry", varakavi "divinely-gifted poet", kautappulavar "poet of majestic style" etc . Patrons: besides 3 Chola kings, Cankaran, chieftain of Putuvai ; Kankeyan, in whose honour he composed Nalayirakkovai: Coman of Puvanai. Author: Miivarula "The ula '« on the three (kings)", three panegyric poems of -7 ula ("procession") genre on Chola kings Vikkirarnan, Kulottunkan II and Iracaracan II in praise of their lineage, spendour of their reign, and their heroic deeds. It is said that Rajaraja, at its first publ. reading, gave 1000 golden pieces for each -7 kanni verse (cf. V. Kanakasabhai Pillai," The Vikrama Cholan Ula", Ind. Ant. XXII, 1893, 141-50); -7 Takkayakapparani, prob. the best of his poems; Kalihkapparani on Vikrama defeating Viman of South Kalinga (cf. Takkayakapparani 776 and comm.), not available (entirely lost?); Kulottunka Cola!1 pillaittamil in 103 st. on Kulottunka II, prob . the first fully fledged poem of the genre. When the cehkuntar community wished him to celebrate them, he refused , whereupon they schemed to kill him; he escaped by agreeing to compose eulogy on uti "spear", main weapon used by them in battle: Iuiyelupatu "70 st. in praise of the spear" (the condition was that they would offer 1008 heads severed from shoulders of firstborn cehkunta youths so that the Goddess would inspire him) ; Eluppelupatu (70 st.) composed by him to bring the 1008 youngsters back to life (Kuttan is said to have become Ottakkuttan after he got the severed heads to be reattached - otta - to their bodies!); Arumpaittollayiram (fragment of panegyric poetry on Arumpaikkilavan Kalinkarayan, the Chola general) . A number of his poems must have been lost or are his only by quite uncertain attribution (so is accord. to the opinion of some scholars the poem on the spear et seq.): Cankaracolanula, Kulottunka Co[a!1 kovai (Orient. Manuscr. Library Cat. 1175), a grammar called Etirnul (cf. Colamantalacatakam 95, Peruntokai 1471); Caracuvati antati (supposed to be his first poet. work, a.M. Library Cat. 1175). Cf. also Peruntokai 1803. Altogether he is credited with at least 15 works, incl . by incorrect attribution Uttarakantam of -7 Iramayanam (cf. Colamantalacatakam 80, Ra . Irakavaiyankar, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

504

OTTA~I-OVIY ANOL

Centamil 3, 1904, p. 43; Nakalinka Munivar, Cenkuntar pirapantattirattu, 1926); Kansan kovai and Kansan alahkaram (on Rajaraja II), fragmentary Til/a iyu Iii, Viracihkanatan puranakkatai (actually of 17th c.). Eds.: Iracaracan ula, ed. Vaiyapuri Pillai, Maturai Tamil Cankarn, 1922; Muvarula, text only, ed. Pantita A. Kopalaiy ar , 1925; Miivarula , with various comm., Caminat'Aiyar Library, Ataiyaru, 1946; Kulottunkacolan ula, text only, Es . Rajam, 1956, Takkayakapparani, with ancient com., ed. D.Ve. Caminat'Aiyar, 1930; 1945; Kulottuhka Co{a'l pillaiuamil. ed. Pantita Ulakanata Pillai, 1933 ; lramayana Uttara kantam , ed . Iramarattinam Aiyar, 1926; Cinivacaiyankar, 1968; Cen kuntar pirapanta-t tirauu, ed. Mu.Irakavaiyankar, 1926. Cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varaldru , Nurrantu 12-1, 1973,338-42 (excellent critical assessment); Gopalaswami Iyengar, S., "Anecdotes about two celebrated Tamil poets", Christ. College Magazine X (1892-93) 597. oUal}i (rhetor.), figure of speech in which the idea of the subjectmatter is sought to be conveyed suggestively by the description of that which resembles it, cf. -) Tantiyalahkdram 51. Ovata Kuttar (12), poet known from epigr. evidence which speaks of kavi -p perumaiana ovata kuttar, cf. Mu . Irakavaiyankar, Cacanatamilkkavi caritam , 1937,68-9. No works survived. Inscr. on Sarasvati shrine, Kuttanur on Kaviri or . Puntottarn, Nannilam Taluk, Tanjavur Dist. Oviyaniil, apparently a treatise composed in form of aphorisms on art of painting. Lost. Mentioned and quoted by -) Atiyarkkunallar in com . on -) Cilappatikaram, Venirkatai 25 .

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p pa, lit. web, warp of a weaver (perhaps rather --) DEDR 4065 piuu to sing, chant); stanza; it is of four main types: --) venpii, --) aci riyappa, --) kalippii, --) vaiicippii; piik-katta, lit. to tie the threads of the warp; to compose a stanza. Termed also --) piutu, --) kavi or --) yiippu . Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Classical Tamil Prosody: An Introduction , Madras : New Era, 1989, 46 if. Pacavataipparani --) Vaittiyanata Tecikar. pacuram (etym.? pii + curam?) sacred poem (cf. --) Periyapuranam, Tirufiagacampantar 818); specifically poem as part of the Vaisnava canon , which has 4000 pacuram's. Pacurappati Ramayana by --) Periyavaccan Pillai, a prose-version in Tam . of the Ramayana composed completely in phrases borrowed from the hymns of the --) alyars. It covers only two pages but comprises the entire story of the Ramayana, and is regarded highly as a piece of excellent prose. Padmanabhan, Neela --) Nilapatmanapan. Pakai Alakappag (alias Ekacantakkirakt) of Kotampakkam (Madras). 17th c. poet of Yasamalai venpa on patron --) Vatarnalaiyappa Pillai (author of Tam. version, M accappuriinam, 1706-7), representative of Tirumala Nayaka; each of its 108 --) venpa st. quotes a --) Tirukkural line. Pakajikkuttar (c. 1375 - 1425), b. in Vaisnava family at Canniyaclkkiramarn (Ramnad Dist.), prob. arrow-making tpakalii blacksmith by orig. occupation, or a dancer (?), converted to Saivism, author: Tiru ccentur-p pillait-tamil (ed. with notes by Pulavarakam Citamparanata Punnaivanata Mutaliyar, 1927) on god Murukan of Tiruccentur, in 103 st., dealing with 10 stages of the child-god's life; Cintamaniccurukkam (alias Cintamanivilakkamlilintdmanimdlaii, abbrev. version of --) Civakacintamani in 318 st., --) antati arrangement. Cf. Mu.Irakavaiyankar, Centamil VI.6 (1907-8). pakavatar, vocalists performing --) kalatcepam; those who expound religious stories to accompaniment of music; (Vaisnava usage) Vaisnava devotees. Pakkikko, Kapiriyal (Gabriel Pacheco, 19), author : Christian devotional Tevappiracaiyin tirukkatai (Mananam, 1880). K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

506

pAKKIKKO, PIRA~CAS-pALACUPPIRAMAf':lIYA~, CI.

Pakkikko, Piragcas (Francis Pacheco, 19), author: Christian devotional Cantonal camuka vilacakkummi (Yalppanam, 1855). Pakkiyalaksrni Amma] (early 20), wife of -7 Aiyar, Va.Ve.Cu., who publi shed the first true Tam. short story which he had written himself under her name: Kulattahkarai ara camaram (The Fig Tree on the Bank of a Pond) in Yivekapotini, 1913. Pakkutukkai Nagkaniyar (Cankarn), author: Purananuru 194. Paktavatcalam Pillai, Tiruninr.avur (1878-1930) , author: Muttumalai, Manam okana manikkam , Pa ccaiyappa Mutaliyar, Murukan oru Tamil-t teyvam . Paktavatcalag, Ki.Ma. (Cantira, b. 1927), playwright, author: dramas Acokan (awarded Government of Tamilnadu prize), Rani Patmini, Oru latcam (One hundred thousand) etc., many books of narratives tNitikkaiaikal, Paratakkataikal, lramayana-k kataikal, Tenaliraman kataikal, Yikkiramatittan katai). Palacuntararn, T.M. (early 20) , author: play Manimekalai ennum mankaitturavu (Young Lady-Scetic called M .), Tanjavur, 1923. Palacuppiramaniya Kavirayar (17) , b. in Tulu velala family at Tiruvavinankuti; his father wa s otuvar (reciter) of Tam. hymns and flower-gatherer in Tantapanicuvami temple at Palani by name of Periya Kavirayar. The boy is said to said to have been born blind and deaf. Healed by grace of Lord Murugan, he studied Sk1. and Tam., and composed: Palanittalapuriinam (1628) of 987 st.; pub\. in 30 cantos by Na.Katiraiverpillai with comm. in 1903 (earlier ed . 1893, 23 cantos); Kantar natakam; Palaniyantati and prob. other devotional works ; Tira vitavetanirn ayam and Paiicarattinacapatikai, polemic works against Vai snavas; several works on Salva Siddhanta philosophy tCaivacittantataricanam etc.). Received title Kavirayar from King of Tanjavur. Palacuppiramaniyam, Ku. Ma. (Valt, b. 1920), began publishing 1940; short story collections lnpattulikal (Drops of Delight), Ciuiya malar (Worn Blossoms), poetry Mutarkural (First Voice), Tanikavel catakam . Novel Atirsta-k kulantai (Happy Child). Play Katal tanta inpam (Delights of Love). Palacuppiramaniyarn, Pi. (Cirpi, b. 1936), avantgarde poet, author : collections of poetry Nilavuppu (Moonlight Flower), Ciritta muttukkal (Laughing Pearls), Olipparavai (Bird of Light), Carppa yakam (Snake Sacrifice, 1976), Mauna mayakkahkal (Delusions of Silence). Palacuppiramaniyag, Ci. (CLPa., b. 1935) , scholar, author: Tamil ilakkiya varalaru (history of Tam. literature), many collections of essays (e.g. on -7 Varataracan, Mu. , on Murukan), edition of -7 Manonmaniyam; in Eng\. The Status of Wom en in Tamilnadu during the San gam Age. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

pALACUPPIRAMA~IYAN-PA~AIYANOR NIU

507

Palacuppiramanlyan, Mu.Pi. (Maniventan, b. 1939), essays on Tam. literature (e.g. on -7 Cirupanarruppataii, poetry, Kavitai mekankal (Clouds of Poetry), Ettanai koti inpam (How many Millions of Delights), Cinattupparani. Palacupramaniyag, Ti.Ke. (Maharisi, b. 1932), author: novels Panimalai (Misty Mountain), Mannin mdnpu (Earth's Vastness), Uyirttutippu (Throbbing of Life), Mekanilal (Shadow of Clouds), Makanati (Big River) and many others; short stories. Palacuppiramaniya PiHai (early 20), author: Yivekaracaviran katai, narrative which can be regarded as " novel in verse", in 1636 st. (1510 -7 kanni, 1 -7 venpa , 2 -oarucir, 18 -oelucir, -7 encir, 5 -7 koc caka kalippii, 15 -7 kural ven centurai, 30 -7 nalunkuppauu, 35 -7 pillai miirru). The hero of the work goes to London to study, meets Queen Victoria and returns to India to dedicate all his efforts to the education of women. Publ. 1904. Palacuppiramaniya Piramacami, Maturai (early 20), author: Kankiras kitai (1908, on the Congress Party). palai (one of the -7 aintinai's of class. Tam poetry, setting/situation of wa steland/elopement), and IA literature: cf. Lienhard, Siegfried, "Palai Poems in Sanskrit and Prakrit", Prof K.A . Nilakanta Sastri Felicitation Volume, Madras, 1971, 416-22. Palai Kautamagar (Cankam), author: Patirruppattu 2nd decad (21-30), Purananuru 366. Palaipatiya Perunkatunko (CaiJ.kam), author: very prolific poet, cf. Kalittokai on -7 palai 2-35; Akananuru 5, 99, Ill, 155, 185, 223 ,261 ,267,291,313,337,379, Kuruntokai 16,37, 124, 135, 137,209,231 ,262,283,398 , Narrinai 9,48, 118,202,224,256, 318, 337, 384, 391, Purananuru 282 ; altogether 68 st. All his poems but one are on palai . Palaiyanur NiH, folk narrative (realized as folk ballad and as -7 viltlutpauu) . Village of Palavur (Palakanallur, Palakainallur), one mile E of Tiruvalankatu, is the locus of several stories of NiH (which may be as ancient as -7 Cilappatikarami, who had been originally a murdered dasi and changed into a demoness , destroying the people of Palakanallur, One oral folk-version tells of a Brahmin who became infatuated with a dasi, killed his wife and took her jewels. As a result he was b. next as a Cegi. One day , leaving his current wife at home, he passed through Palakanallur forest and the demones Nili (who was in fact his wife of previous incarnation whom he had killed) attached her self to him , he tried to escape but she stuck to him till they reached Palakanallur and there she insisted in the presence of witnesses that she was his wife and had the right to spend the night with him. In the night K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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PALAKIR USl>f A~-P ALAMA~()KARA~, A.

she devoured him . The Jaina author of -) Nilakeci transformed NiH into Jaina controversialist. The ballad of NiH is sung during the months of Parikuni and Cittirai in Icakkiyamman temples to the accompaniment of vil(lu) "bow". There is a NiH temple at Palakainallur. Cf. Hameed, K.P.S., "Bow Song: A Folk Art from South Travancore", Tam . Culture V.3 (July 1956) 274-84; Palaiyanur nili katai, ed. by S. Shanmuga Sundaram, Madras, 1978 (and S. Sanmukhasundaram, Madras, Poompukar, 1984); Nili 's curse and its effect on Kovalan and -) Kannaki is mentioned in -) Cilappatikaram 23.138 ff; cf. also -) Man imekalai, Vaiicimiinakarpukkakiitai 5-34; Zvelebil K. V., "Some Tamil Folklore Texts: Muttupattan katai, Kattavarayan Kataippatal, Palaiyanur NiH", JRAS 1989, 2,290-303 Palakirusnan, Cupramanyam Puracu (pseud. Puracu, b. 1914, Lahore), prolific writer of novels, stories and plays, physician by training. Author: at least 10 vols . of fiction, drama and essays; novels Kaveri-k karaiyile (On the Bank of the Kaveri, 1981 , etc.) , collections of short stories POll valaiyal (Gold Bangle, 1942), Katar katitam (Love Letter, 1947), Civaneca!]J!l cap atam (Sivanesan's Curse, 1983) etc. Transl. The Gold Bangle and Other Stories, by Purasu Balakrishnan, Bombay, 1966. Cf. also his "Ramalinga, Poet and Prophet", Journ . of South Asian Literature XIX (Summer, Fall 1984) 2.8-16; "Bridegroom again", in: The Plough and the Stars, London, 1963. Palakirusnag, Ra, (20), prose-writer, author: collection of short stories E[ai aluta kannir (Tears Shed by the Poor, 1964) etc . Palakirusna Pillai, Cittalappakkam (early 20), author: Sri .. . Korakumpar carittira-k kirttanam (legend of potter Kora, votary of Kr sna, owing to whose piety his dead son was restored to life, told in -) kirttanai st.), Madras, 1921. Palakirusna Pillai, E. (early 20), author: Vijayakarunyam, Madras, 1914, novel dealing in a blend of realism and romantism with the title to property of a zamin family; the escapist story, introducing detailed accounts of witchcraft, exorcism and a famous dacoit, contains picturesque descriptions (e.g. of a cyclone) and wealth of realistic details. Palamagokarag, A. (b. 1942), Tam. prose-writer of Sri Lanka. In novel Nilakkili he offers outstanding realistic picture of the struggle of man with hostile nature of Mullaittivu with its jungle, swamps and backwaters. Its hero, the young Katiraman fights aga inst the jungle, hunts for bears and loves Pataficali; he marries her against his father's wish, moves with her away to start another adventure in the struggle with wild nature which is described with K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PALAMMA~-PA~ANITTALAPURA~AM

509

admirable skill; against Katirarnan and Pataiicali (compared by the author to nilakkili - a parrot which, although a bird, lives attached firmly to the ground) who represent spontaneity and wildness of the jungle, author introduces teacher Kopalan, representing civilization. Also: novel s Kumarapuram, Kanavukai kalaintapotu (When Dreams Di sperse), short stories Tipatoranam (Torches in a Row). Palamma] (early 20), author: Canakya caka cam ennum Cantirakupta carittiram (Madurai, 1914); Tilakavati , or tamil naval, one of the early novels; with foreword by -7 Krishnaswami Aiyangar, S. (Madras, 1920 ). pajamo]] (lit. "ancient utterance"), proverb. Pa!amolina.niiru, Four Hundred [st.][with] Proverbs, collection of 400 st. in -7 venpii ascr. to Jaina Munruraiyaraiyan ("the chief of Mun-turai"). Each quatrain contains in the last line a proverb (-7 palamoliy, and there are allusions to the earliest strata of Tam. literate civilization. Old anonym. comm. available. Date c. 700 A.D. Good ed . in -7 Centamil XIV. For detailed excellent analysis , cf. H.S. David, "Tamil Book of Proverbs (Palamoli Nanuru) ", Tam.Culture IX (1961) 2.151-80, XX (1963) 4.67-106. Palanicami, Ka .Pe. (Kalvettur-k Kavirayakecari, b. 1933), author: poetry Caktikkanal kavitaikai (Poems of Caktikkanal ), Kanakamparamum ticampar pukkalum (G olden Apparel and December Flowers), narrative poem Pulutippuyal (Dust Storm), editor of folklore text -7 Annanmar Cu vami katai . Palanicami, Mu. (20), novelist, author: social novel Mutalo ? muti vo ? (Beginning? End?, 1970) about Velu (w hose father falls prey to a tiger! ) and hi s life from his student days to the time when he begins to earn hi s livelihood; about Manikkam whose thievish ways change thanks to his virtuous wife; and the false Murukan, The didactic novel demonstrates triumph of goodness over wicked way s. Palanicami-p Pi] [ai (20) , author: Mukkiutuppallu . Palajjicami, Villiya.niir (20), leftist avantgarde poet; author: Pad enkal unavu (1979, Hunger Is Our Food), 29 polit.poems; Oru kaikkilai (1980), 1 long poem and 30 short pieces. Pa!a.ni malai, devotional, strongly erotically coloured poem on god Murukan of Palani in 30 -7 kaualaikkalitturai st. by possibly a fem ale poet belongin~ to Korkai, Ed. by Vi. Cokkalihkam in Mu rukar Katampam, Srirangam, 1965. Palanlttalapuranam (1628) by -7 Palacuppiramaniya-k Kavirayar, on god Murukan - Palaniyantavag of Palani, Detailed comm. by Katiraiver Pillai. Madras, 1903 .

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510

PA!"ANI upATTIY AYAR-PALCANTAMALAI

Pajani Upattiyayar (20) of Kurukur, author: devotional poems Tenceri malai. Palag] Velavaj; tottiram, anonymous praise-poem for god Murukan of Palani in 10 st. Ed. by Vi. Cokkalinkarn, Srirangam, 1965. Pa!aniyan katal (early 19?), anonymous poem in 513 ~ kanni verses of the ~ katal genre on god Murukan of Palani. Strong eroticism penetrates explicit descriptions of love-scenes in easy and charming diction. Ed. by Mu. Kovintacami, Madras: Pari Nilaiyam, 1969. Palaniyappa Aiyar, Ceragagantapuram (19),author: Patarrirattu (1898) on deity Palaniyantav a!!. Palaniyappan Cervalkkarar, Nocciyiir (c. 1600), author: Ililacankiraka attiyayam, prose-rendering, from Katampavana puranam, of Siva's "holy" sports at Madurai, very valuable and easy to read; Tiruvucattana nanmanimalai on the same topic; Tiruvucdttdna-p puriinam.

Palan, Pegatikt (20), Tam. prose-writer of Sri Lanka. Author: novel Contakkaran (The Owner, 1968) on the struggle of Tam. plantation workers against capitalist exploitation. Palapattatai-c Cokkanata-p Pulavar ~ Cokkaniita-p Pulavar, Palapattatai-c.

Palarama Aiyar (20), author: Yavanampikai pillaittamil. Palararnan Ko.Ca. (b. 1933), author: poetry Racikan (Man of Taste), Kanakku (The Account), short story collections Erkkiil (The PloughBeam, 1979), Manitan irukkiran (There is a Man, 1980). Palaramayyar, Na. (late 19), one of the founders of mod. Tam. pro se, disciple of ~) Curiyanarayana Castiri. Author: novel Lilai publ. in 1897 issues of Nii!1ap6ti!1i , written in High Tam. prose-style. palavakai-p patalka] (lit. "songs of many varities "), title of a number (dozens?) of anthologies, mostly medieval, late medieval, and early mod., of occasional (solitary) st. on different subjects, anonym. or by various poets. Also termed palar patal / pattukkal (songs of many authors). Palavecam Cervaikkarag katai, social folk ballad dealing with tragic tale of a hero belonging to an underprivileged class. Cf. ed. The Unsung Melodies: The story of Palavecam Cervaikkiiran. Madras, Inst. of Asian Studies, 1989. palcantamalai, poem of 10-100 st. in 10 different kinds of ~ cantam. Cf. Yenpap, Cey. 9:1, Navanitap . Cey. 3:1, Ilakkanavil , 834 etc. Palcantamalai (14 or earlier?), lost ~ akapporul work of Muslim Tam.Iiterature, "garland of many ~ cantam", dedicated to Muslim chieftain or local ruler (yava!1ariica!1) of mod. Kayarpattinam K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

P.A.LESVARI-PALLU

511

(ancient Vakutapuri Antupar). 8 st. preserved in comm. on -7 Kalaviyarkarikai. Cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru - XIV Century, 1969 , 330-35. Palesvari (b. 1928), female novelist, author: Cutarvilakku (Burning Lamp) , Cumaitanki (Burden Support) and several others. Palkappiyam (date?), lost treatise on prosody/poetics/rhetoric ascribed to Palkappiyar (Palkappiyanar) said to have been -7 valinul (secondary work) attached to -7 Tolkappiyam (accord. to -7 Peraciriyar). Its -7 carpunul (supporting tertiary work) was apparently the lost Palkappiyapuranatai. No siara survived. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, "Prolegomena to Early Tamil Literary History", IJDL XIV,2 (June 1985) 311-15. Palkayam (date?). Lost treatise on prosody mentioned in medieval erudite texts, ascribed to Palkayanar (46 aphorisms pre served in comm.). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, "Prolegomena to Early Tamil Literary History", IJDL XIV ,2 (June 1985) 311-15. pallantu (lit. "many years"), song of praise wishing prosperity and success, sub-genre of -7 mankalakkappu , meaning" [May you live for] many years!". It was the custom to sing -7 Centanar's Tiruppallantu (early l Oth c.) as final part of the singing of -7 Tirumurai, whereas Tiruppallantu of -7 Periyalvar was sung as introd. to Vaisnava canon. Later - an order valid today - singing of Salva canon was closed with Tiruppallantu followed by recitation of part of -7 Periyapuranam, thi s followed , as inevitable final part (-7 tirukkataikkappui by portions of -7 Arunakiri's Tiruppukal. pallavi, the chorus or burden, refrain of -7 kirttanam. pallu (also pal), dramatic-narrative poem dealing with life of Pallar, Harijan agricultural labourers who have preserved as well-defined distinct community their own culture (cf. K. Zvelebil, "Pallar Speech: A Contribution to Tamil Dialectology", Lingusitics 1966,87-97) . Pallu pirapantam is generally written about gods or great persons, nominal hero being either feudal landlord or god but the real protagonist is pallan and his wife or wives. He is usually chief tenant responsible for paddy cultivation on a farm (or temple estate). Other important characters are his wife (wives) and farm manager. The poems are song-dramas with realistic, often coarse and powerful picture of rural life. Among earlier pallu's should be mentioned the atippallu ("first p.") ascribed to -7 Citamparanata Nanapplrakacar under the name Nanappallu; it has not survived, and the tradition of it being earliest p . is prob. incorrect; -7 Kamalai Nagappirakacar's Tiruvdriirppallu (alias Tiyakecarpallui 16th c.; Kurukiirppallu (or Parankucappallus by Catakopappulavar on -7 Namrnalvar (c.1700); Civacayilappallu K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

512

PALLU

by ~ Ramanatan Kavirayar (c. 1720); Yatakaraippallu by ~ Katikaimuttu-p Pulavar on zamindiir Periyacamitturai (1723); Tirumalai Murukanpallu by ~ Periyavap Kavirayar (c. 1730); well-known Yaiyiipurippaliu (alias Palanippallus by ~) Kumara Vicaiyakiri Velaccinnovaiyan, zaminddr poet of c. 1770; and Kannutaiyammai pallu (1775) of ~ Muttukkutti-p Pulavar as well as Paralippallu of Jaffna poet ~ Cinnattampi-p Pulavar (1716-80). Among recept p . poems one should name Cehkottuppallu (c. 1840) by Ponnuccellaiya Parati (alias Ponnu Citamparam Pillai of Marikalam kiramam Umaiyampatti) , Iracanakarppallu (1850), Kotturppallu (1865), Poykaippallu (1875) . The best-known p . is the anonymous ~ Mukkutar pallu (2nd half, 17),ascribed to Ennaiyi!!a-p Pulavar alias Velan Cinnattampi. Another import. and interesting p . (composed c. 1720 in honour of Arai Alakappa Mutaliyar) is Ramanatan's Civacayilappallu : its honoured hero was viceroy of Nayaka ruler at Tiruchirappalli whose arbitration in the dispute between Maharaja Marttanta Varman and Papputtampi in favour of the former in 1730 is recorded in Menon 's Manual of Travancore . The pallan has two wives, very jealous of each other; the senior accuses the younger of having drugged their husband in order to obtain his favours; the dispute is settled by the release of the pallan from the stocks (tolumaram) at the intercession of the elder wife. Poems of this genre , being as productive as ~ kuravaiici prabandhams, are being composed even in mod. times, e.g. ~ Avutai Ammal 's VetiintapaUu , philosophic poem of 1896. The framework of two or more persons in dispute (usually wives of the pallan , or the pallan and his wife/wives, or the pallanl his wife/wives with the farm manager) provided authors to fill in religious or philosophical material; this often concerns disputes between Saivism and Vaisnavism . There are many unpubl. p . poems, e.g. Tiruppdntikkotumuti pallu on Salva temple of that name (V.V. Swaminath'Iyer Library Cat. 1298 b). Cf. Ko.Kecavan, PaUu ilakkiyam - oru camiikaviyal parvai, Sivagangai, 1981 (a socioeconomic analysis of p. literature); introd. to Mu.Arunacalam (ed.), Mukkiuar pallu, Cennai, 1949; G. Kulathuran, "Folk Influence in Pallu and Kuravafici", Journ. (of the Inst.) of Tam. Studies VI.1 (Sept. 1988) 93-101. Eds.: Arunacalarn, Mu. (ed.), Mukkutar pallu, 1st ed.1940 (on pp.154 if. ed.quotes 40 p. poems which originated "after" Mukkiuarpalluy; 2nd, 1949.Tami! nulakam, Cennai; Kantacami, Na . (ed.), Cenkottuppallu , 1967; A.M. Parimanam (ed.), Vaiyapuri-p pallu. Palani, 1971. See also ~ Mukkiuarpallu and various p . poems under their individual titles . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PA~~U

FRAGMENTS-PA.!"!AIYAPPA CETTIYAR

513

pallu fragments. Of some poems in ~ pallu genre, apparently only fragments of few st. have survived: Putu vaippall u, Cikiilippallu, Kurriilappa({u , Tirukkottiyiir- Tirupputtur-p pallecal, Manniir Mokanappallu , Tirun ilakantan pallu. These were ed. by Mu.Arunacalarn, Mukkiuarpallu 2nd ed., Tamil niilakam, 1949. Palmer, John (19), ,Christian author: Kristayanam (life of Christ in 4 ~ kiiniam's in ~ viruttam, Nagercoil, 1865; fragm.), Kanapata kirttanam (Christ. lyrics in ~ kirttanai form); Meciya viliicam

(life of Jesus in verse, in imitation of Hindu poems on Rama, in 4 parts); Cattiyaveta carittira-k kirttanai (Bible history in kirttanai form), Perananta kummi, Nallarivin ciirakkavi (Watt's First Catechism in verse). palmyra, palm Borassus flabelliformis Linn.; its leaves are used as writing material. See also ~ alai. Palutaikattiya Nanappirakacar (early 16), teacher of ~ Kamalai Na!!appirakacar. Pammal Campanta Mutaliyar ~ Campanta Mutaliyar , Pam mal Yijayaranka . Pampag Cuvami ~ Kumiirakurutiica Cuviimikal , Pampan. Parnpatticcittar (The Siddha with the Dancing Snake, c.1400-1450), Tam. Siddha ( ~ cittar) poet, perhaps the most outspoken and crude of the group. His very popular 129 st. are structured to progress from praise of Siva through rejection of wealth , women and body, to vision of godhead and final instruction on how to achieve Siddhahood and liberation. The dancing snake is the Kundalini Sakti in her progress. He uses rather late loanwords and a number of neologisms. He is also credited with authorship of Cittararutam , toxicological treati se mentioned by ~ Naccinarkkiniyar (comm. on ~ Civakacintamanii. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, The Po ets of the Powers, London , 1973, 112-19; id., Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, E.J. Brill, 243. D. Buck, "The Snake in the Song of a Sittar", Structural Approaches to South India Studies, 1974, 162-83. pal), melody-type (cf. ~ Tirukkural 573); primary melody-type, heptatonic; music; stringed instrument; (specifically in Tam. literature) tune (as of poems of ~ Paripiitaly; tune, fixed melodytype in devotional poetry. Panaiyappa Cettiyar, Co., Melaccivapuri (1st half, 20), author of novels mostly on crime and detection, with patriotic and nationalistic ideology. Created well-known character of detective ttuppari) Rankanatan. Author: Kantimati (1926), Manivacakan , Canmukanatan , Amirtam, etc. Kantimati reflects, in utterances of its protagoni st, India ' s desire and struggle for freedom (e.g. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

514

PA~AMPARAM-PA~AMPARA~AR

Chapt. 16, monologue of Kalyanacuntaram). It takes stand against Gandhian passive resistance, and instead takes up Tam. tradition of heroic struggle against humiliation. Contains also some very realistic descriptions. In Canmukanatan, heroine Kokilam refuses to marry rich but immoral Canmukanatan, since she loves the virtuous Macilamani. Chapters on social service and realistic vision of life are mixed with passages filled with naive melodrama and cheap effects. Pagampararn (date?) , lost grammar mentioned by ~ Mayilainatar and in ~ Yapparunkalam. Panamparanar. Accord. to trad. of medieval comm., P. was "classmate" of ~ Tolkappiyanar. ~ Kuruntokai 52 is ascribed to a P.; we are not certain whether the two are identical (cf. Cuvaminat' Aiyar, ed . Kuruntokai, 4th, 1962, 131). Accord. to comm. of ~ Mayilainatar on ~ Nannul , P. composed a gram. treatise, ~ Panamparam, now completely lost (cf. ~ Cuvaminat' Aiyar, ed. Nanniil , 2nd, 1946, 14). P. is author of "Specific Preface" tCirappuppayirami to ~ Tolkappiyam . The language of the Preface and of Tolkappiyam shows similar features, possibly identity. Author of Preface might indeed be identical with poet of Kuruntokai 52, and even younger contemporary of Tolkappiyar. This author has clearly indicated geographic extension of Tam. as between Northern Venkatam and Southern Kumari. He has given name of language as tamil ; has mentioned 2 principal styles of the language, viz. common usage (valakkui and liter. style (ceyyu(). He mentioned lingusitic ba sis of Tolkappiyar's de scription and former authorities on grammar as belonging to centamil . .. nilam, i.e. territory of "straight" / " pure" Tam. He mentioned the fact that Tolkappiyar was well-versed in some (grammatical) system called aintiram (? Skt. aindra-); he mentioned basic divisions of expository literature into "sounds" (and symbols, ~ eluuui, "words" (~ col) and "meaning" (~ poruli, i.e. (roughly) phonology plus graphemics, grammar and meaning. Finally , he said that the author of Tolkappiyam was patimaiyon, most prob. derived from Prakrit padima- , Skt. pratima- "guise of an ascetic"; hence an ascetic; probably lay disciple of Jainism who practiced austerities of the [eleven] pratima's (cf. Vaiyapuri Pillai , Es ., Tamilccutarmanikal, Madras, 1949 ,23-41; K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan , Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1973, p. 137). He also said that this author "dispelled the doubts of the Teacher of Atankotu ripe in the wisdom of the Four Vedas .. . in the as sembly of the Pantiyan". The term ruinmarai ("four Vedas") can of course be interpreted differently. We do not know who the Atankotr 'acan was. Accord. to legend K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PANAR-PANCAMARAPU

515

narrated by --7 Naccinarkkiniyar, the preceptor --7 Akattiyar and the disciple Tolkappiyar were at odds. In order to avenge himself, Akattiyar instigated his dear student Atankottacan to raise some painful questions in the assembly of scholars patronized by Pandya Makirtti (alias Nilantarutiruvirpantiyan), but Tolkappiyar, who staged his work , won completely the approval of scholars, and due to this, his preceptor's grammar --7 Akattiyam dwindled into oblivion. Cf. trans. of the Specific Preface in Journ. of Tam.Studies 1 (1972) p. 44. Cf.also A. Ctvalinkanar, Tolkiippiyam - Cirappu-p piiyiram, Madras, Intern. Inst. of Tam.Studies, 1980. panar (cf. piifJ song,melody, pani song, melody, music, piinu song). Professional occupational group of minstrels who sang their poetry to the accompaniment of string instrument yii[ (lute? harp?). In medieval period, regarded as a low caste, cf. Pkt. piifJa-(prob. connected) "low caste". Panavitututu, (Money as Messenger), anonym. work in praise of Verikateca Aiyar, son of Tiruvenkatanatan, representative of Nayaka rulers; hence 16th c. Supremacy of wealth and of Tiruvenkatanatan's family are well portrayed. Ed. S. Vaiyapuri Pilali and M. Raghava Iyengar, 1934. Panavitututu., (early 18) by --7 Cokkanata-p Pulavar, "money sent as messenger" poem in 369 couplets in --7 kalivenpii (plus invocation to Vinayakar in --7 nericai vefJpii) in praise of Muttu Rekunatan (Vijaya Raghunatha Sethupati), lord of Maravar cimai round Ramanatapuram. The heroine's maid sends message on behalf of the heroine to the hero. The poem is in three parts: description of money tpanami, designated by 36 different terms characterized as being prior even to the gods(!), and of decisive importance in human life; on Tamilnadu and greatness of the hero ; on matter to be conveyed to the hero . Ed. R. Niramala Devi, Madras, 1980. Paiicamarapu ("Fivefold traditional usage"), an ancient erudite work on --7 icai-t-tamil dealing with icai music (5 chapters), vacciyam percussion instruments (3 chapters), niruttam dance (5 chapters), avinayam expressive gestures (6 chapters) and talam rhythm (3 chapters) and their established usage (--7 marapu). It consists of 240 --7 venpii quatrains. Considered lost apart from brief quotations in --7 Atiyarkkunallar's comm . on --7 Cilappatikiiram, it was apparently discovered by Vidvan Elumattur Velampalaiyam Ra. --7 Teyvacikamani KaVUI)!ar who published it in print in 1973 (l st ed.) and 1975 (2nd ed.), with an old detailed anonymous comm. Cf. Arivanar iyarriya Paiica marapu, 2nd ed. 1975, Vittuvan K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

516

PANCAPAKECA AYYAR-PANCATANTRA, IN TAM.

Ve.Ra.Teyvacikamani-k Kavuntar, Velampalaiyam, Elurnattur, Irotu vattam. Paficapakeca Ayyar, Ayilam Cuppiramaniya (20), author: Tayin tiyaka putti, drama in 3 acts on the story of a woman who sacrificed her son to save the prince of the country, Madras, 1938; Yitiyin ceyal (short stories, The Working of Fate), Madras, 1938; Kovalan and Kannaki (the story of the "Silappadhikaram"), Madras, 1940, 2nd ed. 1947. Pancapantavar vanavacam, Voluminous folk-narrative in verse on the exile of the five Pandavas. Ascribed to ~ Pukalenti. Publ. in 1975; first publ. 1914. 268 pp. Paiica Pantiyar katai (The Story of the Five Pandyas), hist. folk ballad about Kulacekara Pantiyan and his four brothers, their struggle with the Kannada king and their destruction. Kannatiyan king invades southern Tamilnadu of the five Pantiyar brothers. After long siege of their fortress he offers duel with each of them to decide the issue. All but the youngest, Kulacekaran, are killed. Kulacekaran is captured and the Kannada king offers to give him his daughter as wife to join the two dynasties. He rejects the offer. The king is insulted and sends Kulacekaran to his capital , chained, in a palanquin. On the way the Pandya swallows a piece of broken diamond and dies, and the Kannada princess burns herself on his funeral pyre. Cf. ~ Aivar rajakkal katai and ~ Kanna{iyii!l pataippor. Paficarettigam ainnuru, collection of 500 st. in different metres, ascribed to Tiruvalluva Nayanar, claimed to be collected from old mss . and prints. There is no preface or crit. introd. Publ. 1968. Pafica tantira-k katai. One of the first works of narrative prose to be publ. in print in Tam., transl. of Skt. Paiicatantra made from Marathi version. Its title page says: "Ihtu Tamil-t talaimai-p pulamai natattum Tantavaraya Mutaliyar moll peyartta Pafica tantira-k katai ." It is dated "Calivakana caka varutarn 1747 . . . Kiristu l826-am varutattil" at Cennai-k Kalvi-c Cankam. Cf. ~ Tantavaraya Mutaliyar. Paiicatantra, in Tam. The first Tam.version of P. was made by ~ Tantavaraya Mutaliyar (Paiicatantirakkatai) who tran s. Skt. text from Marathi version: Madras 1826 (repr. 1847, 1852, 1865, 1881; repr. of 1891-93 contains parts with Eng. trans. and glossary). In 1847, Elumur Mutt~cami Mutaliyar produced another Tam. version, and in 1852 Srinivacapuram Srinivaca Aiyankar yet another. Subs. versions and eds. followed in 1873, 1874, 1879, 1880 etc. Vol. II of Arden's Tamil Reader contained Tantavaraya

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PANDITHER, ABRAHAM-PANNIRUPATALAM

517

Mutaliyar's text with notes and trans. (cf.A.H. Arden, A Progressive Grammar. . .,1891-93); S. Winfred produced another Eng. Trans. from Tam. (Panehatantra.Trans. from the Tamil , of Somasarma, derived from the Sanskrit version of Vishnusarman, Madras, 1873; 3rd ed.190l). There were at least 2 early French versions : Le Panteha-Tantra, ou Les Cinq Ruses (. ... extra it sur trois copies differentes, ecrites l'une en tamoul, l'autre en telougou, et la trolsieme en cannada), par J .A . Dubois, 1826 ; and Panehatantra, trad. du tamoul, par MJ. Baulez, 1878. Apart from these, there are at least 3 other current versions in Tam . pub!. as chapbooks: Pafieatantiram in prose}: anonym . in simple narrative prose of some P. themes (as told by Visnucanma to sons of king Cutaricanan of Patalipuram); P. in prose2: anonym., prob.folkversion : King Ayavari Palan orders his minister to bring him daily a woman to make love to. One day the minister is unable to procure her, and to save him, his daughter Tanturu goes to the king, tells him a story every night without finishing it, and after 365 nights the king marries her. There is also a P. in Tam. verse ascr. to ~ Viramarttanta Tevar: this is adaptation from Skt., and is rather destined for children as moral teaching (1826). Pandither, Abraham (1859-1919), forerunner of the Tamil renaissance in the sphere of music. Published a collection of Tam. songs composed on the model of Telugu songs tKarunamirta cakarattirauu. Tanjore, 1907), founded the Tanjore Sangitha Vidya Mahajana Sangam (1912), convened musical conferences under its auspices , took active role in deliberations of All India Music Conference (Baroda, 1916), published monumental work ~ Karunamirtacakaram (1917). Cf. A.C. Paul Nadar, "A Pioneer Research Worker in Tamil Music", Tam . Culture III (1954) 110-20. parikan (Tam. rhetoric) , friend of the hero (~ talaivanj of class. Tam . love-poetry (~ akam); often described as hero 's charioteer; functions mainly as protagonist's listener (~ ketpor); panki, heroine's closest friend and confidante, see ~ toli . pankarkuttam, meeting of lovers arranged with help of hero's friend. One of the four major situations of premarital love (ka(avu) in class. love-poetry (akam). parikiyij; kuttam, union of lovers with the aid of the maid; one of the four major situations of premarital love (~ kalavui in classical love-poetry (~ akam). panmanimalai, poem containing all sections of ~ kalampakam , except ammanai, orupoku and iical. Ilakkanavil . 814. Pannirupatalam ([The Book of] Twelve Sections), lost ancient grammar of the ~ puram (public-heroic) hypergenre. Its ~ valinul K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

518

PANNIRUpATTIYAL-PA~TIKKOVAI

(secondary work) -7 Purapporulvenpiimalai (800 - 1000 A.D.) has survived. P. was its basic treatise. Mentioned with admiration by most commentators. Accord. to legend, -7 Akattiyar's 12 disciples each composed a -7 patalam on puram. Accord. to -7 Ilampuranar, P. was opposed in views to -7 Tolkiippiyam. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden. EJ. Brill, 1975,66 and ftn.124. PannirupaHiyal, valuable -7 pattiyal type of grammar said to be joint work of 12 authors. In available eds., number of authors is usually 15. In 3 iyal's: eluttiyal, colliyal, inaviyal; 360 aphorisms. It quotes 74 -7 prabandhas. Parts of text fragmentary. Clearly an anthology on "grammar of poetry". Prob. date: 10th c., Eds.: Ra.Irakavaiyarkar, Madurai, 1904 (2nd, 1951); Ka.Ra.Kovintaraca Mutaliyar, 1st, 1943, 2nd, 1949. Cf. Mu.Arunacalam Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, NurriilJtu 10, 1972, 209-35. PanniirriraHu (date?), anthology of ancient and medieval poems selected from many different poetic works. Tanjore Sar.MahLib.Cat.I, 1964,333. Pantagantati (date? 17-18?), panegyric poem in -7 antati arrangement praising Pantag, the son of Nakantai of the Vaisya community of Kavirippumpattinam. In 100 -7 venpii st. Ascribed to an -7 Auvaiyar. Intern. evidence points to 17th - 18th c. Ed. Pusparata-c Cettiyar, 1890. Pantara-k Kavirayar, Melakararn (date?), author: Tiru Ilaiici Murukan pil l aittamii , Tiru llaiici Murukan ulii (ed. -7 Cuvarninat'Aiyar, V.Ve., 1935). Pantararikannagar (Cankam), author: Purananuru 16. Paqti Kaviracar (16) was granted land for his poem Viramiilai (Garland for a Hero) on Venka]a Nayakkar Ayyan, a book on valour of kings. The work is lost. Cf. lnscr. of the Pudukkottai State No. 966 of A.D. 1530. Pantikkovai. In comm. on -7 Kalaviyarkarikai (14-15) and on -7 llakkanavilakkam (17) occurs the name P. "The Pandya Garland", denoting anthology of poems, presumably lost. Mu .Irakavaiyankar discovered that large portion of this lost collection may be restored from comm. of -7 Nakkirar (date?) on -7 Kalaviyal (325 st.) and from Kalaviyarkarikai (c. 30 st.), so that now we have 353 st. It may be the earliest -7 kovai ("that which is strung together", "garland") extant. Deals with exploits of Pandya ruler / rulers who bear(s) many names and titles. Accord. to K.V. Subrahmanya Ayyar (Historical Sketches of the Ancient Deccan, I, 123-5), he was Arikecari Maravarman (7th c.), but K.A.N. Sastri (The Pandyan Kingdom, London, 1929) concludes that the

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PA~TI-P PERUMAL-PA~TITTURAI-T TEVAR, PI.

519

poem's hero was composite figure representing entire dynasty (cf. also A History of South India , 1966,22). Name of author is unknown. M. Arunachalam in Preface to ed. of Ampikapati kovai suggests the name Kumaracenaciriyar (~ Y'apparunkalavirutti: Kumaracenaciriyar kovaii, Apart from histor. allusions, P. contains 3 legends of Pandyas and other legend. matter. In ~ kaualaikkalitturai metre. R. Nagaswamy is certain that the hero was Arikecari Parankuca Maravarman (c. 670-700), cf. Prof K.A. Nilak. Sastri Felic . Vol . 108-11, and T.V.Ca. Pantarattar, Pantiyar varalaru, 25. The great importance of P. consists also in the fact that it throws light on dating Nakkirar's comm. as post-7th c. Also, it may have served as standard for all later kovai literature (usually considered "garland" of 400 st.) . Date: c. 700 or somewhat later. For decisive arguments on dating cf. R . Nagaswamy, "Pandya Arikesari and Pandikkovai", Prof K.A.N. Sastri Felic .Vol ., Madras, 1971, 108-11; id ., Studies in Ancient Tamil Law and Society, Madras, 1978, 9-1O;also, K.G. Krishnan, "Madurai Inscription of Pandyan Chendan", E.I . XXXVIII, 1969, I, 27-32 (for different opinion); detailed discus sion, K.V. Zvelebil, Tami! Literature, E.J. Brill, Leiden/Koln, 1975 , 166-7 . Ed . Ve.Turaicami, Madras, 1957 . Panti-p Perumal (17) , author: comm. on ~ Civaiuinapotam, Pantitaracar (18) of Tirikonamalai (Sri Lanka), scholarly poet, expert in Skt. and Tam. , author: Konacala (Takkana Ka ila ca) puranam in 635 st. 7 chapters. Composed under Jakarajacekaran king of Lanka who was the poet's patron. The title is sometimes given as Tatcinakailacapuranam, by Pantitarajar. Date is uncertain. Pantitturai-t Tevar, Pi. (1867 - 2.12.1911), son of zamindar Ponnuccami-t Tevar; zamindar of Palavanattam, scholar, poet, patron of Tam. learning and literature. Studied Tam. and Skt., was supported by Paskara Cetupati, Raja of Ramnad. With scholars like ~ Irakavaiyarikar, Ra., ~ Irakavaiyarikar, Mu ., ~ Srinivacaiyankar, TLSL, and a few others, established the "Fourth" Tam. ~ Cankam at Madurai: its first meeting was held on 26.5.1900. Author: devotional poems (Civaiuinayokikal irauaimanimalai, lracaracecuvari patikam etc.), brilliant essays on ~ Tirukkural and conceits in ~ Tanika ippuranam , in the journal of the Cankam, ~ Centamil ; compiler of anthologies of poems Caivamaiicari , Tut imaiicari , Pannurrira{!u etc. Involved in preparatory work on Tami! Lexicon. His greatest contribution to Tamil Renaissance wa s the foundation and continuous support of the ~ Madurai Tamil Sangam. Cf. M.S. Purnalingam Pillai, Tami! Literature , Munnirpallam, 1929, 352 . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

520

pA~TIY AN ARIYAPPATAI-PARACAMAYA KOI,.ARI

Paqtiyan Ariyappatai Katanta Netuficeliyan (CaiJ.kam), author: Purananuru 183. Paqtfyan -En.a ti Netun Kaqqanar (CaiJ.kam), author: Akananuru 373, Kuruntokai 156. Paqtiyan Maran Vajuti (CaiJ.kam), author: Narrinai 97, 301. Paqtiyan Pannatu Tantajj (CaiJ.kam), author: Kuruntokai 270. Panturarikag, Na. (b. 1927) , author: essays on Tagore (Ulaka-k kaviiiar Takur), collections of short stories Nanku Kankal (Four Eyes), Iyarkai cirikkiratu (Laughter of Nature), Tajmakal, Tamil inta inpam (This Sweet Tam.). Received Tamilnadu Government Award. Writes film scenarios and film songs. Panu Cantirag, Piremil ~ Tarumu Civaramu . Papanaca Mutaliyar (late 18 - early 19), teacher of ~ Gopalakrishna Bharati, author: Kumpecar kuravaiici ruuakam. Is this ~ kuravaiici identical with Kumpecar kuravaiici natakam written for King Ekoji of Taficavur between 1676-1684 (cf. introd. to Mu.Arunacalam's ed. of Poyyamoliyicar kuravaiici natakami, considered to be the earliest preserved kuravaiici'l Hardly, since Cuvaminat'Aiyar, in Kopalakirusna Paratiyar (2nd ed.,Madras, 1964) p. 6 speaks of Papanaca Mutaliyar as teacher of Gopalakrishna Bharati (c. 1800 - 1896) saying (ftn.3)," He composed in Tam. many stray kirttanam 's and Kumpecar kuravaiici etc ." . The author of the early k. must have been Muttami] Kaviraca Cekarar Papanaca Mutaliyar, q.v. Papanaca Mutaliyar, Muttarni] Kaviraca (late 17 - early 18), author: K umpecar kuravaiici ruitakam (c. 1680), perhaps earliest preserved ~ kuravaiici, written for king Ekoji of Taficavur (1676-84), ed. S. Kalyanacuntara Ayyar, Madras, 1944 (reed.196l). The author praises Ekoji raja in songs 6 and 43 . The nominal "hero" of the poem is Sri Kumpecar of Kumpakonam. Its form is ~ kfrtta!1am 's, with ~ venpii , ~ akaval, ~ viruttam , ~ kattalaikkalippd and ~ koccakakkalippa st. The poem is learned and pleasant, with echos of Kutantai purdnam. St. numbered 1 - 114. Pappavinam (alias Maran Pappavinam, 16), grammar on liter. forms and stanzaic structures in 140 st. Prob. work of several authors, among whom are mentioned ~ Tirukkurukai-p Peruma] Kavirayar and Kariratna-k Kavirayar; he, however, may have been comm. on this work, as he was for many other works of the author. Paracamaya Kolarl Marnugivar, Vlrattalaivag, 2 inscr. in prosepoetry of Kulottunka Cola (most prob . Kulottunka I, 1071-1118) in the temple of Pataltpulisvarar (Siva) at Tiruppatirippuliyur (Kutalur Taluk, S. Arcot Dist.), issued in 41st and 49th year of

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the king state that Virattalaivan Paracamaya Kolari Mamunivar composed 3 works, Asiatacapuranam , Kannivanapuriinam and Pumpuliyur natakam (all lost). Lands were granted by the Cola for the works. Cf. S.U.VII, pp. 382 ,751 ,753. Paracarapattar (alias Pattar , Bhattar, 12), one of the greatest Vaisnava -7 iicdryas, disciple of Sri Ramanuja. Son of Kurattalvar alias Kuresa (Ramanuja's foremost disciple). Precocious child with prodigious memory . Author of many comm. and other works in Skt. In Tam. -7 manipravala, only one comm. on -7 Tirumarikai's Tirunetuntantakam is preserved: only one of the 30 st. of the work (the 21st) is taken up but in the comm. on it he gives the meaning of the whole poem. His oral teachings are preserved in other comm. (so-called Pattarnirvakami. Has given much impetus to other later comm. Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava Manipravala, Bombay, 1978, 64-6 and passim. Paracurama Aiyar, A. (early 20), author: novel Puttimane palavan, (Knowledge is Power, 2nd ed. , Madras, 1915). Paracurama Kavirayar (19) of Puracaivakkarn (Madras), author: Ciruttontar puriinam. Parakala Ciyar (date?), Vaisnava scholar, author: comm. of 18.000 -7 pari on -7 Tiruvaymoli . Parakala Cuvami (date?), Vaisnava scholar, author: comm. on -7 Tiruviruttam . Parakkirama Pantiyar (15), cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru - Nurrantu XV, 337-43. ParaJai Vinayakar pal lu (1780) by -7 Cinnattampi-p Pulavar of Yalppanattunallur, on Vinayaka of Paralai (Jaffna). Partly fragmentary. Paramacivag, Ka. (Paraivag, b. 1932), author: novels Pulavar Manikkam, Irattai-t tivu, collections of poems Paramacivan kavitaikal , Tamilnatu , essays (E!l catiyai olikkaventum ? Eppati? Why is it necessary to destroy caste? How?). Parama Mugivar (14), Salva author of Cittiinta caram , 32 encir aciriya viruttam st. + kiippu venpa on Saiva Siddhanta. Publ. 1888. Rippon Press, Madras; 1933 by Anavarata Vinayakam Pillai. Highly praised by -7 Arunacalam, Mu. Pararnaganta Pattar, of Vennattur (Salem; date?), author: Alaivaykkiri-k Kumaran viralivitutiau, Alaivaykkiri-k Kumaran catakam, Tukil vitututu. Prob. late 18 - early 19. Pararnananta Tevar (date?), author: A!lanta irakaciyam ("Secret of Bliss"). Pararnartta kuruvig katai (by -7 Beschi- Viramarnunivar), Latin and Tam. texts publ. by Viramamunivar ayvuk kalakam, Aru]

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KURUVI~ KATAI-PARAMECUVARA-P PULAVAR

AQantar Kal.luri , Karumattur, in 1975 , ed. by VLML NaQappirakacam, under the title Fabula de ethnicorum magistro Paramartaguru dicto, A P. Josepho Constantio Beschi Societatis Jesu Tamulica lingua scripta et ab ipso auctore in Latinam versa. Paramartta kuruvlg katai, one of the earliest if not the earliest work of Tam. narrative prose fiction, ascribed to Viramamunivar - C.G .E.Beschi (8.11.1680 - 4.2.1747). First publ. by B.G. Babington (1794 - 1866) , London, 1822, with Engl. trans. The ms.presumably in Beschi's own hand, available in British Library with Lat. trans., ed. by Rama Subbiah, Tamil Oli, Journ . of the Tam . Lan guage Society, Univ. of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 1965-66 (5) 105-27. The work is a good-nature satire on a simpleminded Hindu monk and his disciples. Translations: Benjamin G. Babingtom, The Adventures of the Gooroo Paramartan: a tale in the Tamul language, accompanied by a translation and vocabulary, together with an analysis of the first story, London, 1822 (repr. Madras, 1871, London, 1871, Allahabad, 1915, Cleveland, 1916 and 1920 ); Fahrten und Abenteuer Simpels und Compagnie . Ein Tamulisches Reise- und Scherzrnarchen. Nacherzahlt von J.G.T. Graesse, Dresden, 1860. Strange and Surprising Adventures of the Venerable Gooroo Simple , and His Five Disciples, Noddle , Doodle, Wiseacre, Zany, and Foozle. Adorned with fifty illu strations ... by Alfred Crow quill. Boston, 1861 (a free Eng!. paraphrase by "Grey Goose-quill" based on Babington). J.A. Dubois (transl.), Aventures de Gourou Paramarta . Conte drolatique indien. Pari s, 1877. J. Bareille (ed.), Paramarta Guru . Fabula de quodam ethnocrum magistro, a celeberrimo patre Beschi, Tamulico idiomate primitus exarata, modo in canaricam linguam translata; cui addita est latina versio .. . etc. Bangalori, 1877; A tale originally written in Tamil by the celebrated Father Beschi, now translated into Canarese, and accompanied by an English translation. Bangalore, Catholic Mission Press , 1877. Die Abenteuer des Guru Paramarta; eine indische Narrengeschichte frei nacherzahlt von W. Widmer. Frauenfeld, 1946. Kamil Zvelebil (trans.), Zertovne piibeh» Mistra Paramarty (in Czech), Praha, 1954. Cf.also Paramarta: Drama in fiinf Aufziigen, von Julius Engel. Charlottenburg, 1920. Pararnecura Aiyar, Cu. (early 20) , author: musicology Cankita ciittiram, 1905. Paramecuvara (Paramecural-p Pulavar (16). His poetic abuse of Unnamulai ~ Ellappa Nayinar (answered in return by curse in verse) is found in ~ Tamil navalar caritai st. 243 , 244. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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paramparai « Sk1. paramparii-), uninterrupted series or succession; hereditary succession proceeding from father to son, from master to disciple, from generation to generation; lineage. Cf. K.V . Zvelebil , Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, E.F. Brill, 1992,p. 34, and 262-69 for some Tam. scholarly lineages of 19th and 20th c. Paranar (Cankam), c. 120-190 A.D . One of the most prolific and greatest ancient Tam. poets of the ~ Cankam age. Author: Akananuru 6, 62, 76, 116, 122, 125, 135, 142, 148, 152, 162, 178,181,196,198,208 ,212,222,226,236,256,258 ,262,266, 276, 322, 326 , 356 , 367 , 372 , 376, 386 , 396 , Kuruntokai 19, 24, 36, 60, 73, 89, 120, 128, 165, 199, 258, 292, 298, 328 , 393, 399, Narrinai 6, 100, 201, 247, 260, 265, 270, 280, 300, 310, 350 , 356, 5th decade of Patirruppattu (41-50), Purananuru 4, 63, 141, 142, 144, 145, 336, 341, 343, 348 , 352, 354, 369: altogether 85 poems running to 1261 lines. For transl.cf. Ramanujan, A.K ., The Interior Landscape, Bloomington, Indiana Univ., 1967; id., Poems of Love and War , New York, Columbia Univ . 1985. Further, C. Jesudasan, "Paranar", Tam. Culture III,3 (Oct.l954) 168-84; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden / Kaln, EJ. Brill, 1975,269-70. Paranateva Nayanar (10), Salva poet of Civaperuman tiru-v-antati in 101 st. in ~ nericai venpa, ~ antati arrangement, on Siva, incorporated in the 11th book of ~ Tirumurai. Quotes many Saivite shrines, in particular Tiruvarur. Paranattu-p Peruri Korranar (Cankam), author: Akananuru 323 . Paraficoti, At least 3 or 4 persons bearing this name are important in Tamil liter. history: ~ Parancoti 1 Pallava fteneral of 7th c. who sacked Vatapi in 642 A.D. and became Saiva saint under the name ~ Ciruttontar, contemporary of ~ Na!!acampantar and ~ Appar; ~ Paraiicoti; (16), grammarian and teacher, author of Citamparappauiyal; ~ Paraiicoti, (early 17), author of ~ Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam. In addition, a Paraficoti was teacher of ~ Meykantatevar (early 13). Parancoti. ~ Ciruuontar. Parancoti, (16), son of ~ Purana-t Tirumalainatan, grammarian, author of ~ Citamparappiittiyal in 5 parts : Uruppiyal, Ceyyuliyal, Olipiyal, Poruliyal, Marapiyal. Paraficotl, (date? prob. late 16 - early 17) , author : ~ Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam . H.H. Wilson (JRAS 1836, iii, p.203, ftn.l) assigned P. to reign of Harivira Pandya (1051), and this was followed by S. Casie Chitty (The Tamil Plutarch , 1859,64) and others. The only source of Wilson's information was prob . Eng . K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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PARANI

trans . of the puriina by Col. Mackenzie. N. Venkatacarni Nagar (ed. of text, 1927, 12-13) sets the date as c. 1650 A.D. There are no direct reliable data pointing to any particular period. It seems that the early date (llth/12th c.) is upheld by -7 Cuvarninat' Aiyar, but is hardly possible. Accord.to J. Filliozat P. should be dated "du debut du Xvleme". Accord. to trad. history, P' 3 was b. in royal lineage of Saiva devotees in Chola Kingdom, son of Minatcicuntara Tecikar who taught him Tam. and Skt. A serious student , he made pilgrimages to Salva temples, came to Madurai , was struck with vision of the Goddess who commanded him to praise in verse holy games tltl«, vilaiyatal) of Siva . He did so, and presented in public his purdna in the temple; its recept ion was enthusiastic (cf. comm. of Venkatacami Nagar, Na.Mu., 1927 ed. of text). Accord. to another account, he was b. at Tirumaraikkatu (Vetaranyam) in Salva velala family and became tampiran (non-Brahmin Salva monk) in the matha at Madurai. The following works are ascribed to him apart from Tiruvilaiyatal: Yetaraniyapuranam in 18 chapters (based closely on Skt. model; ed. Ma. Comaskantapattar, Madras, 1898); Maturaippatirruppattantiiti, Tiruvilaiyatar porri-k kalivenpa. Yet other works are (incorrectly) ascr. to him, making him author of all in all 5 Tam . works and 2 works in Skt. Cf . Dessigane, R., P.Z. Pattabiramin, J. Filliozat, La legende des jeux de Civa a Madurai d' apres les textes et les peintures, Pondichery , 1960; Harman, William, "Two Versions of a Tamil Text and the Contexts in Which They Were Written", Journ . (oj the Inst.) oj Asian Studies 5.1 (Sept. 1987) 1-18; Paraiicoti Munivar varalaru, Tiruvi(a iyatarpuranam: Tiruppanantal Sri Kaci matarn veliyitu, 1951; Shulman, D.O., Tamil Temple Myths, Princeton Univ. Press, 1980, passim; Venkatacarni Nagar, Na.Mu ., "Paraficoti Munivarum Tiruvilaiyatalum", Centamil Celvi , Cilampu-5 , 15-18; Zvelebil, K.V., Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 245-7. parani (cf. Skt. bharani-Ti, poem whose hero is a warrior who has killed 700 or 1000 male elephants on battlefield, a war-poem par excellence, and poetic expression of gruesomeness and horror. Not very productive genre, yet all preserved p. poems are important works of verbal art, and one of them, -7 Kalinkattupparani ; belongs to peaks of Tam. poetry. The p. poems available today or known to have existed, are : -7 Koppattupparani (on battle of Koppam of Rajendra II, A.D. 1054, lost); -7 Kutal cankamattupparani (on battle at Kudala sarigama of Virarajendra, A.D.1066-68, lost); -7 Kalinkattupparani I by -7 Cayarikontar (on Kulotturikan I, A.D. 1112, 599 st.) ; -7 K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Kalinkattupparani; by ~ Ottakkuttar (on Prince Vikrama Cola , A.D. 1096, lost); ~ Takkayakapparani by Ottakkuttar (purii1]ic story, A.D. 1155, 814 st.); ~ Iraniyavataipparani , anonym. ipuranic story, A.D. 1210, 693 st.); ~ Aiinavataipparani by ~ Tattuvarayar (Salva philo sophy in allegory; A.D. 1450, 493 st.); ~ Mokavataipparani by Tattuvarayar (philosophy in allegory, A.D . 1450, 349 st.); ~ Piicavataipparani by ~ Vaittiyanata Tecikar (Saiva Siddhanta in allegory , A.D. 1640, 737 st.); ~ Tiruccenturpparani by ~ Cinippulavar (18th c. , 174 st. , fragmentary;purii1]i c story); Kaiicavataipparani (Kr snaite, mentioned by U.V. Swaminath'Iyer); Kalaicaiccitamparecar parani by Cuppiramaniya Munivar (A.D. 1800; this is not true p.); Curan vatai parani (on killing of Curan; quoted in ms. form, U.V. Swaminath'Iyer Library, Madras). Cf. T.P. Menakshisundaram, "The Parani Poetry", Proc . of the First Intern. Conference Seminar of Tam.Studies , Vol. 2, Kuala Lumpur, 1969,196-207. Cf. Pannirupiiftiyal I!1av.58-61 , Yenptip , Cey.38-39, Navanitap. Cey.31-36, Pirapantamarap.19 , Citamparap. Marap.140, ltakkanavil 838-9, Tonnul vii . 159, Muttuviriyam Yapp. Olip , 79, Pirapanta tip.6 , Cuviiminatam 174. Pararikucar ~ Nammiilvar. Pararikuca Tacar (19), author : Arindma can kirttanam (1868). Parantamagar, A.Ki. (b. 1902), began writing 1928, author: many books of essays (Nalla tamil elutaventuma'l Is it necessary to write good Tamil? and Tamil ilakkiyam karka Let' s study Tamil literature are well known), poetry collections Marumalarcci-k kavitaikal (Poems of the Renai ssance), Enkal tottam (Our Garden), history of Madurai Nayaks and of Tirumalai Nayaka (received award of Government of India) . Parasurama, La Devadassi tBayaderes. Comedie en quatre parties. Trad. du Tamoul par L. J acolliot. Paris , 1868. Parataearikirakam ~ Aram Valarttan . Paratacittantam (16? ), anonym. treatise on art of dance, mostly on talam (rhythm) . Most prob. not before 16th c. Paratag, Tirueci (20), playwright, author: Appavin. acai (Daddy's Desire), musical for children. Performed often with success by ~ TLKe.Es. Brothers Company. Paratavenpa (9) by ~ Peruntevanar, is a campti; the prose serves to explain the verses or to connect them in continuous narrative. The book begins with a part of Uttiyokaparuvam (479 ~ venpa, 4 ~ iiciriyam) , contains entire Yitumaparuvam (191 venpa, 3 viruttam), and stops with the battle of 13th day of Turonaparuvam (148 venpii, 2 aciriyam, 3 viruttam), all in all 830 st. Introductory st. praise K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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pARATIT ACA~-PARIMELAl,AKAR

Tirumal (Visnu) at the beginning of every new portion. If the entire P. would have survived, we would have more than 100 such st., a whole stotraprabandha on Visru, There are 18 such praises, showing feelings of deep ~ bhakti Peruntevanar felt for the god. Other portions, too , show tremendous devotion to Kannan (Krsna). Poetic passages are composed in excellent ~ centamil whereas the ornate, rhythmic and vigorous prose is heavily Sanskritized. Peruntevanar may thu s be seen as agent of Sanskritization for he employs large number of Skt. words, phrases and constructions. In Northern tradition, Mahabhdrata is considered the 5th Veda; some of this emotion is also seen in P. Its author is great in stutis or praises of Krsna, in the virarasa or heroic mood, prob. unsurpassed in Tam. literature, and in ethical didacticism. Accord. to some opinions, his work "fails to move" and "has not the faintest claim to greatness" (c. and H. Je sudasan, 1961), but accord. to M. Arunachalam (1974), "its verses are of high poetic quality". It was first published in bits and pieces in various liter. journals; in 1926 Pandit Kopala Aiyar gathered it and publ. first the entire preserved text. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, E.J . Brill, 1992, p.68; for detailed analysis, Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, NurriifJ!U 9-1, 7-52. Paratltacan ~ Cuppurattinam , Kanaka . paratiyar (or paratapiracahkii, Mahabharata reciter, performer of a Mahabharata (usually by ~ Villiputtiir or ~ Nallappillai) ~ piracahkam; paratiyinam, endowment for reciting Mahabharata in temples. Paravati Kecariyar (15), Vaisnava poet, author of praise-poems on ~ Manavala Mamuni, parayanam « Skt.) regular, ritualized recitation of sacred formulae or sacred texts. Parayagar (Cankam), author: Narrinai 155. Parcuvanatar (date?), author: Tirunaruhkontai Parcuvanatacuvami kovil makattuvam, Jaina ~ sthalapurana. Cf. also Tiruna ruhkontattiruuala varalaru (South Arcot) by Mu.Canrnuka Pillai, Jaina Tam.Ilakkiya Manram, 1973. Parimakalir (Cankam), authoress: Purananuru 112. Parimauagar (date?), accord. to ~ Mayilainatar, author of lost treatise on prosody ( ~ yappilakkanami , 7 aphorisms preserved in comm. on ~ Y'apparuhkalam. Parimelalakar (The Beautiful One on the Steed; for the legend of his name, cf. Vai.Mu.Kopalakrusnamacarya's ed. of Tirukkural, 1965, p. XVII), famous commentator, either native of Okkai (Okkiir, Pantiyanatu, cf. ~ Peruntokai No . 1547) who lived in K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Madurai (ib. 1548), or of Kaficipuram in the family of Vaisnav a Brahmin priests of Sri Ul akalantaperu mal temple (~ Tontaimantala catakam 41; V.V. Swaminath 'Aiyar). He was younger contemporary of ~ Cenavaraiyar (1276) whose opinions he accepts, and earlier than ~ Naccinarkkiniyar who criticized his comm. on ~ Paripatal 11.57 in the comm . on ~ Tirumurukarruppatai 106. If identifiable with Parimelalakiyaperuma] tatar of inscr. in Sri Varadaraja temple , his date will be 1272 A.D. (M. Raghava Iyengar, Casana-t tamil-k kavi caritam , 1937, 114- 18, ed. 1961, 121-25). He refers to the work Smgaraprakasa (11th c.), so he cannot be earlier; Umapati Civam (1313) refers to him, so he cannot be later. All these facts point to his date as c. 1290-1310. Cf. also ~ Peruntokai 1543-1550. Author: learned, concise and clear comm. on ~ Tirukkural, much indebted to Skt. sources (quoting freely from sastras and Kamasiarai, in terse but lucid style, with many valuable illustrations; the comm. on ~ Paripiital is prob. also his, whereas the comm. on ~ Tirumurukarruppatai, ascr. to him, is almost certainly of later date, and not his. Cf. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, Tamilccutarmanikal, 1959, 190-2101; V.V. Swaminath'Aiyar's ed. of Paripatal, 4th ed., 1956, XXIX-XXXI; Mu.Vai. Aravintan, Uraiyaciriyarkal (The Commentators), Madras , 1968, 2nd.ed . 1977 , 406-67; D. Savariroyan, "Parimelalagar", Tam.Antiquary II (1913) 1.53; F. Gros, Le Paripatal, Pondichery, 1968, XII ff. paripatal, type of stanzaic structure with unlimited number of lines using variety of metres; rather loose structure with verses ranging from single ~ taniccol foot to four, exceptionally five feet. Each st. ideally contains name of musical melody-type to which it is set. Cf. ~ Paripatal. Paripatal ([Collection in the] paripatal metre), class. Tam. anthology in ~ paripatal metre, originally prob. 70 st. in number (this number is quoted in ~ Nakkirar's comm. on ~ Iraiyaruir Akapporul and in ~ Peraciriyar's comm. on ~ Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 461), of which 22 survived in full, plus 2 large fragments and lIvery short fragments. The number of lines is unlimited, lines range from one to five feet; supposed to be set to music. Its recitation was prob. accompanied by mime. Of the 70 poems, 8 were dedicated to god Tirumal, 31 to Cevvel (Murukag), 1 to Katukilar (a form of Durga), 26 to the river Vaikai, 4 to Maturai. The poems manifests three basic themes, erotic , religious and sportive (dealing with water-games). The religious hymns represent earliest Tam. poems of ~ bhakti. Ascribed to 13 poets, the best among them prob. ~ Nallantuvanar. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Colophons also give names of composers who set poems to music, and names of tunes (pany; three tunes are given (palaiyal , notiram and kantarami. There are allusions to puranic matter and references to shrines built in postclassical period. Comm. by ~ Parimelalakar (13th c.) is available. Prob. date between latter half of 4th and first half of 6th c. Publ. first in print by Caminat'Aiyar, U.Ve. in 1918. Crit. ed. with transl. in French and important introd. and notes Francois Gras, Le Paripatal, Texte tamoul, introduction , tradu ction et notes, Pondichery, 1968 . The edition of S. Rajan (Madras, 1957) gives many variants but no comm. Cf. also S.N. Kandaswamy, Paripiital, a linguistic study, unpubl. M .A. thesis, Annamalai Univ., 1962; S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1956, pp. 26, 29, 56 ; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 101-2; l.R. Marr, The Eight Anthologies, Inst. of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985, 369-89 and passim; A.K . Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War, Columbia Univ . Press, New York, 1985, 218-25 and passim. Paripatal - composers of its music (icai): Nannakanar/ Maruttuvanallaccuvanar (II); Pettanakanar (III, IV) ; Kannanakanar (Kannakanar, Kannakanar) (V, XXI); Maruttuvan Nallacutanar (VI, VIII, IX, X, XV, XIX); Pittamattar (VII); Nakanar (XI); Nannakanar (Nannakanar (XII); Kecavanar (XIV); Nallaccutanar (XVI, XVII, XVIII, XX). Roman numerals refer to cantos accord. to ed . F. Gras, Le Paripatal, Pondichery, 1968 . Paripatal - poets of its cantos: Kirantaiyar (2), Katuvan Ilaveyinanar (3 , 4, 5) , Nallantuvanar (6, 8, 11, 20), Maiyota-k Kovanar (7), Kunram Putanar (9, 18), Karumpillai-p Putanar (10), Nalavalutiyar (12) , Nalleluniyar (13), Kecavanar (14), Ilamperuvalutiyar (15), Nallaluciyar (alias Nallaliciyar, 16, 17), Nappannanar (19), Nallaccutanar (21) . Poem 1 (Introd.) and 22 are anonymous. Pariperu mal (11? 13?), one of the (later?) commentators on ~ Tirukkural. Prob. of Celuvai (Pantinatu). Accord to trad. he also wrote a book on moliyiyal ("linguistics"; a grammar?), and another on phy sical love (kiimanul). For details, see Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru - NurralJtu 11 , 84-104. Paritimal Kalaiiiar ~ Ciiriyandriiyana Castiri , Yi .Ko , Parithyar), 12th c., comm. on ~ Tirukkural. Prob. between ~ Manakkutavar and ~ Parimelalakar. Inclined towards Saivism, but tolerant on Vaisnavism. Ripe and fresh gloss. Parkappag (Cankarn), author: NarrilJai 254 . Parthasarathy, C. (early 20), author: Sangili Karuppan; or, The Wheel of Destiny. A South Indian Romance in English. Vellore, 1920. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Parttacarati Aiyankar, P. (early 20), author: novel Cuntari manokaran (revised ed., Madras, 1921) . Parttacarati Aiyailkar, V.K. (early 20), author: novel Rakunantanan allatu Jeyapura-t tattu (R. or the Jaipur Vase, 2nd ed., Madras, 1925. Parttacarati, Intira (Indra Parthasarathy, nom-de-plume of Dr. Rankanatan Parttacarati, born 10.7.1931 in Kumbakonam), lecturer, Delhi Univ. Began writing in c. 1961. One of the most serious, major mod. Tam. prose -writers and playwrights. Author of some 20 novels (3 of them trans. into Eng .), 3 novelettes, 4 collections of stories, at least 7 plays (all trans. into Hindi and staged); also biography of Sri Ramanuja, For several years guest prof. at Warsaw Univ., Poland, teaching Tam. P. is one of the most fiercely motivated, seriously engage Tam. writers. His vision of mod. Indian society is highly critical. His many novels are much deeper and more complex than those of --7 Akilan, more sharply critical and ideologically founded that those of --7 Janakirarnan, but less openly doctrinaire and more analytic than those of --7 Jeyakantan, His first novel Kala vellam (Time's Flood, 1968) is realistic picture of daily life of a Brahmin family of Srirangam in pre-Independent days. His first great novel is Tantira piimi (trans. as "Tricky Ground" or "World of Artfulness", 1968-69), the Tam . social novel. Its sujet is life in the microcosm of morbid bourgeois society of Delhi. The protagonist, a Tam. youngster, Kastiiri, becomes in writer's hands powerful tool to bring out the evils of India's capital city . The enterprising young man is first employed as clerk in a firm, then holds govt. post. He is used and exploited by rich men with vested interests in the profit-oriented society of the capital. A middle-class, welleducated youngster cannot withstand the pressure of unscrupulous profit-makers who sacrifice everything for the sake of money and success. Kastiiri's deepest self finds fulfilment only in Mirra who represents all that is fundamentally and genuinely Indian, in contrast to the artificial world of moneyed rich, intoxicated with false Western values, and the world of carefree hippies. Mirra is not "morally" virtuous but honest and true to herself, and Kastiiri chooses "truth in favour of virtue" (Vimala Manuel). Cf. Ind. Literature, Dec. 1970, p. 96. Cutantira pumi (Land of Freedom, 1970) is another novel about life in Delhi, and another social criticism of "free" India. The protagonist, rather than becoming a teacher, takes on the job of cook in the house of an M.P., and himself becomes member of parliament. Catching the eye of the Prime Minister, he even becomes minister. The novel shows openly how politicians and representatives of the people K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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hunt for money , titles, licenses, and everyone tries to catch the smile of the Prime Minister. Kurutippunal (River of Blood, 1975) depicts a village tragedy and is based on actual events in Tanjavur Dist. The protagonists are Harijan serfs working the land. It takes into account notions of class-struggle and other doctrinal points of Communist ideology which spread throughout Tam. villages in the 60s and 70s. P. takes the stand of critical revolutionary realist. At the same time, he presents his heroes without exaggeration and pathos, without hollow schematism, with subtle humour. Received Sahitya Akademi Award in 1977. Other novels: Tivukal (Islands, 1976), social novel about life of Delhi upper classes; Nilamenum nallal (Good Earth, 1978), another social novel; Miiyamii!1 vettai (Chasing the Magic Dear, 1980), social novel about life in Delhi; Ventu taninta katukai (Burning Forests Extinguished, 1981). Novelettes: Ucci veyyil (Midday Heat, 1979) contains six short novels (the first, Ucci veyyil, was publ. in 1968 by Bookventure in the collection Arucuvai The Six Tastes); Vesahkal (Disguises) is excellent novella dealing with life of middle-class Tamilians in Delhi; Helikopterkal irahkivittana (Helicopters have landed): story of a cowardly bureaucrat in Delhi and his hypocritical approach to things; Akni (Agni, 1983) contains 2 novelettes. Short story collections Manito teyvahkal (Human Gods, 1967), Nacakara-k kumpal (A Bunch of Rascals, 1978, 8 stories between 1965-78), Yukatarman (The Order of the Age, 1984). E.g. "Worship" (in : Tamil Short Stories, Delhi, 1980, 133-43) is a complex story with the theme of worship of female beauty being gateway to true religious worship. Takes place during Ramanuja's times. A rich man craves a poor man's beautiful, chaste wife who is willing to sacrifice her chastity in exchange of food given to feed the saint and his devotees. The rich man overcomes his passion after he realizes that what seems to him enormous prize is considered by his intended victim, by her husband, and by his own wife only a trifle, since what would be given would be only the body and not the heart and mind. He earns Ramanuja's praise. The plays of P. represent significant departure from previous play-writing and play-acting in Tam. Malai (The Rain, 1971), his first play, became a triumph. It is about a widowed father and a spinster daughter, frustrated, cynical but supremely sensitive, who hates being an all-time "daughter, nurse and secretary" to her seriously ill father (and yet she cannot leave him). The action moves fast and dramatically in 3 acts within one rainy evening. It is left to the audience to decide whether Nirrnala killed her father or not. The dialogues are lively, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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intelligent, switching from spoken Tamil to bits of Eng . The motif of rain is used with utmost skill (for detailed account of the play cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 297-8) . Other plays: Porvai porttiya uialkai (CloakWearing Bodies) was satisfactory stage production in Delhi and Madras. Nantan katai (The Story of Nandan), with songs and dance, is based on the well-known legend of Harijan saint Nantanar, and yet is very different (was Nandan deliberately dome away with?). These two plays, together with Koyil (The Temple) and Aurahkacip (about the Mughal emperor) appeared in one vol. in 1978. P. is the only Tam. playwright whose dramas were trans. into Hindi and Urdu, and staged with success in these languages. Parttacarati, Na, (Manivannan, Ilampuranan, Kutalalakan, Valavan, Ponmuti, b. 18.12.1932 in Natikkuti, Ramnad Dist.), one of the leading Tam. prose-writers and journalists, editor of Tinamanikatir and Tipam (Deepam). Began publishing in 1952. His output of novels, short stories and other prose writings is stunning; so is his energy as editor and journalist. Author: Novels: Kuriiici malar (Blossoms of Kurifici, 1962) : The heroine Purani takes care of her two younger brothers and a sister, gets a job as teacher, and establishes a press to publish her father's scholarly works. She meets there Aravintan, and mutual affection develops. She travels, mainly in Sri Lanka and Bengal, spreading the values of Tam. culture and literature, a modern Indian woman of the future, socially and politically active. When she returns South she finds Aravintan dying; while helping in an epidemy he fell ill. Purani remains with him , and the moment she achieves decisive political victory, her lover dies. POI1 vilahku (Golden Fetters) deals with a woman's unfulfilled love . Mohini, a dancer, is passionately in love with Cattiyamurtti, and out of the despair of unreciprocated love commits suicide. The end of the novel is an impressive scene of the man watching her funeral pyre with the sparks from the fire falling at his feet as if they were kissing them. Melodrama and sentimentality mark these two novels, otherwise well written. Other novels: Pauuppucci (Silkworm), Nerrikkan (Frontal Eye), Kapatapuram, Malaiccikaram (Mountain Peak), Pantimatevi, Manipallavam, Piranta man (Native Soil), Ninaivin nilalkal (Shadows of Memories), Neiica-k kanal (Fire in the Heart, 1968): One of the most important mod . Tam. political novels, showing various dramatic and shady sides of political machinations and the validity of India's motto "Truth Will Prevail"; its protagonist Karnalakkannan is unable to ignore his conscience. Camutaya viti (1968, Crowds in the Streets), which brought the author 1971 Sahitya Akademi K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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award , describes, with Kopal as protagonist, the situation of mod. Tam . stage, dealing with the relationship between real life, society and theater. The characterizations of the dramatic artiste and of the film "extra-girl" Matavi are indeed excellent. The famous Atmiivi!l rakankai (The Soul's Melodies, 1969) is about a dedicated Gandhian facing the loss of his sweetheart during the struggle for Independence. Maturam, a vina arti ste, loves Rajaraman, involved in political struggle. The hero has taken a vow not to marry till India gains her freedom . A number of actual historical personages appear throughout (from Gandhi to Kamaraj), and the novel unfolds like a reportage arranged chronologically around important events. Although it may lack in vividness and psycho logical depth, it is a message and a reminder of the saga of unselfish and dedicated men of past struggles. Anicca malar (1970) is the tragic story of Cumali destroyed in the world of the "vultures" of mod. cinema. Further novels : Araitin kural (The Voice of Dharma), Ilaiyutir kalattu iravukai (Nights at the Time of Falling Leaves), Verri mulakkam (The Drum of Victory), Manakkan (Mind's Eye) , Kopura tipam (Light on Temple Tower), Yanci manakaram , Nittilavalli , Nita nayanankal (Blue Eyes , 1975) , dedicated to today's Tam . film-world and questions of art (with director Nantakopal and actress Kauri as protagonists), Cattiya vellam (Flood of Truth, 1973): its hero is the student leader Manavalan, struggling to disperse the darkness of doom on the country' s political scene with the "flood of truths"; this is a very important novel about the clash of idealistic university students with current political reality; Tulaci matam (Niche with Tul si Plant), Karcuvarkal (Stone Walls, 1976), in which the author shows , in the person of Tanacekaran, the disintegration of former ruling princes; social novel Poymmukahkal (False Faces, as book in 1980). In his novels, P. often creates stereotypes conforming to traditional values and traditional definitions, schematic and psychologically shallow. However, he combines ~ Akilan's skill in construction of plot s with ~ Varataracan's thoughtful intelligence, and, in addition, he writes excellent smooth prose; his four best novels are perhaps Kuriiici malar, POll viiakku, Camuuiya viti and Atmiivi!l rdkahkal, His variegated short stories are perhaps artistically more satisfying than some of the novels. Paccaikkulantaikal (Small Children, in Ve!lil malarkal, Summer Blossoms, 1961): In order to ask forgiveness from his little girl-friend with whom he plays "father and mother", a small boy touches her feet - the typical Hindu gesture of humble greeting. The girl protests that it is not K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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customary for a husband to do this; in real life , such gesture is performed only by an inferior vis-a-vis a superior, but never by a husband towards his wife. Tivattikkoilai (Torchlight Robbery, ib.): A young woman, grown up in the society of men and the care of her father courageously saves a man from drowning. When she finds out that he is a bandit who wants to kill her, she takes revenge and causes him to drown for good . The villagers are grateful to her for having saved them from the dacoit but no man comes forward to marry her. She goes through life a spinster, and on her death is made a village deity. Nallapampu tirppu (The Cobra Verdict, in Mankiyator nilavinile, In Pale Moonlight, 1963): An ordeal requires both the plaintiff and the defendant to thrust their hands into a vessel containing a cobra. The innocent person remains unharmed whereas the guilty one who had bribed the snake-charmer to put into the vessel a non-poisonous ratsnake, is fatally bitten. After his death two copulating snakes craw lout of the vessel; it becomes apparent that the cobra must have somehow managed to slip in and join the rat-snake. Mallikaiyum marukkoluntum (The Jasmin Flower and the Fragrant Wood, in Itu potuvali alla, This is Not a Public Road, 1978): The protagonist and his wife Janaki whom he married against his father's wish teach in the same college. Janaki is not content to be just a wife and a modest teacher, applies for lectureship in Bombay and leaves her husband. He reproaches himself for not having listened to his father's advice, and compares the love of an educated woman to fragrant jasmin blossoms which quickly wither while love in arranged marriage is like the koluntu shrub whose twigs emit fragrance always. Other short story collections: Putiya palam (New Bridge, 1967), Kankai innum varrivitavillai (The Ganga Has Not Yet Dried Up, 1968), Valampuri-c cahku (Right-Spiralled Conch, 1963), Tevataikalum corkalum (Deities and Words, 1969), Kalattukku vanakkam (Homage to Time, 1972), etc. Paraphrases of class. literature Tamil ilakkiya-k kataikal, Purananurru-c cirukataikal; poetry Manivannan kavitaikal and Katarkarai ninaivukal (Thoughts on the Seashore), essays (Putu ulakam kanten I Saw a New World etc.), scholarly books (Collin celvam Wealth of Words, Kavitaikkalai Art of Poetry, Moliyi!J:. valiye The Exact Way of Language etc.). Transl. of Telugu author Virasalingam Pantulu. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974,265-6 and 292; "RightSpiralled Conch", The Plough and the Stars, London, 1963, 112-20; review by K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar in Ind . Literature XVIIIA (1975) 119-20. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Parttacarati, Ti.Es. (b. 1913), began publishing 1938, author: play Pirakalatapakti vija yam (on the mythol. story of Prahlada), scholarly work Arunakirinatarum Tiruppukalum, transl. plays by Rabindranath Tagore, songs of Tyagaraja, etc. Parttacararl, Va.Ko. (Parateci , b. 1923), author: poetry Puliyaii colaiyile (In the Grove of Tamarind Trees), Kanata kanavukal (Undreamt Dreams) , translations. Paruumovayppatumanar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 101. paruvam « Skt parvan- ) book as part of an epic or purana; section of a book; chapter. Pasyam, Es. (Cantilyag, 1910-1987), well-known author of many long-drawn hi storical novel s and romances, composed in long sentences and ornate prose, making excellent entertainment: Kanni matam (Palace of Virgin Princesses, in 62 chapters) describes Pandya country in 12th c., divided between Kulacekara in Nellai and Parakkirarna in Maturai ; Katalpura (Sea Dove, 3 parts) , Vacantakalam (Springtime), Yavana rani (Yavana Queen, 2 parts), Rajatilakam (Roy al Tilak), Rajaperikai (Royal Drum), Manna!l makai (King ' s Daughter), Malaivii cal (In the Mountains ), Rajamuttirai (Royal Seal, 2 parts). Maiical iiru (Saffron Ri ver) , Muhkil kottai (Bamboo Fortress), llaiyarani (The Younger Queen), Paniiyan pavant (Pandyan 's Parade) with Parantaka Pandya as central character, Rajyasri, with Harsa's sister R. as protagonist, etc.; Palatkaram (Violence, novel about India's struggle for freedom, with foreword by Satyamurti). Cf. Hyacinth Leo, "The Historical Novel of the Mid-Century" , Proc. of the Se cond Int ern . Conference-Sem. of Tam. Studies , 2, 1971, 130-35. patalam « Skt. patala-), section or chapter of liter. work, most often transl. as " canto" in epic/narrative poem; shorter than ~ kaniam; corresponds roughly to ~ carukkam but tends to be shorter. Patalam (date?), lo st gram. treati se mentioned in comm. on ~ Yiipparuhkalam . 1 aphorism preserved in comm. on Yapparunkalam Olipiyal. Patalagar (date?), ancient grammarian quoted in ~ Yapparunkalavirutti, his work(s) totally lost. patam < Skt. pada-, a kind of musical composition, e.g. very popular Muttuttantavar's patam' s. Usually erotic poem depicting in ~ kirttanam form the pining of a love-sick girl/woman for her lover god. patan, elegy and praise , one of the themes of ~ puram poetry. pataQ tinai, situation in ~ puram dealing with duties and glories of kings; praise of the protagonist's fame, power and liberality ; cf. Skt. prasasti. ~ Purapporul venpa malai, Patalam 9 (51 st.). Patatavaikalar (Cankarn), author: Kuruntokai 323. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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patavurai (Tam. rhetoric), word by word explanation of a text. patikam. (1) cf. prob. Skt. padya-: designation of groups of Salva and Vaisnava devotional hymns, usually in groups of ten (sometimes of 9 to 12) st.; altern. term patiyam. Accord. to J.R. Marr, this term represents rather conflation of Skt. padya- and pratika-. It is also called tiru-p-patiyam (occurring in early Chola inscr. , e.g. 422 of 1904). The unifying principle of the whole cluster is a single theme (e.g. description of a god in a local shrine); its final st. known as ---7 tirukkataikkappu ("closing of the gate") is almost always signatory verse with selfidentification of the poet; (2) cf. prob. Skt. pratika- : poetic preface or epilogue to some or groups of poems usually provided by a person other than author (compiler, anthologist, commentator), e.g. very valuable patikam's of ---7 Patirruppattu. Cf. A. Kandiah, A Critical Study of Early Tamil Saiva Bhakti Literature , with special reference to Tevdram, Ph.D.diss., Univ. of London, 1973; D.O. Shulman (trans.), Songs of the Harsh Devotee - The Tevaram of Cuntaramurttinayanar, Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1990, Introduction. Patikkacu-p Pulavar (end 17 - begin 18), well-known and popular poet. B.c.1650 in Tegkalattur (or Ponvilankalattur, Tontainatu) in cehkuntar (weavers) community. Student of ---7 Vaittiyanata Tecikar (author of Ilakkanavilakkami . Close friend of Citakkati Periyatampi Maraikkayar mentioned in Eng. record in 1693. Praised also RaiJkappa Malavarayar of Ariyaliir (1684-1724). One of his patrons was Kilavan Cetupati (1673 or 1678-1710, or 1868-1723). Composed several poems on Civantelunta Pallavarayar after whose death in 1686 in battle kingdom of Pudukottah wa s formed . All this points to the above-given dating. Spent life partly as court poet (Ramnad) but mostly as wandering bard composing occasional st., polemic poems, ethical sayings and trad . ---7 prabandhas. At end of life entered Dharmapuram monastery. Was first poet who recorded the fact that Tarn. as language of literature was neglected because of Telugu, Maratha and Muslim influences (Jesudasan). Author: Tontaimaniala catakam, import. work in praise of northern Tamilnadu, quoting many liter. and other anecdotes (publ. Rippon press, Madras, 1913); Pul lirukkumvelur-k kalampakam in 101 st., Civantelunta Pallavan ula in praise of Pallavarayar killed in battle 1686; Civantelunta Pallavan pillaittamil; Umaipakar patikam; Pampalahkarar varukkakkovai; many occasional st. on ---7 Citakkati, ---7 Irakunata Cetupati and other patrons; import. poetic epistles. Ascribed to him: Palamolivilakkam Tantalaiyar catakam (Collection of ethical K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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maxims and proverbs), possibly work of ~ Cantalinka Kavirayar of Tantalai. Patigenkllkkanakku, Eighteen Shorter Text , summary term for a corpus of early post-classical Tam . liter. works: a war-poem (~ Kalavalinarpatui, six poems on ~ akam (~ Karniirpatu , ~ Aintinaiyelupatu, ~ Aintinaiyaimpatu, ~ Tinaimoliyaimpatu, ~ Tinaimalainurraimpatu , ~ Kainnilai) and eleven collections of maxims on ethical and social conventions (~ Tirikatukam , ~ Niinmanikkatikai, ~ Cirupaii camidam, ~ Eliiti, ~ Mutumolikahci, ~ Inniiniiryatu , ~ Iniyavainarpatu , ~ ACiirakk6vai, ~ Palamolinanuru, ~ Nalatiyar, -7 Tirukkuraly. The term P. occurs first in ~ Peraclriyars comm. on ~ Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram Ceyyuliyal 547, in ~ Naccinarkkiniyar's comm. on the same, and in comm . on ~ Yiracoliyam 145. The division into "longer" and "shorter" works is purely formal: works containing less than fifty st. composed in different metres are regarded as kilkkanakku (with the important exception of poems composed in ~ venpa which can be of any length); work s ranging from 50 to 500 st. in ~ aka val, ~ vaiici, ~ kali or ~ paripatal metres are designated melkkanakku or major work s. It is incorrect to translate the term P. as "Eighteen Didactic (or Ethical) Works " since at least six of them are not at all didactic; the term does not have any evaluative meaning either. Cf. ~ Pannirupattiyal 222 and 223. St. 2017 in ~ Peruntokai enumerates the eighteen text s in question. Cf. also S. Sivapathasundaram, "A Sociological Study of Patinenhkiilkkanhakku (Early Tamil Ethical Books)", Pro c. of the 5th Intern. Conference - Seminar of Tam . Studies 1.7.165-80. patirrantati, poem of 10 st. in ~ venpii or ~ kalitturai in ~ antati arrangement. Cf. Ilakkanavil. 841, Pirapantatip. 19 etc . patirruppaUantati, poem in 100 st. in ~ antdti arrangement, each ten in different metre. Very productive esp. in devotional poetry. Patirruppattu (The Ten Ten s), class. Tam . anthology in ~ puram hypergenre, orig. consisting of ten sections, each of them in praise of a Chera (Ceral) king, each section accompanied by epilogue (~ patikam) in ver se and by prose-colophon. First and tenth decades apparently lost. Each decade is provided with brief comm., prob. of 13th c. or later. 2nd decade by ~ Kamattur-k Kannanar is in praise of Imayavarampan Netuficeral Ata!! (c. 150 A.D.); 3rd decade by ~ Palai-k Kautamanar in praise of Palyanai-c Celkelukuttuvag (c. 150 A.D.); 4th decade by ~ Kappiyarru-k Kappiyanar is dedicated to Kalankaykkanni Narrnuticceral (c. 180 A.D.); 5th decade by ~ Paranar sings of Cenkuttuvag (c. 170-180 K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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A.D.), contemporary of Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka (~ Gajabahu synchronism); 6th decade by ~ Kakkaipatiniyar Naccellaiyar is in praise of Atukotpattu-c Ceralatan (c. 180 A.D.); 7th decade by ~ Kapilar in praise of Celvakkatunko Valiyatan Kuttuvag Irumporai (c. 170 A.D.); 8th decade by ~ Aricil Kilar is dedicated to the greatest king of the line Takaturerinta Peruficeral Irumporai (c. 190 A.D.); 9th decade by ~ Peruilkunriir Kilar praises Kutakko Ilaficeral Irumporai (c. 200 A.D.). Thus decades 2-6 deal with about 3 generations of Imayavarampan line of Ceral rulers (c. 150-180 A.D.) , and decades 7-9 with about 3 generations of Irumporai line (c. 170-200 A.D.), both lines interconnected through marriages. Both poems and epilogues represent rich source of political, sociological and cultural information. Publ. first in print by ~ Caminat' Aiyar in 1904; he also supplied detailed comm. Cf. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1956, 26, 37, 55, 57; J.R. Marr, "The lost decades of Patirruppattu", Pro c. of the 2nd Intern. Conference-Seminar of Tam . Studies, Madras, 1971, 19-24; id., The Eight Anthologies, Institute of Asian Studies, Madras, 1985, pa ssim; K. Kailasapathy, Tamil Heroic Poetry, London, Oxford Univ. Press, 1968, M.A. Thiagarajah, Ceranatu during the Cahkam and the Post-Cahkam Period, Ph.D.thesis , Univ. of London, 1963; K.V . Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 90-92; cf. also ed. by A. Turaicarni Pillai, Kalakam, Madras, 1950. Patiruttig Pulavar (19) , Muslim author of Mukaitin puriinam in 40 chapters (2000 st.), showing vast erudition in Skt., Tam. and Malayalam, and great narrative skill. Patrnanapa Aiyar, Koyarnuttur (19), author : Salva songs Tetacciranta tericanam . Patmagapag, Rajesvari (Anuttarnma, b. 1922 in Nelliir), popular female novelist and short story writer. Pattar (Sri Bhattar, Sri Bhattanar), prob . 13th, author: Tam. version of Bhagavadgita on "Sankara vedanta lines" (M. Arunachalam), under title Paramarttataricanam. 550 st. in 18 chapters. Accord. to Arunachalam, "written in good Tamil". Pattarpiran ~ Periyalvar. Pattarpirag Jtyar (Kovintaracappan, 15), disciple of ~ Manavala Mamuni, Vaisnava author of Antimopaya nittai . Pattigappalai (The City [and] Separation) by ~ Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar about the separation of a lady from her lover who is about to go to Kaverippattinam to the Chola king Karikala , great patron of poets , to receive a reward; in 301 lines (153 in K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

538

PATTI~ATTAR ,-PATTINATTU-P PII,-I,-AIYAR

-7 vanci, 138 in -7 akaval), of mixed -7 akam and -7 puram genres. Another name Yancinetumpaitu (Long Song in Vanci Metre) . C. 190-200 A.D . Gives a vivid portrait of life in the harbour and city, and of Karikala's reign and exploits. Was still popular at the court of imperial Cholas (850-1200 A.D .). First pub!. 1889. Cf. K. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1973, 57-8 ; id., Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 22-3. Pattigattar. -7 Pauinattu-p Pillaiyar. Pattigattar, ("The One Who Belongs to the City [of Kaverippattinam]"), greatest Tam. Siddha (-7 eittar) poet, also called Pattinattatika] or Pattinattu-p Pillaiyar, Not to be confused with -7 Pattinattar. of the lIth book of Saiva Canon. His real name was (TtrurVenkatar (b. at Tiruvenkatu); he was a wealthy merchant (Cetti) living in Kaverippattinam; abandoned his home, became wandering ascetic, lived in Tiruvenkatus forest, died at Tiruvorrtyur. Author: 3 poems in -7 akaval entitled Koyirriruvakaval of 43, 38 and 52 lines resp.; Kaecittiruvakaval (70 lines), Tiruvekampamalai (40 st. in -7 kattalaikkalitturaiy; a number of st. on different Salva shrines (in -7 viruttam, -7 venpa and kattalaikkalitturai metres); collection Potu ("Common, General [Themes]"), 150 st. largely autobiographic. Ascribed to him: Mutalvan muraiyitu (72 -7 kalJlJi) , Arutpulampai (117 kaIJIJi), Irantakalattirankal (17 kan I'J i), Neh cotupulamp al (32 -7 ka/iviruttam), Puranamalai (102 kanniy, Neiicotu makiltal (31 kanniy, Utarkurruvannam (120 lines). Accord. to Mu. Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, XIV Cent., Tiruchitrambalam, 1969, 3824, all these are works of another poet. P. is one of the great "beggar-poets", the great relativist and the great pessimist of Tam. literature. Life is a tragedy, man is seat of egoism, woman the great temptress. His poems are replete with helplessness, resignation, disgust, cynicism, but also with great charm. Cf. Ch.E. Gover, The Folk-Songs of Southern India (1871), ed. Madras, 1959, 151-61; C. and H. Jesudasan, A History of Tamil Literature, Calcutta, 1961,224-6; K.V. Zvelebil, The Poets of the Powers, London, 1973, 90-107; K.V. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, 1973, 232-6; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/ Kbln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 241-2. Pattigattu-p Pillaiyar (also known as Pattanattu-p Pillaiyar or Pagi!!attar\/Paganattar ,), lit. "native of Pattinarn", i.e. Kaveripattinarn (Kavirippumpattinam) where he was b. in vanikar (merchant) community. Pr. name Tiruvenkatar. Salva poet-saint. R. Caldwell (Comparative Grammar) assigned him quite incor-

K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PATTI~ATTU-P PII,J-:AIYAR pURA~AM-PATTIRAKIRI

539

rectly to end of 17th c. Schomerus (Der Saiva Siddhiinta, 31) dates him to 14th c. at the earliest. H. Nau discussed his date at length and assigned him to 1st half, 10th c. (Prolegomena, 1919, 51-3). Trad. makes him contemporary of ~ Centagar who is considered to be contemporary of ~ Karuvurttevar (10-11). P. may be placed either in 2nd half of 10th c. or 1st part of lith c. (he actually refers to ~ Manikkavacakar of 9th c., mentioning also the 3 ~ Teviiram poets, ~ Civavakkiyar the Siddha, and Pandya king Varaguna). Accord. to legend. account, when his own son died he adopted a poor boy. Later he renounced his wealth and lived as Saiva ascetic in Tiruvitaimarutur, He also visited Kafici and the North, returned South and d. at Tiruvorriyur. Anonym. Pauinattuppillaiyar (Pauinauatikal) puranam tells his story, as also Pulavarpuranam by ~ Murukataca Cuvami (184099). Author: His work is contained in ~ Tirumurai - book 11, and consists of 5 poems running to 192 st: Koyil nanmani malai (on Citamparam temple), Tirukkalumala mummanikkovai, Tiruvitaimarutur mummanikkovai, Tiruvekampamutaiyar tiruvantiiti and Tiruvorriyur orupavorupahtu. It is of rather philos. nature,

with echoes of asceticism, and enjoys great reputation. There is grandeur combined with simplicity, and his st. are of high poetic quality. This poet is not to be confused with ~ Pattinattar, Cittar (14th c.)! Cf. N. Balasubramania Mudaliyar, partial Eng. version of Ko yil nanmani malai, Siddhanta Deepika II (1899) 11.250-51; G. Mackenzie Cobban, "A Garland for the Holy One (trans. of songs of Pattanathu Pillay"), The Christ. Coli. Mag. II (1884-85) 852-58; id., "Pattanatthu Pillei and his Songs", ibid. III, 15-31 (very good trans.; but dates P. "close to 16th century "). Also, Cobban, Mackenzie G., "A Tamil Ascetic 's Song", Christ. Coli. Mag . VIII (1890-91) 275-89. Pattigattu-p PiDaiyar puranam (date?), anonym. purdna in 3 books tPumpukar, Atko1Jta, Turavarai, legend. biography of ~ Pattinattar, and ~ Patti!!attar2 coalesced into one. Pattirakiri (cf. Skt. Bhadragiri), Siddha (~ cittar) poet, c. 1400 A.D., considered to have been king of the Konku or Tuluva country, converted by ~ Pattigattar. Renounced his kingdom, became religious mendicant, composed 237 distichs going under the name Meyiiiuinappulampal (Lamentations for True Knowledge), filled with pathetic craving for peace and deliverance. P. is first mentioned by ~ Kannutaiya Vallal (c. 1425). Cf. Ch.E.Gover, The Folk-Songs of Southern India (1871), ed. Madras, 1959, 54-5; Kamil V. Zvelebil, The Poets of the Powers, London, 1973, 88-90; id., Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 242; Simon K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

540

pATTIYAL-PATTUPpATTU

Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch (1859), ed. Colombo, 1946, 77-8. pattiyal, "essence (iyal) of poetry tpattu)", "nature/quality [of] poetic compositions", specific type of grammar, descriptive-prescriptive treatment of forms, types, genres and subgenres of (medieval and early modern) liter. texts (so-called -7 prabandhas, -7 pirapantam's). 11 p, grammars are known to date. In chronol. order: Akattiyar piittiyal in -7 nurpd, 8th-9th c., not available; Kallatanar pattiyal, in -7 kural , 8th-9th c., not available; Pannirupdttiyal, earliest preserved p., anonym., in niapa, 10th c. (74 prabandhas described); Venpappattiyal alias Yaccanantimdlai by Kunavira Pantitar, in venpd, 12th c. (56 genres); Navanitappattiyal by Navanitanatan, in -7 kattalaikkalitturai, 14th c. (44 genres); Varaiyarutta pduiyal (fragment; also known as Campantaptutiyali, anonym., in kaualaikkalitturai, 14th Co, Citamparappauiyal by Paraficoti son of Puranattirurnalanatar, in -7 viruttam, 16th c. (62 genres); Pirapanta marapiyal, anonym., in niupd, 16th c. (66 genres); Llakkana vilakka-p pattiyal, in niirpii, 17th c. (68 genres); Pirapanta tipikai in viruttam, by Muttuvenkata Cuppaiya, 18th c. (85 genres); Pirapanta tipam , anonym., 19th c. (97 genres) . -7 Caminat'Aiyar (Autobiography p. 207) quotes a Tattattireyappattiyal which he read with his teacher as a boy; the book is not available. Pattiyal marapu, lost treatise on types and classes of liter. compositions or on prosody, mentioned in a number of medieval tratises and commentaries; prob. of 9th c. 3 S1. preserved in -7 Yapparunkala virutti 40 comm. when discussing -7 aritam. paU" « DEDR 4065 piuu to sing), lit. song; (lyrical) poetry; stanza; poem in general, particularly lyrical; (folk) song. Pattuppattu (Ten Songs), anthology of early old Tamil classical poems (pauu, the lays) consisting of (in possible chronological order) -7 Porunararruppatai (249 lines in -7 akaval and vaiici, co 190 A.D.), -7 Pattinappalai (301 lines in vaiici and akaval c. 190-200 A.D.), -7 Perumpdnarruppatai (500 lines in akaval, c. 190-200 A.D.), -7 Kuriiicippauu (261 lines in akaval, c. 180 A.D.), -7 Malaipatukatam (583 lines in akaval, c. 210 A.D.), -7 Maturaikkaiici (782 lines in vaiici and akaval, c. 215 A.D.) , -7 Netunalvatai (188 lines in akaval, c. 215 A.D.), -7 Mullaippattu (103 lines in aka val, c. 230 A.D.), -7 Cirupaniirjuppatai (269 lines in akaval, c. 250-275 A.D.), and -7 Tirumurukarruppatai (317 lines in akaval, c. 400-450 A.D.). Excellent comm. on the whole anthology by Naccinarkkiniyar (14th c.), Entire text first publ. by -7 Swaminatha Iyer, Dr. U.V., Madras 1889, 2nd 1918, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

541 3d 1931, 4th 1950, 5th 1956. Cf. J.V. Chelliah (transl.) , Pattupattu - Ten Tamil Idylls, 1st ed., Colombo, 1946, 2nd Kazhagam, 1962; J.M. Somasundaram Pillai, Five Tamil Idylls of Pattuppattu , Madras, 1947; S. Vithiananthan, The Pattuppauu - a historical, social, and linguistic study, PhD thesis, Univ . of London, 1950; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature , Leiden/Koln, EJ. Brill, 1975, 80-109; also, K. Kailasapathy, Tamil Heroic Poetry, Oxford, 1968, and review by J.R. Marr, BSOAS XXXIV (1971)1; Es. Vaiyapuri-p Pinnal, Carow ilakkiyam (Pattum tokaiyum), 2 vols, Pari Nilaiyam, Madras, 1st ed. 1940, 2nd 1967. Patumanar, (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 6. Patumagar 2 (9?), compiler and ed. of --7 Nalatiyar, responsible for selection and arrangement of the quatrains. Said to have written a comm. which is lost. Patumarattu Mocikiranar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 33, 75, Narrinai 383 . Patumarattu Moci Korranar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 376. Pavai-k Kottilar (Cankam) , author: Akananiiru 336 . Pavaippattu (date ?), lost Jaina work, cf. --7 Yapparuhkalam 93, comm . Pavalakotimalai, narrative folklore poem on Arjuna 's marriage to Pavalakoti, a Southern princess. In print 1885. Pavalappati-p Pulavar (20), author: Ciinanta Kanecar puranam (1910). Pavanantam PiUai, Ca. (S. Bavanandam Pillai, d. 1932), scholar, titled Divan Bahadur; Assist. Commissioner (1908), Commissioner of Police (1918) , editor. Eds. --7 Iraiyanar's Kalaviyal (1916), ~ Perakattiyattirattu mulamum uraiyum (1912), supposedly treatises composed by --7 Akattiyan and --7 Kalararnpan, in fact forgeries . Almost beyond doubt believed by editor to be genuine. The ed. of Kalaviyal is excellent. Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies , E.J. Brill, 1992, p. 247 and ftn. 27. Pavananti (late 12 - early 13), Jaina scholar of Canakatipuram (Tontainatu), son of Canmati Munivar, author of most popular Tam . grammar, --7 Nannul. Patronized by ruler Ciyakankan of Kolar (Mysore, 1178-1216). Accord. to M.S.P. Pillai, the grammar was written 1205 A.D. The date fits, since Amaraparanan Ciyakankan is easily identified as Ganga feudatory of Kulottunka Chola III (1178-1218, S.I.I. III, p. 122). Cf. M.S. Purnalingam Pillai, "Pavanandi, critic and teacher", Siddhanta Deepika XI (1911) 2. 85-89 (reprint from Indian Patriot); id., "Pavanandi, critic and teacher", Tam. Antiquary II (1913) 1.27-33 . For dating, cf. H. Nau, Prolegomena zu Pattanattu Pillaiyars Padal, Halle, 1919,31-32. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

542

PAVA~IKKAT AL-PERAKATTIYAM

pavagikkatal, poem in which a woman fascinated by a hero riding in procession reveals her disconsolate love to her maids; subtype of ---7 kiital; cf. also ---7 uld . Cf. Muttuviriyam Ydp , Olip , 160, Cuvaminatam 168.

Pavagl-p Pulavar, Palakkatu (19), Muslim author of Aptul Rakuman Arapi-c catakam (1895) .

payiram (etymol. ?), preface, preamble, prologue, introduction (cf. ---7 Nannul 1). Of 2 kinds : ---7 potuppayiram or gener. introd., ---7 cirapp uppay iram or specific introd. Obligatory part of every book (nul) .

payotarapattu, poem in lOst. on female breasts ipayotam < Skt.

payodhara-), in ---7 aciriya viruttam or ---7 kalitturai. Cf. e.g. Pannirupiif!.I!1av. 131, Venpap, Cey. 25, Ilakkanavil. 852 . Pecciyappa Pillai (19), author: sthalapuriina Cankaranarayanacami koyil manmiyam (1898). Pena ---7 Appusvami, Pe . Na . Penkalai (The Art of Women), anonymous late mediev. work, part of a ~ vannam, altogether 14 lines; contains rather obscene verses.

Unprinted, Dr. U.V. Swaminath'Aiyar Library Catalogue No. 1295 a. Penputti malai ("Garland of Advice for Women"), two didactic poems one by ~ Mukammatu Uceyin (late 18), another by ~ Vetanayakam PiHai (1824-1889). Peraciriyar (13), one of the great masters of Tam . prose, author : comm. on 4 parts tpurauinai, kalaviyal, karpiyal, poruliyal) of ~ Poruiatikaram of ~ Tolkiippiyam. He prob. composed comm. on ~ akattinai part, too, but this is lost. Most prob., author of comm. on ---7 Manikkavacakars Tirukkovaiyiir , Called nallarivutaiya tolperaciin ("highly learned ancient professor") by author of uraipayiram to ~ Naccinarkkiniyar's comm. Various allusions in other comm. and his own quotations from certain sources point to 13th c. as his date . For details cf. Mu.VaL Aravintan, Uraiyaciriyarkal, Citamparam, 1968, s.V.; M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature , Annamalai Univ. , 1977, 181-84. Perakattiyam ("Large Akattiyam"), text of gram. aphorisms ascribed to ---7 Akattiyan, Most prob. forgery. In 1912, ---7 Pavanantam Pillai, Ca. (d. 1932) publ. at S.P.C.K. Press , Vepery, Madras, a book entitled Perakattiyatirattu mulamum uraiyum , containing Perakattiya-c ciatiram and Pericai-c ciatiram , purported to be parts of gram . and music. treatises composed by Akattiyan and his disciple ~ Kalararnpan. With the possible exception of a few sutras , this is almost certainly forgery composed in one of the ~ mathas in late 18th - early 19th c. Accord. to H. Nau, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PERALAVAYAR-PERIYAleVAR

543

Prolegomena zu Pattanattu Pillaiyars Pedal, Halle, 1919, a Muttukrishna Pillai publ. in the middle of 19th c. 5 chapters of "Eluttilakkanakkandam des Peragattiyam"; "zusammengebunden mit Amirtasagaras Karigai in der Bibliothek des ev.-lut. Missionshauses zu Leipzig vorhanden" (p. 26, and ftn. 1). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, E.J . Brill, 1992, 39 and 247. Peralavayar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 87, 296 , Narrinai 51, 361, Purananuru 247, 262 . Perampala-p Pulavar (1859-1935), of Velan ai (Jaffna), author: Salva devotional poetry Vannaicciletaivenpa . VelafJai ilantai-k kauu citti Vi!liiyakar irattaimanimalai, Katamparanuiti, etc. Pereyin Mujuvalar (Cailkam), author: Kuruntokai 17, Purananiiru 239.

Pericalccuttiram ~ Perakauiyattirauu mulamum uraiyum . Pericattagar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 38, 214, 242 , 268, 305,

Kuruntokai 81, 159, 278, 314, 366, NarrifJai 25, 37, 67, 104, 199, 299, 323 , 278, Purananuru 125, 198. peri tam pel} (Tam. rhetoric) woman of 30-36 or 32-40 years of age; cf. also ~ ula. Periyacami Pillai, Pu.A. Putuvai (early 20), author: Putuvai-k kalampakam (1905), Mayilantati (1909) . Periyacami-t Toran ~ Turon . Periyacami. Periya Caficlvinata Cuvami (19), author: Antapinta viyakkiyanam (1874). Periyacuppa Rettiyar, Palvanam (early 20) , author of Makarani ammanai, Madras, 1901, 132 pp . An account of the reign of Queen Victoria in ~ ammanai form . New and topical subject-matter with loyalist tendencies told in old balladic structure. periya kattiyam, lit. "large praises, large panegyric"; part of complex devotional poem (~f. ~ Citampara Cuvamikal.y. Periyalvar ("The Great Alvar"), Vaisnava poet-saint. Accord. to ~ Kuruparamparai 3000 , P. was b. on Sunday, Ekataci, Cuvati sukla paksarn of the month of A!!i of the year Kurotana (i.e . 27.5 .725) in Brahmin family at Srivilliputtur. His orig . name was Visnucitta (Vittucittan). He speaks highly (Tirumoli 4.2) of Pandya king "K6 Netumaran, the king of Southern Kutal who praises [the deity of] Tirumaliruficolai". K.A. Nil. Sastri identifies this king with Parantaka Netuficataiyan (c. 765-90; there is corrobor. evidence for this in Velvikkuti Srivaramangalam Grant) . Accord. to Kuruparamparai (35) and ~ Koyiloluku (20), P . lived in the time of Srivallapateva Pandya (Netumaran) who ruled in Madurai K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

544

PERIYANAYAKAN

in 815-62 (or 835-62) and made expedition against Sri Lanka's ruler Sena I (831-52). It is possible that P. lived during the reign of Netuficataiyan (end of 8) as well as of Srivallabha (begin. 9). Accord. to trad . account, he was 51 years old when he adopted ~ AQtal, and lived for 85 years. He devoted himself to supplying flowers daily to Krsna in Srivilliputtur temple. In a vision he was instructed to go to Pandya court, and there in a council of sages he earned the title Pattarpiran (First Among Priests). On return he experienced strong emotion of love for Visnu and broke into the song of praise known as ~ Tiruppallantu. Back in Srivilliputnir, while he was digging in his flower garden, he found a little girl whom he brought up as his own child; she became one the greatest Vaisnava poet-saints, AQtal. Author: Tiruppalliintu, inspired by the rhythm of time produced by jingling bells of the elephant on which P. was riding in procession through the streets of Madurai after having been honoured by Pandya king. In 12+ 1 st.; the most popular of all Vaisnava hymns, forming basis of all ritual and recited on all occasions. First hymn in the Vaisnava canon. Tirumoli, 460 st. divided into 5 decades (pattu), 1st Thousand; more than half devoted to Krsna, mostly as child and boy . These poems are also basis for development of genre ~ pillaittamil (depicting child-life of a hero or a god) . The poetry of P. is composed in rather colloquial Brahmin Tam. language (he avoids lofty and learned style), and introduces many current Krsna stories, proverbs and other popular matter. For date, cf. M. Raghava Aiyangar, "Date of Periyalvar", fORM (1928) 5761; K.G. Shankar, "The Contemporaries of Periyalvar", JORM (1927) 336-49; also, M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Tamil Studies, 3212; J. Filliozat, Le Tiruppavai d' AlJ!ii!, 1927, XI-XII; T.A. Gop inatha Rao, Sri Subrahmanya Ayyar's Lectures on the History of Sri Vaisnavas , Madras, 1923. Most prob. date: middle of 9th c. For trans., cf. J.S .M. Hooper, Hymns of the A!.viirs, Calcutta, 1929, 34-37 (Tiruppallantuy , 37-38 tTirumoli 1.4); V. Raghavan, The Great Inte grators (The Saint-Singers of India), 4th ed ., Delhi, 1979, p. 98 (Tirumo]i 5.1.1, 5.2.6 .). Cf. further, Marie Lynn Ate, Periyaivar's "Tirumoli" - A Biila Krsna Text from the Devotional Period in Tamil Literature, Ph.D . diss., Vniv. of Wisconsin, 1978. Perlyanayakan (date?), son of Pettunayakan of Mantainakar, Kantivalanatu, author of versified version of folk narrative Mayaravanan katai. Partly damaged Ms. 551; in Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Library Catalogue I, 1964; 205 st. Cf. ~ Mayiliravanan katai. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

PERIY A~ PIJ,.J,.AI-PERIY APURA~AM

545

Periyag Pillai (date?), author: Ariccantiran katai, early prose ver-

sion of Hariscandra story. Periyanfileppai, Kayajpattijjarn (19), Muslim author of Yetapuranam (Madras, 1894). Periyapuranam (alias Tiruuontarpuranami. Legendary account (based on ~ Umapati Civacarya' s Cekkilarnayanar puriinam, 1st half, 14): ~ Cekkilar, a vellala of Kunrattiir, was chief minister of Chola king Anapayaccolamakarajan, He was devoted to Siva at Tirunakecuram and built in his nattive town temple modelled on that shrine. He also protested against the popularity and admiration the king's court showed to the Jaina work ~ Civakacintamani. When the king heard from him about ~ Cuntarar's Tiruttontattokai and ~ Nampi A.Q!ar Nampi's antati, he commanded him to write down these holy stories as a great epic. Cekkilar retired to Citamparam and, using additional data, collected and arranged the legends of Salva saints. When he was deliberating how to versify them a heavenly voice suggested to him the beginning. He began composing the work in the Thousand-pillar mandapa of the temple, and when its 4253 st. were finished, the king came to Citamparam, and Cekkilar expounded the puriina for him and the priests daily for a year. It was then wrapped in silk, put in a golden casket upon an elephant's head , and taken in procession with its author and the king through the town, hailed as the 5th Veda. Cekkilar was honoured with the title Tontarcirparavurar (The Singer of the Glories of the Saints), and the work called Tiruttontarpuranam (The Purana of the Holy Devotees). It was added to the Salva canon, engraved on copper plates, and placed before god in the Golden Hall. Possible histor. origin: Cekkilar, being minister of the Chola empire, had access to available records concerning life-stories of Salva saints. He made certainly several tours round the country and prob. collected various current traditions. In Darasuram (Rajarajapuram) temple, on a panel running round the middle of temple-wall, the story of each of the 63 ~ ndyanmar is represented in stone. It is interesting to compare the versions implied by the sculptures of Darasuram and Cekkilar's version (particularly the differences). There must have been many folk stories circulating about the saints; also, there is a Sk1. version (Upamanya bhaktavilasai claiming to be orig. work but prob . only a translation of Cekkilar. Skandapurana gives its own version based prob. on folk stories; various ~ sthalapurana's, too, give their own versions. It is evident that in c. 1300 P. was regarded as great and sacred book; by then it must have been at least a century old. The Chola Anapaya in whose time the poet K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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lived (cf. Payiram 8) can be identified with Kulottunka II (1133-1150), since identification with Kulottunka I (1070-1118) seems too early, and with Kulottunka III (ascension 1178) cannot be accepted for other reasons. Hence we may date the "Great purana" in c. 1135 A.D . during Kulottunka II's peaceful reign. What in Cuntarar's treatment was part of living memory, and with Nampi became more elaborate religious account, in P . became hagiographic episode set in temporal sequence and structural context, a religious legend. Its kernel is always a real or fantastic individual fact; the events are based on accounts preserved in the hymns of poet-saints, but also on information gathered from extratextual sources, from oral tradition or texts which were lost. The legends manifest some common features: Standardized description of hero's birth and education; central episode preceded by tension and conflict; manifestation of poetic or other abilities; with Siva's help, the protagonist is victorious in clash with society which, however, does not lead to renunciation but results in life within society on higher level. The longest purana is about ~ Tirufianacampantar (1256 quatrains); next comes the story of ~ Appar (429 st.) . The work has between 4253-4289 quatrains in ~ viruttam metre contained in 13 books. Contents: It begins with the account about Cuntarar which, together with the 4 introd. legends (of what happened on Mt.Kailasa, legend of sacred Cola land, legend of sacred town of Ann', legend of meeting of Salva Brahmins in Tillai) constitute the 1st chapter (~ car ukkam) of the book. Then follow the 70 legends of the saints: Tirunilakantan (potter), Iyarpakai tvaisya saint) , Ilaiyankutirnaran (ve(a(a), Meypporunayanar (king), Viranmintanayanar (velala), Amarniti tvaisya) , Eripattanayanar, E!!atinatar (toddy-tapper), Kannappan (hunter - typical representative of vantontar "harsh saint"; his pers.name was TiQQa!!), Kunkul iyakkal ayar (Brahmin), Manakkaficaran (ve(a(a), Ariva] Tayanar (rich velalai , Anayar (herdsman), Murti (vaisya), Murukan (Brahmin), Uruttira Pacupati (Brahmin), Tirunalaippovar alias Nantanar (Untouchable pulaiya whose story became subject of lovely dram . poem by ~ Kopalakirusna Parati , 19), Tirukkuripputtontar (washerman), Cantecurar (Brahmin boy), Tirunavukkaracar (= Appar), Kulaccirai (chief minister of Pandya king) , Perumilalaikkurumpan (chief of Milalainatu), ~ Karaikkalammaiyar, Apputiyatika] (Brahmin), Tirunilanakkan (Brahmin) , Namlnantiyatikal (Brahmin), Tirufianacampantamurtti (Brahmin), Eyarko!! Kalikkamanayanar tvelala), ~ Tirumiilar, Tantiyatika] the Blind, Murkkan (ve(a(a) , Comacimaran (Brahmin), Cakkiyan (ve(a(a) , Cirappuli (Brahmin), K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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~ Ciruttontar alias ~ Paraficoti (the general of Pallava army, 642 A.D.), ~ Ceramag Perumal, Kananatan (Brahmin), Kurruvan; 49 poets of the Academy of Maturai, here termed Poyyatirnaiyillata pulavar ("Poets Who Are No Slaves to Lies"); Pukalccolan (king of Uraiyur), Naracinkamunaiyaraiyan, Atipattan (fisherman), Kalikkarnpan tvaisya), Kaliyan (oil-monger), Cattinayan (ve(ii(a), ~ Aiyatika] Katavar Kog, Kanarnpullan, Kari, Netumaran alias Kunpantiyan, Vayilar (ve(ii(a), Munaiyatuvar (ve(ii(a), Kalarcinkan (ksatriya), Itanka]i (king), Ceruttunai (veiala), Pukalttunai (Adisaiva), Kotpuli (ve(ii(a); paktarayppanivar, i.e. all devotees; paramanaiyepatuvar, i.e. those who sing about the Highest; ciuauaicivanpalevaittar, i.e. those who direct their minds on Siva; tiruvarurppirantar, those who were born in Tiruvariir (in rewards for their former good deeds); muppolutuntirumenitiniuvar, i.e. those privileged Brahmins who may touch the sacred shape (of Siva) thrice daily; mulunirupuciyamunivar, i.e. devotees who besmear their body with sacred ash; appdlumaticcarntar, devotees who do not belong to Tamil land; Pucalar (Brahmin), Mankaiyarkkaraci (wife of Netumarag, princess praised in Campantar's hymns), Necanayanar (weaver), Koccerikatcolan (The Cola With Red Eyes), Tirunilakantayalppanan (musician and singer), Cataiyag (Adisaiva), the father of Cuntarar, and Icaifiani Cuntarar's mother. P. is composed in simple, lively style, its diction is rich, prosody skillful. Accord. to the poet, the highest ideal is life spent in love and service; divine and social service are one. Also, the basic ideology of the work is indeed democratic, as its author introduces as equally great saints members of whole range and scales of castes including "untouchables" (apart from 6 saints of unknown caste there are 13 Brahmins, 13 velalas, 6 kings, 5 chieftains, 5 merchants, 4 Adisaivas, 2 shepherds, I potter, 1 minstrel, 1 fisherman, 1 hunter, 1 weaver, I oil-monger, 1 washerman, 1 toddy-drawer, 1 pulaya) . It has also been regarded as the Tam. "national" purana. The summary of P . publ. 1853 in print by ~ Arumuka Navalar was import. event; it was first printed as integral texts by him in 1873. Cf. further S. Zehme, Die tamulische Singpredigt. Legenden des Grossen Purana ... Eine Missions Studie. Leipzig, 1903. In 1914, Dattaji Rau (?) apparently trans. an episode of P. entitled The Greatness of Piety in King Manu; S. Sabaratna Mudaliar, Life of Thiru Gnana Sambandhar (trans. with notes and introd.), Madras, 1920; Hilko Wiardo Schomerus, Texte zur Gottesmystik des Hinduismus, lena, 1923-25, 2 vols: 1. Die Hymnen des Manikkavasaga (Tiruvasaga) aus dem Tamil iibersetzt. Sivastische Heiligenlegenden (Periya Purana und

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Tiruvatavurar Purana) aus dem Tamil iibersetzt; J.M. Nallaswami Pillai, Per iyapuranam. Lives of the Saiva Saints by St . Sekkilar. 1st ed., Madras, 1924; 2nd, Madras, 1955; S.M. Penniah (trans.), Life of Maaranaar, rendered into Eng . verse. . ., Kuala Lumpur, 1967; Yogi Suddhananda Baharathi, The Grand Epic of Saivism , Madras, 1970; P. Arunachalam, "Is Periapuranarn an Epic?", Journ . of Tam .Studies 7 (June 1975) 23-28; Hart, George, "The Little Devotee: Cekkilars Story of Ciruttontar", in: M. Nagatomi, B.K. Matilal, J.M. Masson, E. Dimock (eds .), Sanskrit and Indian Studies : Es says in Honour of Daniel H.H. Ingalls , Dordrecht, 1979, 217-36; Hudson, D. Dennis, Violent and Fanatical Devotion among the Nayanars: A Study in the Periya Puranam of Cekkilar, in: Alf Hiltebeitel (ed.), Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees, Albany, 1989, 373-404; David Shulman, The Hungry God, Hindu Tales of Filicide and Devotion, The Univ . of Chicago Press, 1993. Periya tirumuti-y-ataivu (15), Vaisnava ~ kuruparamparai text by Kantataiyappan. Pub!. 1929. Periyavaccan Pillai (lit. "Great Venerable Teacher", 1228-1322), b. at Cenkanallur (Colanatu), son of Yamunatecikar and Nacciyaramma, orig . name Krsnapatar, Vaisnava ~ acdrya, most important of commentators, author of comm. on all hymns of the Canon and a number of exegetic works. Devotee of Krsna from childhood. Persecuted by Saivites, left and went to Srirangam; disciple of ~ Nampillai. Author: comm. on all 4000 hymns of ~ Niiliiyirativviyappirapantam in ~ manipravala (the ratio of Tam.: Skt. = 2: 1, accord. to K .K.A. Venkatachari) called Irupattinalayirappati (24.000). Quotes from ~ Cahkam and postCahkam texts (such as ~ Tirukkural and ~ Nalatiyars . His comm . is very rich and always interesting, always systematic and striving after completeness. Hence he is called Vyakhyanacakravartin ("emperor of commentators"). Has also composed manipravala comm. on Skt. works of previous acaryas. Among these, the two most import. are on ~ Yamuna's Stotraratna ("Gem of Eulogies") and on Sri Ramanujas Gadyatrayam, wherein he explains the difference between bhakti and prapatti: whereas bhakti "devotion" can be practiced only by certain people at certain times and requires observance of certain rules and regulations, prapatti "surrender (to god)" can be practiced by everyone at any moment and requires no rules except that one should in every situation surrender completely to the divine. Other works: Parantarahasyam on 3 "secrets" (rahasyatraya viz . tirumantra, dvaya and caramaslokay; Manikkamalai (with basic theme of K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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relationship between preceptor and disciple); Tanislokam (elaborate comm. on several selected st. from great Vaisnava Sk1. works); Pacurappatiriimayanam: mini-Ramaya1J,a of about 2 pp. of text composed entirely of words and phrases selected from writings of -7 alvars arranged so as to form continuous complete narrative. It is the best work of P. and "represents the best piece of Tamil prose of that period" (K.K.A. Venkatachari). Cf. K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava Manipraviila, The Manipravala Literature of the Srivaisnava Acaryas, Bombay, 1978, 77-85 and 108-24. Periyavan Kavirayar (1st half, 18), author: Tirumalai Murukan pallu. perumakilccimalai, panegyric on heroine's beauty, deeds, virtue, fame; cf. also -7 pukalccimalai. Pirapantamarap. 13, Muttuviriyam Yap. Olip, 97, Prap . tip. 12. Perurna! Aiyar (date?), play Terurnta tuuakam. Perurna], E.E!1. (b. 1930), author: large poems Panimoli (Soothing Words), Palmati, liter. plays, research volume Tamil tuitakahkalin torramum valarcciyum (Origin and Development of Tamil Plays), Ulaka arahkil natakam (The Drama on World Stage), Tamil ndtakam - orayvu (research into Tam. drama). One of the liter. plays (Nakarkoyil, 1973) is based on - Manimekalai: story of Pilivalai, Naga princess whose beauty causes the king to forget the Indra festival celebrations and thus brings about complete destruction of the city of Kaverippattinam. perumankalam, bededictory song; poem describing celebration of king's birthday. Perumpakkag (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 296. Perumpanajruppatal (A Long Guide Poem for Bards with Lutes, or, A Guide Poem for Bards with Large Lutes) by Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, the author of -7 Pattinappiilai, in 500 lines in -7 akaval, praising chieftain Tontairnan Ilantiraiyan, contemporary of Karikala, himself a poet (cf. -7 Purananuru 185, -7 Narrinai 94, 99, 106), ruler of Kafici, c. 190-200 A.D. The poem includes detailed description of the five -7 tinai, a mythical account of the Tontairnan clan, and allusion to Yavanas (316-17). Cf. K.V. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1973, 56-7; id., Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1974, 23. First publ. 1889. Perumparrappullyur Narnpi (12 or 13), b. in the Kauniya gotra of Vernpattur Coliyar division of Smarta Brahmin caste from Cellinakar (Pantiyanatu). Family was devoted to Nataraja of Chidambaram. Cellinakar (today's Panaiyur) is situated in K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Cankaranayinar Koyil Taluk (nr . Nallur); Vempattur lies SE of Maturai. His work (see below) seems to have been composed in Malaikkuppunai Kotuttarnankalanatu (= Kappificinatu), SE of Maturai, and was apparently greatly appreciated by Pandya king . Its date is based on Maturai-t tiruppanimalai mentioning Ananta Tantava Nampi constructing a gopura dated by Maturai koyiloluku in 1227 A.D.; the same poem mentions the praise bestowed by Pandya king on P.N ., his ancestors and his birth-place. Hence the date of his work should be before 1227 . Author : Tiruvalavdyutaiyar Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam (also known as Palaiya "Old" Tiruvilaiyatal alias Yempatturar T.) in 1753 --7 viruttam st. Ed . by U.Ve.Ciiminiit' Aiyar, 1906 (2nd, 1927, 3rd 1972). It deals with the "sacred sports" itiru-viiaiyatal; cf. Skt. lilii -) of Siva Somasundara in Tiruvalavay (= Maturai), and is said to be based on Sarasarnuccaya of a Skt. puriina (Uttaramahapuranai no more in existence. It mentions 64 holy "games" of the Lord. There are many differences between this work and the later Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam of --7 Paraficoti. The poet gives new information on several import. points. Also, he was a very skillful poet who has used some interesting devices (like repetitions, excellent metaphors) and proverbs as well as 6 individual songs (--7 tanippiual) . The comparison with --7 Kallatam yields import. results. Cf. Harman, William P., "Two Versions of a Tamil Text and the Contexts in Which They Were Written", Journ . of the In st . of Asian Studies 5.1 (Sept. 1987) 1-18; K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, F.l. Brill, 1975, 220-21. Perumpatumagar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 7, Narrinai 2, 109, Purananiiru - - 199. Perumporu] vilakkam, lost liter. work (erudite?) in --7 venpa on --7 puram, prob. of 10th c. 120 st. preserved in --7 Purattirattu (41), --7 Naccinarkkiniyars comm. on --7 Tolkappiyam (79) and elsewhere (--7 Atiyarkkunallar':s comm., etc.) . Author unknown. For detailed discussion cf. Mu.Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varaliiru - Nurrantu 10, 1972, 129-40. Peruficattanar, (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 263 . Peruficittiragar (Cankam), author: Pu[anii!lu[u 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 207 , 208, 237, 238. Nos. 158-208 --7 patan , Perunkannanar (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 289 , 310, NarrifJai 137. perunkappiyam, epic poem dealing with the story of a peerless hero and explaining the four goals of human life, cf. --7 Tantiyalahkaram 7-8. Cf. Skt. mahakavya- , However, needs redefinition for Tam. literature. Rather than 'epic' it refers to --7 K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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totarnilaicceyyul, i.e . connected, continuing poem, long-drawn out narrative work most often with elements of drama. As typical instances of this grand genre cf. ~ Cilappatikaram, ~ Manimekalai. On the other hand, such works as ~ Iramavataram of ~ Civakacintamani may indeed be classified as mahakavya' s. Perunkatai ("The Great Story") . Jaina authors directed their efforts to adaptation of Skt. and IA liter.works to Tam. Prob. the first text to draw the attention was Brhatkatha, attrib. traditionally to Gunadhya, a poet at Salivahana court (1st c.A .D.), written in Paisaci. The orig . work is lost, and so is the Skt. version of the story by Durvinita who was Ganga king in 1st half of 7th c. (cf. M. Arokiaswami, The Kongu Country, op. 147) . Two versions of the story are available, in Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara, in Ksernendras Brhatkathamaiijari, and in Buddhasvamins Brhatkathaslokasamgraha (cf. J. Lacote, Essai sur Gunadhya de la Brhatkathii, Paris, 1908, trans. in Eng . in Journ . Mythic Soc. , Bangalore, IV, 3, 1913-14 ff.; L. Alsdorf, "Eine neue Version der verlorenen Brhatkatha des Gunadhya", XIX Congresso Intern . degli Orientalisti, Roma, 1938; J.e. Jain, The Yasudevahindi, an authentic Jain version of the Brhatkatha , L.D. Inst. of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1977). It is in fact collection of anecdotes which grew around the protagonist, Udayana, king of Kausambi, and many of the episodes were treated separately by different poets. The story (or stories) of Brhatkatha might have been popular in Tam. country at least from 8th c. onwards. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar pointed out existence of a Tam. version (JRAS 1906, p. 689 ff.); its name was kohkuvel makkatai (cf. stray st. Peruntokai 1981, and ibid. 2013), also known as Utayanan katai or simply as Katai. ~ Cuvarninat'Aiyar, U.Ve. , in Autobiography 974-5 tells in detail about his research in this text, ba sed on careful study of ~ Atiyarkkunallar's comm. He wa s the first to publ . the text in Madras, 1924, under the title Peruhkatai (which was gathered from Atiyarkkunallar) . The Tam. version is prob . adaptation of Durvinita 's Skt. model, and is ascribed to Konkuvelir, i.e. "the chieftain of Konku". A verse in recent Kohkumantalacatakam states that he was native of Mankai (Vijayamangalam nr. Erode). Atiyarkkunallar mentions the belief that the Tam. story was based on the study of some works of the age of the second (middle) Cahkam, and from this an impossible conclusion was drawn in dating Tam . P. in 3rd c. or earlier (JRAS 1906, pp. 689-92). This was refuted by the editor (1924) who says that the poem is indebted to the Skt. version dated in 6th c. (Pref. VIII and XXVIII). The metre of P . is ~ akaval, hence K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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the work is relatively early . It quotes couplets from ~ Tirukkural (783 in V. 7. 148-9; 969 in 1.35.234-5) and st. from ~ Niilatiyar (370 in 1.35.156-8, 384 in II.7 .74-5), and so, accord. to S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, it cannot be earlier than c. 750 A.D. It is quoted by ~ Nakkirar in comm. on ~ Akapporul (P. 1.32.17 and 18), and thus it cannot be later than c. 10th c. A date between A.D . 800-900 may be accepted. The Tam. author, obviously Jaina, introduces abundantly Jaina beliefs , mythology, even phraseology. R. Vijayalakshmi quotes many features of P . which strikingly correspond to poetic conventions of class. (Cahkam) age. It would indeed seem that P. represents "Ie dernier mais eclatant bouquet de traditions du Sangam artificiellement preservees en pleine periode medievale" (F. Gros) , ten centuries after they were set up in the original class. poetry. The work is a torso of nearly 16,000 lines in akava!; it consisted prob. of 150 sections in ~ antdti arrangement. P. is the -story of a man driven to religious life through satiety with too many good things in life . King Utayanan was b. in an odd way : His mother, queen of Kausarnbi, while pregnant, was sleeping in the courtyard with red clothes on. A bird of prey mistook her for a mass of red flesh and carried her away to its hilly nest. When it was about to taste her flesh she opened her eye s and it flew away; at sunrise, Utayanan was born. He is famous as the musician who can bring even rogue elephants under control with his music . Treacherously taken prisoner by King of Ujjain, he gives, while in prison, music lessons to princess Vacavatattai . [The preceding portion narrating the story is not available in the Tam. version. The portion now extent begins here .] They fall in love . Utayanan elopes with her, and they are married. Clever Yuki , the chief minister, seeing that the king neglects his duties because of the passion for his wife, spreads the rumour that Vacavatattai was burnt to death in a fire which he had caused, and that he himself has died . Utayanan is overwhelmed by grief, and his friends take him to Magadha where princess Patumai (Patumavati) wins his love, since she resembles his wife, and he marries her. Yiiki restores Vacavatattai to the king. Utayanan lives happily with his two queens, but falls again in love with Mananikai, one of the queens' attendants, who is in fact princess of Kosala. The angry Vacavatattai orders shaving of her head, but in the last moment the girl 's true identity is revealed, and the king marries her, too . He also marries Viricikai, a hermit's daughter whom he had known as little girl. Each of the love episodes is developed into a pleasant adventure. Vacavatattai, while pregnant, live s in an air-charitot and K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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sees thus the whole of India. She gives birth to Naravanan (Naravanatattan, Naravakanan) who marries the beautiful Matanamaficikal. [The extent portion of the work stops here.] Another prince carries her away but is unable to win her love. His sister Vekavati manages on the other hand to win the love of Naravanan who ultimately gets back his fir st wife Matanamaficikai, and in addition 8,001 more wives, and rules as an emperor. Utayanan renounces the world, after he has made over to his son by Patumavati, Kornukan, the burden of state. Obviously, there are many parallels between P. and another large Jaina narrative poem, ~ Civakacintamani. Evaluation of P. as work of verbal art varies con siderably. While Vaiyapuri Pillai speaks of great poetic powers of its author, supreme command of language, sweet diction, magnificent flow, etc., C. and H. Jesudasans are very severe: "The work has been prai sed to the extent of being mentioned along with the Kural and the Kambaramayanam , but that is to set a molehill along side of mountain s and we can but pity the judgment that could commit such a crime in the field of criticism" (A History of Tamil Literature, p. 118). Accord. to the usually well-balanced opinion of M. Arunachalam, "Perum Kathai is an extraordinarily good piece of descriptive poem; it describes thousands of the good things of life very vividly and luxuriantly . . . The language is attractive and glamorous but the character portrayal is absent and treatment of human emotions and values is very poor" (An Introduction to the Hist ory of Tamil Literature, 1974, 107). The greatness of the poem is prob. to be seen rather in smaller matters of narrating the plot than in its great outlines. Thu s, e.g. in the manner how Utayanag is taken prisoner: he goe s all alone into the fore st in search of his favourite elephant; knowing this, the enemy king has placed his soldiers inside a wooden elephant so perfectly made that Utayanan mistakes it for a live bea st, is overpowered and taken to prison. Another example: Orders are given that a fallen woman, Cankiyattay , is drowned in the river. Utayanan releases her and sends her on pilgrimage. On her return, the father of Vacavatattai makes her his daughter' s maid of honour. The clever Yuki obtains the help of this woman; it is with her assistance that he spreads the rumour of Vaca vatattai' s residence having been burnt ; but Cankiyattay has cleverly removed the queen and taken care of her. Also, there are detailed and skilful descriptions of ball games and water games, of the garden and its flowers , including catalogues of flower s, and some well-done portrayal of characters (e. g. the contrastive characters of Vacavatattai K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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who is jealous and vindictive, and the generous Patumavati, or the creation of the lovable, human character of Cankiyattay), Apart from the loss of the beginning and ending portions, there are also losses within other cantos, half-lines, gaps and lacunae; cf. R. Vijayalakshmi, "A Study of the missing portion at the beginning of the Peruilkatai with special reference to its relationship to the Brhadkatha", in: South Indian Studies-It (ed. R. Nagaswamy), Madras, 1979 , 59-76; id ., A Study of the Peruhkatai, an authentic version of the story of Utayana, Madras, Intern. Inst. of Tam. Studies, 1981; cf. also A. Chakravarti, Jaina Literature in Tamil, Arrah, 1941, and M.S. Ramaswami, History and Influence of the Jains in South India, s .l.n.d. Perun Kaucikagar (Cankarn), author: Narrinai 44, 139. Perunkujjjjlrkilar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 8, Kuruntokai 338, Narrinai 5,112,119,347, Patirruppattu IX (81-90), Purananuru 147, 210, 211, 266, 318, Cf. K. Zvelebil, "The Language of Perunkunrur Kilar", in: K. Zvelebil, Yu. Glasov., M. Andronov, Introduction to the Historical Grammar of the Tamil Language, Moscow, 1967,9-109. Perunkugrur Perunkaucikanar, Iraniya Muttattu (Cailkam) , author: -7 Malaipatukatam. Peruntalaiccattagar (Cailkam), author: Akananuru 13, 224, Narrinai 262, Purananuru 151, 164, 165,205,209,294. Peruntevagar. The name seems to be Tamilisation of Skt. Mahadeva. There were at least 6 persons of that name of importance in Tam. literature: 1) Cahkam poet, author of Narrinai 83 tkurihci) and Akananuru 51 (piilai). -7 Peruntevanar; 2) Katuku Peruntevanar, Cankam poet, author of Kuruntokai 255. -7 Peruntevanar.: 3) Paratarn patiya P. Author of invocatory st.; prob. compiler of anthologies; author of a Bharatam in Tam. which has not survived. -7 Peruntevanar.; Before 700 A.D. 4) The author of -7 Paratavenpa on Nantivarman III. 9th c. -7 Peruntevanar; 5) The commentator on -7 Yiracoliyam. C. 1105 A.D. -7 Perunteva1J:.iirs' 6) Kavicakara-p Perunteva!!ar 6 • In the Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Library is a ms. pub!. in 1950 as Peruntevanar Ptiratam polippuraiyutan, Makavintam, by Pandit Mutturatna Mutaliy ar, of 339 st. dealing with Pandavas going to ,vaikuntha (= Makavintarn), in -7 venpa. For erit. examination of all six Peruntevanars, cf. Mu . Arunacalarn, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru IX Century - Vol. I, pp. 3-52. Peruntevagar I (Cankam), author: Akananuru 51, K uruntokai 255, NarrifJai 83. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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Peruntevagar, (alias Katuku P., Cankam) , author: Kuruntokai 255 (-7 Piilai). Accord. to Mu. Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru IX Century - Vol. 1. p. 3, different from P. !, Peruntevagar, (prob. before 700 A.D.), alia s Paratam patiya P., "P. who sang the Bharatam", author: invocatory st. on Akananuru, Aihku[ut]ll[u , Purananuru (on Siva), Kuruntokai (on Murukan), Narrinai (on Tirumal). Might have been compiler of the anthologies. Author of a Tam. Bharatam which ha s not survived. Mentioned in larger Cignamanur Plates (lOth c.). Peruntevanar, (9) , author of -7 Paratavenpa. Nandivarman III Pallava is eulogised in the work. -7 Tontaimantalacatakam 53 states that P . lived in Tontaimantalam (round Kaficipuram), and composed a Piiratam (Bhiiratam) in 12.000 st. Only a fragment of 830 st. is available. Accord. to M. Arunachalam, the tradition of P. living at Kaficipuram is trustworthy. The Pallavas were enthusiastic patrons of Mahabharata literature which was recited in their temples, cf. C. Minakshi, Administrative and So cial Life under the Pallavas , Madras, 1938, p. 176. There is actually no strong reason to doubt Peruntevanar' s authorship of the poem (cf. Mu. Arunacalam, Tamil ilakkiya varalaru IX Century - I, p. 52) . Uttiyokaparu vam IV + urai praises vanero-! teUiirril venrii!l ... ventar ... pallavar koman pantitaralayan, i.e. Nandivarman III (830-852), the victor in the battle of Tellaru (A.D. 832 ) who is also hero of -7 Nantikkalampakam , which prai ses him as lover of Tam. and educated patron of letters (cf. pantitaralayany; hence P . may be dated in 9th C. Perunevagar, (c. 1105 A.D.), Jaina scholar, author: comm. on -7 Vtracoliyam. Thi s comm. quotes books composed only before 12th c. For dating, cf. M. Govindasamy, A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai Univ . 1977, p. 170. Peruntevagar; (date?), author of -7 Tiruvalluvamalai 36, also called Kavicakara-p Peruntevanar. The name may be ticticious; on the other hand, there might have been an author who composed a lost poetic treatise by name of Kaviciikaram . peruntinai (Tam. rhetoric), situation of improper love-relationship ari sing out of great difference in age , incompatibility of lovers, violent passion etc. , as described in classical love poetry (-7 akam) ; one of the two themes unsuitable to proper mutual love (the other being -7 kaikkilaiy. Cf. K. Zvelebil , The Smile of Murugan , Leiden, EJ. Brill, 1973, 78 , 92 , 105, 118-19. Peruntokai ("Large Anthology"), collection of 2214 st. arranged subjectwise beginning with katavul valttiyal (worship of god) and K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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ending with aspects of poruliyal ( " material world"). Contains solitary st. (~ tani-p patal, tanip-pauuy as well as st. culled from various liter. works and inscriptions. Compiled in 1935-36 by ~ Irakav' Aiyankar.Mu. Detailed explanatory notes are given as well as various readings. Contains poems upto the time of ~ Civakkoluntu Tecikar, Kottaiyur. Valuable source of data. Publ, by ~ Madurai Tamil Sangam. Peruntot Kujuficattajj (Cankam), author: Kuruntokai 308. Perurpattippuranam (A.D. 1608), anonym. ~ sthalapurana on legends of Siva-Patticuvarar at Perur in 342 ~ viruttam st. in 6 chapters. Peruvaluti (Cankam), author: Narrinai 55, 56 . petal (Tam. rhetoric) girl of 5-7 or 5-8 years of age; cf. also ~ ula . petumpai (Tam. rhetoric) girl of 8-11 or 9-10 years of age; cf. also ~ ula . Peyalvar (lit. "Dernon-Alvar" , DEDR 4438 pe» devil, goblin, fiend), Vaisnava poet-saint, said to have been b. in red lotus in a well in Mayilai (Mylapore) next day (Thursday) after ~ Putam. Intuited god 's existence through supreme knowledge coupled with devotion (paramajnanai and composed the third (munram) tiruvantati (100 st. in ~ venpii metre, 3rd Thousand of Vaisnava canon). Accord. to ~ Kuruparamparai 3000, the first 3 ~ dlvdrs met ~ Tirumalicai while he was deep in yoga, and enquired him about his welfare. However, thi s alvar is not earlier than c. 850 A.D. whereas P. may be dated, like ~ Poykai and Putam, in c. 650-700 A.D. Cf. Alkondavalli Govindacharya, The Holy Lives of the Azhvars or the Drdvida Saints, Mysore, 1902 . Trans. V. Raghavan, The Gr eat Integrators, 4th ed ., Delhi, 1979,95-6 (3rd Tiruvantati 94). Peyanar (Cankarn), prolific author: Ainkurunuru 401-500 (mullai), Kuruntokai 233 ,339,359,400 (all in all 105 st.) . peyarin.n.icai, poem of 50 ,70 or 90 st. in ~ innicaivenpa which mentions in each st. the name (peyar) of hero or patron; peyarnericai, the same in ~ nericaivenpa. Cf. Venpap, Cey . 14, llakkanavil. 825 etc . Peymaka] Ilaveyig] (Cankam), authoress: Purananuru 11. Philip de Melho ~ Pilippu te Mello . Piccamiirtti, Na. (N. Pichamurthy , noms-de-plume Piksu , Revati, b.15 .8.1900, Kumbakonam in Brahmin family of Telugu origin d.1977 ), poet, prose-writer, es sayst, playwright, journalist. One of rare authors who excell equally in composing poetry (in both cla ss. and avantgarde mod. forms) and in writing outstanding K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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prose (although his fiction was almost exclusively devoted to short stories, filled with deep humanism, psychological insight and perfection of form). After taking B.A. degree in Kumbakonam qualified as pleader, practiced law for c. 13 years, then joined the national movement. 1932 received short story award of Kalaimakal, entered literature with vigorous writing, never compromising his views. Wrote and publ. stories, essays and plays in Kalaimakal, Manikkoti, Cute camittiran, Kalamohini, Kirama u{iya!J:. etc . Began publ , "new poetry" under nom-de-plume Piksu ("mendicant beggar"). In 1938 ed . for a short time in Madras revue Hanuman. 1939-56 supervisor of temples in Hindu Religious Endowment; in free time journalist in daily Nava Intiya (Madras). Wrote considerable amount of verse publ. in Tinamani and Eluttu, exercising great impact on young poets and prosewriters. Was known together with -7 Rajakopalan, Ku.Pa. as one of the "Twins" (lrauaiyarkal - so designated by -7 Rarnacami, Va. , in allusion to the medieval couple of poets , Irattaiyar). To him (and -7 Cellappa) is due first great flourish of -7 putu ka vitai . Wa s one of the true pillars of mod. short story. As poet, carried the experimental fires of the 30ies to post-War period. In introd. to his late collection Kuyilin curuti (1970; see below) he talks about his poetic development: drawn to mod. poetic forms after reading Walt Whitman and -7 Bharati 's prose-poem Katci, he felt trad. prosody as fetters (yiippu = vilahku) , and wishing to write uninhibitedly and with ease about everyday life and introduce the very recent limits of Western poetry, he began writing, since c.1934, free-verse and prose-poetry. His Valittunai (Fellow Traveller), Kauu vattu (Wild Ducks) and Pettikkatai Naranan (Petty Shopkeeper N.),1959-62, marked real beginnings of putu kavitai movement (cf. -7 Cellappa, CLCu.). Other well-known poems: Pukkari (Flower-girl, 1959-62), "National Bird" (1969), "FoxHole" (1972), "Yet More Corpses" (1974). In Narippallam (Fox Hole), inspired by boyhood reminiscences of digging fox-holes in dry riverbed and luring friends to walk over it (and fall in), as well as by khedda operations for capturing elephants, he sees India falling into traps of deceit by her so-called allies and her own rulers. "Petty shopkeeper Naranag" is poem about an antihero and the disintegration of trad. values. Kuyilin curuti (The Cuckoo 's Key-note, Bookventure, 1970) is slender but exquisite collection of poems in trad. and class. metres:narrative cirukaviyam Katalin iravu (The Night of Love , written before 1946, publ .1968, inspired by well-known film Cintamaniy; Poriyal (Nature of War, 1947), K umastii pdttu (Song of a Clerk, after 1947), narrative K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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poem Anahkan pirappu (The Birth of God of Love, c. 1970, dealing with problems associated with sex with the help of mythical account of birth of Ananga-Kama), Kuyilin curuti (1946) . Best collection of his poetry: Piccamurtti kavitaikal (enl. , revised, Madras, Kriya, 1985). Cf. also, South Asian Digest of Regional Writin g (Heidelberg), 2 (1973 ) 155-6 ("Fox-Hole", and pers. commun. to K.V. Zvelebil,1.7.1972); New Writin g in India (ed. Adil Jussawala , Penguin,1974,61-2: " Nati ona l Bird") ; C. Kanakasabapathy, "A New Voice in Tamil Poetry", Books Abroad XLIII , Autumn 1969,526-9. Short story collections: Jamparum vestiyum (Jumper and Dhoti, 1947); Mokini (1951), Mahkayttalai (First Mangoes, 1961), Patineuam perukku (The 18th Wave, 1964), Piccamurttiyin kataikal (1964), Irattai vilakku (Double Lamp). Almost all his stories are unique and unforgettable. Among the best are Miiyama!1 (Illusory Deer), Nakur AlJtavar , Yanampati (The Lark), Na!1appal (Spiritual Milk) , Pappa Camiyar, i svara lilai (The Lord ' s Play). Pampin Kopam (The Snake' s Anger) deals with the eternal problem of uneven fate of men , the contrast between those who create wealth without fear s and scruples and the poor who are afraid and don 't dare; this is discussed in conversation between a snake and a snail. In "Isvara lilai", one event is viewed differently by two persons: an engineer, speaking of tremendous thunderstorm of previou s day views it as " the Lord 's Play " of the Great Brahma: a poor man who ju st about escaped death during the storm curses it as the game of a Crazy Madman. Most of his writings are replete with milk of human kindness, like "The Blind Girl " (cf. Th e Plough and the Stars , London, 1963,139-43): a rather poor middle-class man takes care of a blind girl-orphan for years out of sheer kindness. As life becomes more expensive, he and his wife are forced to send her to an orphanage. When they come to fetch her, the old man changes his mind and keeps her. This very simple moving narrative is completely unsentimental, and the description of the blind girl's behaviour is superb. "Watchman" (Tamil Short Stories, Delhi, 1980, 17-27) is the story of a young widow who is forced to go and work in a hotel-restaurant. She accepts the menial job because of her boy. The story describes her plight - being young and attractive she is the center of attention of several customers, including the proprietor who approaches her and her boy with gifts . But the boy is a jealous "watchman" and is worried about his mother's chastity more than she herself; one day he offends the proprietor and forbids his mother to work there. Another excellent story is Irumpum puratciyum (Iron and Storm) : K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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A paralyzed beggar asks for alms at a bus-stand. A few passersby give, most don't. He used to work in a textile mill; due to an accident there he became crippled, the little compensation given by the factory did not last long, and he is forced to beg. Most people look at him without any compassion, finding his crippled body loathsome. He goes on begging, crying out: "Please give at least a quarter! A storm is coming. Give a quarter before the storm comes!" The story is a warning: the storm that is coming is a social storm, a revolution of the poor and exploited. "Illusory Dear" tMayaman; cf the saying "To hunt for illusory deer"): The aim of human life is search of happiness and liberation. People search for it constantly . They hope to find it outside, but true peace and emancipation can only be found within. If one leans on various outside supports without trying to know oneself truly, one will be disappointed. Cf. further " Mother" (Mahfil IV,1968,3-4,46-7). Among all mod .Tam. writers, P. (together with ~ Manni and ~ Ramamirutam) is prob . the most philosophically inclined one, and his philosophy is thoroughly Indian, Vedantic. In his later stories he deals with the soul's desire for release. He also wrote (1935) an early novel which dealt with the problems facing a person engaged in Freedom struggle. His other short novel, Kutumpa rakaciyam (Family Secrets, 1959) is a narrative of 60 pp. with a topic wh ich could be expanded in a large novel. Turaicinkam is a careless fellow who has no serious interest in life, in contrast to his energetic, responsible, serious and overwhelming wife Civapakkiyam. To improve his ways, Tankam, younger sister of his wife, sacrifices herself to fulfill his desire for her. His first wife, to enable him starting a new life, gives him her consent and is even willing to participate in the selfsacrifice of her younger sister. The fact that the two women are daughters of Turaicinkam's sister help s in that trial. This short excellent novel depicts well "secrets" of Hindu family life . Piccucastiri Cuvami (19), author: Perurppuranam (1885) in prose . Piccuvaiyankar (early 20), Vaisnava author of devotional poem Nammalyar talattu ( 1900). pici, riddle in poetic form, cf. ~ Tolkiippi yam Poruiatikaram 488.3. Picirantaiyar (Cankam) , author: Akananuru 308, Narrinai 91, Purananiiru 67, 184, 191, 212 . pilakkanarn (Tam . folklore) song of lamentation, sung by women in a house of mourning. Cf. ~ oppari, ~ pulampal. Pilippu te Mello (Philip de Melho, 23.4.1723 - 10.8.1790). First native admitted to the office of Minister of the Dutch Reformed Church in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Studied Tam ., Hebrew, Latin, Greek, K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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PIJ,-J,-AI LOKACARYA

Dutch, Portuguese and theology . Revised Tam. version of New Testament (1750), completed unfinished portions (1759) , criticized and revi sed Tranquebar Tam . version of Old Testament (pub!.I729). This was found "extremely uncouth , barbarous and ridiculous, owing to the grammatical errors and the vulgarisms which it abounded". Author: Cattiyattin ceyam (The Triumph of Truth) , refutation of the teachings of the Church of Rome (trans . from his own Dutch version), 1753; Tam . version of the liturgy of Dutch Reformed Church (1755-60); enlarged by various additions -7 Cutamani nikantu (party pub!. 1856). Cf. Simon Casie Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch , Colombo,1946,82-88. Pillai Lokacarya (1264-1327 or 1369), eldest son of -7 Vatakkuttiruviti-p Pillai (the author of -7 Itu), lived in strict abstinence his whole life in Srirangam, Was strictly against caste distinctions (one of his foremost disciples was an Untouchable who became very learned and in his turn had many Brahmin disciples, cf. -7 Vilaficolaippillai). Author: 18 works in -7 manipravdla , expounding Visi~tadvaita philosophy known as Astadasarahasyahkal; "The 18 Secrets": 1. Mumiiksuppati dealing with the 3 "secrets" a person must understand to attain moksa "liberation" (tirumantiram-srlmantra which expounds the meaning of the greatest mantra Om namo ndrayanaya; tuvayam-dvayam dealing with relationship between the Lord and soul; caramaclokam - caramasloka on the concept of renunciation); 2. Tattvatrayam "The Three Principles" dealing with cit "the animate", acit "the inanimate" and isvara "God"; 3. Arttapaiicakam on the five prerequisites for the attainment of any goal (artha-) (Le. action karma, knowledge jiuina, devotion bhakti, surrender prapatti and respect for the acarya-acaryabhimanay ; 4. Srivacanapusanam (his masterpiece) containing the entire philosophy of Tenkalai Vaisnava school in 465 sutras beginnings with the question , "Who is a Vaisnava" and ending with "the disciple 's belief in and obedience to the acarya"; 5. Arccirati about the journey of departed soul from Earth to the heaven Vaikuntha; 6. Prameyacekaram on God's grace being the basis of all good things; 7. Prapannaparitranam describing the two necessary qualifications of one who totally surrenders (prapanna) to God; 8. Cdra cahkirakam : the entire -7 Tiruvaymoli of -7 Narnmalvar is exposition of the mantra dvayam (which is held in even higher esteem than tirumantra; its form is sriman narayanacaranam implying we have to serve Narayana attained through the intercession of SrI); 9. Samsdrasamrajyam : this manipravala treatise describes how man, immersed in worldly pleasures, turns away K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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from God but finally is guided back by the iiciirya; 10. Navaratnamiilai on 9 "gems" the man who surrenders understands (himself, his body, his relatives, other people, gods other than Narayana, Srivaisnavas, dcdryas, Laksmi and Lord Isvara); 11. Navavitacampantam on 9 kinds of relationship between man and God (highly important work of Vaisnava philosophy); 12. Tattvacekaram, polemic work refuting other views, 13. Yturuccikappati, brief summary of rahasyatrayam, 14. Parantapati dealing extensively (paranta) with the rahasyatraya; 15. Sriyappatippati, yet another discussion of rahasyatrayam (later criticized by -7 Manavalamamunika] as containing too many Skt. terms to be easily intelligible to ordinary Tam. readerl); 16. Tanitvayam (on meaning of mantras); 17. Taniccaramam (meaning of mantras); 18. Tanipranavam meaning of mantras). PL. was undoubtedly one of the greatest post-Ramanuja Vaisnava thinkers Cf. Lester, Robert, Srivacana Bhusana of Pillai Lokiicarya: Edition with Eng. trans., The Kuppuswamy Sastry Research Inst., Madras, 1979; Also, K.K.A. Venkatachari, Srivaisnava Manipravala - the Manipravala Literature of the Srivaisnava Aciiryas, Bombay, 1978, 124-41 and passim. PiIJai Lokaficiyar (begin. 16), author: Iramanucarya tivviya caritai, biography of Sri Rarnanuja in -7 manipravala prose . Publ. in print Madras, 1886. Pillai-p Peruma] Aiyaitkar (also called Alakiya Manavala Tacar or Manava]a Tacar, late 16 - early 17? accord. to C. and H. Jesudasan, 1636-50). Patronized by Tirumala Nayaka (?). Of T'irumanka i, Vaisn ava poet and controversialist, author: Astappirapantam, hymns on 108 Vaisnava shrines in -7 antati arrangement; many of the songs are filled with ardent devotion, and are favourite not only among Vaisnavites but also with other Hindus. Tiruvarankakkalampakam on Visnu at Srirangam, Tiruvarankattantati in -7 yamaka on Srirankanatan (comm. by -7 Tirukkurukai-p Peru mal Kavirayar), Tiruvarankamalai and Tiruvarankattu ccarrirunamam (-7 ucal) on the same deity, Tiruvehkatamalai. Tiruvehkatattantati on Sri Venkatesvara to whom he was especially attached, and possibly other works (Tiruniimam, Nampimekavitututu, Alakarantati, Etiriicarantiiti). The ascription of these and a few other works is a matter of controversy, and the canon of his works remains unsettled. He died in Srirangam, crushed by a lame cow which fell on him while he was absorbed in worship.Cf. Astappirapantam, Madras,1957. For problems of dating and ascription, cf. M. Govindasamy , A Survey of the Sources for the History of Tamil Literature, Annamalia Univ ., Annamalainagar, 1977, 263-65. See also -7 Manavalatacar. K.V. Zvelebil - 978-90-04-49173-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 11:00:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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