Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza excavations Volume 2, The pottery from the Eastern Cardo [IAA reports, no. 64] 9789654066921, 9789654066938, 9654066920

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IAA Reports, No. 64

Jerusalem Western Wall Plaza Excavations Volume II The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

With contributions by

Miriam Avissar and Anat Cohen-Weinberger

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY JERUSALEM 2019

The Western Wall Plaza Excavations Israel Antiquities Authority

IAA EXPEDITION DIRECTORS: SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH ALEXANDER ONN

VOL. II: JERUSALEM: WESTERN WALL PLAZA EXCAVATIONS: THE POTTERY FROM THE EASTERN CARDO

IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editors-in-Chief: Judith Ben-Michael, Zvi Greenhut Series and Production Editors: Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, Shelley Sadeh Volume Editor: Shelley Sadeh Production Coordinator: Lori Lender Front Cover: The Cardo at the foot of the hewn cliff, looking southwest (photograph, Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah) Back Cover: Terracotta fragments of a lamp, a chalice and two jugs (photographs, Clara Amit) Cover Design and Production: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Layout and Typesetting: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Illustrations: Natalya Zak, Elizabet Belashov Printing: Ayalon Printing, Jerusalem Copyright © 2019, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem, 91004 ISBN 978-965-406-692-1 EISBN 978-965-406-693-8 www.antiquities.org.il

Contents

ABBREVIATIONS FOREWORD

vii Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

AUTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ix xiv

CHAPTER 1: THE ROMAN POTTERY FROM THE EASTERN CARDO

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

1

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

7

FINE AND MEDIUM-FINE WARES 7 Sigillata and R elated Wares: Open V essels 7  Eastern Sigillata A and a Krater (1–23) 7  Eastern Sigillata A: Plates with Stamps and  Graffiti (24–28) 11  Eastern Sigillata D/Cypriot Sigillata (29–31) 11  Local Imitations and Products 12   Sigillata Tradition (32–40) 12   Flat-Rim Cups (41–43) 13   Mottled Bowls 14    Shallow Bowls (44–52) 15    Bases (53–55) 15    Coarse Ware Bowl (56) 15    Flanged Bowls (57–59) 16   Mottled Small Jars (60–64) 16 J ugs, Table A mphoras, Various Closed Shapes, and K raters 16  Eastern Sigillata A (65–76) 17  Local Products 18   Local Jugs in ESA Tradition (77–101) 18   Table Amphoras (102–108) 20   Plain Jugs in Judaean Tradition (109–125) 21    Bases (126–129) 22   Strainer Jugs (130–134) 22   Filter Jugs (135, 136) 23   Filter Jar (137) 24   Turibulum (138) 24   Spouts (139–142) 24   Various Closed Shapes (143, 144) 24   ‘Pie-Crust’ Rim Kraters (145, 146) 25

Thin-Walled Ware  Cups (147–160)  Bowls (161–186)  Lids (187, 188)  Ladle(?) (189)  Bowl-Lids (190, 191)  Mugs, Beakers and Cups   Local Products (192–219)   Two-Handled Cup (220)   Unassigned Fabrics (221–229)

25 25 27 29 29 29 30 32 34 34

J udaean Ceramics  Judaean Painted Pottery (230–239)  Painted Fragments of  Closed Vessels (240, 241)  Miscellaneous Medium-Fine Ware Bowls  and Cups (242–260)  Containers for Precious Liquids  and Ointments   Small Pots (261–270)   Unguentaria and Bottles    Piriform Unguentaria (271, 272)    Large Unguentarium (273)    Bottles/Unguentaria (274–280)  Juglets (281–302)  Stopper or ‘Perfume Pot’ (303)  Jugs and Flasks   Medium-Sized Jugs (304–312)   Jugs with Ridged Neck (313–315)   Flasks (316–318)

36 36 38 38 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 44 44 44 45 46

iv UTILITY WARES Food Processing and Storage  Flat-Bottomed Dishes and Pans   ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware Baking Dishes and   Lids (319–322)   Local Imitations of ‘Pompeian Red’   Ware (323–334)   Baking Dishes/Frying Pans and Lid   (335–339)  Kraters/Deep Bowls (340–368)  Kraters with Triangular Rim (369–374)  Basins/Deep Bowls (375–395)  Shelf-Rim Basins (396–413)  Shallow Basins with ‘Pie-Crust’ Decoration  (414–416)  Shallow Basins with Applied Clay Strips  (417–419)  Basins with Pinched Horizontal Handles  (420–424)  Basin with Ledge Handle (425)  Mortaria (426–434)  Two-Handled Basins (435–443)  Basins with Flat Rim (444–452)  Dolia (453–456) and Pithoi (457, 458)  Jugs and Pots with Grooved Handles  (459–477)

46 46 47 47 48 50 51 54 55 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 63 64 65

Transport and Storage 67  Commercial Amphoras of Eastern Origin 68   Peacock and Williams Class 21 (478–481) 68   Beirut Amphoras 1/‘AM 72’ and Related Forms   (482–489) 69   Amphoras with Bifid Handles (490–492) 70   Miscellaneous Imported Eastern   Amphoras (493–509) 71  Commercial Amphoras of Western Origin  (510–514) 74  Local Amphoras 74   Local Imitations of Greco-Roman Amphoras   (515–518) 74   Heavy Amphoras in Medium-Coarse or   Roof-Tile Fabric (519–538) 75   Decorated Fragments (539–550) 77  Storage Jars 78   High-Necked Jars (551–589) 78   Low-Necked Jars with Flat Ledge Rim   (590–598) 80   Fragments of Diverse Jars (599–604) 81

  Bag-Shaped Jars (605–608)   Bases (609, 610)

82 82

Cooking 83  Cooking Pots 84   Cooking Pots with Vertical Neck (611–625) 84   Unusual Examples (626, 627) 86   Cooking Pots with Everted Neck (628–631) 86   Cooking Pots with Shoulder Carination   (632–642) 86   Wide-Mouthed Cooking Pots (643–647) 87   Thin-Walled Pots in Cookware Fabric   (648–652) 87  Casseroles 88   Thin-Walled Carinated Casseroles   (653–655) 88   Carinated Casseroles (656–670) 88   Casseroles with Horizontal Handles   (671–684) 90   Large Cups (685, 686) 91  Cooking Jugs (687–691) 91  Lids and Stoppers 92   Cookware Lids (692–699) 92   Lids in Baking-Dish Fabric (700–701) 93   Small Lid (702) 93   Knob of Large Lid (703) 93   Saucer-Lids (704, 705) 93   Saucer-Lid with Central Knob (706) 94   Lid in Openwork Technique (Kerbschnitt)   (707) 94   Knob of Lid (708) 94   Bowl-Lids (709–711) 94   Waster Lid (712) 95   Amphora Stoppers (713, 714) 95 R ing Stands (715, 716)

96

Pedestal stands (717–725)

96

Pipes and Tubuli  Drain Pipes (726–730)  Vent Pipes or Pot Stands (731, 732)  Tubuli (733, 734)

98 98 99 100

Brazier Lugs (735–737)

100

Ṭabun Fragments (738, 739)

101

v OIL LAMPS AND LAMPSTANDS Roman-Type Lamps  Broneer Type XXI (740–747)   Handle Shields (748–756)   Unclassified, Large (757–760)  Broneer Types XXII and XXIII  (761–784)  Lampstands of Knidian and Local  Manufacture (785, 786)

101 103 103 105 107

136 139

Kraters (854–856)

140

Ring Feet (857–860)

142

Unique Vessels (861–866)

142

FIGURINES, MASKS AND ALTARS Figurines  Head of Female Figurine (867)  Three Non-Joining Fragments of Standing  Female Figurine (868)  Two Non-Joining Fragments of Nude  Female Figure (869)  Plinths with Standing Figures (870, 871)  Three Fragmentary Bases (872–874)  Head with Persian Hat (875)  Standing Draped Figure (876)  Torso (877)

143 144 144

M asks  Members of the Dionysian Thiasos(?)  (878–881)  Tragic Mask(?) (882)  Fragment of Mask with Egyptian  Blue (883)  Indeterminate Fragments (884, 885)  Imported Mask (886)  Mask(?) (887)  Miniature Mask (888)  Head of Pan (889)

147

148 148 149 149 149 149

Altars (890–893)

149

Unassigned Fragment (894)

151

107 113

Levantine Lamps  Round Discus Lamps (787–813)  Phoenician Lamps (814–817)

115 115 118

Factory Lamps (818, 819)

119

R ectangular /Square Lamp of Gray Ware (820)

120

J udaean Lamps  Pinched-Rim Lamp (821)  Lamps with Spatulate Nozzle (822–825)  Molded Judaean Lamps (826, 827)

120 120 121 121

Discussion of Lamps

 Escutcheons (846–850)  Fragments of Closed Vessels (851–853)



122

TABLEWARE FOR DRINKING, SERVING AND CULT Drinking V essels  Chalices (828–832)  Cups (833, 834)  Bowl (835)  Pedestal Feet (836, 837)  Indeterminate, Possibly Jug (838)

124 126 127 130 131 131 132

Closed V essels  Handles (839–845)

132 134

145 146 146 146 146 147 147

148 148

vi VARIA 151 Hellenistic Vessels 151  Fish-Plate Tradition (895) 151  Ephesos Gray Ware (896–898) 152  Unguentarium (899) 152

Italian Sigillata (902)

154

Lead-Glazed V essels (903–907)

155

Green-Glazed V essel (908)

156

Roman I nkwell (900)

153

Faience V essels (909, 910)

157

Nabataean Painted Ware (901)

154

U ncommon V essels (911–918)

157

Catalogue Plates

161

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

213

CHAPTER 4: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS

Anat Cohen-Weinberger and Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

249

CHAPTER 5: CONTEXTUALIZING THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SHIFTS

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

269

CHAPTER 6: POTTERY FROM BYZANTINE LOCI

Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

283

CHAPTER 7: POTTERY FROM DRAINAGE CHANNELS 491 AND 5248

Miriam Avissar

295

REFERENCES

303

vii

Abbreviations

AASOR ABSA ACOR ADAJ AJA ‘Atiqot (ES) ‘Atiqot (HS) BA BAIAS BAR Int. S. BASOR BCH BIFAO BJb FolArch HA–ESI IAA Reports IEJ IJES JRA JSOT JSP LA LIMC MUSJ NEA NEAEHL 5 OIP PEF POC QDAP

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Annual of the British School at Athens American Center of Oriental Research Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan American Journal of Archaeology ‘Atiqot English Series ‘Atiqot Hebrew Series Biblical Archaeologist Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society British Archaeological Reports International Series Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin de correspondance héllenique Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologique orientale Bonner Jahrbücher Folia Archaeologica: Annales Musei Nationalis Hungarici Ḥadashot Arkhiologiyot–Excavations and Surveys in Israel (from 1999) Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Israel Exploration Journal Israel Journal of Earth Sciences Journal of Roman Archaeology Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Judea and Samaria Publications Liber Annuus Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Zurich–Munich 1981–2009 Mélanges de l’Université Saint Joseph Near Eastern Archaeology E. Stern ed. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem 2008 Oriental Institute Publications Palestine Exploration Fund Proche-Orient Chrétien Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine

viii

RA RB RCRF Acta RLÖ SBF TMO WWPE I

WWPE III

Revue archéologique Revue Biblique Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum Acta Der Römische Limes in Österreich Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn. Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Architecture and Stratigraphy (IAA Reports 63). Jerusalem 2019 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn. Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations III: The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Miscellaneous Studies (IAA Reports). Jerusalem Forthcoming

ix

Foreword Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

This monograph is the second volume in the final report of the excavations of the Eastern Cardo in the Western Wall Plaza, conducted on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority between the years 2005 and 2010 under the direction of Alexander Onn and the author, and financed by the Western Wall Heritage Foundation. The stratigraphy and architecture are presented in the first volume, WWPE I. Covered here is the pottery associated with the Eastern Cardo, from its construction in the Roman period (early second century CE), its use through the Late Roman–Byzantine periods (second century–first half of seventh century CE), until its demise at the beginning of the Early Islamic period (second half of seventh century CE). A collection of finds recovered in the excavations are presented in the forthcoming volume WWPE III, apart from the coins that are discussed in WWPE I.

Stratigraphic Highlights (Table 1, Plan 1) The Second Temple-period remains consist of a small section of the Low-Level Aqueduct, discovered in the southwestern area of the excavations, and segments of quarries and rockhewn, plastered installations (Plan 1: Stratum XIII). The latter are the lower parts of groundlevel facilities of residential buildings that were possibly destroyed during the destruction of the city in 70 CE and whose upper floors were removed during the construction of the Roman Cardo. The small finds recovered from this period include coins, potsherds and a flan mold, as well as fragments of chalk artifacts and frescoes, all mixed with finds from the later, post-70 CE Roman period. The origin of the Second Temple-period potsherds and small finds was undoubtedly from ruins of residential buildings of the Second Temple period. These structures may have been standing within the excavated area, or uphill, and their ruins washed down-slope after 70 CE. Alternatively, the Second Temple-period finds may have been brought to the excavated area together with the Roman dump (see below). The post-70 CE Roman-period remains are associated with the construction and the continuous use of the Eastern Cardo (Plan 1: Stratum XII), which served as one of the main streets of Aelia Capitolina. The Cardo’s total width was 24 m. It included an 8 m wide carriageway in the center, which was lined on both sides by 1.5 m wide sidewalks (only partly preserved), flanked, in turn, by porticos 6.0–6.5 m wide. Both the carriageway and sidewalks were paved with large flagstones (averaging more than 1 sq m). Beyond the western portico, a row of cells, probably used as shops, was hewn into the cliff face, adding a further 5.5–6.0 m to the total width.

x Table 1.1. The Stratigraphic Sequence of the Western Wall Plaza Excavations* Stratum

Period

Date

Main Finds

I

Modern

1967

Western Wall Plaza

II

Modern

c. 1920–1967

Buildings

III

Late Ottoman

Nineteenth–early twentieth centuries CE

Renovations of earlier buildings

IV

Late Islamic–Early Ottoman

Late fifteenth–mid-sixteenth centuries CE

Buildings, elevation of street level, narrowing of street

V

Late Islamic

Fifteenth century CE

Installations, refuse pits

VI

Late Islamic

Late twelfth/thirteenth–fifteenth centuries CE

Buildings

Tenth–late twelfth centuries CE

Soil fills

VII VIII

Early Islamic

Eighth–ninth centuries CE

Buildings, elevation of street level

IX

Early Islamic

Second half of seventh/early eighth centuries CE

Narrowing of the Cardo, building on the west

X

Byzantine

Fifth–early seventh centuries CE

Renewal of pavements, cistern

XI

Late Roman–Early Byzantine

Third–fourth centuries CE

Cistern

XII

Roman

Second century CE

Eastern Cardo

XIII

Late Hellenistic– Early Roman (Second Temple period)

Second century BCE–70 CE

Low-Level Aqueduct, installations, quarries

XIV

Iron II (First Temple period)

Seventh century BCE–586 BCE

Buildings, alley; destruction layer

XV

Iron II (First Temple period)

Eighth century BCE(?)

Quarries

*Dates may be slightly modified in subsequent volumes.

The Eastern Cardo had a generally north–south alignment, parallel to the Western Wall of the temenos of the Temple Mount. The street’s foundations were uniformly leveled by filling deep quarry pits, removing earlier structures and hewing the bedrock. Inside an abandoned quarry, which lay in the path of the street’s eastern portico in the northeastern corner of the excavated area, a broad, north–south supporting wall was built (W811-W812), aligned with the eastern stylobate of the street. Fills of earth mixed with ash were intentionally deposited against both faces of this supporting wall; due to the large quantities of refuse they contained (animal bones, potsherds, broken glass vessels, etc.), the fills are referred to as the ‘Roman refuse dump’ (or in short, the ‘Roman dump’). Prior to the paving of the street, a sophisticated drainage system was installed that included hewn and built channels (WWPE I: Plan 3.2). Most of the channels were in continuous use from the time of the street’s construction until it’s demise. After the preparatory work had been completed, the street was paved and columns were erected along its sides.

xi

Street

L8170

Quarry

Carriageway #L8108

alk

812 W811-W

Sidew

alk

Cells (Shops)

Sidew

Western Portico

Miqveh

Eastern Portico

Street

Low-Level Aqueduct

}

Stratum XIII (Late Hellenistic–Early Roman) Stratum XII–X (Roman–Byzantine)

Drainage Channels Pavements

0

10 m

Plan 1. The remains of the Eastern Cardo in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, and earlier remains below its level.

xii

Based on the pottery (see Chapter 3: Group 1, Plan 3.1) and small finds (coins, glass vessels and inscribed bread stamps) that were retrieved in the dismantling of sections of the supporting wall along the eastern stylobate, and those recovered from fills that blocked and leveled the surface of ancient quarries and installations below the Cardo’s route (see Chapter 3: Groups 2 and 3, Plan 3.1), we propose dating the infrastructure work (Stratum XIIB) to a period within the first quarter of the second century CE. The latest find associated with the paving of the Cardo (Stratum XIIA) was a Hadrianic coin (Bijovsky 2019: Cat. No. 35), which places the paving of the Eastern Cardo no earlier than the reign of Hadrian. Thus, the two phases of the construction of the Cardo (XIIB and XIIA) are dated to the reign of Hadrian. Once the street had been built in the second century CE, it remained in use in its original form and level, with minor changes, for centuries (Strata XI and X, third– early seventh centuries). The Eastern Cardo in its original form went out of use in the Early Islamic period (Stratum IX, second half of seventh–early eighth centuries), when a residential building was constructed above the western half of the street, halving its width.

Significance of the Eastern Cardo Pottery Assemblage The pottery assemblage associated with the Eastern Cardo, and especially the pottery from the Roman dump, is an important contribution to the study of the material culture of the Roman presence in Jerusalem after 70 CE. This is the first time that such a rich assemblage of finds, related to the Roman military and dated securely to the period of c. 70–130 CE, has been found in situ in Jerusalem. The significance of the assemblage is all the more pronounced due to its definitive relationship with the construction of the Eastern Cardo, one of the main arteries of the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina. The abundance of welldated small finds and pottery attributable to Stratum XIIB suggests that the preparatory work for paving the street apparently began early in the days of Hadrian. Accordingly, we suggest that the decision to establish the city of Aelia Capitolina was made by Hadrian in the early years of his reign, several years before the Bar Kokhba Revolt. The contents of the refuse dump were rich in artifacts that appear to have originated in a military camp. The main findings were three military bread stamps (Di Segni and WekslerBdolah 2012; Di Segni, forthcoming), the rich assemblage of pottery vessels discussed here, a rich assemblage of glass vessels (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming), and a large assemblage of faunal remains, c. 60% of which is comprised of pig bones, a hallmark of the Roman military diet (Horwitz, forthcoming). Many of the vessels were produced in the kilns of the Tenth Roman Legion (Legio X Fretensis) in Binyene Ha-Umma, alongside vessels made in the local traditions prevalent in Jerusalem before the destruction of the Second Temple, and imported vessels, including amphoras, lamps and fine tableware. The dump also yielded dozens of fragments of building materials—water pipes, bricks and roof tiles—none of which were impressed with the stamp of the Tenth Legion. This absence is remarkable when compared with the relatively widespread distribution of building materials impressed with the Tenth Legion stamp recovered from archaeological deposits throughout the city, dating from the time of Aelia Capitolina (second–fourth centuries CE). This absence may be incidental, but it may be chronologically significant,

xiii

attesting that the refuse dump was deposited before the potters at the Binyene Ha-Umma production center began impressing the stamp of the Tenth Legion on building materials. The other pottery assemblages described in this volume (see Chapter 3: Group 6; Chapter 6) illustrate the Roman street’s continuous use throughout the third–seventh centuries CE, while Chapter 7, by Miriam Avissar, discusses pottery vessels from two drainage channels that were blocked once the street was narrowed. The latter chapter places the narrowing of the street that put an end to its classic, 24 m wide, monumental appearance in the second half of the seventh century.

Acknowledgements1 We wish to thank the many experts who were directly involved in the treatment of the pottery and the production of this volume. The pottery was photographed by Clara Amit,* restored by Josef Bukengolts* and Adrienne Varnai-Ganor,* and drawn by Dalit Weinblatt and Mannie Goodman.* The figures were prepared by Carmen Hersch.* Plans to this volume were surveyed in the field by Vadim Essman and prepared by Natalya Zak.* Brigitte Ouahnouna* and Shua Kisilevitz*, the area supervisors, also organized all the postexcavation material, enabling the publication not only of this volume, but all the volumes of the Western Wall Plaza excavations. Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom studied the Early Roman–Byzantine assemblages, and Anat Cohen-Weinberger* performed the petrographic analyses. Miriam Avissar* studied the Islamic and Ottoman ceramic material; the chapter included here constitutes a small part of the work she was able to complete before her untimely passing. The major part of her work will be published in future volumes. Special thanks are extended to the anonymous readers of the reports and to the volume editor, Shelley Sadeh, the IAA Monograph Series editor, Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, the production editor, Lori Lender, and Judith Ben-Michael, former head of the IAA publication department, all of whose work helped bring the report to completion.

R eferences Bijovsky G. 2019. Coins of the Hellenistic to Byzantine Periods. In WWPE I. Pp. 165–193. Di Segni L. Forthcoming. Three Military Bread Stamps. In WWPE III. Di Segni L. and Weksler-Bdolah S. 2012. Three Military Bread Stamps from the Western Wall Plaza Excavations, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 70:21*–31*. Gorin-Rosen Y. Forthcoming. Glass. In WWPE III. Horwitz L.K. Forthcoming. Faunal Remains. In WWPE III.

A full list of participants in the excavations at the Western Wall Plaza is presented in the foreword of WWPE I. * Israel Antiquities Authority 1

xiv

Author’s Acknowledgements

It is my pleasure to thank those who, in different ways, have contributed to the making of the report. My thanks first of all to Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah for her indispensable help and advice in the process of coping with the stratigraphic complexities. I am also grateful to Shua Kisilevitz for working on the tables of Chapter 3 so that mistakes in loci and basket numbers could be eliminated. I wish to thank Carmen Hersch for undertaking the tedious task of preparing the plates by organizing the ink drawings and photos. To Clara Amit I express my gratitude for the photographs of numerous finds. I want to thank especially, two colleagues and friends who supported me throughout this work. On many occasions, I benefited from lengthy discussions on the contextual evidence with Hillel Geva and Gabriel Mazor. In Berlin, it has been my good fortune to be a welcome guest in the library of the Archäologisches Zentrum, Staatliche Museen and to make extensive use of the research facilities, and I would like to express my warmest thanks to the library staff.



Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom Berlin, August 2019

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 1

The Roman Pottery from the Eastern Cardo R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

One of the hallmarks of the recent decades of excavations in Jerusalem has been the discovery of a multitude of ceramics from archaeological contexts that can be definitely related to the activities of the Roman army after 70 CE. These excavations include, in particular, the ongoing fieldwork at the site of the kilnworks in the area of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Binyene Ha-Umma—Arubas and Goldfus 2005; 2008; Crowne Plaza Hotel—Rosenthal-Heginbottom, forthcoming) and the present excavations along the Eastern Cardo in the northwestern part of the Western Wall Plaza in the Old City (see WWPE I). The locally manufactured fine ware and utilitarian pottery from both the Jewish pre-70 CE and Roman post-70 CE kiln site can now be compared to that from the massive Roman dump uncovered in Quarry 8170 in the present excavations, deposited during the leveling works prior to the construction of the Eastern Cardo (see Foreword). This assemblage most likely originates from a military context close to the findspot and is to be associated either with the original habitation remains of the military or administrative personnel, in that case a primary deposition, or, more likely, with a nearby dump that was redeposited, hence a single two-phase secondary deposition (see Chapter 3). The homogeneity of the dump assemblage and the rarity of residual material (a few sherds from the Iron Age, and the Persian, Hellenistic and Early Roman periods), in combination with the stratigraphic evidence, permit the attribution of the Roman dump to a single phase assigned to Stratum XIIB, the foundation/preparation phase of the Cardo, during which the quarries along its route were filled. The main corpus of Roman pottery from the excavation includes items from both construction phases of the Eastern Cardo and adjacent areas––the preparation of the infrastructure (including the Roman dump) in Stratum XIIB and the laying of the pavement slabs in Stratum XIIA––as well as the period of use (Strata XI–X). The catalogue comprises a selection of the ceramics (918 items), most of them originating in the Roman dump and some in stratigraphic soundings and fills (Chapter 3: Tables 3.1–3.6). In addition, diagnostic sherds from non-Roman loci and disturbed loci are included, which, by fabric and shape, date from the same time span as the Roman dump (Chapter 3: Table 3.7). The ceramics are classified according to wares,1 fabrics, functions and shapes, with their variants (see below). The catalogue is followed by a discussion of selected loci deemed relevant to the dating of the construction phases in the area (Chapter 3: Groups 1–5) and

For the definition of terms, see Berlin 2006:12. Much information is also found in the database of the Levantine Ceramics Project, www.levantineceramics.org. 1

2

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

its continued use in the Roman–Byzantine periods (Chapter 3: Group 6). As discussed in the catalogue, a time span within the last quarter of the first century and the first quarter of the second century CE is suggested for the date of the ceramics related to the dump and Stratum XIIA. This study of the post-70 CE ceramic assemblage from the Western Wall Plaza excavations has important and far-reaching implications, as the nature of the dump fulfills the characteristics of a ‘military-style’ assemblage: a standard ceramic repertoire characterized by conformity in basic shapes as well as similarities in the surface treatment and decorative elements, found throughout the Roman Empire (see Chapter 5; see also Tomašević 1970; Grünewald 1979, 1983; Sorge 2001). Furthermore, fruitful insights can be gained into changes in the cultural setting in Jerusalem following the dramatic political upheaval in 70 CE, and the living conditions thereafter (Weksler-Bdolah 2014; WekslerBdolah and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:48–58). Particularly intriguing are the questions as to whether the ceramic assemblage of Stratum XII can help to establish the social and/or ethnic identity of the inhabitants in Roman Jerusalem, and can it be utilized to differentiate between public and private space within the city. It should be noted that while petrographic analyses carried out on over 50 sherds of various vessel types indicate that the majority of the vessels are local Jerusalemite and Judaean wares made of Moza marl, Moza clay or terra rossa, soils like those used in the legionary kilnworks in the Jerusalem International Convention Center (henceforth Jerusalem legionary kilnworks or kiln site),2 these results have no chronological value, as marl and clay of the Moza Formation were used by local potters before and after the lifespan of the legionary kilnworks (see Chapter 4). As in other Roman provinces, the Romans made use of the resources and know-how of the local population. Furthermore, additional workshops must have existed in the Jerusalem area; therefore, the definition of the clay source by petrographic analyses does not necessarily prove that the ceramics were manufactured specifically in the kilnworks at the site of the Jerusalem International Convention Center. The use of clays of the Moza Formation by Jewish potters was well established in the Jerusalem area by the middle of the first century BCE (Berlin 2005:34). Based on evidence from the 2009 excavation at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Levi and Beeri 2010:120–122, Stratum VIII), a manufacturing tradition using Moza clay was already in existence in Hasmonean times in the mid-second century BCE and continued to the end of the second century CE. The fate of these Jewish installations after the 70 CE destruction of Jerusalem is unclear, as the earlier, 1992 excavations at the site revealed signs of a massive clean-up operation following a short gap in production (Berlin 2005:33).

The term legionary is used here in reference to the Jerusalem International Convention Center site, following the publication of Arubas and Goldfus 2005. However, in my opinion it is not entirely correct, and I prefer the term military. Legionary kilnworks are those established in legionary camps, such as Haltern, Carnuntum and Brigetio in the Rhine and Danube provinces. In Jerusalem, the camp and the kilnworks were most likely separate institutions, and the latter could have been operated by auxiliary troops who would also have produced the roof tiles, bricks and pipes stamped LEG X FRET. Thus, the terms military and legionary are used here interchangeably. 2

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It has been suggested by Magness (2005:107) that contrary to the custom in the western and northern provinces, the Tenth Legion in Jerusalem did not resort to local, civilian potters, but employed foreign military potters due to the hostility of the Jewish population, particularly in Jerusalem. However, the recent excavations at the Jerusalem kilnworks (Levi and Beeri 2010:127, Stratum V) established that until the time of the Diaspora Revolt in Egypt, Cyrene and Cyprus (115–117 CE), Jewish potters were still employed in the kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015b:615–616). As Magness rightly points out, little evidence for the distribution of the products of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks has been reported in Jerusalem and its vicinity (Magness 2005:104). In general, distribution of pottery products reflects market circuits, and thus this restricted distribution suggests that the legionary products were not sold to the civilian population until the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE). Two possible reasons for this can be suggested. Firstly, religious Jews would neither buy nor use them, while after the Bar Kokhba Revolt, Jews were not permitted to live in Jerusalem. Secondly, the production may not have been intended for wider distribution.

The Catalogue The classification of the ceramics took into account the particular nature of the accumulation, which contains substantial amounts of utility wares associated with the post-70 CE Jerusalem legionary kiln site, as well as the relevance of the deposit for the dating of the architectural remains (see Chapter 3). The catalogue3 is arranged by wares, fabrics and functional categories, rather than typological criteria, into five basic divisions: fine and medium-fine wares, utility wares, oil lamps, luxury wares and coroplastic objects, followed by some special, yet only sporadically represented Hellenistic and Roman vessels and eight uncommon ceramics. The basic division differentiates between fine and medium-fine wares and utility wares. In the first division, fine tableware is the predominant functional class, mainly comprised of Sigillata wares, Eastern Sigillata A (ESA) and D (ESD), which provide the essential chronological framework, and local imitations of ESA. The presentation of the fine tableware begins with open vessels, for which there is solid dating evidence, followed by closed vessels. Among the fine tableware, two shapes and a ware stand out. The first shape comprises jugs with grooved handles (Nos. 77–101), a hallmark product of the kilnworks, and the second, the post-70 CE jugs in a Judaean tradition, based on visual inspection, which do not share the same fabric as the Judaean vessels, but have similar forms (Nos. 109–129). The thin-walled wares (Nos. 147–220) are characterized by a specific, often metallic fabric. Although locally produced, their shapes are derived from Italian thin-walled wares, which were imitated in many parts of the Roman Empire from Augustan times onward. As the local products form the majority, the few presumably imported thin-walled vessels of unassigned fabrics are presented at the end of the thin-walled wares (Nos. 221–229). The final category of fine and medium-fine wares consists of locally produced

The working conditions did not permit quantification.

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vessels that are a continuation of Judaean types, such as painted pottery, bowls and cups, small containers for precious substances, jugs and flasks (Nos. 230–318). Among the utility wares, three functional classes are defined: vessels for food processing and storage (Nos. 319–477), vessels for transport and storage (Nos. 478–610), and cookware (Nos. 611–691). Many of these vessel types are recorded at military camps and sites throughout the Roman provinces and represent the ‘military style’ pottery of the Roman army (see Chapter 5). The presentation of the vessels in each category is based on the separation of the newly introduced shapes represented by the ‘military style’ production, and the local storage jars and cooking vessels that are continuations of pre-70 CE traditions. Within the first category, imported and local flat-bottomed baking dishes are discussed first as they comprise a well-documented and essential household vessel. The following large group of deep, wide-mouthed vessels includes a dozen forms united and defined by their medium coarse and coarse legionary fabric, as well as certain morphological features, surface treatment, and elements of decoration such as band and wavy-line combing and ‘pie-crust’ rims. Among the vessels for transport and storage, amphoras of eastern origin outnumber those imported from the west, while the majority of storage vessels are locally produced jars in the tradition of the late Second Temple period. The same continuation of local traditions is characteristic of many of the globular cooking pots (Nos. 611–642), casseroles (Nos. 653–684) and jugs (Nos. 687–691), and it is the introduction of grooved handles to the cooking-ware repertoire that is new. Oil lamps comprise a functional category and are presented by the standard typology with emphasis on the different fabrics and the iconography (Nos. 740–827). Luxury tableware and coroplastic objects are described separately (Nos. 828–894), and the catalogue ends with a number of singular finds, mostly imported (Nos. 895–918). The bulk of the ceramics in the catalogue, comprising ‘military style’ utility wares, can be attributed to the activities of the Roman army––the Tenth Legion and the auxiliary troops garrisoned in Jerusalem––on the grounds of both stratigraphic considerations as well as wares, fabrics and functional categories. The study of the various categories of pottery in the present corpus required diverse sources of comparisons and references. No attempt has been made to compile a full list of parallels for the items in the catalogue, choosing only those that are relevant to the discussion, and limited to the latest publications with adequate references. Six basic guidelines were decided upon. 1. The Jerusalemite/Judaean military production was compared to the material published from the site of the legionary kilnworks in the Jerusalem International Convention Center, with a few parallels from other sites in Jerusalem and its vicinity (Hershkovitz 2005; Magness 2005, 2011; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005). Another important site that provides comparisons is Roman Berytus, modern Beirut, a settlement of veterans that received the status of Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus in 14 BCE (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009). A study of supply sources and distribution practices was undertaken following the major excavations at the site. Alongside cultural and social change and an increase of imported ceramics from the Augustan period onward, pottery kilns were

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discovered at several locations, among them a kiln site dating from the late first or early second centuries CE. 2. Comparisons to the local pottery of the Second Temple period and its definite continuation after 70 CE in a Second Temple-period ‘tradition’ are drawn from the published material of the Jewish kiln site in the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Berlin 2005), the Jewish Quarter excavations (Geva 2003a, 2003b, 2006, 2010, 2014), the previous excavations along the Eastern Cardo (Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017) and the hiding complexes of the Bar Kokhba period (Kloner and Tepper 1987). 3. The ESA Ware is classified according to Hayes’ 1985 system (Atlante) and his suggested dates are given in the catalogue. There are no references to specific sites, with the exception of the destruction deposit of the House of Dionysos at Paphos (Hayes 1991) and two deposits unearthed in Beirut (Reynolds 1997–1998, 2005). 4. For the other imported vessels, several relevant publications of excavated sites in the eastern Mediterranean, particularly in Lebanon and Asia Minor, were consulted (Beirut— Reynolds 2003, 2004; Reynolds and Waksman 2007; Pellegrino 2010; Reynolds et al. 2008–2009; Asia Minor—Mitsopoulos-Leon 1991; Gassner 1997; Meriç 2002; Hayes 2008; Kögler 2010). 5. Fragments of vessels made in molds or with applied decoration are compared to metal vessels for lack of parallels in clay (Baratte 1986, 1989; Künzl 1993; Tassinari 1993; Avisseau-Broustet, Colonna and Lapatin 2014). Their iconography is discussed at length, including references to items from widely distributed sites and collections, and to their late Hellenistic and early Imperial predecessors. 6. In the discussion of the lamps, recent publications from sites in the Roman provinces and from collections are included in the iconographical examination (Bémont 2003; Mikati 2003; Grawehr 2006, 2011; Bémont and Chew 2007). Fragments of figurines and masks can only be treated in a summary manner, drawing on evidence from local and regional sites. As the number of complete vessels is small, the classification is based on rim and upperwall profiles; in only a few cases could non-joining bases be identified with a particular type. The colors of the fired clay and the surface treatment (slip, coating, glaze) were defined by visual inspection. For the majority of the ceramics, inclusions are not mentioned unless they are unusual (such as mica) or otherwise relevant. In color-coated wares, the surface color is given, and layers describe pastes with a sandwich of colors: a core and outer strips. The attribution of the bulk of the vessels from the present excavations to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks is based on visual inspection. Over 50 sherds were petrographically analyzed (see Chapter 4), resulting in the identification of a few clay sources in the vicinity, other than Moza marl and clay. In cases where petrographic analysis was carried out, the petrographic sample number and provenance are noted in the catalogue. Most of the tableware, small containers for precious substances, lamps, figurines, masks and altars are made of fine ware with a smooth surface and tiny grits barely visible to the eye (Magness 2005:7, mostly Ware 1, some Ware 2). Among the utility vessels for

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storage and food processing, four wares can be defined: cooking ware (Magness 2005:7, Ware 4); medium coarse ware, generally with a smooth surface and unslipped (Magness 2005:7, mostly Ware 3); coarse ware with many small grits and some larger inclusions, often gritty to the touch, similar to the roof-tile fabric (Magness 2005:8, Ware 5); and rooftile fabric, usually a hard fabric (Magness 2005: Ware 5). The bulk of the ceramics from the Roman dump are large vessels for household and probably industrial purposes, i.e., food processing on a large scale: deep bowls, kraters, basins, mortaria and dolia, as well as transport amphoras and storage jars. Magness dates the beginning of the manufacture of such vessels at the Jerusalem kiln site to either the years after the Great Revolt (66–70 CE), or after the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE), and sets the end around 200 CE (Magness 2005:104–108; 2011:319–320), although the legion was still stationed in Jerusalem until the late third century, when it was transferred to Aila. The archaeological evidence from the Eastern Cardo excavations and the recent excavations at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Levi and Beeri 2010:127, Stratum V; Rosenthal-Heginbottom, forthcoming) clearly indicates that the production began after the Great Revolt. The cessation of ceramic production there also coincided with the end of the legionary production of stamped roof tiles, bricks and pipes (Geva 2003b:410–412). It should be stressed that the Roman dump contained a large amount of broken roof tiles, but not a single stamped example emerged in the course of the Western Wall Plaza excavations (for further discussion, see WWPE I).

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 2

Catalogue of Roman Pottery R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

Fine and Medium-Fine Wares Imported Eastern Sigillata A Ware and its imitations produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks comprise the bulk of the fine tableware retrieved from the Roman dump, with a small number of finds from various other loci (see Chapter 3: Table 3.7).

Sigillata and R elated Wares: Open Vessels Eastern Sigillata A and a Krater The classification of the ESA forms, their shape, frequency and commonly accepted dates, follow Hayes’ publication in Atlante and his 2008 publication of the finds from the Athenian Agora; when appropriate, references to the Armenian Quarter excavations are given (Hayes 1985). Most of the vessels are made of the typical, very pale brown or pink to reddish-brown clay, with relatively thin, smooth, matte or semi-lustrous red slip, and only exceptions are noted in the catalogue entries. The most common forms (Forms 36, 37, 48, 51, 53, 54, 58, 60) fall within the time span of c. 50–150 CE, including earlier (Forms 36, 37, 48), middle (51, 53) and later (58, 60) groups, with Form 54 extending over the middle and later groups. As all these forms were found together in the Roman-period assemblage, it is possible to narrow this date to the last quarter of the first century–first quarter of the second century. In historical terms, a date after 70 CE and before 135 CE is clear. Forms 54, 57, 58 and 60 are present in the destruction deposits of the House of Dionysos at Paphos. In the floor deposit of Room II, two bowls of Form 58 were found together with Cypriot Sigillata Form P12 (cf. No. 29; Hayes 1991:35, 202, 212), and a terminus post quem is provided by a Hadrianic coin of the years 117–119 CE. Form 54 is also present in Well 4 at Paphos, which possibly contains debris from the earthquake of 76 or 77 CE (Hayes 1991:187–188). In two ceramic assemblages from Berytus, dating to the first half of the second century, a variant of Form 34, Forms 37, 50, 53, 58, and a fragment of Cypriot Sigillata Form P12 were retrieved, giving a date range of c. 60–150 CE (Reynolds 1997–1998:38). Considering also the coarse wares and amphoras, Reynolds notes “Though the assemblages may have been deposited in the second quarter of the 2nd century, it is possible that the majority of the material is typical of the first quarter of that century” (Reynolds 1997–1998:38). Form 54, dated c. 75/80–130/150 CE, is often associated with Form 60, dated c. 100–150 CE; for example, both forms appear at Shiqmona (Elgavish 1977: Pls. I:4; VIII:51–54, Form 54, misattributed to Samaria Form 7 = Hayes Form 60; Pls. I:3; VIII:48–50, Form 60).

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The smaller version of Form 54 with a diameter of c. 20 cm (Elgavish 1977: Pls. I:4; VIII: 52) can be related to Ware 1 at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, the locally produced version of Conspectus 1990: Form 42, dated from the Flavian period to the first half of the second century (Magness 2005:73, Fig. 3:7, ‘imitation western sigillata’). A plate in mottled ware of Form 54 found at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks was manufactured there (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 193). Three complete vessels of Form 58 or 60 were published from the fill of a re-used, Second Temple-period cistern in Area F-6 (L2667) in the Upper City of Jerusalem, initially attributed to the destruction by the Romans in 70 CE (Avigad 1983: Ill. 233, left and lower right). However, the study of the finds from the cistern points to a date between 70 and c. 120 CE for the fill (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:298, 320–321, Pl. 25.4:9, 11, 14). Recent studies indicate that the production centers of ESA Ware were probably located at ancient Rhosos in eastern Cilicia in the Gulf of Iskenderun (Reynolds 2005:575; Lund, Malfitana and Poblome 2006:503–505; Olson and Killebrew 2011), thus rendering Berlin’s suggestion of southern Phoenicia obsolete (Berlin 1997a:9; 1997b:25). Apart from clay analyses and distribution patterns, this location has gained plausibility due to the suggestion that the Latin term Rhosica vasa refers to ESA Ware and to the ancient town of Rhosos (Lund, Malfitana and Poblome 2006:497). The exporters of this ware were major suppliers of the army units stationed in Jerusalem. The absence of Italian Sigillata in the Roman dump suggests that there were no Italian imports after 70 CE (already proposed by Hayes 1985:184; see the residual piece below, No. 902). Even in the Herodian period, Italian Sigillata was much less common than ESA in Jerusalem, in contrast to the situation in Beirut, where the settlement of army veterans and the founding of the colony led to “the large scale importation of Italian ceramics for use at the table” (Reynolds 2003:121), although the import of Italian Sigillata ceased after 50 CE (Reynolds 2004:122). Atlante Form 36 1. L8144, B80568. Small plate with low foot, common, dated c. 60–100 CE. References: Hayes 1985: Fig. 53:2–4; 2008: 29, 137, No. 146; Johnson 2008a:9, Nos. 12, 13. Atlante Form 37 2. L8144, B81073/2. Large plate, common, dated c. 60–100 CE. References: Hayes 1985: Fig. 53:5, 6; 2008:29, 137, Nos. 141–144; Johnson 2008a:10, Nos. 14–17. Atlante Form 41 3. L8144, B81076. Large plate, not common, dated c. 60/75–100 CE; an unslipped streak across middle of interior. 4. L8144, B81248/3. Large plate.

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Atlante Form 48 5. L8137, B80822/1. Hemispherical bowl with finely molded vertical rim, fairly common, dated c. 40–70 CE and later. 6. L8113, B80510/1. Bowl, worn slip on exterior. 7. L8122, B 80738/2. Bowl. 8. W812, B81309/4. Bowl. References for Nos. 5–8: Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:12–16; 2008:28, 135–136, Nos. 130, 131; Johnson 2008a:12–13, Nos. 26, 27; Magness 2005: Fig. 5:38, same profile on coarse bowls. Atlante Form 51 9. L8104, B80592/3. Hemispherical cup with incurved rim, common, dated c. 70–120 CE. 10. L5299, B52241/41. Cup, thin, matte red slip. Reference for Nos. 9, 10: Johnson 2008a:13, No. 21. Atlante Form 53 11. L8153, B81056. Plate, not common, dated to the end of the first and the beginning of the second centuries CE. Atlante Form 54 12. L8121, B80664/3. Dish/bowl with a diameter of c. 15.5–40 cm, common, dated c. 75/80–130/150 CE. 13. W812, B81332/18. Plate. Reference for Nos. 11–13: Hayes 2008:30, 138, Nos. 162–164. Form 57 or similar 14. L8053, B81036. Dish/bowl, common, dated to the first half of the second century CE, discolored by fire; possibly a local product. Reference: Hayes 2008:30, 139, No. 168. Bases 15. L8185, B81359/4. Discolored by fire, probably base of Form 54. 16. W812, B81332/13. Base of a cup.

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Atlante Form 58 17. L8145, B80948/2. Dish/bowl, common, dated to the first half of the second century CE. 18. L8113, B80510/2. Dish/bowl. References for Nos. 17, 18: Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:19; 2008:30, 139, No. 165; Johnson 2008a:14–15, Nos. 34–36. Atlante Form 60A 19. L8121, B80668, B80672. Dish/bowl with a flaring rim with grooves on the inner face, common, 50/60–80/90 CE. 20. L8158, B81242/3. Dish/bowl. References for Nos. 19, 20: Hayes 2008:30, 139, No. 166; Johnson 2008a:15, No. 37, the wall is more flared than on our vessels. Bases of Form 58 or 60 21. L8174, B81340/2. Spots on interior and exterior. 22. L8189, B81407/3. Light brown clay, thin, smooth, matte red slip on upper interior and exterior walls, brown slip on lower walls and on base. Krater(?) The shape and decoration of this ESA krater recall the chalice of ESA forma tarda a from Nessana published by Hayes, although its size and rim profile point to a vessel unsuited for drinking, therefore probably for mixing. Hayes cites a parallel for the rim profile from Caesarea Maritima (see Riley 1975: No. 77), and a neck and upper-wall fragment with barbotine decoration from that site probably belongs to the same type (Riley 1975: No. 71). Another wall fragment from Caesarea Maritima is considered either Italian Sigillata or an eastern Mediterranean ware (Oleson et al. 1994:135, Fig. 49, No. RG174). Barbotine decoration is found on bowls and a krater imitating Cypriot Sigillata from Oboda (Negev 1986:16, Nos. 99–108). The krater belongs to Hayes Atlante Forms P40–P42 that are common in contexts of the first half of the second century; Form P40 is already documented in the late first century, with a ring foot. Two cups with barbotine decoration from Petra (Iliffe 1936:36, Fig. 1; Horsfield and Horsfield 1942:191, No. 388) are related in shape to ESA Form 24, though with a straight wall and a carination close to the base. This shape is that of the late Hellenistic–Early Roman version of the mold-made bowls. 23. L8104, B80464, B80511; L8107, B80519. Krater, reconstructed from several pieces, smooth matte to semi-lustrous red slip, thin streaky slip on top of rim, pronounced wheelmarks on interior, decorated with a band of separate leaves and three berries in the curved stem of each leaf en barbotine, schematic ivy leaves and corymbs, and three rows of rouletting

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below; a neck and upper-wall fragment of the same fabric and shape was found in L8154, B81055. Eastern Sigillata A: Plates with Stamps and Graffiti 24. W804, B80489/1. Ring foot with a stamped rosette in the center. Such a rosette occurs on a plate of Atlante Form 41, dated c. 60/5–100 CE; see also Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:26, c. 100 CE. 25. L8121, B80833/4. Base fragment, thin red slip with dark red spots, stamp: ΧΑΡΙC with palmette to right. The stylized palmette is composed of three vertical ridges with two horizontal ridges below and two dots in between, at the sides. While the reduction of the volutes to dots is common, there are no close parallels, and the only similar examples were published by Crowfoot, Crowfoot and Kenyon (1957: Fig. 74 from Samaria, Fig. 75 from other sites). The inscription ΧΑΡΙC is common at Samaria and in the East at Ephesos, Tarsus, Antioch and Dura Europos (see Iliffe 1936:50–53; 1942:72). 26. L8147, B80918. Possibly ΦιλιΑ. 27. L8107, B80989. Ring foot, possibly of Form 54, with LΛP incised on base after firing. 28. L8107, B81191. Base, possibly of Forms 57–60, with ΟΙΠ incised on base after firing. Eastern Sigillata D/Cypriot Sigillata For this ware and its typology, I refer to Hayes’ classification in Atlante and the reports from the excavations at Paphos (Hayes 1991:37–50) and Athens (Hayes 2008: 53–54). Considering the popularity of this widely distributed ware during the first and into the second centuries, its near absence in post-70 CE Jerusalem suggests that Cyprus was not among the supply sources of the Roman army units stationed there. Its use among the Jewish inhabitants of the Upper City began during the reign of Herod the Great (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2006:153–154). At Sha‘ar Ha-‘Amaqim, probably ancient Gaba Hippeon, situated between the plain of ‘Akko, the hills of Lower Galilee and the Jezreel Valley (Młynarczyk 2009:105, Fig. 6:11–15), it appeared toward the end of the first century BCE. The three vessels (Nos. 29–31) were probably private property of members of the Roman civil or military personnel and are most likely of post-70 CE date. Form P12 29. L8187, B81404/1. Dish, deep reddish-brown clay, lustrous, uneven red slip, wheel marks and brush marks on interior close to rim; presumably imported from Cyprus (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 53: unknown/not Israel).

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The vessel is most likely of Form P12, a dish with curved walls and an inturned, rounded lip, usually relatively thick walled and carelessly made, and is a very common form dating to c. 50–150 CE (most are post-100 CE; see also Hayes 2008:202, No. 818). At Paphos, it occurs together with ESA Form 58 in the destruction deposit of the floor of Room II in the House of Dionysos, with a terminus post quem of 117–119 CE (see above, Nos. 17, 18; Hayes 1991: Fig. 69:2–3). The same shape occurs in the color-coated bowls defined as ‘predecessors’ of Cypriot Sigillata (Meyza 2002: Fig. 2). The Paphos date is supported by the well-dated deposit of the first half of the second century from Beirut (Reynolds 1997–1998:38, Fig. 11). It is one of the most common forms found at Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a:36–37, Nos. 114–117). Form P26 30. L8137, B80863/2. Round-bodied bowl with small rim molding, brown clay, lustrous brown slip, burnished lines on interior, uncommon form, dated to the mid to second half of the first century CE. Form P30B 31. L8132, B81121. Shallow bowl with grooved, flat rim, brown clay, lustrous, uneven, deep maroon slip, streaks of dark brown slip on interior, two grooves on rim and a line of rouletting on exterior upper wall, slight wheel marks, dated to the first half of the second century or later. A parallel from Ashqelon has a similar band of rouletting on the exterior below the rim (Johnson 2008a:38, No. 122). A complete bowl with a flat, plain rim was unearthed in the so-called potter’s workshop at Oboda and considered by the excavator to be a local product (Negev 1967:392, Fig. 4:14, Pl. XXXIV:2). However, as the architectural remains of the workshop have been convincingly identified as part of a Roman mill (Goren and Fabian 2008), local manufacture can be excluded. Local Imitations and Products Based on the results of the petrographic analyses of Nos. 32, 39 and 44 (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample Nos. 2, 31, 42), it is suggested that these red-slipped and mottled/ marbled fine-ware vessels were manufactured of Moza marl in the Jerusalem legionary kilns, although the use of clay from the Moza Formation is not exclusive to this workshop. The clay of the local vessels is well levigated, and the tiny grits are barely visible to the naked eye; medium-sized grits are the exception. There are four distinct groups among the locally produced red-gloss ware vessels: cups and plates imitating forms of ESA Ware (Nos. 32–40), flat-rim cups (Nos. 41–43), mottled bowls (Nos. 44–59) and small jars (Nos. 60–64). Sigillata Tradition Imitations of Form 50 These are cups with a vertical rim and a small ridge at the joint between rim and body.

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32. L8137, B80792/2. Light brown clay, thin, matte, dark gray slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 31: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 33. L8107, B80435/2. Light brown clay, thin red slip worn off on interior. 34. L8106, B80528. Clay and slip as No. 32. 35. L8173, B81290. Clay and slip as No. 33, on the interior are concentric circles of slip with a smooth surface, a feature noted also on thin-walled cups (Nos. 147, 148). Imitations of Form 51 36. L8147, B80919. Clay and slip as No. 33, the exterior mottled, on the interior only red color with a narrow, darker red band below the lip. 37. L8121, B80672. Brown clay, thin, dark gray to brown slip on the exterior, remains of thin, light brown slip on the interior, with a narrow, dark gray band below the lip. Probable Imitation of Form 50 or 51 38. L8123, B80760/2. Ring foot, light brown clay, reddish-brown core, remains of matte, dark brown slip. Imitations of Form 57 39. L8014, B80040. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, thin, reddishbrown, probably mottled slip, mostly worn off (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 2: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 40. L8144, B81070, B81073. Reddish-brown clay, thin, uneven bands of red, brown and gray slip from stacking, discolored by fire. Flat-Rim Cups These cups with flaring walls, a nearly horizontal rim with an offset on the inner face, and a flat base are not directly derived from ESA prototypes. While their fabric corresponds to that of the legionary imitations of red-slipped vessels, no examples of this form were recorded from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. The rim and wall profile recalls a fragmentary cup in gray Cypriot Sigillata from Paphos, of which only a single example is known (Meyza 2002:25, Fig. 3:14). A non-joining pedestal foot is attributed to the cup (similar to our No. 860), although No. 41 has a flat base. More feasible is an influence of ESA Form 58, even though the flat-rim cups are thin walled, and the ratio between width and height is different. 41. L8165, B81188. Cup with ledge rim and flat base, shallow groove near outer edge of base, reddish-brown clay, thin, matte, dark gray slip on upper third, reddish-brown slip on lower wall and base.

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42. L8187, B81405/2. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, thin, matte, dark gray slip changing on inner wall to reddish brown. 43. L8125, B80921/3. Light brown clay, thin, dark gray to brown slip on exterior, the lower part worn, a thin band of reddish-brown slip on both sides of the rim, and below it a dark brown band and a dark gray to brown band on the inner rim. Mottled Bowls The surface finish described as ‘mottled’ or ‘marbled’ appeared from early Imperial times into the third century in the western and eastern Roman Empire. At Tarsus the ware is recorded from the first century CE onward, and Jones concluded that the bowls and jugs were of eastern manufacture, perhaps from an unidentified neighboring center (Jones 1950:183–184). At Paphos, the mottled version of ESA Ware was not represented in the destruction deposits (the terminus post quem being 117–119 CE), and Hayes considers it to be of earlier date (1991:5). At Caesarea Maritima, it is dated to the late first century BCE to the first century CE (Oleson et al. 1994:111, RG121). The majority of these mottled bowls have a smooth surface. The shape and fabric of the bowls from the Roman dump are paralleled in the Jerusalem legionary production (Magness 2005: Fig. 5:10). In Avigad’s account of the excavations in the Upper City of Jerusalem, a complete mottled bowl was published from the fill of a reused Second Temple-period cistern (Area F6, L2667), initially attributed to the destruction by the Romans in 70 CE (Avigad 1983: Ill. 233, upper right). However, a look at the finds from the fill of this cistern points to a date between 70 and c. 120 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:298, Pl. 25.4:22). For parallels for the bowls with mottled surface treatment, see Iliffe 1942:34–35; from Caesarea Maritima and the eastern Mediterranean (southwestern Asia Minor and Cyprus), see Oleson et al. 1994:111, RG121; and from Ashqelon, see Johnson 2008a:15– 16, Nos. 39–42 (bowls of Form 65, and No. 43 an unclassified jug). The question as to whether the mottled surface treatment constitutes an eastern or western ceramic tradition remains in dispute. Magness views the legionary red-slipped and mottled wares as representing a western ceramic tradition (Magness 2005:70–72, esp. n. 5), while the present author considers them to be a continuation of the local, finetableware tradition (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:273–275). The red-slipped dish/bowl imitating ESA Form 54 in a mottled/marbled version (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 193), produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, may be taken as evidence for the continuation of the local tradition in red-slipped ceramics, for which the term ‘RedSlipped Ware’ was suggested (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:210–211). Prototypes for the particularly simple and common shape of the hemispherical vessels can be found in both the West and East. For example, in Italian Sigillata the manufacture of the hemispherical cup (Conspectus 1990: Form 36) began in early Augustan times and continued to the end of the first century CE, though by then it was less frequent. In ESA Ware, the bowl of Atlante forma tarda b is similar. The variety within the local imitations of mottled and red-slipped ware is exemplified in the output of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:73,

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Fig. 1:6–13, red-slipped, rounded bowls with vertical or slightly incurved rims, imitating Dragendorff 37). Shallow Bowls 44. L8144, B81248/4. Brown clay, brown to gray slip on interior, patches of dark gray slip on exterior upper wall, mottled brown slip below wheel ridging on interior close to base (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 42: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 45. L8164, B81169/2. Ring foot, clay and slip as No. 44, probably from the same vessel. 46. L8122, B80657. Clay as No. 44, mottled dark gray to brown slip on exterior, reddishbrown slip on interior. 47. L8104, B80573/1. Clay as No. 44, mottled reddish-brown slip on exterior, brown slip on interior. 48. L8075, B80460/2. Brown clay, remains of mottled brown slip. 49. L8107, B80569/1. Brown clay, medium-fine ware, mottled dark gray to brown slip on exterior and rim, slip worn off on interior. 50. L8151, B81038. Clay and slip as No. 49. 51. L5339, B52431/1. Brown clay, thin red slip on exterior, on rim and on interior below rim. 52. L8174, B81304. Brown clay, mottled brown slip on exterior, reddish-brown slip on interior. Bases 53. L8137, B80800/2. Base with wide ring and step, light brown clay, mottled brown slip on interior and exterior, mottled gray slip on exterior base. 54. L8104, B80416/2. Ring foot, reddish-brown clay, brown core, mottled dark gray to brown slip on exterior, dark gray slip with large patch of red slip on interior. 55. L8057, B80318. Reddish-brown clay, mottled red to reddish-brown slip with dark brown patches on exterior and interior. Coarse Ware Bowl 56. L8144, B80967. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, interior surface gritty. This unslipped fragment, although made of baking-dish fabric (Nos. 324–334), is included here as its shape and size are identical to that of the mottled bowls.

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Flanged Bowls The unusual rim articulation of Nos. 57–59 is paralleled in Italian Sigillata vessels (Conspectus 1990:116–117, Form 37.2.1, hemispherical cups with variously articulated rims, appearing in Tiberian times, with some continuing until the end of the first century; see also Magness 2005: Fig. 2:3–6). 57. L8121, B80635/3. Brown clay, smooth surface like mottled bowls and cream ware, identified as a particularly fine polished ware in the output of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (see Nos. 88, 292, 595, 601; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:275–277). 58. L8068, B80825. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, brown slip on interior. 59. L8113, B80509/2. Brown clay, reddish-brown core. Mottled Small Jars These are small jars made of mottled ware. The same shape also occurs in large, coarse utilitary vessels (see Nos. 453–456). The distinct, curved horizontal handles with lateral, horn-like projections attached below the rim (Nos. 62–64) are unusual, and no parallels are known to me. 60. L8113, B80560. Light brown clay, reddish-brown to brown slip on exterior and interior. 61. L8174, 81296. Light brown clay, worn reddish-brown to brown slip on exterior and interior. 62. L8167, B81267/2. Part of handle preserved, light brown clay, thin, reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 52: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). The curved knob handle on the shoulder attached to the rim is unusual. 63. L8132, B81260/3. Handle fragment, same fabric as the mottled bowls (above) and the table amphora No. 85. 64. L8144, B80923. Coarse handle fragment, brown clay. This handle is included here due to its distinct shape; the vessel to which it belonged was larger than No. 62.

Jugs, Table Amphoras, Various Closed Shapes, and K raters Eatern Sigillata A Ware jugs and local imitations are a common class of tableware. As no complete vessels were recovered, the attribution of the fragments to a specific type is difficult. The majority are one-handled jugs with a long neck. The angular handle with a rounded section and a central groove extends from the upper half of the neck to the shoulder. A single example of a local variant with a ledge rim has a handle starting at the lip, probably a strap handle although the handle itself is not preserved (No. 80). The

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variously articulated rims are out-curved with a rounded lip. The clay is very pale brown, light brown or reddish brown, and only exceptions are noted. Several distinct groups of closed vessels are defined: ESA Ware jugs and amphoras (Nos. 65–76); local jugs and amphoras in ESA tradition (Nos. 77–101); local table amphoras (Nos. 102–108); plain jugs mostly in Judaean tradition (Nos. 109–124), including a unique example (No. 125), and bases (Nos. 126–129); various closed shapes (Nos. 130–144); and ‘pie-crust’ rim kraters (Nos. 145, 146). Eastern Sigillata A The attribution of the fragmentary jugs (Nos. 65–72) and amphoras (Nos. 73–76) to the complete vessel types published by Hayes in Atlante is tentative. For finds from the Armenian Quarter excavations, see Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:21–25; for jugs of Forms 104B, 105, 111 and 113 from Ashqelon, see Johnson 2008a:16–18. Form 109, may date to second half of first century CE 65. L8165, B81163. Jug, lustrous slip with drips on inside of neck. 66. L8137, B81017/1. Jug, thin, dull slip, mostly worn, on exterior and interior. 67. L8165, B81182. Jug, remains of thin, lustrous slip on exterior and interior of neck. 68. L8154, B81075. Jug, thin, dull slip. Form 111, probably dates to middle–end of first century CE 69. L8104, B80480/2. Jug, even, lustrous slip. Form 116, c. 70–120? CE 70. L8104, B80551/2. Jug, even, lustrous slip. 71. L8053, B80353/2. Base, lustrous, reddish-brown to brown slip on exterior wall and exterior base, thin brown coat on interior, wheel ridging. Reference: Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:24. 72. L8145, B80891/2. Base, dull even slip on exterior, no slip on interior except for three spots. Form 117, end of first–beginning of second centuries CE 73. L8106, B80483; L8122, B80684/2. Amphora neck and beginning of two grooved handles, worn lustrous slip with dripping on inside of neck. 74. L8107, B80607; L8122, B80718/3. Amphora shoulder fragment with rouletting, lustrous slip on exterior, partly worn.

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75. L8060, B80320/2. Amphora base and lower wall, lustrous slip on exterior. 76. L8131, B80984. Shoulder fragment, possibly of an amphora, lustrous slip on exterior; the fragment is decorated with a row of indentations resembling feathers. Reference: Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:25. Local Products Local Jugs in ESA Tradition Included here are jugs that closely imitate ESA Ware in fabric and shape (Nos. 77–84), and jugs in the tradition of the ESA table jugs (Nos. 85–101). Imitations of Form 109 77. L8103, B81051. Reddish-brown to pink clay, thin, dull, reddish-brown slip on exterior and upper part of inner neck. 78. L8123, B80758/1. Light brown clay, thin, dull, dark gray to brown slip on exterior and upper part of inner neck, start of handle. 79. L8107, B80435/3. Brown clay, thin, dull, dark gray to brown slip on exterior and interior of neck, start of handle. Imitation of Form 113 80. L8140, B80843/1. Brown clay, thin, shiny brown slip. ESA Form 113 is of uncertain date, probably first century CE. Bases 81. L8165, B81179/2. Light brown clay, thin, dull, dark brown splatter slip. 82. L8172, B81292/1. Light brown clay, yellowish-light brown coat on exterior and interior, flat base with groove, smooth exterior. 83. L8125, B80912/1. Brown clay, flat base with two deep grooves. Wall Fragment with Rouletting 84. L8112, B80484. Wall fragment of jug decorated with rouletting, light brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown, traces of dark slip on exterior, thin, dull gray to brown slip on interior. Grooved Handles Particularly common on jugs in ESA tradition are strap handles with vertical grooves, and they are a distinct feature of the Roman military style in Jerusalem. (I use the term ‘groove’ rather than ‘ridge’, following Hayes 1972:178.) They are found on a variety of

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fine, medium and coarse vessels, either as a single handle or as a pair. On jugs, the handle is often wide and double-grooved, yet narrow, single-grooved handles also occur (Nos. 90, 99–101), as well as a handle with a concave molding (No. 89). At the Jerusalem legionary kiln site, grooved handles are also present on cooking jugs with trefoil-shaped rims and pinched spouts, and on closed cooking pots (Magness 2005: Figs. 17:1–2; 21:2; see also Grünewald 1979:42, Pl. 27:2–6; Hayes 1985: Fig. 54:25). 85. L8107, B80993. Brown clay, fabric of mottled bowl group (above), worn reddishbrown slip on exterior, worn dark gray slip on interior, two grooves; the vessel might be a table amphora. 86. L8123, B80927/2. Angular curve of double-grooved handle, reddish-brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior. 87. W802, B80305. Double-grooved handle, light brown clay, thin, worn reddish-brown to grayish slip. 88. L5295, B52191/2. Double-grooved handle, light brown clay, legionary cream ware (see Nos. 292, 595, 601; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:275–277). 89. L6039, B60210. Neck with a ridge, narrow handle with concave molding, greenish clay, remains of gray slip. 90. L5283, B52096/1. Narrow handle with central groove, light brown clay, thin, dull red slip on exterior and handle. 91. L8100, B81257. Neck and flat ledge rim with two grooves, light brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip; the width of the handle attachment suggests a grooved handle. 92. L8113, B80521. Broad strap handle, dark brown clay, brown coat on exterior and interior; could belong to a table amphora imitating a metal vessel. 93. L8121, B80701/1. Curved handle attached below a flat rim, reddish-brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and both surfaces of neck and handle; the joining of the handle to the shoulder is carelessly executed. 94. L8137, 80901. Curved, double-grooved handle, brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior. References: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 107; compare also a similar handle on a red-slipped jug from Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b: No. 739); a similar rim profile is found on a cookware trefoil-mouth jug (Magness 2005: Fig. 17:3, but from what is preserved of the rim and handle, the mouth was not necessarily trefoil).

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95. L8165, B81185/1. Angular handle attached to neck below rim, brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior. 96. L8174, B81341/2. Angular handle, reddish-brown clay, many small and medium grits and some larger inclusions, light brown coat on exterior and interior. 97. L8174, B81341/1, B81346. Angular handle, clay as No. 96 and very close in shape, but definitely a separate vessel. 98. L8144, B81254/2. Neck, rounded rim and beginning of handle, reddish-brown clay, gray core, metallic fabric, yellowish-light brown coat on exterior and interior of neck. Thin-Walled Jugs of Metallic Fabric 99. L8128, B80733. Single-grooved handle, light brown clay, thin, dark gray slip on exterior surface and inner rim, drips on inside of neck. 100. L8104, B80592/1. Single-grooved handle, light brown clay. Jug of Medium-Fine Fabric 101. L8144, B81227/1. Triple-grooved handle, reddish-brown clay, a few large inclusions. Table Amphoras Neck fragments of seven vessels of a fabric different from that of the jugs in ESA tradition have been included here as their fabric indicates tableware; the grits are small and medium sized. The second handle is assumed. 102. L8125, B80689. Neck and beginning of handle, light brown clay, rim broken at place of second handle (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 25: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity); resembles the profile of local amphora No. 535. 103. L8137, B80865. Grayish-brown clay, gritty surface. 104. L8075, 80473. Rounded curve of handle, light brown clay, thin metallic fabric. 105. L8132, B81260/1. Rounded curve of handle, reddish-brown clay, gray core, thin metallic fabric, light brown coat on exterior and interior. 106. L8148, B81132/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 107. L8123, B80758/2; L8132, B80772. Gray clay, thin, reddish-brown core, light brown coating on exterior and interior, partly worn. 108. L5299, B52244/12. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown.

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Plain Jugs in Judaean Tradition 109. L5339, B52432/4. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 110. L5339, B52432/11. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 111. L8174, B81340/1. Light brown clay. 112. L5293, B52188/6. Reddish-brown clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:7. 113. L662, B5882. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:12. 114. L525, B5023/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, same fabric as storage jar No. 575. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:13. 115. L5295, B52217/5. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:6. 116. L5339, B52432/14. Reddish-brown clay. 117. L5299, B52248/3. Yellowish-light brown clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:11. 118. L5299, B52248/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:8. 119. L8104, B80416/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 120. W812, B81309/6. Reddish-brown clay. 121. L526, B5035/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:10. 122. L8174, B81302/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 123. W812, B81332/4. Pink clay. 124. L8187, B81406. Flanged rim with deep groove on top, light brown clay. 125. L8049, B80374/2. Folded rim with ‘pie crust’ on bottom edge comprising a row of light finger imprints creating a wavy line, brown clay; unusual shape and decoration.

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Bases 126. L8121, B80671. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 127. L8148, B80960/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface yellowish-light brown, smooth, polished. 128. L8121, B80648/1. Omphalos base, brown clay, metallic fabric, exterior surface light brown. 129. L8121, B80658/1. Omphalos base, reddish-brown clay, metallic fabric. Strainer Jugs This group of strainer jugs is consistent in shape, fabric and decoration. In the Masada excavation report, it has been defined as cream ware (Bar-Nathan 2006:281); it is a different fabric than the cream ware produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (see Nos. 57, 88, 292, 595, 601). In the Petra ez Zantur report, it is classed as green ware (Schneider 1996:138–139). Its wide distribution in Nabataea, Judaea and Arabia, particularly in a concentration of sites along the shores of the Dead Sea, makes the existence of a single workshop for these strainer jugs unlikely. I do not concur with the definition of these vessels as solely Nabataean by Fischer and Tal (2000:39). The attribution to Nabataean workshops has also been questioned by Schneider (1996:139), who mentions the results of a petrographic analysis that indicate a similarity with the green-blue glazed pottery from Parthia. To the parallels presented in the Petra ez Zantur report (Schneider 1996:138–139), we can now add the finds from ‘En Boqeq (Fischer and Tal 2000:39–40, from strata dated 50 BCE to 100 CE), Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:281, in Zealot contexts of 66–73/74 CE, and Garrison 2, 73/74–c. 115 CE), Masada Camp F (Magness 2009:80, Fig. 6:7) and ‘En Gedi (Vincenz 2007:292–293). At Petra ez Zantur, the strainer jugs were found in limited amounts as early as the second half of the first century BCE (Schneider 1996:141) and were in use at that site for at least 200 years. Altogether, the number of fragments recovered from the Jerusalem assemblage discussed here is small compared to other jug types. The five fragments can be divided by color into a light brown/buff group and a greenish group. It is possible, though unlikely in view of the petrographic analysis of Nos. 133 and 134, that this vessel type was introduced into Judaea in the late Second Temple period, prior to 70 CE. Based on the petrographic analysis, No. 133 was produced at the Jerusalem kilnworks, and a fragment from the 1968 excavations at that site has a similar decoration of three grooves and a band of incised diagonal lines on the shoulder (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 129). On the other hand, the clay of No. 134 originates in the Negev or the Shephelah, supporting the existence of a number of local and close-regional workshops. Judging from the small number of vessels recovered here, it had limited demand. It was suggested by Murray and Ellis (1940:20) that these vessels were used to store cooled drinks, a suggestion accepted by Schneider (1996:138). One could consider also the posca, the vinegary wine favored by Roman

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soldiers (see Nos. 459–477 for discussion). ‘Pie-crust’ bands and band- and wavy-line combing that decorate these strainer jugs are decorative elements of all jugs of this type, as well as part of the legionary repertoire. A green-ware lid found at Petra ez Zantur (Schneider 1996:148, Fig. 591) could have served as a lid/cover for a strainer jug of the same fabric (see No. 704 for a lid of the same shape but in a different fabric). 130. L8121, B80642/2; L8125, B80715/1. Rim and neck fragment, brown clay, light brown slip, ‘pie-crust’ band on exterior rim, band- and wavy-line combing on neck. 131. L8107, B80988. Two non-joining fragments, light brown clay, surface light brown, hard fabric, band- and wavy-line combing on neck. 132. L8113, B80822/3. Angular handle, reddish-light brown clay, light brown slip on surface, wavy-line combing on neck. 133. L8125, B80715/2. Greenish-light brown clay, wavy-line combing on neck (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 26: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 134. L8104, B80418/1. Greenish-light brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 9: Negev, Shephelah). Filter Jugs In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, this vessel type was widely distributed, displaying a variety of body, neck and rim forms with several common features: a deep, funnel-shaped neck, a filter at the junction of neck and shoulder, a handle and a tubular spout (for the Hellenistic version, see Rotroff 1997:180–182; Slane 1997:329, FW 297, Tel Anafa Type 36a; Levine 2003:113, No. 142). Petrographic analysis indicates that No. 135 was produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (see below). Fragments of similar filter jugs came to light in the Jewish Quarter excavations (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:199, 208, Pl. 6.7:26 from Area A, Stratum 5, c. 1–30 CE; 2006:148, Pl. 5.2:15, from Area E, Stratum 3, 20– 15/12 BCE). Levantine workshops were located at Knidos (Kögler 2010:238–240, Fig. 60: Kn.162) and on Cyprus (Atlante Forms P47 gray ware, P48, P54). So far, no satisfactory explanation for the use of these filter jugs has been found, and suggestions include oil, perfume and medicine containers, lamp fillers, feeder jugs for old and sick adults (they are too large to have been used as baby feeders), and fine vessels for the dining table. In the most recent discussion, Kögler stresses a multi-functional use, which is underlined by the various findspots in habitation levels, shops and temple areas at Knidos (Kögler 2010:239–240). In addition to the already mentioned uses, she concludes that the relatively large holes of the filters were intended to separate larger particles in liquid substances, such as spices and herbs used in the preparation of teas and stock, and to filter syrupy products like oil and honey. Kögler also doubts the explanation that they protected the jugs’ contents from insects and dirt.

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135. L8121, B80640/1. Brown clay, remains of thin, gray to brown slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 21: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity?). 136. L5332, B52407/10. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown; the strap handle was pinched and thus slightly narrower close to the rim. Filter Jar 137. L8145, B80883/1. Brown clay, worn, dark brown slip on exterior (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 44: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). No parallels have been found for this unusual filter vessel with two handles. A use similar to that of the filter jugs is assumed. Turibulum The turibulum, an incense cup or chalice (Hilgers 1969:82–83), is often associated with the Roman army and is found in all provinces (Sorge 2001:65, Pl. 32: B209–B211). In the 1968 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site, a single example was retrieved (RosenthalHeginbottom 2005: No. 152), and several were found in tombs at Gerasa (Fisher 1938:558, Fig. 36:13). 138. L8165, B81213. Probably the hollow base of a turibulum, brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown; the fabric resembles No. 130. Spouts 139. L8113, B80509/1. Jug spout, light brown clay. 140. L8162, B81164. Jug spout, light brown clay, well-smoothed exterior. While spouts are a feature of the strainer and filter jugs discussed above, Nos. 139 and 140 are made of different ware. 141. L8107, B80476. Juglet spout, brown clay, wheel ridging on exterior. 142. L8104, B80556. Spout, reddish-brown clay, light brown coat, smooth exterior. This spout could belong to either a lamp filler or a feeding cup. Various Closed Shapes 143. L8122, B80604. Jug, upper neck and rim, brown clay, exterior surface light gray; the upper attachment of a wide handle is visible (2.5 cm), which could have been grooved. 144. L8125, B80928, B80941. Bottle/jug, neck and double-ridged, folded-over rim, brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown; apparently no handle, but the missing piece hinders the differentiation between bottle and jug.

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‘Pie-Crust’ Rim Kraters In the present assemblage, this vessel type is rare. The closest parallels are found in Nabataean assemblages (see Negev 1986:112–113, Nos. 980–984, several examples without handles). From Camp F at Masada, a similar jar or krater was suggested to be of Nabataean origin (Magness 2009:80, Fig. 6:14). Our fabric looks local. Judaean kraters from the late Second Temple period have ‘pie-crust’ rims, but different profiles (Bar-Nathan 2006:126–127, Pl. 24:15–16, and discussion of Nos. 369–374). 145. L8165, B81182/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface reddish-light brown. 146. L4185, B41756/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface reddish-light brown.

Thin-Walled Ware Most of these very common thin-walled ware vessels can be attributed by visual inspection of the fabric to the legionary repertoire of the Jerusalem kiln site, with the exception of sporadic imports (Nos. 221–229). On the one hand, in shape they clearly display the indigenous, late Second Temple-period traditions (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:108–110; Geva 2010:127–128) and their diverse shapes differ from the ESA cups and bowls and their local derivatives (Nos. 32–55). On the other hand, with regard to their fabrics and forms, they are copies and derivatives of Italian thin-walled wares that were copied in local workshops from early Augustan times onward throughout the Roman Empire (Nos. 192– 210; Hayes 2008:95–104; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:394–395). The vessels included here under locally produced, thin-walled ware do not comprise a uniform, morphologically defined category, but rather display a variety of forms, mainly small cup-like vessels and shallow bowls. The vessels recovered in the Western Wall Plaza excavation were made of two fabrics: egg-shell ware and fine ware. Based on fabrics and forms, they are divided into egg-shell-ware cups (Nos. 147–155), fine-ware cups (Nos. 156–160), mottled eggshell-ware bowls (Nos. 161–165), egg-shell-ware and fine-ware bowls (Nos. 166–186), lids (Nos. 187, 188), a ladle ((No. 189), bowl-lids (Nos. 190, 191), mugs, beakers and cups (Nos. 192–214), wide-mouthed vessels (Nos. 215–219) in fine ware, and a two-handled cup in egg-shell ware (No. 220). Cups The cups with a flaring profile (Nos. 147–151), a wall carination (No. 153, and possibly No. 155) and a flat base (Nos. 147, 152–155) in egg-shell-ware fabric, are delicate vessels recalling glass prototypes, such as the small, cast, conical bowls with a diameter of c. 10 cm from the refuse of the glass workshop in the Jewish Quarter excavations (Israeli and Katsnelson 2006:421–422, Pl. 21.12:GL11–112, 114). The slipped bands on the interior of Nos. 147 and 148 resemble the inner grooves on the cast-glass bowls. Some cups are decorated with

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rouletting (Nos. 149, 151–154). Petrographic analysis indicates that Nos. 148 and 153 are made of Moza marl (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample Nos. 8, 15). It should be noted that thin-walled clay versions of cups with flaring profiles and flat bases were locally produced in Judaea during the late Second Temple period (Qumran—Zevulun and Olenik 1979: No. 24; Jerusalem—Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:109–110, Pls. 4.8:6, 7; 4.9:12; 4.12:11; Masada— Bar-Nathan 2006:144, No. 66, Pl. 26) as well as after 70 CE. A complete, locally made eggshell cup with a flaring profile and an incomplete Latin inscription was found in a cistern in Jerusalem’s Upper City together with ceramics dated c. 70–120 CE; as No. 147, it probably did not have a handle (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:305, Pl. 25.5:8). It is possible that the pre- and post-70 CE cups from both Jewish and Roman contexts were influenced by the popular Acco-beakers, manufactured in northern Italy (Hayes 2008:97, Nos. 1505, 1506, Fig. 46, Pl. 74; Conspectus 1990: Form R12) and by their eastern derivatives found in the Athenian Agora, generally of egg-shell ware, of similar shape, and decorated with bands of rouletting (Hayes 2008:97, Nos. 1507–1511, Fig. 46), as well as by less finely made beakers, either locally made or imported from Asia Minor (Hayes 2008:98, Nos. 1514–1520, Figs. 46, 47). When comparing the complete vessel (No. 147) to the beakers from the Agora, the difference between a cup and a beaker is evident. Cup No. 147 is shallow with a wide mouth and a narrow base, while the Agora vessels are taller with a narrower opening and a base nearly as wide as the mouth; hence the vessels from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage are defined as cups. 147. L8104, B80598; L8107, B0549, B80595, B80617; L8122, B80718. Reddish-brown clay, thin, patchy, gray to brown slip on exterior, thin, red-slipped bands of concentric circles on upper interior following the wheel ridging, a narrow band of brown slip around the inner lip, some concentric circles of slip visible on smooth interior of base, two fingerprints on lower exterior. 148. L8093, B80705. Reddish-brown clay, reddish-brown to gray slip forming concentric circles on interior (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 8: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 149. L8104, B80511. Brown clay, brown slip, oblique rouletting on exterior, worn slip in concentric circles like wheel ridging on interior, but surface is smooth. 150. L8174, B81304/1. Fabric as No. 148. 151. L8104, B80419. Red slip, rouletting. 152. L8104, B80609/3. Light brown clay, worn, thin gray slip and feather-rouletting on exterior. 153. L8107, B81193. Light brown clay, thin brown slip with brown spots on exterior, rouletting (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 15: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity).

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A carinated cup with rouletted decoration was found at Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008a:23, No. 76); several variants are among the thin-walled wares from the Athenian Agora (Hayes 2008: Fig. 48:1546, two-handled cup; Fig. 49:1585, one handle attested; Fig. 51:1615, Knidian import). 154. L8121, B80691/3. Reddish-brown clay, red slip, rouletting on exterior; although thin-walled, it is not the fabric of fine cups; however, the feather-rouletting is considered decisive for classification as thin-walled ware. 155. L8128, B80730/2. Light brown clay, metallic fabric. 156. L8144, B81054. Reddish-brown clay. 157. L8157, B81077. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 158. L5293, B52188/2. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 159. L5293, B52152. Reddish-brown clay, thick dark gray core, exterior surface light brown. 160. L5293, B52188/3. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface yellowish-light brown, interior surface reddish-brown. Bowls The delicate bowls in mottled, egg-shell ware (Nos. 161–165) have a smooth surface; the well-levigated clay has tiny white and gray grits, hardly visible to the eye. As no complete vessels were retrieved, the shape of the base cannot be ascertained. In the late Second Temple-period repertoire, small fine bowls with flat disc bases are more common than those with ring feet (see Geva and Hershkovitz 2006: Pls. 4.5:1–12; 4.8:1–5). In the tradition of the Judaean painted bowls (see Nos. 230–238), the slipped egg-shell bowls may have had round (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:115), disc or ring feet (Geva 2010: Pl. 4.8:6–8). 161. L8137, B80826/1. Brown clay, thin, mottled brown slip. 162. L8055, B80433. Reddish-brown clay, thin, mottled red slip. 163. L8104, B80503/2. Reddish-brown clay, thin, mottled brown slip. 164. L8174, B81303. Brown clay, thin, mottled brown slip. 165. L8174, B81302/5. Light brown clay, thin, smooth, spotted reddish-brown slip.

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The majority of the thin-walled bowls in egg-shell ware and fine ware (Nos. 166–186) are made of well-levigated clay with small white and gray grits, visible to the eye, and occasional medium-sized white grits. Profiles and rims display a number of distinct and varied shapes, which were already present in the late Second Temple-period repertoire (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:108–109, Pls. 4.5:2–12; 4.8:1–5; Geva 2010:127–128, Pl. 4.6:2–7). 166. L8148, B80980. Brown clay. 167. L5339, B52434/5. Reddish-brown clay, light brown band on exterior below rim. 168. L8155, B81123/1. Reddish-brown clay, metallic fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown. 169. L8104, B80453/4. Reddish-brown clay, wheel ridging on exterior. 170. L8155, B81079/2. Brown clay, metallic fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown, thin, dark brown slip on top of rim, two more bands on inside. 171. L5332, B52411/3. Brown clay, metallic fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown. 172. L8148, B81098/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 173. L5339, B52434/1. Pink clay, exterior surface light brown, concentric circles of band burnishing on exterior and interior, string-cut base. 174. L5333, B52416/2. Light brown clay, gray core, splashes of reddish-brown and dark brown paint on interior, indistinct pattern. 175. L8122, B80718/1. Reddish-brown clay. 176. L8152, B81061/4. Reddish-brown clay, metallic fabric. 177. L5333, B52416/1. Light brown clay. 178. L8144, B81094/5. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 179. L8155, B81079/1. Brown clay, metallic fabric, burnished bands on interior. 180. L8155, B81138/1. Reddish-brown clay. 181. L8122, B80718/2. Reddish-brown clay, undercut inner rim.

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182. L4274, B42215/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 183. L8125, B80922/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, undercut inner rim, flanged outer rim. 184. L8121, B80691/4. Brown clay. 185. L8144, B80886/4. Brown clay, undercut inner rim. 186. L5295, B52217/6. Yellowish-gray clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:4. Lids Lids in fine ware came to light at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site; No. 187 is close to Magness 2005: Fig. 7:5, while the flanged rim of No. 188 has a parallel in Magness 2005: Fig. 7:7 (see also Oboda—Negev 1986:99, No. 832; Caesarea Maritima—Johnson 2008a:32, No. 103, gray ware, proposed date in the first century CE). 187. L8053, B80321. Light brown clay, thin reddish-brown to dark gray slip, thumb impression on interior; the shape is close to that of the bowls (Nos. 161–165). 188. L8104, B80512. Brown clay, smooth surface, resembles cream ware. Ladle(?) The size of this fragment suggests its attribution to a type of small cup-shaped ladle known in the local Judaean repertoire (Masada—Bar-Nathan 2006:231–232, Pl. 39:16–18, dated to the last quarter of the first century CE; Jerusalem—Geva 2010:128, Pl. 46:10, 11, from the Burnt House in the Upper City). The shapes of these parallels vary, and as there are no traces of the ladle’s high handle on No. 189, it may also be a bowl-lid. 189. L8148, B81998. Reddish-brown to brown clay, exterior and interior light brown surface. Bowl-Lids Two vessels with a gently incurved, grooved rim are classified as bowl-lids due to their probable dual function. A vessel resembling No. 191, with the same profile and the same diameter of c. 5 cm, came to light in a burial cave at Nysa-Scythopolis (Tzaferis and Yadin 1982:14, Fig. 2:4), where the authors identified it as a lid and suggested a date between 70 and 150 CE on the basis of the lamps with which it was found.

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At Caesarea Maritima, the shape was found in plain ware in an Early Roman context (Govaars, Spiro and White 2009:89–91, Fig. 100:2), and at the same site, with a red slip (Johnson 2008b:40, No. 310; Patrich and Abu Shaneb 2008:310, No. 206). A similar vessel from Paphos was identified as a perfume pot (Hayes 1991:214, No. 968, Fig. XXIII:10). 190. L8144, B81094/3. Brown clay, remains of thin gray slip. 191. L8104, B80418/2. Brown clay, white and gray grits, thin reddish-brown slip. Mugs, Beakers and Cups The vessels grouped here do not form a uniform, morphologically defined category, nor are they homogenous with regard to fabrics. They include generic shapes variously classed as mugs, beakers and cups in different archaeological reports (see, for example, Hayes 1973:469–470; 2008:95–104). Hayes defines mugs and beakers as slender, single-handled vessels higher than cups, while beakers are handleless and cups are shallow with one or two handles (cf. Hayes 2008: Fig. 50:1595–1601 for mugs; Fig. 49:1563, 1584 for beakers; Figs. 48:1546 and 49:85 for two- and single-handled cups). Hence, in the parallels cited I follow the definition used in the respective reports, although with fragments the assignment remains tentative. The fabrics can be divided into egg-shell ware and fine ware, slipped or unslipped, with small to tiny white and gray grits that in most cases are barely visible to the naked eye. These vessels are derivatives of Italian thin-walled vessels common in the first centuries BCE and CE, produced in several centers located in the Aegean and Asia Minor, with provincial workshops continuing throughout the second century into the Late Roman period (Roth-Rubi 2006). From early Augustan times onward, they became very popular and were manufactured throughout the Roman Empire in numerous workshops; in many cases the Italian prototypes can no longer be recognized. Following Hayes, Nos. 192– 210 are assigned to the popular mugs with a single handle, copying the northern Italian ‘collarino’ type, with a collar at the constriction of neck and body. Within this class, Hayes differentiates between the more common single-handled mugs and the handleless beakers (2008:101–104; Figs. 50, 51:1595–1609 for mugs, Fig. 50:1592–1594 for beakers). So far, it is not always clear whether the Italian prototypes were copied directly, or local traditions prevailed. At Corinth, in deposits of levels associated with the city’s reconstruction during the first century CE (Hayes 1973:447, c. 55–70 CE), there is definite evidence for both Italian imports (Hayes 1973:462, Pl. 90:195, one-handled mug) and direct copying/imitation in local plain ware (Hayes 1973:466, Pl. 90:232). At Paphos, the locally produced, thinwalled beakers and cups began to appear in the first century BCE together with imported Italian thin-walled ware, while those from later contexts are generally locally made eastern derivatives (Hayes 1991:59). The substantial output of the Knidian manufactories permits two conclusions with regard to thin-walled ware: firstly, the potters did not directly copy Italian prototypes but developed their own, much more restricted repertoire of shapes and

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decorative elements; secondly, their output could compete in quality with the renowned Italian products (Kögler 2010:339–344). Both eastern imports and local products were introduced into the Judaean repertoire under Herod the Great (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:393–395). Among the fragments presented here, there is not a single vessel with a sufficiently preserved rim to ascertain the number of handles; a single handle, preserved on Nos. 192–196, is assumed for Nos. 197–210, as seen among the Italian prototypes (Ricci 1985: Pls. 134:11, 13, 14; 135:3, 4; for a two-handled cup, see No. 220). However, the single handle is corroborated by several intact vessels of the same shape in different sizes, resembling Nos. 192–196, some of them thin-walled, unearthed in the fill of a reused Second Temple-period cistern in the Upper City of Jerusalem, dated between 70 and 120 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:306–307, Pl. 25.5:11–18). Imported and locally made parallels of similar handled and handleless vessels were recovered in contexts of pre- and post-70 CE Jerusalem, some decorated with rouletting like Nos. 197–201 (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 106, 2014: Pl. 23.4:61, 63; Magness 2005: Figs. 15:5, 6, 11, 12; 16:3; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:110, Pls. 4.4:17; 4.9:12) and in Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:124, D40, cup with a single handle starting at the rim). Fragment Nos. 211–214 have flat bases, Nos. 211 and 212 appear to be taller vessels than No. 196, and while No. 211 has a handle, their shape recalls Acco beakers and rouletted beakers (Hayes 2008:98–99). The preserved profiles of the wide-mouthed vessels (Nos. 215–219) give no indication of a handle, yet a parallel from the Jerusalem legionary kiln site suggests the existence of a handle (Magness 2005: Fig. 16:1). The petrographic analyses of Nos. 193 and 218 confirm they were locally made at the legionary kiln site. The other examples also appear to be of local manufacture, based on visual inspection. Finally, the question arises whether the thin-walled mugs, beakers and cups unearthed in the Western Wall Plaza excavations and elsewhere in Judaea should be considered as a continuation of an already established, local Judaean tradition, or as an innovation after 70 CE, introduced by the legionary potters at the Jerusalem kiln site. Ultimately, the basic shapes of eastern thin-walled vessels are modelled on Italian thin-walled wares. With thin-walled wares sporadically imported during the reign of Herod the Great, the relatively small number of derivatives found in pre-70 CE Jerusalem and other Jewish sites are either Judaean (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:110, Pl. 4.12:12; Bar-Nathan 2006:144, Nos. 64, 65) or regional products, probably manufactured in the Aegean, Asia Minor, or elsewhere in the Levant (RosenthalHeginbottom 2003:209–210; 2006:155–156; 2014:393–395). However, none were produced in the Jewish, pre-70 CE pottery workshops at the Jerusalem kiln site (Berlin 2005). On the other hand, direct copies and imitations of Italian thin-walled vessels are quite common in army deposits. In the legionary camp at Carnuntum, they are found among the fine ware, alongside the predominant Italian products (Grünewald 1979:37–39, Pls. 22; 23:1–10 for local production; 1983:19–22, Pls. 14:1; 16 for Italian imports). Therefore, it is suggested that in Jerusalem, the increase in production is due to the advent of the Romans. It is unknown what the function of these vessels was. The prevailing terms––mugs, beakers and cups––suggest drinking vessels, although the characteristic flaring rim makes this use unlikely. In the Petra ez Zantur report, Schmid separates them from the usual drinking vessels and lists them under ‘high forms’. He defines them as ‘globular bottles with a funnel-shaped lip’

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and sets the beginning of their production within the third quarter of the first century CE (end of Phase 3a at the site), with the form continuing until c. 100 CE or the early second century (Phases 3b–3c; Schmid 2000:25, 64–65, Figs. 249–252; Fig. 249 illustrates a vessel with a single handle, and the author admits that the type could also be described as a beaker or cup, see n. 279). The Nabataean vessels of this type from Oboda are termed ‘honey-jars’ and include plain and color-coated pots that bear stamped, rouletted or incised decoration, or are undecorated (Negev 1986:62–64, Nos. 68, 69, 83, 84, 463–471). The legionary potters in Jerusalem appear to have preferred a squatter version with relatively equal width and height. Local Products 192. L8051, B80363; L8104, B80453/5. Half of the upper part of a vessel with intact handle, reddish-brown clay, remains of dark gray slip. The handle was carelessly joined to the wall and therefore broke off easily. It belongs to the ‘sliced’ type, cut off with a knife from a clay strip and not reworked after attachment (Hayes 1997:24–25, Pl. 7). This technique was introduced by the Romans and is not part of the local ceramic tradition. The peaked shape of the handle resembles that of Italian vessels from Pompeii (Ricci 1985: Tipo I/26) and a local vessel in Corinth (Hayes 1973: No. 231). A kantharos with two thin, peaked handles, each with two grooves, was bought in Jaffa and is now in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto (Hayes 1976:31, No. 146, North Italian, about 40–70 CE). Another cup with a peaked handle and a diameter of 12 cm was found at Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:95, D20). 193. L8148, B81253. One quarter of a vessel and intact strap handle with two grooves, brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 46: Judaea/Jerusalem). 194. L8123, B80754/1. Half of a vessel with upper attachment of handle, brown clay. 195. L8053, B81034/1. One eighth of a vessel with upper part of broad, double-grooved strap handle starting at rim, reddish-brown clay, surface light brown. This is the only handle with two deep grooves. The closest parallels are a handle on a small cooking pot or jug from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 123), and another on a fragment from Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b: No. 729, its identification as a bowl is unlikely, as the handle suggests a jug with a cup-shaped rim. 196. L8121, B80615/1. One quarter of a rim and intact ear handle with single groove, dark brown clay, dark brown to dark gray coating, wheel ridging on exterior. 197. L8121, B80691/1. Brown clay, gray coating on interior and exterior. 198. L8137, B80999/1. Brown clay. 199. L8107, B80569/2. Brown clay, thin brown slip on interior and exterior.

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200. L8107, B80980/2. Reddish-brown clay, remains of red slip on interior, exterior worn. 201. L8027, B80114/1. Light brown clay, dark brown slip on exterior. 202. L8137, B80999/2. Brown clay. 203. L8174, B81341/1. Gray clay. 204. L8121, B80691/2. Brown clay, reddish-brown slip on smooth exterior, thin slip on interior. 205. L8122, B80686/2. Brown clay, thin brown slip. 206. L8138, B80819/2. Brown clay, worn, thin brown slip. 207. L8137, B80816 /1. Slight carination on shoulder, brown clay. 208. W812, B81332/3. Light brown clay. 209. L5299, B52241/1. Reddish-brown clay. 210. L8165, B81217/2. Brown clay, light brown coating on exterior and interior. 211. L8128, B80730. Grooved base, the lower attachment of the handle is preserved, reddish-brown clay, wheel ridging on interior. 212. L8050, B80361/1. Reddish-brown clay, wheel ridging on interior. 213. L8121, B80834. String-cut base with clay particles stuck on it, reddish-brown to light brown clay on exterior, reddish-brown clay on interior, gray core. 214. L8107, B80549, B80595, B80617. Brown clay, thin reddish-brown narrow strips and brown band on exterior and interior. 215. L8027, B80114/2. Reddish-brown outer band, brown inner band. 216. L8046, B80415. Reddish-brown clay, brown core. 217. L8148, B80944. Reddish-brown clay, light brown core. 218. L8046, B80408/1. Reddish-brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 3: Judaea/Jerusalem). 219. L8152, B81052/5. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown.

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Two-Handled Cup The two-handled cup (No. 220) is included here due to its egg-shell-ware quality, although it has different proportions. The shape is characterized by a wide mouth that corresponds with the maximum width of the vessel, a rounded shoulder and two loop handles starting at the rim. It may be regarded as a derivative of the common Hellenistic and Early Roman red-slipped skyphoid cups (see also No. 153; Johnson 2008a:24, Nos. 77, 78). Comparing Hellenistic prototypes with more elaborate handles (see, for example, the so-called ‘Palestinian cups’ and their imitations in Rotroff 1997:117–118; Kögler 2010:95–99) to the present example from Jerusalem (No. 220) and the parallel vessels from Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a), the latter are smaller, with a diameter of less than 10 cm. Similar loop handles are found on imported Hellenistic cups at Beirut (Élaigne 2007:114, Fig. 12:402–401, in fabric of Black Slip Predecessor). A carinated cup with two loop handles came to light in the Athenian Agora in a context dated c. 40–60 CE (Hayes 2008:263, Fig. 48:1546). 220. L8145, B80883/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface brown. For the profile, see Riley 1975: No. 126. Unassigned Fabrics Only a few fine-ware vessels of high quality, imported, thin-walled ware are present in this assemblage, and their shape, decoration and findspots permit their attribution to Roman military and administrative personnel. With the exception of the beaker (No. 229), all these vessels are defined as cups. The clay is finely levigated with small white and gray, and occasional medium-sized white grits. A source in northern Italy is tentatively suggested (following Grünewald 1979; 1983), although some vessels appear to originate in western Asia Minor (Nos. 226–228). A fair number of imported, thin-walled vessels have been recovered from the harbor of Caesarea Maritima, dated by comparison to similar vessels from the west, to the late first century BCE–first century CE. The excavators suggest that in the late first century BCE, a new trade pattern was created by the intensification of west–east exchange, with Paphos as an important staging post on the direct searoute from Rome to Alexandria and the East (Oleson et al.1994:33–34, 48). However, overall, the imports are sporadic and unlikely to have resulted from direct long-distance trade with Italian merchants (see an Italian Sigillata bowl dated 75–125 CE, Oleson et al. 1994:47, 97, RG 89). 221. L8155, B81123/2. Carinated cup, reddish-brown clay, gray core, micaceous, egg-shell ware, decorated with rows of thin incised strokes. For shape and decoration see an imported Italian ‘bowl’ with a diameter of just over 10 cm, found in the harbor of Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:95, D19). 222. L8144, L81144. Cup, light brown clay, dark gray slip, smooth and matte, barbotine decoration, probably leaves, on exterior.

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223. L8144, B80971. Cup, brown clay, thin gray slip on exterior, worn brown slip on interior, barbotine decoration, probably tendrils and leaves, on exterior. Reference: Johnson 2008b: No. 698, red-slipped cup from Caesarea Maritima. 224. L8053, B80593. Cup, gray clay, thin, dull, dark gray slip, micaceous, barbotine decoration; a wall fragment of a second cup of the same fabric and shape from L8137, B80999 (not illustrated). 225. L8053, B80352/2. Cup, reddish-brown clay, metallic, egg-shell ware. 226. L8053, B80353/1. Cup, brown clay, rough interior and exterior surface, egg-shell ware, sandy exterior. In shape and size, No. 226 resembles a small, uncommon form of thin-walled cup with an incurved rim that occurs in both gray and red Cypriot Sigillata (Form P17), for which Hayes suggested a date in the early–mid-first century BCE (Hayes 1991:41–42; see also Meyza 2002:25, Figs. 3:8; 5:7). Such sanded ware is not common in Israel. A fragmentary beaker/cup imported from Italy, resembling the lower body shape of No. 212, and other examples of sanded ware were recovered from the harbor of Caesarea (Oleson et al. 1994:43, D16 with references). At Tarsus, the technique of sanded decoration does not appear before Augustus, and the vessels are considered imports from the west (Jones 1950:190–191, 259). Sanded decoration is common on Knidian drinking cups, manufactured from Augustan to Flavian times (Kögler 2010:345). In the legionary context at Carnuntum, thin-walled vessels with sanded decoration are found in two phases (Grünewald 1979:37–38). The first phase comprises imports from northern Italy, produced between 35 and 40 CE and found until the end of the first century. During the second phase, under Trajan, there were no longer Italian imports and local potters took the opportunity to produce copies and to expand into the Pannonian market. 227. L8104, B80427/1. Cup with rouletting, brown clay, thin, dull, dark brown to gray slip, micaceous, gray ware. On visual inspection, this cup is defined here as a Knidian product dated to Augustan to Flavian times (see Kögler 2010:345–347, two-handled drinking cup). A parallel from the harbor of Caesarea Maritima is dated to the late first century BCE–mid-first century CE (Oleson et al. 1994:46–47, 56, BG3). 228. L8113, B80555/1. Base and lower wall of Knidian drinking cup, dark gray to black clay and slip; resembles No. 227. 229. L8144, B81178. Cup, light gray clay, lustrous, dark gray slip, the exterior is covered with shallow, closely set, horizontal grooves divided into sections by deep vertical grooves applied after the horizontal ones. On the interior, the slip is worn off in bands following the lines produced by the turning of the wheel. This fragment can be attributed to the so-called Gitterbecher––uncommon beakers with a decoration created by fine horizontal grooves subdivided by vertical incised lines; there

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is a close parallel from the pre-Trajanic legionary installations at Carnuntum (Grünewald 1983:8, 19, Pl. 14:15). Grünewald classifies it under ‘fine ware’ along with several distinct Italian products; the example of the Gitterbecher mentioned above is attributed to Grünewald’s Ware D (Fabric D), while the vessel type is also found under Ware F terra nigra (Grünewald 1979:34, Pl. 20:5, 6). A beaker with similar decoration was found in the Athenian Agora, in a context dated to c. 40–60 CE (Hayes 2008:261, No. 1524; see p. 98, n. 28 for references in northern Italy and Slovenia, where the type is relatively common).

Judaean Ceramics The diverse ceramics presented under this heading are considered local products, based upon visual inspection. However, neither class nor shape permit an unambiguous attribution to either the late Second Temple period or to Roman Jerusalem. Judaean Painted Pottery The distribution of this well-defined class of painted fine ware is restricted to areas with a predominantly Jewish population; it was probably manufactured in several local workshops and used exclusively by this ethnic and religious group (Bar-Nathan 2002:124–128; 2006:268–273; Hershkovitz 2003; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:247–248, Nos. 54–56). This painted ware appeared during the reign of Herod the Great and continued until the early second century. In Jerusalem, its first appearance is set “at the very end of the 1st century BCE or at the beginning of the 1st century CE” (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:115), together with lamps with a spatulate nozzle (see Nos. 822–825). In the fill of a reused Second Temple-period cistern in the Upper City (Area F-6, L2667), a number of bowls were retrieved, and while the fill contained also pre-70 CE ceramics, the carelessly painted bowls with drops of color recall the post-70 CE bowls from the Roman Estate at Jericho (Bar-Nathan and Eisenstadt 2013:24). Hence, the painted bowls from the cistern in Area F-6 are attributed to post-70 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:304–305). In Jericho, it occurs in Herodian 2 contexts, dated 15 BCE–6 CE, and is still found in the Ritual Baths Complex and the Roman Estate of the late first–early second centuries, disappearing thereafter (BarNathan 2002:126; Bar-Nathan and Eisenstadt 2013:24). As Avigad points out, the initially suggested term ‘Pseudo-Nabataean’ pottery is inappropriate (Avigad 1983:185–186). In this regard, Schmid notes similarities with the execution of foliated twigs in vessels from Petra ez Zantur in Ceramic Phases 2a and 2b, dated from c. 50 BCE to the turn of the era. Schmid argues that based on shape and decoration, bowls from a mansion in the Jewish Quarter excavations (Avigad 1983:117–118, Figs. 115, 201) resembling the Nabataean bowls of Ceramic Phases 2a and 2b and dated by Avigad to c. 50 BCE to 20 CE (Schmid 2000:38) would date between the last quarter of the first century BCE and the early first century CE (Schmid 2000:115–116, n. 634 for the suggestion that based on the findspot, the bowl could belong to the construction phase of the mosaic, 6–9 CE). However, an attribution solely to the reign of Herod the Great, as suggested by Schmid, is not reflected in the archaeological evidence from Jerusalem, Masada or Jericho.

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Most of these painted vessels are thin-walled bowls with incurved rims and flat, low disc bases or ring feet (Nos. 230–236); No. 237 is painted on the interior and decorated with rouletting on the exterior; No. 238, a base, differs from the rest in its thicker wall; No. 239 is a cup of delicate, egg-shell ware, the only fragment of painted pottery originating in a disturbed context. As the vessels are fragmentary, the patterns are difficult to assess and parallels can seldom be noted. It must be remembered that the free-hand brush painting permitted a great variety of patterns, although with a high degree of stylization. The same decorative elements also appear on various types of closed vessels (Nos. 240, 241) and at Masada (see below). 230. L8121, B80643/2. Reddish-brown clay, red and brown paint. 231. L8155, B81123/3. Light brown clay, dark brown paint. 232. L8155, B81138/2. Light brown clay, red paint, ivy leaf. 233. L8144, B81248/2; L8158, B81247. Light brown clay, reddish-brown, red and dark brown paint. A similar decoration was tentatively identified as a string of dried figs (Hershkovitz 2003:46, Fig. 68:4), and it is similar to that on another bowl from Jerusalem (see Abu Raya and Zissu 2000:6*, Fig. 4:14). 234. L8155, B81123/4. Light brown clay, dark brown paint, wreath. For the wreath motif, see Bar-Nathan 2006: Pls. 47, 48:52–54, 59. 235. L8144, B81094/4. Light brown clay, dark brown and gray paint, stylized flower. For identification as a lily, see Hershkovitz 2003:46, Fig. 68:2, 3. 236. L8148, B81087. Light brown clay, dark brown and gray paint, dotted circle. For dotted circles as part of a larger composition, see Avigad 1983: Ill. 201, center and upper right; Hershkovitz 2003:46, Fig. 68:3; Bar-Nathan 2006: Pls. 47, 48:52–59. 237. L8050, B80361/2. Light yellowish-brown clay, dark brown paint, band of rouletting on exterior. For the combination of painting and rouletting, see Bar-Nathan 2006: Pl. 48:57. 238. L8018, B80104/1. Hollow base with groove and two ridges, light brown clay, dark brown paint, relatively fine fabric with small and some larger grits. 239. L6144, B61278. Reddish-light brown clay, reddish-brown and brown paint, wreath on exterior. This delicate cup is of the same fabric as the plain and rouletted egg-shell cups (Nos. 147–160), yet the shape is different, with a straight wall, recalling a beaker.

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Painted Fragments of Closed Vessels 240. L8107, B80986/2. Wall fragment of a lagynos with a schematic painted face, brown clay, thin-walled ware, thin whitish-gray slip, dark gray paint. In the Jewish Quarter excavations, three ‘Judaean Radial Lamps’ with schematic human faces were uncovered (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:219, Pl. 6.12:7; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:113, Pl. 4.6:2, 3), and Hershkovitz interprets the schematic rendering as an attempt to avoid violating the Jewish ban on figurative representations. While the faces on the lamps are quite simplified, the painted version here, characterized by distinct strokes, is expressive. The fragment shows the mouth, nose and eyes, with only one eyebrow preserved. 241. L8107, B80464/2. Shoulder fragment of a storage jar or table amphora with painted latticework, reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown, thin, reddish-brown and dark brown paint on smooth exterior, wheel marks on interior, thickness of wall 0.4–0.6 cm; the size and thickness of the fragment exclude its attribution to a lagynos or jug. At Masada, lagynoi and jugs from Zealot contexts (66–73/4 CE) are decorated with painted floral and geometric designs (Bar-Nathan 2006:251–260, Pls. 42–46; for latticework, see Pl. 42:5). A wall fragment of a closed vessel with a painted wreath came to light in a cave in the northern Judaean Desert (Eisenberg 2002:117–118, Fig. 12:10), painted jugs and strainer jugs were found at Masada (Hershkovitz 2003:47, Fig. 69; Bar-Nathan 2006: Pls. 42–46) and painted kraters at Jericho (Killebrew 1999:118, Fig. III.57:4, 6). Miscellaneous Medium-Fine Ware Bowls and Cups The bowl fragments and two probable cup fragments (Nos. 245, 248) grouped here are relatively rare and morphologically different from the other fine- and medium-fine ware bowl forms in this assemblage. Upon visual inspection, they all appear to be local products, usually with small and occasional medium-sized white and gray grits. Within this group, No. 247 is cookware, and Nos. 259 and 260 are uncommon, relatively thickwalled bowls. 242. L662, B5887. Reddish-brown clay. 243. L5339, B52432/6. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 244. L5339, B52431/16, B52433/2. Two joining fragments, reddish-brown clay, thin, dull red slip. 245. L8114, B80527. Cup with wide rim, gray clay, rim section with reddish-brown core.

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246. L4273, B42210/6. Dark brown clay, brown core, thin, dull reddish-brown slip. 247. L5339, B52432/17. Reddish-brown clay, cookware. 248. L526, B5035/2. Beaker or cup with a flat ledge rim, reddish-brown clay, gray slip, tiny grits barely visible to the eye. As only a fragment of the flat ledge rim is preserved, the vessel shape is unclear; the rim recalls beakers and cups manufactured in Nabataean workshops (Negev 1986:80–81, Nos. 627–635; Schmid 2000:60–61, 64, Figs. 220–222, 244, 245). Negev’s identification of this form as a drinking cup is doubtful due to the rim shape. Bikai and Perry suggest its use as a stopper for pitchers, which, in my opinion, is plausible (2001:66, Figs. 5:17, 18; 8:13); however, a dual function is quite likely. 249. L5339, B52434/4. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface light brown. 250. L5339, B52432/18. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface reddish-brown. 251. L5347, B52445/3. Two joining pieces, brown clay, dark brown core. 252. L8174, B81302/6. Dark brown clay, gray coating on flat rim and exterior surface. 253. L4185, B41756/1. Brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on rim and exterior and interior, diagonal parallel lines of rouletting on exterior. The fabric is similar to that of the Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls (see below, Figs. 6.1:1; 6.2:2, 3). 254. L526, B5025/1. Yellowish-light brown clay, dull, dark reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, rouletting on exterior. In spite of the rouletting, the fabric is local, not that of the Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:3. 255. L8144, B80886/1. Brown clay. 256. L525, B5023/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. The shape of Nos. 255 and 256 recalls pre-70 CE vessels from Jerusalem, described as cups or deep bowls with ledged rims (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:109–110, Pl. 4.4:8). As the rim shape makes use as a cup unlikely, a definition of small deep bowl is preferred here. 257. L5293, B52186. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:5. 258. L8152, B81061/3. Light reddish-brown clay, dark reddish-brown slip on exterior of rim.

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259. L4260, B42109/1. Reddish-brown clay, brown core, worn, dull reddish-brown slip on top of rim and on interior; relatively thick walled. 260. W812, B81309/2. Reddish-brown clay, light brown coating; relatively thick walled. Containers for Precious Liquids and Ointments The corpus of mostly small, fine and medium-fine containers is comprised of variously shaped and sized vessels, none of which are numerous in the assemblage. The clay contains small and occasional medium-sized grits. In general, these vessels are not tableware, but were used to hold medicinal and cosmetic substances: salves, fragrant oils, perfumes and powders. Even if such preparations were not regarded as luxuries and were in common use, they were costly and only purchased in small quantities. Such small vessels are often termed ‘miniature’ (Hershkovitz 1986), suggesting that they are copies of larger vessels. However, I do not concur with this definition, since most have a distinct shape that was determined by their contents and purpose. The present classification into small pots, unguentaria, bottles and juglets is based on morphological features. The chronological range covers the Second Temple period and the time between 70 and 135 CE, and any further differentiation between residual and post-70 CE vessels is impossible. Bar-Nathan (2006:191) observes that at Masada, similar juglets used by the Roman garrison were predominantly local, and rarely imported, and this is corroborated by the evidence from the Jerusalem assemblage discussed here (for an exceptional imported juglet, see No. 286). Thus, it would seem that the supply sources were the same for the military on the march or in camp. Small Pots Small pots with an average height of 2.5–5.0 cm appear in a variety of shapes, generally without handles except for cups with a flaring rim and the so-called ‘Judaean pyxis’ (Hershkovitz 1986: Fig. 3; Bar-Nathan 2006:209–210; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:107), neither of which are represented in the present assemblage. In any case, the term ‘pyxides’ as used in the Jericho and Masada reports (Bar-Nathan 2002:62–64; 2006:207–210) is inappropriate, as it refers to different types of receptacles for salves and toiletries used in Greece and Rome. String-cut bases are common (Nos. 264, 265, 267, 269, 270), and thinwalled metallic fabric is rare (Nos. 263, 270). 261. L8144, B81151/1. Brown clay, exterior surface light brown, slight wheel ridging on exterior. 262. W804, B80434/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, wheel ridging on interior. 263. L8053, B81001. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, thin-walled metallic fabric, wheel ridging on interior.

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264. L8122, B80742/3. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, gritty exterior, string-cut base. 265. L8101, B80372. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, stringcut base. References: Hershkovitz 1986:48, Fig. 2:4; Bar-Nathan 2006:209–210, Pl. 35:36–38, the type with a single handle termed ‘Judaean pyxis’. 266. L8137, B80110. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, heavy disc base. This is an example of a fairly thick-walled pot. The feature of thick walls is found on other small containers (Nos. 294, 295, 303), lending stability to the vessel and at the same time reducing the capacity (see also Hershkovitz 1986: Fig. 1.2; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006: Pl. 4.7:11 for a juglet, and 17 for a bottle; Bar-Nathan 2006: Pl. 35:34, 35). 267. L8107, B80986/3. Brown clay, surface not smooth, wheel ridging and some clay particles on exterior, string-cut base. 268. L8144, 81078. Light brown, clay particles on base and exterior. 269. L4274, B42100/5. Outer band reddish-brown, inner band gray, exterior surface light brown, wheel marks on interior, string-cut base. 270. L8125, B80941/1. Light brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric, clay particles on base and on exterior, string-cut base. Unguentaria and Bottles Unguentaria and bottles are not common in this assemblage, represented by a few neck fragments that only permit a general classification. Piriform unguentaria (Nos. 271, 272) are typical of the first and second centuries CE (Bar-Nathan 2006:198–205; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:17–108). Piriform Unguentaria 271. L8146, B80897/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 272. L8187, B81403. Pinkish to light brown clay, band of red slip close to rim. Large Unguentarium 273. L5332, B52404/3. Neck and rim fragment, reddish-brown clay. Considering the fabric, the vessel may have been a cooking jug, although neither the straight neck nor the rim profile are characteristic of such (see Nos. 687–691). The shape recalls the imported, dome-mouthed unguentaria unearthed at Dora, which are typical of

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the second century BCE (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:306, 376, Fig. 6.27:7). A single specimen was found in the present excavation, in a Roman channel (see No. 899); however, the fabric suggests a local product. Bottles/Unguentaria 274. L526, B5033. Light brown clay, reddish-brown to gray slip on upper ledge and outer edge of rim. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:15. 275. L8144, B81091/4. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 276. L8104, B80720. Light brown clay, relatively coarse fabric. 277. L8159, B81140. Brown clay, exterior surface yellowish-light brown (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 49: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). Vessel Nos. 276 and 277 have a distinct rim profile with an undercut interior lip, which also appears on a narrow-necked jug from a sealed, first-century CE locus at Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b:116, No. 1414). This feature may have prevented waste when the contents were poured, as additional drops would not run down the outer neck. Alternatively, it may have been a lid seat. 278. L5295, B52195. Reddish-brown clay. 279. L8148, B80932. Reddish-brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric. 280. L8104, B80598. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface brown. Juglets The juglet with a cup-shaped rim (Nos. 281–283) was a common vessel during the Second Temple period (for complete specimens, see Mazar 1971: Fig. 32:25, Pl. XXII:16–18; Hershkovitz 1999: Fig. 6.111:7; Bar-Nathan 2006:190–194, Pl. 33:1–14; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006: Pl. 4.4:9–143). The globular body of Nos. 281–283 can have a rounded base, a flat base or a ring foot. A complete juglet wrapped in palm fibers from a cave near Qumran contained a viscous plant oil, possibly the famous balsam oil (opobalsamum) produced in the Jericho Valley and the ‘En Gedi region (Patrich and Arubas 1989:49–51, Fig. 4, Pl. 6:A, B; Dayagi-Mendels 1989:107–108 ; Bar-Nathan 2006:190–194, Pl. 33:1–14). 281. L8148, B80860/2. Entire rim, outer layer reddish-brown clay with light brown surface, inner layer gray clay with light brown surface, thin-walled metallic fabric.

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282. L5283, B52096/3. Reddish-brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric, exterior surface light brown. 283. L5339, B52432/1. Yellowish-green clay, thin-walled metallic fabric. 284. L5339, B52432/3. Ridged neck, brown clay; for similar jugs, see Nos. 313–315. 285. L5293, B52162. Brown clay, exterior surface light brown, interior surface reddish brown. 286. L8107, B80537/3. Brown clay, micaceous; based on the inclusions, this vessel is imported; for a local jug with the same profile, see No. 310. 287. L8110, B80620. Brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric. 288. L8123, B80762. Brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric, thin, matte gray slip on exterior and on cup rim interior. 289. L8137, B81007/3. Outer band reddish-brown clay with light brown surface, inner band brown clay with reddish-brown surface. 290. L8104, B80587. Gray clay, thin-walled metallic fabric. 291. L5332, B52412/2. Light brown clay, brown core. 292. L5295, B52194/1. Light brown clay, legionary cream ware (see Nos. 88, 595, 601). 293. L8107, B80617, B80645. Brown clay, wheel ridging on interior, lower attachment of handle preserved. Reference: Negev 1986:102, No. 857, the entire shape is preserved with the beginning of a handle on the upper neck; however, the reconstructed basket handle does not fit our vessel. 294. L8144, B81151/2. Brown clay, light gray core in lower, thick part of body, heavy. Reference: Bar-Nathan 2006:194–195, Pl. 33:18, globular body, heavy wall, Zealot context with a date range from the first century to the first third of the second century. 295. L8154, B81220. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, gritty, wheel ridging on interior and exterior, string-cut base; may have had the same purpose as Nos. 294 and 303. The original function of Nos. 294 and 295 (see also No. 303) is unknown. Vegas and Hayes classify them as stoppers or ‘perfume pots’ (Vegas 1973:146, Fig. 56, Type 61.1; Hayes 1991: Fig. XXIII:8, 1997:35, Fig. 12:1), while Desbat defines them as amphora stoppers (1997:30, Fig. 14:5–7).

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296. L8167, B81267/1. Yellowish-light brown clay, wheel ridging on interior and exterior, heavy, string-cut base. 297. L8121, B80615/3. Light brown clay, thin gray core, wheel ridging, string-cut base. 298. L8123, B80745/1. Base, brown clay, gray core. 299. L8137, B80901. Light brown clay, wheel ridging on exterior and interior, string-cut base. 300. L8110, B80620. Light brown clay, exterior surface not smooth with wheel ridging, string-cut base. 301. L5299, B52248/6. Light brown clay, string-cut base. This vessel, with closely ribbed outer walls, recalls a typical local form of the second century CE in Beirut (Reynolds 1997–1998:49, 97, 104, Fig. 178: Nos. 99, 240). 302. L8144, B81254/1. Brown to reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, several clay particles on lower exterior wall, string-cut base. Stopper or ‘Perfume Pot’ The vessels with a solid, peg-like toe had a wide distribution during the first–second centuries, and their function is uncertain (see also Nos. 294, 295). Catalogue No. 303 is similar to examples from the the potters’ vicus of Schwabmünchen in the province of Raetia (Sorge 2001:71, Pl. 48:B 326–328) and Paphos (Hayes 1991:74, Fig. XXIII:8, 9, 11), while an example from Caesarea Maritima is more slender (Johnson 2008b: No. 738), and another from Shiqmona has a handle (Elgavish 1977: Pl. XII:98). 303. L8138, B80812. Light brown clay, small white and gray grits, smooth polished exterior, deep wheel ridging on interior, roughly cut base with clay particles. Jugs and Flasks Medium-Sized Jugs A number of medium-sized jugs with a wide opening, made of fine ware with small grits, have only the neck and shoulder preserved; therefore, their classification is uncertain, yet their shape recalls pre-70 CE vessels that most likely continued to be manufactured after 70 CE. Vessel Nos. 304–309 could also have been two-handled pots, Nos. 304 and 305 have a cup-shaped neck like juglet Nos. 281–283, and Nos. 306–308 resemble small, twohandled cookware pots (see Nos. 648–650); all of these correspond in size and shape to the ‘mugs’ from Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:144–146). The jug with an everted rim (No. 310)

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is unusual, its profile recalling storage jars of the first century BCE (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:103, Pl. 4.9:1; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 3:13); however, as it differs from the usual local storage jars, it is here identified as a jug. Jugs with a rim that has a triangular section and an inner groove (Nos. 311, 312) are dated at Masada from the reign of Herod until the Zealot occupation (Bar-Nathan 2006:100–102; Jerusalem—Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:105, jugs with wide mouth). 304. L8125, B80892/2. Light brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric, the handle is carelessly joined to the lower shoulder, and bulges on the interior of the neck. 305. L8123, B80918. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 306. L8153, B80482/1. Brown clay, thin-walled metallic fabric, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown. 307. L8119, B80577. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, right-angled handle (see Nos. 464, 467, 471). 308. L8036, B80122. Brown clay. 309. L8183, B81354/1. Brown clay, thin-walled, hard, metallic fabric, single-grooved handle. 310. L8159, B81109. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface pink; an imported jug has the same profile (see No. 286). 311. L8155, B81123/5. Brown clay; as more than half of the rim is preserved, it definitely had only one handle. 312. L8123, B80765/3. Brown clay, unknown if second handle. Jugs with Ridged Neck A characteristic feature of some jugs and juglets (see No. 284) is a pronounced ridge in the middle or upper section of the neck, which sometimes defines the upper attachment of the handle. In some cases, the neck ridge is paralleled by a ridged or flanged lip (Nos. 314, 315). Ridged-neck vessels date from the first and second centuries and continue into the third (Mazar 1971: Fig. 18:21; Bar-Nathan 2006: Pls. 19–20:40, 22:61–64 for jugs, 33:21 for juglets; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 4:2). A ridged neck also occurs on a two-handled ‘jug’ with a different rim from the harbor of Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:124, D42, undetermined origin, suggested date first century BCE to third century CE). 313. L8148, B81142. Light brown clay, gray core.

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314. L8148, B81118. Brown clay, reddish-brown core, metallic fabric, light brown coating on exterior and interior surface (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 45: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 315. L8144, B81174. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, metallic fabric, exterior surface light brown. Flasks As the frequency of flasks was much higher in the late Second Temple period, it is suggested that the Roman military did not make use of this vessel type, and that the few recovered specimens are residual (Bar-Nathan 2006:116–117; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:106; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 4:3, suggested date 30 BCE–73/74 [80–87] CE). 316. L8148, B81226. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 317. L5283, B52096/2. Reddish-brown clay, brown core in parts, exterior surface light brown. 318. L4273, B42210/4. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface light brown.

Utility Wares In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, it is the category of locally manufactured utility wares that exemplifies the change in the ceramic repertoire in Jerusalem after 70 CE, a change related to the ‘military style’ production in the Roman Empire (see Chapter 5: ‘Military Style’ Pottery and Changes in Material Culture). The majority of the utilityware vessels are distinctive for their great variation with regard to fabric, shape, size and decoration. Hence, the classification is based on fabrics and morphological features and not on typological criteria and is separated into three classes. The first class, vessels for food processing and storage, comprises a substantial number of deep, open, multi-purpose vessels, typical of the new ceramic repertoire, alongside some imported and local baking dishes. The second class, vessels for transport and storage, includes imported and locally manufactured amphoras and a large number of storage jars with a range of forms that echoes the earlier Levantine and Judaean tradition. Thirdly, the cookware of globular pots, casseroles and jugs also comprises forms that continue the Levantine and Judaean tradition.

Food Processing and Storage Bearing in mind that the classification is not typological, the common denominator of the majority of the vessels in this first class of utility wares is the wide opening equal in width to the maximum width of the body (Nos. 319–339). The exceptions are the imported and local baking dishes and the jugs and globular pots with grooved handles (Nos. 459–477), which are made of cooking ware that differs in fabric from the cooking ware of the third class and are related by their distinct handle shape to the new utility repertoire. Even though most of

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these globular pots are made of cooking ware (Nos. 464–477) and bear traces of soot on the lower exterior walls, it is my impression that they were not ordinary pots for kitchen purpose but were plausibly used to keep food hot for short periods and to serve it at the table. The remaining forms are separated into kraters/deep bowls and the generic term basin, while mortaria and dolia are two terms that can be clearly identified in Roman sources. These distinctions also take into account the differences in fabrics: kraters/deep bowls are usually made of medium or medium-coarse fabric and their walls are generally thinner than those of basins, mortaria and dolia, which are made of coarse fabric, akin to roof-tile fabric. In the Levant, the term ‘krater’ is applied to deep, open vessels known since the later part of the second century BCE and not related to classical or Hellenistic prototypes. In the Roman period, this vessel is deep and wide with a gently curving, hemispherical body and an overhanging rim (Berlin 1997b:133–134). It is unclear if in addition to being a kitchen vessel for mixing and storing, it was also used for serving at the table (Killebrew 1999: Fig. III.57:5, 6, with a ‘pie-crust’ band along the lower edge of the lip). Basins, mortaria and dolia, on the other hand, are multi-purpose vessels manufactured for kitchens and storerooms. Flat-Bottomed Dishes and Pans The Roman kitchen and culinary tastes were dependent on flat-bottomed dishes, and it is not surprising that such vessels comprise a fair share of the cooking vessels in the assemblage. From the Roman dump, both imported and local imitations were recovered, with the latter outnumbering the former. ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware Baking Dishes and Lids Baking dishes and lids were imported into the Levant from the late Hellenistic period onward (Berlin 1993; Lund 2004:8–10; Johnson 2008b:23, Nos. 31, 32), and were already introduced into Judaea in small amounts during Herod’s reign in the first century BCE, signaling a change in culinary tastes among a minority of the upper-class Jewish inhabitants in Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:215–217; 2006:154–156), Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:358–365) and Jericho (Bar-Nathan 2002:138–140). Hayes places the ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware dishes and lids from eastern Mediterranean sites in a broad timespan from 100 BCE to 100 CE, with later variants continuing into the latter part of the second century (Hayes 2008:119–121). At Paphos, the Italian pans retrieved from below the mosaic floors in the ‘House of Dionysos’ are dated earlier than the beginning of the second century CE, though the production continued into Antonine times (Hayes 1977:96–97). The ratio between imported ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware dishes and lids and locally produced imitations varies from site to site. In the legionary camp at Carnuntum, local examples clearly outnumber imported ones (Grünewald 1979:39–41, Pl. 24:1 for imports; Pls. 24:2–13; 25:1–5 for local dishes), as they do in the Roman dump. In the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, to date, no imported examples have been recorded, though the category was known in pre- and post-70 Jerusalem and Judaea (see above). In the kilnworks, a fair number of flat-bottomed coarse and fine dishes were manufactured, in which quiches,

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breads and cakes were prepared, and could also have been used for serving food (for a discussion, see Magness 2005:87–90). Quiches were probably served at the table in such dishes, as they are best eaten hot. From a complete dish recovered in an early secondcentury context in Beirut, we learn of the cooking method: the underside of the vessel shows distinct burning marks of a metal support, attesting that it was placed over an open fire and not in an oven (Reynolds and Waksman 2007:66). The question arises whether the fact that the Roman-dump assemblage also contained imported dishes and lids is of chronological significance. From her analysis of the Roman baking dishes at Tel Anafa, Berlin concluded that local imitations replaced imported vessels in the late first century CE (Berlin 1993:39), while at Beirut, Pellegrino demonstrated that the veterans who settled there under Augustus in 14 BCE were already using local pans in the first century CE, and imports were rare (Pellegrino 2010:154–155; see also Reynolds 2004:125 for imports in the first half of the second century CE; Reynolds and Waksman 2007:66 for the disappearance of flat-bottomed dishes in the first half of the third century). It is conceivable that during and after the Great Revolt, the military personnel in Jerusalem relied on imports, and once workshops were set up it was more convenient to depend on a local supply of vessels. In such a case, this would support the late first–early second century date for the Roman dump proposed here. The imported dishes, in contrast to the local imitations, are slipped on the interior, and many fine, silvery inclusions are clearly visible on both the slipped interior and the plain exterior, as well as in the biscuit. The lids are always unslipped. 319. L8113, B80510/3. Dish, dark brown clay, micaceous, soot on bottom, interior slip now pinkish-light brown due to exposure to fire. 320. L8104, B80596; L8137, B80799/3. Two joining dish fragments of same fabric from two loci, one is still the original red, the other is blackened due to exposure to fire. 321. L8167, B81277/1. Lid, brown to gray clay, micaceous. 322. L8053, B80502. Lid, brown clay, micaceous, soot on top. From Caesarea Maritima, an imported lid from a sealed locus dated to the late first–early second centuries resembles Nos. 321 and 322 (Johnson 2008b:82, No. 976). For the locally produced lids from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, see Magness 2005: Figs. 6:2–7; 7:1. Local Imitations of ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware The imitations are always without slip, except for several examples of concentric circles of gray slip on the interior, possibly a non-stick technique (Nos. 323, 325, 328). There is a greater variation in form and size among the local versions, and several divergent specimens have been included based on their fabric (Nos. 330, 332, 333). A pointed rim is most common, in imitation of the imported prototype, while some vessels have a rounded

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(Nos. 330, 331) or externally beveled (No. 332) rim. The walls are curved, with the exception of the carinated dish with a straight upper wall, included here because of its fabric (No. 334), although it does not imitate the dominant ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware dish form. 323. L8121, B80694. Brown clay, concentric circles of dark gray slip on interior base. 324. L8066, B80219. Dark brown clay, soot marks on interior and exterior. 325. L8047, B80173. Brown clay, smooth interior surface with concentric circles of gray slip on base (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 4: Judaea/Jerusalem). 326. L8107, B80437. Brown clay, smooth interior surface with shallow concentric grooves on bottom and slight wheel ridging on lower interior wall. This dish has a relatively small diameter, resulting in an unusual, deeper vessel. For a parallel from Jerusalem, see Tushingham 1985: Fig. 35, attributed to pre-70 CE. In form and size, Nos. 323–326 recall the North African vessels of the second–third centuries (Hayes 1972:46–48, ARS 23 A, early–mid-second century; Oleson et al. 1994:36, K6–8). Characteristic of these four dishes, the ARS Form 23 A, and the larger and deeper Form 23 B (Hayes 46–48, ARS 23 B, mid-second–early third centuries) is the flange separating the wall from the base; the difference between the Jerusalem products and the ARS vessels is in the rim: those from Jerusalem have a plain, pointed, and slightly incurved rim, as opposed to the rounded rim of ARS Form 23 A and the internal rim-roll of ARS Form 23 B. For a parallel to Nos. 323–326 from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, see RosenthalHeginbottom 2005: No. 128. 327. L8104, B80503, B80504. Brown clay. 328. L8125, B80921/1. Base, brown clay, narrow, concentric circles of dark brown slip on interior lower wall and base, gray spots on exterior. 329. L8122, B80742. Base, dark brown clay, exterior bottom gray from contact with heat, low, closely set concentric grooves on interior base. 330. L8158, B81242/2. Reddish-brown clay, concentric grooves on interior base, rounded rim, soot on exterior base. For a parallel from Jerusalem, see Tushingham 1985: Fig. 36, attributed to pre-70 CE; for close parallels from Ashqelon, see Johnson 2008a:120–121, Nos. 361, 362. 331. W812, B81309/1. Brown clay, rounded rim. 332. L8182, B81350/5. Brown to gray clay, externally beveled rim.

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333. L8104, B80441/1. Five fragments of same vessel, dark gray clay, black coating on interior. The fabric is different from the other dishes described here, and the vessel’s diameter is unusually small, suggesting a different, local or regional workshop. 334. L8154, B81127/2. Dish, reddish-brown to gray clay. This is a unique shape with an upright wall above a carination, included here because of its fabric. The carinated wall recalls the fairly common ESA Form 48, dated to c. 40–70 CE onward (see Nos. 5–8). Baking Dishes/Frying Pans and Lid Based on visual examination and petrography, the fragments of four additional baking dishes can be divided into one import (No. 336), two local imitations (Nos. 337, 338) and a local dish/pan with a ledge rim (No. 335). The vessels are flat-bottomed with flaring sides, and in Nos. 337 and 338 the imported pans’ characteristic ribbed, tubular handle is preserved. Three vessels are of the same shape made of coarse fabric, either imported micaceous (No. 336) or local imitations with quartz inclusions (Nos. 337, 338). The imported vessel was manufactured in Phocaea, one of, if not the only, manufacturing center where a number of workshops operated from the first quarter of the second century BCE until c. 125 CE (Hayes 1983:107, Fig. 9.99–102; 2005:15–16, Fig. 6; Reynolds 1997–1998:46, Figs. 127– 128; Lüdorf 2006:41–42, Type P 1/3; Reynolds and Waksman 2007:66, Fig. 8, with a date range from the second century BCE to the second century CE). These authors suggest use as a pan for frying in deep oil; however, a multi-purpose use as a baking dish is also possible. In the late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, sporadic imports and local imitations of baking dishes and frying pans are recorded at a number of sites; for example, in Judaea from Jerusalem (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 24:22; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 126, 159; 2006:151, from Stratum 3, prior to the last quarter of the first century BCE) and Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:363, Pl. 73:12, a single vessel from a Zealot occupation context [66?] 73/74–115 CE). Inland sites in northern Israel include Tel Anafa (Berlin 1997b: Pl. 34:299– 301, Hell 2a with an Aegean origin), Bet Yerah (Ben-Nahum and Getzov 2006:143–144, Fig. 5.10:6), Nysa-Scythopolis (Sandhaus 2007:121, Fig. 6.2:15, late Hellenistic–Early Roman); and coastal sites include Dora (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:300–301, Fig. 6.23:11–15), Caesarea Maritima (Riley 1975: No. 119; Oleson et al. 1994:121, eastern Mediterranean, K67 pan dated to Hellenistic–fourth century, K68 handle dated to 200 BCE–third century CE; Johnson 2008b:77–78, Nos. 911–914, Benghazi, Early Roman Cooking Ware Form 6 = Riley 1979:253–255, Fig. 101:D471, D476), and Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a:119, Nos. 355 shape and 354 handle). Johnson concludes that the primarily eastern Mediterranean production began in the early first century CE, reached its greatest popularity in the first half of the second and declined in the later second and third centuries. At Beirut, baking dishes occur from the late first century BCE to the early second century CE (Reynolds 1997–1998: Figs. 127, 128; Pellegrino 2010:153, Fig. 15:1–5). Pellegrino stresses that in the Hellenistic East there are antecedents from the end of the third century BCE. In Beirut during the second and first centuries BCE, the two main forms of the local products, with either tubular or ear handles, are found together (Aubert

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2002:79–81, Figs. 21, 22). At Paphos, two baking dishes were retrieved, one from a context of the early first century CE, the other from the end of the first century or first half of the second century CE (Hayes 1991:80). 335. L8121, B80615/2. Brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 20: Judaea/ Jerusalem). 336. L8104, B80480/3. Dark brown to gray clay, micaceous, smooth interior bottom with concentric lines of gray burnishing. 337. L8104, B80579. Brown clay, white and gray grits with quartz inclusions, smooth interior bottom with brown coating and parallel concentric lines of brown burnishing, exterior base and wall gray from fire (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 11: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 338. W811, B81048. Handle, same fabric as No. 337. 339. L8137, B80809/1. Knob of lid, brown clay, non-micaceous, dark brown slip, possibly a local product, probably used for a baking dish or frying pan. For the knob of a much larger lid, see Reynolds 1997–1998: Fig. 129, a Phocaean import. Kraters/Deep Bowls A variety of deep, open, wide-mouthed, capacious vessels constitute one of the hallmarks of the legionary production in Jerusalem, introduced with the arrival of the Romans and continuing as part of the local ceramic repertoire of the Holy Land through the Byzantine period and into Early Islamic times (Magness 1993:202–209; 2005:104–105, 157–160). They have two common characteristics: firstly, the greatest width of the body is equal to or slightly less than the opening; secondly, the majority are made of coarse fabric, with many small and medium-sized inclusions the rule, and none of them is of cooking ware. The rim forms are diverse. Most common are ledge rims for easy handling that can be flat, arched (Nos. 340–352, 354, 362–364) or everted (Nos. 355, 356, 358–361, 365). Less common are rounded rims (Nos. 353, 357, 366), a narrow flat rim with a groove (No. 367) and everted, concave rim (No. 368). On several vessels, there is evidence for two vertical handles (Nos. 358, 361, 363, 366). Decorative elements that appear on these vessels, such as grooves on rims and handles, band- and wavy-line combing on rims and walls, and ‘pie-crust’ bands on the exterior, are hallmarks of the legionary utility pottery. No complete kraters/deep bowls were retrieved in this excavation. Vessel Nos. 340–357 were apparently handleless and round bottomed, resembling cooking cauldrons from the legionary kiln site (Magness 2005: Figs. 26:1, 2, 4; 27:1), the inner diameter ranging from 20 cm (No. 343) to 53 cm (No. 354); Nos. 358–368 are variant forms. Based on visual inspection, these vessels are all attributed to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, except for No. 342, which is not of Moza soil and probably originated in the Shephelah (see below).

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Two variations of kraters/deep bowls feature vertical or nearly vertical walls (Nos. 358–361, 363, 364, 366) or a globular body (Nos. 362, 365), and an inwardsloping, everted rim that is nearly flat (Nos. 362–364) or rounded (No. 366). Some examples have a ridge on the outer wall below the handle (Nos. 358–361, 363, 364) and heavy, double- or triple-grooved handles extending from the rim (Nos. 358, 361, 363). Decoration on the exterior wall includes band- and wavy-line combing and ‘piecrust’ bands. Two exceptional small vessels, of finer ware than the other kraters/deep bowls, with a diameter of about 20 cm, are included in this category. The upright wall of No. 367 recalls the profile of No. 366, while No. 368, with its constricted neck, is related to the kraters with triangular rims (see below). These diverse utility vessels were used in the preparation of meals, for short-term storage of peeled or cut products, and for mixing and washing, while the smaller and finer examples (Nos. 340–346, 367, 368) were most likely for serving the food. 340. L8144, B81137/2. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface reddish-brown. For a parallel from the military baths at ‘En Gedi, see Hadas 2007:357, Fig. 1:1. 341. L8144, 81012. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 342. L8121, B81615. Light brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 23: Shephelah?). 343. L8132, B81238. Gray clay, in part with reddish-brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown. 344. L8121, B80641/3. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown to light gray. For a parallel from the military baths at ‘En Gedi, see Hadas 2007:357, Fig. 1:2. 345. L8113, B80488. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface yellowishlight brown. The shape and rim of No. 345 recall kraters of the late Second Temple period in Jerusalem (for references, see Nos. 369–374). 346. L8104, B80547. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown. 347. L526, B5035/4. Light brown clay. 348. L5347, B52446. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 349. L5299, B52241/27. Reddish-brown clay, brown core.

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350. L8095, B80308. Brown clay, gray core, exterior surface light brown, a horizontal groove with a single wavy line above and below it on the exterior wall. 351. L8123, B80747. Light brown clay, incised, single wavy line between two shallow grooves on the rim. 352. L8065, B80395/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown, combined band- and wavy-line combing on the exterior wall, a groove on the interior below the rim. 353. L5299, B52243/2 + 5. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, bandcombing on the exterior wall. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:1 (the drawing has been corrected here). 354. L8060, B80239. Reddish-brown clay, rim profile with brown core. 355. L8137, B80809/2. Gray clay, exterior surface reddish brown, interior surface light brown. 356. L8122, B80740/3. The clay is fired to two colors: the outer of light brown clay, the inner of light gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. The profile is similar to that of large bowls with pinched handles (Nos. 422, 423). 357. L526, B5035/1. Light brown clay, interior surface reddish brown, gritty surface. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:9. 358. L8046, B80340. Light brown clay. 359. L8137, B80822/2. Light brown clay. The rim profiles of Nos. 358 and 359 resemble that of a barrel from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 98; see also Magness 2005: Fig. 27:10) and the thick, coarse, two-handled basins Nos. 435 and 438. 360. L8093, B80390. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, dark brown slip on rim and exterior surface. 361. L8144, B81151. Brown clay, occasional large inclusions, exterior and interior surface light brown. 362. L8164, B81155/2. Light brown clay.

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363. L8048, B80782. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 364. L8104, B80503/1. Gray clay, reddish-brown core. 365. L8104, B80546. Brown clay. 366. L8148, B80960/3. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, rounded rim, vertical loop handles extending from below the rim. 367. L8121, B80658/2. Light brown clay, narrow, flat, grooved rim. 368. L8144, B81010. Brown clay, exterior surface and rim light brown, interior surface reddish brown, rim profile similar to that of the wide-mouthed cooking jars (Nos. 643–646) and some casseroles (Nos. 666, 667). Kraters with Triangular Rim The kraters with a triangular rim and two handles have been included in utility wares because of their fabric, rather than for morphological reasons. With the exception of No. 370, which is of cooking ware, all are made of the medium-coarse legionary ware. Though the complete form is unknown, the shape of the rim and upper body recalls kraters with a triangular rim from the late Second Temple period in Jerusalem and Judaea (for references see below). The body of the triangular-rim kraters in the present assemblage appears to have been globular, and the maximum width of the body is slightly wider than the mouth of the vessel. Complete vessels from Jericho and Masada in the late Second Temple period have a ring foot (Killebrew 1999:116, Fig. III.57:1, 4; Bar-Nathan 2006:124, Pl. 23:1), which supports the authors’ suggestion that triangular-rim kraters were tableware for serving food or mixing wine, while other vessels such as basins and mortaria with a flat base that provides stability and were easier to manufacture (Nos. 375–379, 426, 428), were used solely in processing food. During the late Second Temple period in the Upper City of Jerusalem, two versions of kraters with triangular rims occurred together: two-handled kraters (Geva and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:178–179, Pls. 6.2:33; 6.3:28) and plain and painted kraters with a piriform body and three knucklebone-shaped feet, with or without handles (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:110, 114–115; Pls. 4.4:16; 4.13:14). A third version of the triangularrim krater is hemispherical in shape, often decorated with a ‘pie-crust’ band on the exterior lip or rim flange, the maximum width reached at the lip (see the fine-ware ‘pie-crust’ rim kraters, Nos. 145, 146; Geva and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003: Pl. 6.6:7–10; Berlin 2005: Fig. 18; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 13; Bar-Nathan 2006:126–127, Pl. 24:14–16). In view of the late Second Temple-period parallels, it is suggested here that only the first version of the kraters with triangular rims continued to be manufactured in Jerusalem after 70 CE and was introduced into the ceramic repertoire of the Romans; thus, they are

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grouped here separately. The triangular rim also occurs on many pots with grooved handles (see Nos. 467–470). 369. L8154, B81128/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 370. L8123, B80760/1. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware. 371. W812, B81332/12. Light brown clay, gray core. 372. L8155, B81083/2. Light brown clay, gray core. 373. L8106, B80483/2. Light brown clay. 374. L8144, B81079/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Basins/Deep Bowls The wide-mouthed, large-capacity vessels classified here as basins/deep bowls generally have a thicker wall than the kraters/deep bowls above (Nos. 340–374), while the few smaller versions should be termed bowls (Nos. 390, 395). Basins/deep bowls display a wide range of rim shapes including everted, slightly angled or flat rims forming a ledge for easy handling; while some are plain (No. 380), most have grooves and ridges on the interior that probably served as a lid seat (Nos. 381–386; Kloner and Tepper 1987: Pl. 161:15, from the Bar Kokhba period; Magness 2005: Figs. 25:5–9; 27:3; Kloner and BarNathan 2017: Fig. 4:14). No handles were added. The complete vessels with a plain, gently out-curving rim have a flat base; the diameter is 35–40 cm and the height is 10–15 cm (Nos. 375–379). The largest vessel fragments reach a diameter of 45 cm. There are close parallels in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:95, Fig. 29:2–8; RosenthalHeginbottom 2005: Nos. 130, 131). At Tel ‘Ira, a similar rim is found on a complete basin with four horizontal loop handles in the middle of the upper half of the wall, a ring foot and a ‘pie-crust’ band on the lip; as it was found in a post-70 CE context, Roman influence has been suggested (Hershkovitz 1999:299, Fig. 6.111:4; 2005:286–289, Fig. 3:4–7, with reference to parallels from Area F in the Jewish Quarter excavations, found together with roof-tile fragments stamped by the Tenth Legion; see the two vessels from Cistern 2667, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:312, Pl. 25.7:10, 11). The grooved flat rims (Nos. 391–393) are less frequent, yet they also occur on ledge-rim kraters/deep bowls (Nos. 340–342) and on incurved rims of the wide-mouthed dolia (Nos. 453, 456). It is presumed that these vessels played a role in food processing, though they may also have been used for serving. Two local fabrics are represented: a hard, coarse fabric akin to that of the roof tiles, with many small white and gray grits and a few larger white inclusions, apparently quartz; only No. 395 is made of a medium-coarse, but also hard fabric. The color-coated surface is the result of firing technique.

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375. L8167, B81273/1. Light brown clay, yellowish-light brown surface. 376. L8104, B80574, B80575. Light brown to reddish-brown clay. 377. L8053, B81034/3. Reddish-brown clay, yellowish-light brown surface. 378. L8122, B 80773. Reddish-brown clay, yellowish-light brown surface. 379. L8121, B80625, B80690. Light brown clay. 380. L8123, B80745/3. Chocolate-brown clay, remains of Egyptian-blue pigment on both exterior and interior surfaces; the vessel was apparently discarded with the pigment still in it, which was subsequently spilt. 381. L5295, B52190/3. Brown clay with thin, reddish-brown strips, exterior and interior surfaces light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:7. 382. L5299, B52243/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:6. 383. L5332, B52411/5. Reddish-brown clay, brown core. 384. L5295, B52194/4. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown. 385. L5299, B52244/7. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown. 386. L5293, B52188/4. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:8. 387. W812, B81332/6. Reddish-light brown clay. 388. L8174, B81304/3. Yellowish-brown clay. 389. W812, B81309/3. Yellowish-light brown clay. 390. L5299, B52244/4. Gray clay with reddish-brown stripes, light brown surface on lower part of exterior rim and a light brown band along the inner edge. 391. L5332, B52404/4. Reddish-brown clay, three pronounced grooves on rim top. 392. L8123, B80748. Yellowish-light brown clay, two pronounced grooves on rim top.

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393. L8183, B81354/2. Light brown clay, single shallow groove on rim top. 394. L5339, B52434/2. Light brown clay. 395. L4260, B42109/2. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface brown. The shape of this small vessel is similar to that of Nos. 399 and 400, although of different fabric. Shelf-Rim Basins Locally produced shelf-rim basins were defined by Magness in her Jerusalem ceramic typology (Magness 1993:202). The shelf-rim basins in the present assemblage comprise both deep and shallow vessels of small and larger modules, divided here into three groups: basin Nos. 396–402, Nos. 403–408 and Nos. 409–413. The first and second groups have a plain or decorated rim respectively, and occur in reddish-brown, sometimes brown fabric resembling that of the cooking pots and casseroles (Nos. 611–684), with small white and gray, and occasional large white inclusions. The third group has a decorated rim and is made of the medium-coarse legionary ware, with one example of Moza marl (No. 410). There are no signs of soot on these fragments when the lower part is preserved, and the rim decoration suggests that the vessels were used for serving food or fruit at the table. If placed on the table, a flat bottom would be more appropriate than a rounded one (as on Nos. 396, 397, 399, 401), although it is possible that ring stands were used (see Nos. 715–725). The first group includes complete or nearly complete, round-bottomed, handleless examples with an upright, sometimes slightly curved wall and a carination in the lower third, the diameter ranging from 11.5 to 27.5 cm. The plain rim is everted, angled or nearly flat, and in some cases gently curved (No. 402). A number of complete vessels came to light in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, in both cooking ware (Magness 2005:93–95, Figs. 26:1, 2,4; 27:1) and medium-coarse ware (Hershkovitz 2005:287, Fig. 3:1–3, brownpink clay). The vessels in the second group display rim decorations of an incised single or double wavy line. The two fragments with the upper wall preserved (Nos. 403, 404) suggest a similar shape to that of No. 396. In the third group, the rims have an incised double wavy line on the top, and two vessels have a row of incised double circles on the outer edge of the rim (Nos. 410, 412; see No. 540 for similar decoration on a local amphora fragment). The wall profiles of Nos. 409 and 410 are different than the others and suggest a shallower vessel, while No. 413, with a plain rim top and a ‘pie-crust’ band on the outer edge, is quite large (diameter 42.5 cm) and appears to have been a deeper vessel. Parallels to the third group with both plain and decorated rims were recovered in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, although the base is lacking there also (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 84, 111, 112). 396. L8107, B80607. Brown clay, gray core. 397. L8137, 80809. Dark brown clay.

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RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

398. L8187, B81405/3. Reddish-brown clay, soot on exterior below rim. 399. L8125, B80874. Dark brown clay, reddish-brown core. 400. L5339, B52432/7. Reddish-brown clay. 401. L8104, B80531. Reddish-brown clay, brown core. 402. L8144, B80862. Reddish-brown clay, soot on rim and part of upper exterior wall. 403. L8167, B81277/2. Brownish-gray clay, many large chalk or lime particles. 404. L8123, B80758/3. Reddish-brown clay, many large chalk or lime particles. 405. L8174, B81302/7, Brown clay, reddish-brown core. 406. W804, B80946. Reddish-brown clay, many large chalk or lime particles. 407. L8144, B81091/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 408. L8182, B81350/10. Brown clay. 409. L8075, B80452. Reddish-brown clay, yellowish-light brown surface. 410. L8112, B80485. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, band of incised circles on outer rim (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 18: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 411. L8187, B81400/2. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core. 412. L8131, B80767/2. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, exterior and interior surfaces yellowish-light brown, band of incised circles on outer rim. 413. L8121, B80664/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light reddish brown. Shallow Basins with ‘Pie-Crust’ Decoration A few fragments of shallow basins of various shapes with beveled and rounded rims were retrieved. The bases are missing but were probably flat or a ring foot. A characteristic feature is a pronounced ridge of ‘pie-crust’ decoration on the exterior, with an incised wavy line added on No. 414. The coarse fabric with a gritty surface and many small and some medium-sized white and gray grits suggests kitchen use rather than tableware, even though

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the shape is that of a typical serving dish (compare the cream-ware platter with an exterior horizontal flange from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, a form not represented in the present assemblage, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 88). 414. L8107, B80507, B80519. Light brown clay. 415. L8104, B80448. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 416. L8139, B80836. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Shallow Basins with Applied Clay Strips Three fragments of shallow bowls with flat, beveled rims (Nos. 417–419) are decorated with a curved strip of clay applied on the exterior wall; that on No. 418 seems to be a continuous wavy strip, while the strips on Nos. 417 and 419 are semicircular and attached to the wall below the rim. No examples were recorded from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks; the bowls are similar in shape to vessels with incised nicks and a wavy line (Magness 2005: Fig. 28:2–5). 417. L8123, B80556. Light brown clay, dark brown patina on walls and breaks (probably exposed to fire), two grooves below rim on exterior wall. Half of the applied semicircular strip is preserved, triangular in section, starting at the rim and curving downward; it bears the potter’s fingerprints. The fabric is coarser than that of the similar basin No. 419. 418. L8053, B81034/2. Light brown clay, groove below rim on exterior wall, a single wavy line incised on rim and on exterior wall above an applied strip, triangular in section and carefully shaped between thumb and forefinger; the upper part of the strip has two rills (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 6: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 419. L8137, B80792/4. Light brown clay. The shallow applied strip on the exterior starts below the rim and has a honeycomb decoration; a circular impression is located where the strip attaches to the rim. Basins with Pinched Horizontal Handles Although the basins in this category display morphological differences in rim and body profiles, they all have horizontal handles and appear to be made of the same fabric with mostly small and occasional medium-sized grits. Basin Nos. 420 and 421 are probably relatively shallow vessels, like Nos. 417–419, while Nos. 422 and 423 represent deeper versions, and No. 424 is a smaller vessel with an unusual handle.

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RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

420. L8107, B80995/1. Light brown clay, flat rim undercut on interior, single wavy line on the rim and a ridge close to the outer edge, a small, rectangular, solid knob handle pressed at both ends between the thumb and forefinger, the fingerprints visible. 421. L8121, B80701/2. Reddish-brown clay, light brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown, flat rim, wheel ridging on interior wall, a horizontal handle pressed against wall between thumb and forefinger, the fingerprints visible; the attachment of the handle to the wall was carelessly executed. 422. L8121, B80621. Gray clay, light brown on exterior and grayish-light brown on interior, hard fabric, beveled-inward rim undercut on interior and exterior, wheel ridging on interior wall, a horizontal handle pressed upward against the rim between thumb and forefinger, the fingerprints visible; the handle and its attachment to the wall were carelessly executed. 423. L8174, B81302/8. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. A parallel to the form of Nos. 422 and 423 is found in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, yet without a handle preserved (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 110; compare also the round-bottomed cooking vessel in Magness 2005: Fig. 26:4). 424. L8122, B80684/1. Light brown clay, flat rim, on the top of the horizontal band handle are two large globules with a smaller one in between, traces of knife-paring remain on the joint between handle and wall, and a shallow cavity was produced by the potter’s thumb while attaching the handle. Basin with Ledge Handle 425. L8121, B80833/3. Brown clay, core partly reddish-brown, partly brown, gritty surface, flat ledge-rim handle decorated on top with two incised wavy lines and between them a deep cavity. Based on the size of this heavy fragment, it belongs to a large vessel related to mortaria and dolia (see Nos. 453, 454); the shape is unclear. Mortaria Mortaria, heavy open basins/bowls with a heavy, flanged rim and a wide, flat base, were used for pounding, crushing and mixing, and appear in both the Roman civil and military kitchen. This vessel is considered a distinctive sign of Romanization (Baatz 1977; Alcock 2001:117–118), although in Israel there was also a strong local mortarium tradition in the Persian and Hellenistic periods (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:295–297). The predominant Roman type with a large flanged rim was locally manufactured in all the Roman provinces (Sorge 2001: Pls. 21–25, 35–44), and its distribution was limited (for example, see the distribution map of stamped mortaria produced at Schwabmünden, with an east–west distance of 500 km, in Sorge 2001:111, Fig. 46).

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The earlier type of flanged rim (Nos. 426–428, 430) is replaced by a less curved to nearly straight rim (Nos. 429, 431) in the second century (Riley 1979:295–296). A spout for pouring and prominent basalt and/or quartz inclusions in the interior surface for grinding are frequent, but not essential, and wheel ridging on the exterior and interior walls is common. Mortaria were made of roof-tile fabric and parallels are found in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:97–98, Fig. 30; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:255–256, Nos. 94, 96, 162–165). A parallel from Caesarea Maritima was recovered in a sealed locus of the first–second centuries (Johnson 2008b: No. 715). 426. L8053, B80194/1. Reddish-brown clay, gritty surface. 427. L8121, B80648/3. Light brown clay. 428. L8053, B80350. Light brown clay, gritty surface, a repair hole on the interior, made before firing, has three small, dark brown clay lumps inside. 429. L8122, B80740/1. Light brown clay, light gray core. 430. L8137, B80807. Reddish-brown clay, light brown surface on upper part of rim, narrow, light brown band below rim, gritty exterior and interior surface. 431. L8121, B80624. Brown to gray clay with thin layer of reddish-brown core. 432. L8144, B81251. Greenish-light brown clay. 433. L8148, B81132/3. Light brown clay, gritty surface, outer edge of rim broken off. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 28:8. 434. L8154, B81228/4. Light brown clay, gritty surface, exterior base not smoothed. Two-Handled Basins In the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, complete large capacity, deep, flat-bottomed basins of coarse ware with nearly vertical walls that taper slightly downward were recovered (Magness 2005: Fig. 27:10; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 168, Fig. 10). A multifunctional use for short-term storage of certain types of provisions, for the preparation of large amounts of food, and for washing is assumed. Certainly, these heavy vessels were rarely moved. For the long-term storage of a commodity such as grain, the vessels would have required lids with a large diameter, over half a meter, for which there is no evidence. The hallmarks of these basins are two large, heavy, vertical ring handles with vertical grooves and finger indentions at the bottom, incised wavy-line decoration on the exterior wall and occasionally on top of the rim, and a ‘pie-crust’ band below the flat or everted rim (Magness 2005: Fig. 29:1; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 168, 170, 172, 176; see

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also Fig. 28:1 for an unfired rim fragment with a handle). In the present assemblage, the most common type has an everted rim, as represented by Nos. 435–440, while fragments of three variations with a flat rim are also included: No. 441 has a smaller diameter, No. 442 has vertical, rounded ring handles and No. 443 has a row of incised nicks on the rim exterior. For related but smaller kraters/deep bowls of the common version in mediumcoarse ware with more elongated handles, see Nos. 358 and 359 (only on No. 358 is the handle preserved). 435. L8132, B81099/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown, roof-tile fabric, groove on top of rim, incised wavy line on the wall, heavy ring handle with three vertical grooves created by the three middle fingers pressing on the soft clay, from the top of the handle downward. No traces of a ‘pie-crust’ band remain under the handle; thus, it is unclear if it existed (see No. 439). On the inner surface of the handle, where it was attached to the wall, the finger and thumb prints of the potter are still visible (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 30: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity, and coastal sand). A similar handle from Abu Ma‘aruf was incorrectly identified by Rapuano (1999:176– 178, Fig. 6:81) and can be safely attributed to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (pers. obs., January 2011). 436. L8150, B81030/1. Lower half of a triple-grooved handle and wall fragment, reddishbrown clay, exterior surface light brown, roof-tile fabric, the heavy ring handle decorated with three vertical grooves created by the three middle fingers pressing on the soft clay from the top of the handle downward. 437. L8113, B80555/2. Lower part of a triple-grooved handle, brown clay, roof-tile fabric, at the bottom of the central groove is a deep finger imprint. 438. L8167, B81277/3. Reddish-brown clay, light gray core, roof-tile fabric, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown. 439. L8107, B80995/2. Reddish-brown clay, roof-tile fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown, ‘pie-crust’ band below the rim. 440. L8113, B80509/3. Light gray clay, reddish-brown core, roof-tile fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown to light gray, ‘pie-crust’ band below the rim. For parallels to Nos. 439 and 440, see Magness 2005: Fig. 28:7. 441. L8121, B80842. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 442. L8141, B80849. Light brown to reddish-brown clay, gray core, roof-tile fabric. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 28:6.

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443. L8007, B80783. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, flat rim with rounded exterior, decorated with vertical row of incised nicks. This tiny fragment corresponds to a relief-decorated vase from Jerusalem with incised ornamentation and a ‘pie-crust’ band (pers. obs., the Palestine Exploration Fund, London, November 2010), which was unearthed by Clermont-Ganneau in 1884 (Magness 2003:164, Figs. 1, 2, with references). Basins with Flat Rim The widest variety in form and decorative elements, such as incised wavy lines on the wall and rim, wavy-line combing and ‘pie-crust’ bands on the wall, appears on basins with a flat or nearly flat rim. Basin No. 445 has a heavy ledge rim, and No. 452 is undecorated. The surviving fragments of walls suggest varying profiles, both semicircular and nearly straight. Like the general category of basins/deep bowls (above), a multi-functional use is assumed, including short-term storage, preparation of large amounts of food, and washing. General parallels to the shape and decoration are relatively infrequent. The earliest example at Berenice, dated to the first half of the second century, is a fragment of a shelf-rim bowl with a ‘pie-crust’ band on the exterior lip and two incised wavy lines on top (Riley 1979:335, 344, No. D829, Fig. 122). 444. L8104, B80416/3. Reddish-brown clay, roof-tile fabric, exterior surface light brown, ‘pie-crust’ band and incised wavy line. 445. L8165, B81212/1. Rim and wall, reddish-brown clay, light brown exterior surface, smooth non-gritty surface, ledge rim with groove near lip and incised wavy line on top, its edge broken. References: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 171. Basins with a grooved rim, with or without incised wavy lines, are found in unstratified contexts at Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b: Nos. 734–736). 446. L8121, B80648/4. Light brown clay, roof-tile fabric. 447. L8063, B80220. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, roof-tile fabric, exterior surface light brown, interior surface yellowish-light brown. 448. L8123, B80754/2. Reddish-brown clay, light brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown, air bubble below ‘pie-crust’ band. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 28:5. 449. L5295, B52194/2. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, incised wavy line on top of rim and on exterior wall below rim, small knob on exterior rim. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 28:4.

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450. L8049, B80374/1. Rim and wall with drilled hole, brown clay, reddish-brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown, groove on outer edge of rim and oblique rouletting like spaced feathers, ‘pie-crust’ band and wavy-line combing between band combing below rim, a drilled hole in the lower part of the wavy-line combing. Reference: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 173. 451. L8053, 81002. Rim and wall, reddish-brown clay, thin, light brown core, roof-tile fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown, two shallow grooves on interior below rim, single incised wavy line on rim and wall, slight wheel ridging on exterior and interior walls. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 28:2, 3. 452. L8167, B81263. Brown clay, reddish-brown core, roof-tile fabric, exterior and interior surface light brown, gritty interior surface, at one end of the fragment the rim widens as if to attach to a handle, undecorated. Parallels for the shape of Nos. 449–452 are found at Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:56, RG83), of undetermined origin. Dolia and Pithoi In the potters’ vicus of Schwabmünchen in the province of Raetia, the repertoire of manufactured products includes dolia: large vessels with a globular body, a wide opening and a flat base of approximately the same width, which were often buried in the ground. They were essential for storing provisions of liquids and solid food (Hilgers 1969:57–58, 171– 176; Alcock 2001:104, Ills. 45, 46). This shape was common in the first–second centuries (Sorge 2001:72, with references, Pls. 50, 51, Nos. B 344–352). Sorge differentiates between two types: Dolium Type I with a broad, grooved, inward-sloping rim (rim diameter 13–36 cm), and Dolium Type II with a flat or slightly inward-tilted rim (rim diam. 19–33 cm, most 22–30 cm). A nearly complete and restored dolium from Schwabmünchen has a volume of 80 liters (Sorge 2001:Pl. 50:B 347). According to the rim fragments, the dolia in the present assemblage (Nos. 453–456), belong to Dolium Type I, although no handles were recorded in the potters’ village. Of two fragments of dolia published from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, one has a narrow, elongated ledge handle with three knobs, and the other has a narrow, horizontal handle (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 118, 119, 174, 175). The rim fragments of two pithoi (holemouth jars) are included here (Nos. 457, 458), as in Roman terminology they are also called dolia and were used for storage. 453. L8132, B80775/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, inwardsloping rim with five grooves, three above the handle, the others covered by the handle. 454. L8153, B81066. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, inward-sloping rim with four grooves and a handle attachment, and two grooves at the line of the handle.

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455. L8140, B80887. Brown clay, exterior surface light brown, slightly sloping rim with four grooves. 456. L8145, B80958. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, incised wavy line between two grooves on rim. 457. L8144, B81137/1. Brown clay, exterior surface yellowish-brown, inner diameter of opening 22 cm. A distinctive feature is the thickened rim with a deep groove close to the inner lip and on the exterior below the rim. A seam is visible where the folded-over rim joins the body. For parallels in form and size, but with a different rim, from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 93; see also Rapuano 1999:179–180, Fig. 7:111, 112 (pers. obs., January 2011). 458. L8137, B80816/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. For similar rim profiles, see Magness 2005: Fig. 31:2; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 116. Jugs and Pots with Grooved Handles In the present assemblage, these common vessels are distinguished by one (Nos. 459, 460) or two (Nos. 462–477) strap handles, each with three or four vertical grooves, the grooves in turn creating ridges (termed ‘grooves with ridges’ by Hayes, 1972:178; compare Magness 2005:95). The flanged rim, wide on top, is also characteristic (Nos. 464, 465 with internally beveled rim). On the basis of these distinct and unusual morphological features, and the fact that they appear to be locally manufactured based on visual inspection, the possibility arises that they were all made by the same potters at the legionary kiln site. Therefore, three vessel types are presented here together: large, one-handled jugs with a wide, cupshaped neck and a ring foot (Nos. 459–461), two-handled pots with an upright neck and a lid seat (Nos. 462, 463), and pots in cooking ware (Nos. 464–477). The fabric/ware of the first two types of locally produced jugs and pots is defined as semi-fine, following Berlin’s Phoenician semi-fine ware (1997b:78–84). The jugs may have been closed with either a bowl-lid (see No. 709 for a lid of Moza clay) or a piece of cloth. They could have been used for the preparation and serving of a wine-based beverage at meals, for example the mulsum, a mixture of wine and honey fermented for several weeks in clay vessels (Junkelmann 1997:180; Alcock 2001:87). Popular among soldiers and slaves was the posca, a vinegary wine mixed with water (Junkelmann 1997:176–178; Alcock 2001:85–86). The vessels of the third type are made of reddish-brown or brown cooking ware, usually with small and medium-sized inclusions, which is a different fabric from the dominant legionary cookware (Magness 2005:69, Ware 4). In this type there are different sizes (the inner rim diameter ranging from 14 to 23 cm) with an upright, everted or concave

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collar rim, either tall (No. 464) or short (No. 468), often with a lid seat (see Magness 2005: Fig. 20:3, 4). Their shapes recall those of the globular cooking pots in Judaean tradition (Nos. 611–631; see Magness 2005: Figs. 20:2; 21:1 for complete vessels), although the latter have loop or strap handles that are never grooved. Grooved handles are a hallmark of the legionary production, and also appear on other types of vessels, including jugs in ESA tradition (Nos. 85–88, 90, 94, 99–101), kraters/deep bowls (Nos. 358, 361, 363), twohandled basins (Nos. 435–439), local amphoras (Nos. 518–520, 536), storage jars (No. 551), carinated casseroles (Nos. 656–660, 664, 666, 670) and cooking jugs (Nos. 690, 691). Most of these grooved handles curve gently, although some form a distinct right angle (Nos. 464, 467, 471; see also No. 307). The inner side of the handle forms a slightly convex curve; there are no examples of the flat strap handles found in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005: Fig. 21:2; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 122, 123). No complete examples of the cooking-ware pots were retrieved. Vessel No. 464, with most of the wall preserved, has a maximum width of 17.5 cm compared to the 12.5 cm diameter of the inner lip. Some of the pots show a slight carination at the point where the shoulder and body meet (Nos. 464, 474, 475). The fragments display variations in rim and neck forms, particularly in the shape of the lip, and the diameter of the opening ranges from 10 to 20 cm. The handles extend from the rim to the bottom of the shoulder, above the mid-point, which may mark the maximum width of the vessel (Nos. 467, 469) or slightly less (Nos. 464, 465; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 120). On the basis of rim profile and fabric, fragments of four additional pots in cooking ware are included (Nos. 474–477), although the handles have not survived. 459. L8053, B81099; L8131, B80767/3. Brown clay, semi-fine ware, exterior and interior surface light brown, lid seat, three grooves on handle. 460. L8132, B80775/3. Yellowish-light brown clay, semi-fine ware, three grooves on handle. 461. L8165, B81212/2. Probably the base of a jug like Nos. 459, 460, light gray clay, semifine ware, exterior surface reddish-brown, interior surface brown. 462. L8121, B80635/2. Dark brown clay, semi-fine ware, exterior and interior surface greenish-light brown, lid seat, three grooves on handle. 463. L8165, B81211. Reddish-brown clay, semi-fine ware, exterior and interior surface light brown, lid seat, four grooves and five ridges on handle, finger indention at bottom of central ridge. 464. L8065, B80395/2. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, four grooves and five ridges on handle, finger indention at bottom of central ridge. 465. L8150, B81030/2. Same fabric and shape as No. 464.

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466. L8132, B81260 /3. Brown clay, cooking ware, on exterior and interior gray coating, three grooves with finger indentions at bottom of handles. 467. L8144, B81227. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, cooking ware, gray spots of soot on exterior below curvature, three grooves on handle. 468. L8148, B81125. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, three grooves on handle. 469. L8187, B81400/1. Brown clay, thin brown core, cooking ware, wheel ridging on interior, soot on exterior, three grooves on handle. 470. L8125, B80715. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, three grooves on handle. 471. L8174, B81340/3. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, lid seat, three grooves on handle. 472. W812, B81309/5. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, three grooves on handle. 473. L8182, B81350/7. Brown clay, cooking ware, lid seat, three grooves on handle. 474. L8164, B81160/3. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, gray spots of soot on exterior of rim and below curvature, lid seat. 475. L8182, B81350/3. Brown clay, cooking ware, soot on exterior, lid seat. 476. W812, B81332/8. Brown clay, cooking ware, lid seat. 477. L8125, B80872/1. Reddish-brown clay, cooking ware, lid seat.

Transport and Storage In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, most of the transport and storage vessels are of local manufacture, and the number of imported commercial vessels is small. Imported amphoras are of particular chronological significance; therefore, all the diagnostic sherds were collected, and are illustrated or listed in Table 2.1 (Beirut Amphoras 1/‘AM72’) and attributed to the relevant ‘Group’ (see Chapter 3). Only Nos. 486, 503, 504, 508, 509 and 575 did not originate in the Roman dump. The reason for the small number of imported amphoras in this assemblage was apparently economic: basic commodities such as wine, olive oil, and probably fish products were acquired mainly from local or regional producers. The predominant amphora type is Beirut Amphora 1/‘AM72’ (Nos. 482–489), while amphoras with grooved handles (Nos. 478–481) or bifid handles (Nos. 490–492) appear sporadically. Other types, originating from diverse production centers, are seldom represented by more than a single example (Nos. 493–509). For a better understanding

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of the imports to Jerusalem after 70 CE, each imported amphora should be analyzed petrographically; however, in the meantime these vessels are recorded in a conventional typological manner. Most of the imported amphoras are of eastern origin; only a few of western origin were identified (Nos. 510–514). A small number of local imitations of foreign transport amphoras were defined by visual inspection as roof-tile fabric and thus attributed to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Nos. 515–518). The majority of the locally produced transport and storage vessels are heavy amphoras with grooved handles and band- and wavy-line combing and ‘pie-crust’ decoration on the neck, either in medium-coarse or roof-tile fabric (Nos. 519–550). Unfortunately, no complete examples were retrieved, so the complete shape remains unknown. It appears that locally produced, thin-walled storage jars of Second Temple-period tradition continued to be used intensively after 70 CE, judging from the large quantities of sherds retrieved in this assemblage (Nos. 551–610). As they represent indigenous Levantine shapes, I prefer to use the customary term storage jar rather than amphora, even though it is clear that they were used for both storage and transport. Commercial Amphoras of Eastern Origin Peacock and Williams Class 21 The amphoras of PW Class 21 (Peacock and Williams 1986:128–129) are dated to the Flavian dynasty and the second century and are thought to have contained fish products. The characteristic feature is the curved handle with a shallow, median groove. 478. L8164, B81155/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface dark reddish brown, micaceous. 479. L8121, B80614. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface brown, micaceous. 480. L8121, B80641/2. Reddish-brown clay; most likely the second handle of No. 479. 481. L8123, B80771. Reddish-brown clay, micaceous. The attribution is based on the fabric, although the rim profile is slightly different. Additional fragments: L8125, B80872/2; L8121, B80640.

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Beirut Amphoras 1/‘AM 72’ and Related Forms This is the most common type of imported amphoras, manufactured on the BEY 015 kiln site from the late first–early second centuries to the early third century (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:79–80). Characteristic features are the rim with a concave lid seat and the grooved handles, many of them deeply scored. 482. L8104, B80453/6. Reddish-brown surface, reduced gray fabric; concave lid-seated rim. Reference: Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:86, Nos. 86–88, Fig. 13:1–3. 483. L8157, B81080. Reddish-brown clay, deeply grooved handle. 484. L8113, B80500. Grayish-brown surface, reduced gray fabric. 485. L8125, B80941/2. Dark brown exterior surface, reduced gray fabric. Based on petrographic analysis, this is not a Beirut product, but originates in Judaea or a coastal site (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 28: Judaea/coastal?). 486. W812, B81332/15. Reddish-brown surface, reduced gray-brown fabric, wide deep groove created by running finger along center. 487. L8165, B81181. Hollow cylindrical base; reddish-brown clay. Reference: Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:86, Nos. 89–91, Fig. 13:4–6. 488. L8104, B80573/2. Brown clay, light brown surface, many tiny and small sparkling inclusions, probably mica. While the mica excludes a Beirut provenance, the handle is a typical Beirut handle with a flat, central band and a concave molding on both edges (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:75). 489. L8158, B81221/1. Brown clay, pale yellowish surface; the handle has a central groove and a small hole on the right, probably damaged before firing. Possibly of southern Lebanese fabric (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:73). Additional fragments of Beirut amphoras are enumerated in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1. Additional Fragments of Beirut Amphoras Found in Group 2 (see Chapter 3) Group (See Chapter 3)

Locus

Basket No.

Description

2b

8167

81262/3

Handle, deep groove

2b

8167

81277

Handle, shallow groove

2b

8187

81405/1

Handle and neck, two distinct finger-prints on exterior just below angle

2c

8148

81244

Handle, incised central groove

2d

Fill along W811-W812

81282

Handle, deep groove

2d

8132

81065

Handle, deep groove

2e

8123

80750

Handle, deep groove

2e

8125

80941

Handle, deep groove

2e

8125

80954

Handle, deep groove

2e

8145

80879

Handle, deep groove

2f

8104

80418

Handle, deep groove

2f

8104

80428

Handle, deep groove

2f

8104

80601

Handle, deep groove

2f

8107

80465

Handle, deep groove

2f

8107

80986

Handle, deep groove

2f

8107

80995

Handle, deep groove

2f

8113

80509

Handle, deep groove

2f

8113

80572

Handle, deep groove

2f

8121

80635

Handle, deep groove

2f

8121

80668

Handle, deep groove

2g

8053

81037

Handle, deep groove

2g

8137

80990

Handle, wide shallow groove

Two additional handle fragments were recovered from loci not included in ‘Groups’, but adjacent to the Roman dump: L8057, B80205/1, B80205/2 (unstratified); L8059, B80208; L8067, B80037). Amphoras with Bifid Handles Bifid (double-barreled) handles occur on two types of amphoras: PW Class 10/Koan Type/ Dressel 2–4/Benghazi Early Roman Amphora 4, in a variety of fabrics from different kiln sites, dated from the late first century BCE through the later first century CE; and PW Class 1/Pseudo-Koan/Benghazi Early Roman Amphora 2, in a variety of fabrics, the bifid handle with a prominent horn higher than the rim, dated to first–second centuries CE (Peacock and Williams 1986:105–108). The handles were formed from two rods, which split apart easily when broken. The rim is simple and rounded, there is a pronounced carination on the shoulder, and the solid base is slightly flared. Amphoras with bifid handles were produced in several centers and are a “pan-Roman form adopted all over the Roman Mediterranean” (Reynolds 2003:122). The Campanian varieties of PW 10 were widely distributed in the Roman Empire from Britain to the eastern Mediterranean, along the Red Sea, and into eastern India (Peacock and Williams 1986:106). Williams (2004:444) defines it as the most important Campanian transport amphora, carrying a variety of liquid and solid goods,

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but mostly wine, based on inscriptions. It was produced during the first half of the first century BCE and still appeared in small numbers at the beginning of the third century CE. The Campanian vessels were rarely exported after 79 CE due to the devastation of the wine industry in southern Campania. As the characteristic Campanian fabric contains an abundance of small, glassy, dark-colored grains of pyroxene and associated volcanic material, it can be concluded that none of the fragments from the Roman dump are Campanian. In Beirut, Campanian imports are considered rare in the first century CE (Reynolds 2003:121), while the locally produced ‘Beirut Koan Style amphora’ is common in contexts of c. 100–230 CE (Reynolds 1997–1998:44, Fig. 70; 2003:122, Fig. 8). At Paphos, amphoras with bifid handles are a very common type, together with amphoras with pinched handles, and occur in a non-micaceous fabric that appears to be Cypriot (Hayes 1991:90–91). There are occasional examples of these in Jerusalem (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 24:1), Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:12–13, Nos. A5–A8, from Italy except for A6 from Spain; Johnson 2008b: Nos. 1194, 1195), Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a: Nos. 139–149) and northern Sinai (Arthur and Oren 1998: Fig. 4:2). 490. L8155, B81092; L8159, B81110. Reddish clay, exterior and interior light brown, sporadic tiny sparkling inclusions. 491. L8154, B81128/1. Brown clay, yellowish-light brown surface, sporadic tiny sparkling inclusions. Additional fragments: L8068, B80825; L8167, B81275, B81266/2, B81266/3. 492. L8158, B81255/2. Brown clay, exterior surface light brown, traces of dark liquid sealant inside neck, on rim, and running down the outer rim on outside. The handle is not preserved; on the basis of the rim profile this fragment could also be attributed to the Amrit/Tartus amphora with a grooved handle from BEY 006, dated c. 125–150 CE (Reynolds 2003: Fig. 10:b, c; 2005: Figs. 47, 48). Additional fragment: L8055, B80200. Miscellaneous Imported Eastern Amphoras Collected here are diagnostic fragments of amphoras considered products of eastern workshops, each represented by one to three specimens. The diversity of types and fabrics is considerable, and many are unassigned as the places of production are unknown. 493. L8144, B80966. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 36: northern Levantine coast, the area of Ugarit). This type of holemouth jar has a narrow, elongated shape, a steep shoulder with twisted ring handles attached to the upper third, and exterior and interior ribbing. These morphologically distinct jars were produced in several places in the northern Levant, mostly in the region of Tyre until the middle of the third century CE, when Tyrian production ended abruptly (Reynolds 1997–1998:81, Fig. 200; 2003:128, Fig. 33; 2005:570, Figs. 89–91). Reynolds concludes that the ware of the Tyre amphoras, classified as FAM 10, corresponds to

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Berlin’s Phoenician Semi Fine Ware, so popular during the late Hellenistic period, and which reappeared in the second century CE (Berlin 1997b:42–43). At Sha‘ar Ha-‘Amaqim in northern Israel, in an unstratified assemblage of the first–second centuries, several jars were identified as the ‘missing link’ between the late Hellenistic Phoenician vessels and the Tyrian production of the late second century (Młynarczyk 2009:106, Fig. 5:9–14). To date, finds of these jars are concentrated in the north of Israel, in particular at coastal sites: Ḥorbat Bet Zeneta (Getzov 2000:80*, Fig. 7:18–23), Shiqmona (Elgavish 1977: Nos. 145–150), Qasṭra (Haddad 2009:80, Figs. 2:1–3; 6:1, dated to the second century CE), Jalame (Johnson 1988: No. 747), Dora (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:323–324, Fig. 6.50:5, 6) and Caesarea Maritima (Bar-Nathan and Adato 1986:166, Fig. 3:8; Johnson 2008b:83, No. 982). The Tyrian amphoras were traded along the Mediterranean coast as far south as northern Sinai (Arthur and Oren 1998:199–200, Fig. 5:1), evidence of long-distance trade connections. This is the first specimen found in Jerusalem, and a single fragment also occurred at Masada in a context dated to 66–73/74 CE (Bar-Nathan 2006:73–74). 494. L8137, B81008. Hollow toe, grayish-buff clay, buff creamy slip, tiny sparkling inclusions, probably mica. This fragment is attributed to the one-handled jars, Type VI at Paphos, which were probably manufactured in western Asia Minor and date to the first–fourth centuries (Hayes 1991:92– 93, Fig. XXXIX:26, 27). This type of jar corresponds to Riley’s Mid Roman Amphora 3 and is not common in Israel (Johnson 2008a:150). 495. L8138, B80819/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown; the high, down-turned rim is sharply set off from the neck, there is a deep groove on the lower interior side, two inner ridges in the middle and at the bottom of the rim, an outer ridge at the bottom of the rim, and slight horizontal and diagonal ridging on the interior; particles of clay are attached to the rim and the exterior wall, particularly around the beginning of the handle. Additional fragment: L8137, B80823/3. Reference: Benghazi Early Roman Amphora 7 (Riley 1979:160–161, late first–early second centuries; Johnson 2008a: No. 420; 2008b: Nos. 1206–1208). 496. L8128, B80694/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown to reddish brown, rim slightly undercut. This is perhaps an imitation of the Koan type (PW Class 10). Additional fragments: L8162, B81164; L8165, B81208, rim and neck fragment. 497. L8158, B81223. Light brown clay, gritty surface. 498. L8125, B80703. Brown clay, gritty surface. The distinctive feature of Nos. 497 and 498 is the concave lid-seated rim, triangular in section and deeply undercut on exterior. While the concave lid-seated rim is characteristic

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of the Beirut Amphora 1/‘AM 72’ (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:81; see above No. 482), the fabric and undercut rim suggest that these vessels were produced at another location. Additional fragments for Nos. 497, 498: L8167, B81262/4, handle; L8113, B80477, B80488, three non-joining fragments. 499. L8121, B80642/1. Reddish-brown clay, concave lid-seated rim, shallow groove on exterior below rim. 500. L8132, B81099/2. Reddish-brown clay, reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, many tiny and small sparkling inclusions, probably mica, flat rim. 501. L8053, B80345. Light brown surface, gritty surface, reduced gray fabric at handle, upper attachment of oval handle below rim carination. 502. L8053, B80194/3. Brown surface, reduced gray fabric, gritty surface, rounded rim with central exterior carination, shallow groove below rim. The distinctive features of Nos. 501 and 502 are the externally rounded rim with a carination at mid-point, and a shallow groove separating rim and neck. Additional fragments for Nos. 501, 502: L8137, B80823/1, B81003, flat rim. 503. L8135, B80785. Brown clay, folded rim, clay particles on inside of neck. 504. L8061, B80241/2. Reddish-brown surface, reduced gray fabric, folded rim ending in a wavy line with three fingerprints above it, two shallow grooves on exterior neck. 505. L8053, B81034/4. Reddish-brown clay, brown surface. 506. L8121, B80721. Brown to light gray clay, yellowish-light brown surface, occasional sparkling inclusions. 507. L8075, B80339. Brown clay, gritty surface, many sparkling inclusions, probably gold mica. 508. L8060, B80431. Brown clay, rough surface, few sparkling inclusions, lower section of handle damaged before firing. Amphora Nos. 507 and 508 can be attributed to PW Class 9, ‘Rhodian type’, which was probably in use until the early second century CE (Johnson 2008b: No. 1192). 509. L8061, B80241/1. Reddish-brown clay, flat rim, four ridges on neck. The vessel could be of a later date, since it was not found in a Roman-period locus.

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Commercial Amphoras of Western Origin 510. L8144, B81146/1. Yellowish-light brown clay, occasional sparkling inclusions. This fragment can be attributed to Lamboglia 2/PW Class 8, Form A, with a thickened rim and a slight overhang, triangular in section. Such amphoras were manufactured in more than half a dozen centers on the west coast of the Adriatic, where substantial kilnsite evidence was found (Bezeczky 2013:116–118, with references for sites and fabrics). Analysis of the contents of amphoras from the Madrague de Giens shipwreck, sunk off the southern coast of France, documented the shipment of wine (Bezeczky 2013:117). In the late Second Temple period, Lamboglia 2 vessels were imported to Judaea, in particular to Jerusalem (Finkielsztejn 2006:172–173; 2014:215–216). Additional fragment: L8167, B81269, solid, twisted toe (Finkielsztejn 2006: Pl. 6.1:A18, A19). 511. L8104, B80574. Yellowish-light brown clay. 512. L8053, B80194/2. Light brown clay, occasional sparkling inclusions. PW Class 15, fairly widespread in the western Mediterranean, suggested date 50 BCE to 50 CE (Peacock and Williams 1986:115–116). The vessel could be residual. 513. L8053, B81034/5. Yellowish-light brown clay, occasional sparkling inclusions. PW Class 25/Dressel 20, of Spanish origin, the principal content was olive oil (Peacock and Williams 1986:136–140; Johnson 2008a:147–148, Nos. 425, 426; 2008b: Nos. 1224–1230; Magness 2012:286, Pl. 9.5:11, mid-first to mid-second centuries). Additional fragment: L8132, B81260/5, neck and upper handle. 514. L8167, B81266/3. Solid toe peg, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. PW Class 19, of Spanish origin, the principal contents were fish-based products such as garum and salted fish fillets, dated from the Tiberian–Claudian era to the mid-second century CE (Peacock and Williams 1986:124–125). Local Amphoras Local Imitations of Greco-Roman Amphoras Four amphoras differing in form from each other are imitations of Greco-Roman prototypes. They are made of hard roof-tile fabric with many small and medium white and gray grits and occasional larger inclusions and should be attributed to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 91, 92). 515. L8060, B80420/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown. Imitation of PW Class 9 ‘Rhodian Type’ (Peacock and Williams 1986:102–104). 516. L8121, B80641/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish light brown.

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517. L5332, B52404/3. Fabric as No. 516. For profile similar to that of Nos. 516 and 517, see Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:337, Pl. 70:48). 518. L8053, B80194/1; L8107, 80435/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown. Heavy Amphoras in Medium-Coarse or Roof-Tile Fabric Heavy amphoras in medium-coarse, hard fabric with small and medium white and gray grits, or coarse, hard, roof-tile fabric with small grits and a considerable number of large white inclusions, probably quartz, are common in this assemblage; however, no complete vessel could be reconstructed. The rim is either flat or beveled, and some have two to four grooves on the top (Nos. 529–534). On most vessels there is a groove on the exterior below the rim. Amphora No. 535 has an unusual profile with a flaring rim with three grooves on the interior and a flange on the lower rim exterior. The rims of Nos. 536 and 537 are externally rounded. The high necks are straight or slightly curved. The handles begin on the neck below the rim and are adorned with well-pronounced grooves and ridges (Nos. 519–521, 536; see above, Jugs and Pots with Grooved Handles, Nos. 459–477), sometimes with finger or thumb indentions at the top and bottom. The grooved handles, the band- and wavy-line combing, and the ‘pie-crust’ band on neck and shoulder are typical features of Jerusalem legionary manufacture, an observation that is reinforced by the petrographic definition of No. 529 as Moza marl. As no complete vessels were recorded, it is impossible to assess the extent of band- and wavy-line combing on the wall (Nos. 543, 544). It is noteworthy that such vessels are absent in the Jerusalem legionary kiln site. The single parallel to this type of amphora is a neck fragment from Mamre (Mader 1957:149, Pl. 83). It is decorated with an applied frontal head with curly hair that is identified as a female mask by the excavator, although Dionysos is more likely. At Knossos, the same decorative elements occur on the exterior wall of a large jar or stand with a frilled band under the rim and two incised wavy lines between three incised double horizontal lines (Hayes 1983:132, Fig. 16:196). 519. L8167, B81264. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, four grooves and four finger indentations at top of handle. 520. L8145, B80948/1. Angular curve of handle, grayish-brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior, four grooves and four finger indentions at top (and probably bottom) of handle. 521. L8123, B80766/1. Angular curve of handle, brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior, four grooves and three deep finger indentions at top and bottom. References for Nos. 519–521: Magness 2005: Fig. 33:8, jar, base of triple-grooved handle with finger impressions; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 90, triple grooved handle with five finger indentations at bottom.

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522. L8137, B80996. Reddish-brown core, exterior and interior surface yellowish light brown. 523. L8137, B81007/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, signs of combing below and at the side of the handle. 524. L8174, B81302/9. Light brown clay, band-combing. 525. L8132, B81260/2; L8164, B81155/4. Light brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish light brown. 526. L8167, B81276/2. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, band- and wavy-line combing, signs of thumb-indented decoration on exterior of rim, very worn. 527. L8121, B80701/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, band-combing at height of onset of handle, below wavy-line combing. 528. L8121, B80701/4. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown, interior surface light brown. 529. L8144, B81146/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, coarse yet finer than roof-tile fabric, flat rim with two grooves, band- and wavy-line combing (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 38: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 530. L8046, B80408/2. Reddish-brown clay, light gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown, beveled rim with three grooves, band-combing. 531. L8106, B80483/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, flat rim with four grooves, ‘pie-crust’ band and band-combing below rim. 532. L8167, B81272; L8165, B81185, two joining fragments; L8167, B81266/1, one nonjoining fragment. Pinkish to red-light brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, flat rim with three grooves. 533. L8123, B80765/1, four joining fragments; L8148, B80936, two additional non-joining fragments. Light brown clay, darker brown core, coarse ware yet finer than roof-tile fabric, beveled rim with two grooves. 534. L8148, 80936. Fabric as No. 533, possibly same vessel. 535. L8150, B81204, three joining and one non-joining fragment. Reddish-brown clay, light brown coat on exterior and interior. The profile recalls that of the fine-ware table amphora No. 102, petrographically identified as Moza marl.

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536. L8153, B80481. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Only a small section of the rim is preserved and it is damaged. The neck is decorated with wavyline combing between band-combings. Above and below the decorated zone, slight wheel ridging is visible. The triple-grooved handle was joined carelessly to the neck. 537. L8132, B80775/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, thick, rounded rim. The neck is decorated with four bands of alternating wavy-line and band-combing between the rim and the shoulder, which were applied before the handle was attached. Finger and thumb impressions are visible around the handle. The triple-grooved handle was created by pressing the three middle fingers into the soft clay and drawing them down from the top of the handle. 538. L8107, B80986/6. Brown clay, neck incised with a band of two rows of diagonal indentations between three grooves, ‘pie-crust’ band on shoulder. Decorated Fragments Included here are shoulder, neck and wall fragments. 539. L8172, B81292/2. Shoulder, yellowish-light brown clay, incised wavy-line and ‘piecrust’ band on shoulder. 540. L8121, B80670. Shoulder, brown to light brown clay, applied band with impressed circles (see above Nos. 410, 412). 541. L8104, B80453/2. Neck, light brown clay. 542. L8123, B80766/2. Neck, light brown clay, gray core, exterior surface yellowish light brown. 543. L8069, B80229. Wall, brown clay, exterior surface light brown, interior surface reddish brown. 544. L8104, B80453/1. Wall, outer layer reddish brown, inner layer gray, exterior surface yellowish light brown, interior surface brown. 545. L5283, B52010/4. Wall, reddish-brown clay, gray core. 546. W800, B80090. Wall fragment of a bag-shaped, thin-walled jar, metallic fabric, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 547. L8107, B80569/3. Shoulder, light brown clay, incised wreath. Reference: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 134, attributed to a pre-70 CE phase. 548. L8107, B80986/5. Shoulder, brown clay, incised wreath.

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549. L8165, B81186. Shoulder or wall fragment of thin-walled jar or jug, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, incised wreath and wavy-combing. 550. L8132, B81065. Wall, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, a hole pierced in wall before firing, roof-tile fabric. Storage Jars The Western Wall Plaza assemblage yielded a wealth of rim and neck fragments of jars in the late Second Temple-period tradition. They are generally of a hard, sometimes metallic fabric, and a fair number of small grits are always present. Storage jars of this tradition are well documented in Jerusalem and Judaea, including complete jars from Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 132, straight-necked with a slightly everted rim and a ridge at the base of the neck) and from the refuge caves of the Bar Kokhba period (Kloner and Tepper 1987: Pls. 162:10; 166:12, 13; Zissu et al. 2009:418–419, Pls. 1, 2). Parallels can also be found in the assemblage of rim and neck fragments from the Eastern Cardo (Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 3:16–32). However, I hesitate to date rim and neck fragments by typological criteria to provide a secure chronological base; after all, wheel-made vessels were manufactured by individual potters. The various types of storage jars in this repertoire include those with a high neck (Nos. 551–589) and a low neck (Nos. 590–598), fragments of diverse jars (Nos. 599–604) and several bag-shaped jars (Nos. 605–608). High-Necked Jars 551. L8144, B81233/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, triangular rim, grooved strap handle. 552. L8144, B80966. Gray clay, reddish-brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown, triangular rim, handle begins below rim. 553. L8121, B80619/2. Reddish-brown clay, light brown core, exterior and interior surface light brown, tiny grits barely visible to the eye, smooth exterior, triangular rim with groove, ridge separating neck and shoulder. The triangular rim on Nos. 551–553 is also found on some cooking pots (Nos. 611–619, 621, 624). 554. L8060, B80420/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, rounded rim with groove on top. 555. L5295, B52194/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 556. L8091, B80298. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown.

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557. L8158, B81242/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 558. L8121, B80640/2. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 559. L5339, B52432/10. Reddish-brown clay. 560. L8107, B80627. Brown clay, in middle of neck is an upper row of band-combing and a lower row of wavy-line combing. 561. L8107, B80645. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown, in middle of neck is an upper row of wavy-line combing and a lower row of band-combing. 562. L8140, B80378. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 563. L8165, B81184. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown. 564. L8125, B80921/2. Fabric as No. 563, brown clay, gray exterior surface. 565. W812, B81332/14. Fabric as No. 563, reddish-brown clay, gray exterior surface. 566. L8144, B81137/3; L8158, B81221/2. Fabric as No. 563, gray exterior surface. 567. L8182, B81350/2. Brown clay. 568. W812, B81309/7. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 569. L5339, B52433/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 570. L8182, B81350/4. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface reddish brown. 571. L5339, B52432/9. Yellowish-light brown clay. 572. L8185, B81359/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown. 573. L5293, B52155. Light brown clay, gray core. 574. L5339, B52432/15. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 575. L525, B5023/3. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. The fabric is like that of jug No. 114. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:4.

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576. L8137, B81017/2. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface gray to brown, gritty surface, metallic fabric. 577. L5332, B52412/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface brown. 578. L8053, B81000/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 579. L8104, B80441/2. Brown clay. 580. L5295, B52217/3. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:3. 581. L5293, B52188/5. Yellowish-light brown clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:9. 582. L5332, B52441/2. Brown clay. 583. L5339, B52432/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 584. L5295, B52217/1. Reddish-brown clay, clay particles stuck on rim. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:1. 585. L5295, B52217/4. Outer layer reddish-brown clay, inner layer gray clay, exterior surface light brown, interior surface reddish brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:2. 586. L5339, B52432/8. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 587. L4185, B41756/5. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown. 588. L8148, B81132/1. Reddish-brown clay. 589. L5299, B52243/9. Reddish-brown clay. Low-Necked Jars with Flat Ledge Rim Storage jars with a flat ledge rim and a low, straight or slightly everted neck, often with a ridge separating the neck and shoulder (Nos. 591, 592), were popular in the first and second centuries. In Jerusalem’s Upper City, the form is attested from the beginning of the first century CE, becoming the prevalent jar over the course of time (Geva 2010:122, Pl. 4.2:5–9, No. 9 for the ledge rim). At Masada, these jars are well represented in Zealot contexts (66–73/74 CE); based on the evidence from other Judaean sites the general date range is set from the last third of the first century BCE to the first third of the second century CE

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(Bar-Nathan 2006:62–65, Pls. 12, 13, esp. Pl. 13:67). A complete jar was recovered in the Roman Estate at Jericho, dated to the late first–early second centuries CE (Bar-Nathan and Eisenstadt 2013:14, Pl. 1.19:703). At the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, this is the dominant form of jar in the refuge caves in the Judaean Desert (see, e.g., Zissu et al. 2009:497, Pl. 2:9, 13–15, 17). Jar No. 590 is assigned to this group on the basis of the band- and wavy-line combing (see above No. 529 made of Moza marl), and No. 595, of which only the shoulder and the upper part of the wall are preserved, on the basis of visual inspection. 590. L8053, B80190/1. Reddish-brown to brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, band- and wavy-line combing. 591. L8128, B80694/2. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 592. L5299, B52248/4, two joining fragments; L5339, B52431/1, additional joining fragment. Gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:5, 14. 593. L5347, B52445/1. Fabric and shape as No. 592, gray clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 594. L8067, B80337. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 595. L5295, B52198/3. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, cream ware as No. 601, the rim is not preserved. 596. L8144, B81091/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 597. L8165, B81208. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 598. L8167, B81270. Reddish-brown to gray-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Fragments of Diverse Jars Several fragments are not easy to classify. Fragment Nos. 599–601 are related to the jars with a flat ledge rim, while Nos. 602 and 603 have a slightly higher neck and a ridge perhaps in the middle of the neck (although the entire height of the neck is not preserved). The profile of No. 604 is unusual, with an inwardly beveled rim and a ridge at the base of the neck. 599. L8123, B80758/4. Reddish-brown clay. 600. L5339, B52434/3. Light brown clay.

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601. L5299, B52241/36. Light brown clay, legionary cream ware (compare the handle of table jug No. 88, juglet No. 292, and storage jar No. 595). 602. L5295, B52191/1. Light brown clay. 603. L5295, B52191/2. Reddish-brown clay. 604. L8166, B81231. Gray to brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Bag-Shaped Jars 605. L5299, B52247. Light brown clay. This is a Gaza jar, probably produced along the southern coast. These jars were common from the first century to the early third century CE. This fragment, with a width of 2.8 m at mid-body, is close in size to a jar from a kiln site at Ashqelon that has a width of 3 m and a capacity of c. 32 liters (Israel and Erickson-Gini 2013:175–176, Fig. 6:1). 606. L8155, B81083/1. Brown clay (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 48: coastal/ Judaea?). 607. L8138, B80819/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, roof-tile fabric. 608. L8121, B80648/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, rooftile fabric, profile of a Proto-Gazan jar. Reference: Barako 2008:458–460, Amphora 28, ‘Proto Gazan’, late Hellenistic–Early Roman. Jar Nos. 605 and 606 reached Jerusalem from coastal kiln sites, while Nos. 607 and 608 are probably products of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. Bases The fabric of these two bases appears to be local. 609. L8144, B81089. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Phoenician jars (Beirut 2 amphora—Reynolds 1997–1998:61, Fig. 226, late second–early third-century CE contexts; 2003:121, Fig. 3, early to mid-first century CE; Tyre amphora— Reynolds 2005:570, Fig. 90, produced until c. 230 CE). 610. L8165, B81205/1. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, roof-tile fabric with large inclusions, base not straight.

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Cooking A large number of cooking-vessel fragments were retrieved from the Western Wall Plaza excavations. As with the storage jars, it is not an easy matter to differentiate between the pre- and post-70 CE types; however, it is clear that under Roman rule the bulk of the cooking vessels still followed native forms, suggesting similar, if not identical, dietary habits and methods of cooking. In Judaea and elsewhere in the Near East, the globular cooking pot with a collar rim and rounded base has a long tradition, while wide-mouthed, round-bottomed casseroles are common since the Hellenistic period; and indeed, these are the two basic forms in the present assemblage alongside a much smaller number of cooking jugs and lids. The classification into cooking pots and casseroles is based on the estimated ratio between the width of the opening and the maximum width of the body, and on the estimated depth. Predominant among the cooking pots is the triangular lip. These pots with vertical (Nos. 611–627) or everted (Nos. 628–631) necks usually have a globular body (see Magness 2005: Figs. 20:2; 21:1; 22:3). A vertical or slightly everted neck is also common on the pots with a shoulder carination (Nos. 632–642), the body shape varying from nearly upright walls below the carination (Nos. 632, 633) to outward-sloping walls (Nos. 638, 641). The shoulder is often marked by one to three grooves. The opening of the carinated pots is large in relation to the maximum width, and the body form is hemispherical (see the complete pot in Berlin 2005: Fig. 7:1). This type corresponds to the casseroles with a triangular rim at the Jerusalem Jewish kiln site, which are dated from the early first century CE to 70 CE (Berlin 2005:39–42, Ceramic Phases 3, 4). They are considered to be imitations of an Italian ceramic and bronze prototype, the caccabus (Berlin 2005: Fig. 8, two examples from Pompeii; for the latter see also Annecchino 1977:108, Fig. 1:2, Pl. L:2; Olcese 2003: Pls. 2–2, 40). In our classification, these carinated pots are separated from the carinated casseroles with a shallower body and everted rims with a different shape (Nos. 656–667, the rims of Nos. 668, 670 are different), as it seems appropriate to differentiate between vessels with vertical and angled rims, the angled-rim casserole occurring in the mid-first century CE to 70 CE (Berlin 2005: Fig. 19, Ceramic Phase 4). Less common in the assemblage are wide-mouthed cooking pots (Nos. 643–647), thin-walled cooking pots (Nos. 648–652) and casseroles (Nos. 653–655), and large cups (Nos. 685, 686). A characteristic feature of some wide-mouthed pots (Nos. 643–645) and of most casseroles (Nos. 653, 656–667), is the lid device or lid seat, an everted rim profile designed to facilitate the tight placement of the lid. The fabric of all the cooking vessels is consistent: the dominant color is reddish brown with some brown and gray versions; small white and gray grits and occasional larger white inclusions are common and therefore not mentioned in the description. This fabric suggests the use of terra rossa soils. It is finer than the legionary Ware 4 cookware fabric that is coarse and gritty to the touch (Magness 2005:70), which interestingly comprises a relatively small repertoire at that site (Magness 2005:91); thus, they were probably produced in some other workshop. The use of terra rossa soils and Moza marl and clay was certainly not restricted to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, nor to the post-70 CE period, but was used in other workshops in the vicinity of Jerusalem (see discussion in Berlin 2005:45–47).

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For Jerusalem, the pre-70 CE cooking-vessel types are well documented in the output of the pottery workshop at the Jewish kiln site (Berlin 2005). From the substantial quantity of the late Second Temple-period cooking vessels in the present assemblage (Nos. 611–642), it is tempting to draw the conclusion that they were either manufactured by Jewish potters for the Roman army for some time after 70 CE or were requisitioned from storerooms at the kiln site. It is interesting to compare the local Jerusalemite cookware repertoire with that of the veteran settlement at Beirut in the late first century BCE–second century CE (Reynolds and Waksman 2007:62, 66; Pellegrino 2010). At that site, the cookware comprises three main locally manufactured types: the predominant globular pots, and the less frequent casseroles and flat-bottomed dishes/pans (Pellegrino 2010:154, Figs. 5–8). The casseroles continue a Hellenistic tradition, while the dishes/pans imitate prototypes manufactured in Campania and Latium. In the same period, a number of Phocaean baking dishes also reached Beirut (see our No. 336), while the amount of ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware dishes is minimal and lids and orlo bifido pans are entirely absent (Reynolds and Waksman 2007: Figs. 7, 8; Pellegrino 2010: Figs. 15:1–5; 16). With regard to the imitation of Italian dishes, Pellegrino questions how local potters could produce imitations of Italian baking dishes for the veterans without an original being present. He dismisses the possibilities that Italian potters resided in Beirut, or that the vessels were fabricated on demand by the veterans, and concludes that Italian ceramics and culinary habits arrived in the East during the late Hellenistic period as a result of Roman political involvement in the first century BCE, and the activity of Roman negotiatores who had entered the eastern Mediterranean markets in the second century BCE. The custom was adopted by parts of the local population, although this ‘internationalization’ did not replace the traditional, well-established cookware repertoire (Reynolds and Waksman 2007:66; Pellegrino 2010:155). Similar observations can be made for the Galilee (Berlin 1993) and Jerusalem and Jericho (Bar-Nathan 2002:138– 140; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2006:154–156). However, the globular cooking pot with a collar rim was a local shape produced over the centuries in a ‘continuous series’ in the Levant (Reynolds and Waksman 2007:66; Reynolds 2008:73). During the Roman period in Jerusalem and Beirut, these vessels continued to be the work of indigenous potters at both sites, resulting in morphological differences in the rim profiles (compare Nos. 611–642 to Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:89–90, Fig. 18). The cooking pots and casseroles include small and larger modules, yet all seem to be suited for individual cooking rather than communal cooking in the contubernium, when a meal for eight to ten men was prepared and metal cauldrons must have been used for this purpose (Grünewald 1979:86). Cooking Pots Cooking Pots with Vertical Neck The common features of this type of cooking pot are a triangular, flat or rounded rim and a vertical neck of varying height with exterior ridging. The triangular rim is also found on

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storage jars (Nos. 551–553) and cooking jugs (No. 688). At the Jerusalem Jewish kiln site, the very common triangular-rim pots were manufactured from the late first century BCE to 70 CE and were copies of a late Hellenistic Phoenician prototype (Berlin 2005:36–38, 54, Ceramic Phases 2–4). Catalogue Nos. 611–614 are pots with a flanged triangular rim and appear exclusively from the mid-first century CE to 70 CE (Berlin 2005:42–45, Ceramic Phase 4). In the 1968 excavations at that site, they occur in both the pre-70 CE phase and the legionary phase, the later ones with the typical triple-grooved handle (RosenthalHeginbottom 2005: Nos. 14–16, 120). The rounded rim (Nos. 624, 625) is recorded in the pre-70 CE phase of the Jerusalem kiln site (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 10–21). 611. L8137, B80792/3. Brown to gray clay. 612. L8137, B80809/3. Reddish brown clay, thin gray core. 613. L8137, B80799/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface blackened by soot with soot spots on interior. 614. L8174, B81302/2. Reddish-brown clay. 615. L8137, B80816/3. Brown clay, gray core. 616. L8174, B81304/4. Brown to gray clay. 617. L5295, B52190/2. Reddish-brown clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:11. 618. L4274, B42215/1. Small pot, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface brown. 619. L5293, B52188. Reddish-brown clay, gray slip. 620. L8137, B80799/2. Reddish-brown clay, soot on exterior. 621. L8121, B80833/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 622. L5332, B52404/1. Reddish-brown clay. 623. L4185, B41756/6. Reddish-brown clay. 624. L5295, B52217/2. Reddish-brown clay. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:10. 625. L5339, B52432/5. Reddish-brown clay.

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Unusual Examples 626. L8104, B80447. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, vertical neck with widened rim, groove on lip interior and exterior double-grooved lip. 627. L8104, B80416/4. Dark gray and dark brown clay, in the section one can see that the upper part of the neck was folded, causing a bulge. Cooking Pots with Everted Neck 628. L8144, B81093; and L8159, B81095. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 629. L8182, B81350/6. Brown clay. 630. L5333, B52416/3. Reddish-brown clay. 631. L8160, B81116. Reddish-brown clay, narrow wheel ridging on shoulder. Cooking Pots with Shoulder Carination 632. L8144, B81256. Reddish-brown clay on exterior and inside of neck, gray clay on interior. 633. L8137, B80801. Dark brown clay. Reference: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 24. 634. L8123, B80917. Brown clay, gray core, soot on exterior. 635. L8187, B81404/2. Brown clay, gray core, wheel ridging below carination. 636. L5299, B52241/32. Gray clay on exterior, light brown clay on interior, brown core. 637. W812, B81332/17. Reddish-brown clay. 638. L8174, B81302/3. Reddish-brown clay, unusual: on exterior and interior surface quite a few medium white grits. 639. L8174, B81299/2. Reddish-brown clay, wheel ridging below carination. 640. L8104, B80601/1. Brown clay. 641. L8172, B81293. Reddish-brown clay. 642. W812, B81332/11. Reddish-brown clay.

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Wide-Mouthed Cooking Pots The characteristic features of this type are the low everted neck (except for Nos. 646, 647) with a sharp concave curvature on the interior forming a band rim with a sort of hook as a lid seat, and a wide deep body tapering toward the base that was most likely rounded. Morphologically, these pots are different from carinated casseroles that also have a hooked rim (Nos. 666, 667). They correspond to the widely distributed Benghazi Mid-Roman Cooking Pot Type 1c with a date range from the late first to the late third centuries CE (Riley 1979:261–262, Fig. 103: D501–508; probably also Johnson 2008b:79, Nos. 927–929), and the cooking pots dating from the mid-second to the mid-third centuries at Beirut (Reynolds 1997–1998: Figs. 154, 157; Pellegrino 2010: Fig. 6:5, 6). Local examples of the same type were found at Caesarea Maritima (Riley 1975: Nos. 113, 115; Oleson et al. 1994:88, K30, from Deposit 1, dated mid-first to third centuries CE; Johnson 2008b:75, Nos. 887, 888). A fragment from the Jerusalem kiln site originates in a pre-70 CE context (RosenthalHeginbottom 2005: No. 23), and another from the Armenian Garden excavations is from a post-70 CE context (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:9). This type is also present in the refuge caves from the Bar Kokhba period (Zissu et al. 2009:497, Pl. 3:3). The general shape corresponds to the cooking pots at the legionary kiln site with a concave rim that forms a lid device (Magness 2005: Figs. 21:3, 4; 22:1, 2). In northern Israel there are parallels at Tel Mevorakh and Ramat Ha-Nadiv (Rosenthal 1978:16, Fig. 2:13; Calderon 2000:95, Pl. 3:48–50), and in southern Israel at Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:181, Pl. 31:69, the Zealot occupation; Pl. 31:74, 76, Garrison 2), ‘Aro‘er and Tel ‘Ira (Hershkovitz 1992: Pl. 4:12, second third of the first century to the Great Revolt; 1999: Fig. 6.111:2, post-70 CE). 643. L8144, B81227/2. Brown to reddish-brown clay. 644. L8137, B80816/4. Dark brown clay. 645. L5299, B52244/8. Reddish-brown clay. For ‘En Gedi, see Vincenz 2007:237, Pl. 3:15. 646. L8150, B81024. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface gray, quite a few medium white grits visible on exterior. On this fragment, the neck is higher than that of the previous examples and the rim is undercut on the inside, the shoulder ends in a carination and is grooved like most of the globular pots with a carination (Nos. 632, 641; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 121). 647. L8137, 80826/2. Dark brown clay, beginning of handle on rim; this fragment represents a variant with an everted rim and a rounded lip. Thin-Walled Pots in Cookware Fabric On the basis of their metallic fabric, these rare, small, thin-walled pots are included here, even though their use is unclear, and it is unlikely that they were used for cooking. They

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have rounded (Nos. 648, 650), flanged (Nos. 649, 652) or triangular (No. 651) rims and a relatively high vertical neck. Small white and gray grits are visible on the surface. On none of the fragments is a second handle assured, and it is reconstructed here based on the globular cooking pots. Several such vessels dated to the first century CE were retrieved from the harbor of Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:42, D6, with parallels). A number of jugs or mugs with a single strap handle are similar in shape and size, and some are also of thin-walled fine ware (Nos. 304–309; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 22, with a cup-like neck from a pre-70 CE phase, No. 123 from a legionary context; Bar-Nathan 2006:144–146; Geva and Hershkovitz 2006: Pl. 4.12:14). 648. L8144, B81144/1. Reddish-brown clay on exterior, gray clay on interior. 649. L8137, B80863/1. Brown clay. 650. L8144, B81091/3. Gray clay, brown to reddish-brown surface. 651. L8174, B81299/3. Dark gray clay, exterior surface brown, interior surface gray. 652. L8104, B80480/1. Gray to reddish-brown clay, brown surface. Casseroles Thin-Walled Carinated Casseroles Like the thin-walled pots described above, thin-walled casseroles are also rare, and their fabric is the same. The rims are triangular and their profiles resemble those of larger casseroles such as Nos. 662 and 663. At Paphos, Hayes noted some cooking pots, casseroles and cooking jugs “in an extremely thin version of the standard fabric” (Hayes 1991:82). 653. L8122, B80740/2. Brown clay. 654. L8053, B81000/4. Brown clay. 655. L8104, B80428. Brown clay. Carinated Casseroles This very common casserole type has a short, everted, often concave rim, a carinated or sometimes rounded body, and vertical handles from the lip of the rim to the bottom of the shoulder. There are variations in the rim profiles. Casserole No. 668 has a grooved ledge rim and No. 670, a rounded rim. The latter vessel is unique in shape and no parallels are known to me. The angle of the rim facilitated the placing of a lid, and a clearly marked lid seat is seen on Nos. 656–659. The shape of the handles also varies, although the majority has triple-grooved strap handles (Nos. 656–660, 664, 666); however, most parallels have handles with an ovoid or rounded section. As grooved handles are a hallmark of the legionary

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pottery, it is suggested that the difference in the handle shape is of chronological significance, indicating a post-70 CE date. This casserole type is a common first–second-century CE form. Parallels are found in Jerusalem at the legionary kilnworks (Berlin 2005:50, Fig. 19:1–4, non-workshop pottery of Moza clay, Ceramic Phase 4, mid-first century–70 CE, copying a Roman prototype; Magness 2005:92, Fig. 22:6, 7, a Roman type copying bronze vessels from Vindonissa in contexts dated 70–101 CE; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 27–29 from a pre-70 CE context and No. 124 from a post-70 CE context), in the Armenian Garden excavations (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:5–8, post-70 CE contexts), and in the area of the Eastern Cardo (Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 3:36, a date between 31 BCE and 112 CE is suggested); in Judaea, dated to the Bar Kokhba period (Kloner and Tepper 1987: Pl. 160:18; Zissu et al. 2009:495, Pl. 3:1); and in northern Israel (Rosenthal 1978: Fig. 2:6–12; Oleson et al. 1994:36, K4, mid-first to third centuries; Calderon 2000:95, Pl. 3:46, 47). While it has been suggested that these carinated casseroles are imitations of Roman bronze prototypes (see above), Aegean casseroles of similar shape should also be considered as possible prototypes, although their wide popularity in the Aegean, Greece and along the Dalmatian coast was not matched in the further East (Hayes 1991:80). 656. L8140, B80900/2. Reddish-brown clay, soot on exterior. 657. L8018, B80104/2. Reddish-brown clay, soot on handle. 658. L8165, B81187. Brown clay, soot on handle, variant rim profile. 659. L8107, B80519. Brown clay, soot on exterior and gray spots on interior. 660. L8075, B80246. Brown clay, soot on exterior and on lower part of handle. 661. L8187, B81400/3. Brown clay, soot on exterior below rim. 662. L8189, B81407/3. Reddish-brown clay. Reference: Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:5. 663. W812, B81332/10. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 664. L8137, B80990. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. References: Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:7, the rounded wall recalls Early Roman casseroles from Sha‘ar Ha-‘Amaqim (Młynarczyk 2009:106, Fig. 6:18–20, northern products; No. 20 is Kefar Ḥananya Form 3A, manufactured until the mid-second century CE). 665. L8104, B80630. Brown clay. 666. L8144, B81079/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface dark brown, soot below carination and on handle.

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667. L8113, B80488. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface darker with spots of soot. References: Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:8; Vincenz 2007:131, Pl. 3:13, 14, casseroles “very common in the Jerusalem area”, first–second centuries CE. 668. L8125, B80922/2. Brown clay. Reference: Magness 2005: Fig. 22:7. 669. L8144, B81233/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface brown. 670. L8104, B80563. Brown clay, soot below carination and on lower part of handle. Like all the cookware vessels in this assemblage, this casserole is non-micaceous, indicating that it also was a local or close-regional product. Casseroles with Horizontal Handles Hemispherical and carinated casseroles with horizontal loop handles can be divided into two groups: the first has a pinched, thumb-impressed handle pressed onto the rim or slightly below it (Nos. 671–677), with either a sliced rim (Nos. 671, 672, 675, 677) or a sharply incurved rim (Nos. 673, 674, 676); the second group (Nos. 678–684) usually has a sliced rim, which is also common on the cookware lids (Nos. 695–697) and the baking-dish lid (No. 700), and sometimes has a twisted loop handle attached to the rim or the wall below it. The cookware casseroles of this type from the Jerusalem kiln site (Berlin 2005:40) indicate that they were not manufactured in Jewish workshops at that site, although in the 1968 excavations such casseroles are recorded in stratified accumulations related to the pre-70 CE phase (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 30, 31, 140) and also appear in the legionary repertoire (Magness 2005: Fig. 19:5–8). Magness differentiates between the local (‘native Palestinian’) casseroles with loop handles (Magness 2005:91, Fig. 19:8, from a Roman locus) and those with thumbimpressed, horizontal loop handles (Magness 2005: Fig. 19:5–7). A post-70 CE date is suggested for such vessels with horizontal handles from the Armenian Garden excavations (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 26:1, 4) and for an example from the refuge caves of the Bar Kokhba period (Zissu et al. 2009:495, Pl. 3:2). As both types of handles are well represented in Jerusalem, I suggest that they were all manufactured at the same time, in the same workshops, before and after 70 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:239). In Beirut, sliced-rim casseroles and lids were considered a Palestinian shape, produced in Beirut and appearing in great numbers in contexts dated from the mid-third to the mid-sixth centuries; they are not yet present in deposits of the first half of the third century (Reynolds and Waksman 2007:64). 671. L8153, B80482/2. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 672. L8137, B80990/4. Reddish-brown clay. 673. L8174, B81302/4. Reddish-brown clay, thumb imprint in middle of pressed handle.

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674. L5332, B52411/1. Reddish-brown clay, thumb imprint in middle of pressed handle. 675. L8182, B81350/8. Reddish-brown clay, thumb imprint in middle of pressed handle. 676. L8165, B81182/3. Brown clay, soot on exterior. 677. L8144, B80961/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, soot and gray spots on exterior. 678. L8104, B80601/2. Reddish-brown clay; this handle is larger than those of the other casseroles and set lower on the wall. 679. L8121, B80833/2. Reddish-brown clay. 680. L5299, B52244/6. Reddish-brown clay, soot on base. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:157, Pl. 1:13. 681. L4185, B41756/9. Reddish-brown clay, soot on exterior. 682. L5293, B52155/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, occasional large white grits. 683. L5295, B52191/1. Reddish-brown to gray clay. 684. L5299, B52244/6. Reddish-brown clay. Large Cups In their general form, related to casseroles, these two sherds suggest large cups, probably with a single handle in analogy to a vessel from the Jerusalem legionary kiln site, yet with a different rim profile and a triple-grooved handle (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 123). 685. L8140, B80843/2. Reddish-brown clay. The carefully shaped handle, well-suited to be held with the middle finger, is divided by two shallow rills into three bands, recalling metal prototypes on skyphoi, cups and mugs (for skyphoi handles, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003: Pl. 6.11:6; Magness 2005: Fig. 16:7; Johnson 2008a: Nos. 77, 78). Only a small rim and wall fragment with a single handle is preserved, thus the reconstructed second handle is uncertain (for a two-handled cup of similar shape and size, see No. 220). 686. L8104, B80545. Reddish-brown clay. Cooking Jugs Narrow-necked jugs with a single handle in cookware were a prominent vessel type in the late Second Temple period. Relatively small jugs with a triangular rim were manufactured

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in the workshops at the Jerusalem Jewish kiln site and dated to the late first century BCE to 70 CE (Berlin 2005:39, Fig. 6, Ceramic Phases 2–4; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 33–36, 143). A function of heating and boiling water is generally accepted for these jugs (Zevulun and Olenik 1979:36*; Berlin 2005:39). While some forms of cooking jugs have a triangular rim (Nos. 687, 688; Kloner and Tepper 1987: Pl. 165:11, from the Bar Kokhba period; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 3:38), jugs with a ridge at the bottom of the rim (Nos. 689, 690; Kloner and Tepper 1987: Pl. 165:12 from the Bar Kokhba period) and trefoil-mouthed jugs (No. 691) are also present in many assemblages. Jug Nos. 690 and 691 have the triple-grooved handle typical of the legionary repertoire (see Nos. 459–473; Magness 2005:90, Figs. 16:11; 17:1, 2; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 160, 161). Considering the relatively small number of jugs in this assemblage, it can be assumed that their use was limited; indeed, their size is suited for a private home rather than for boiling water for a contubernium or group of eight to ten men. 687. L8123, B80756/2. Reddish-brown clay, pronounced wheel ridging on interior. 688. L8182, B81347. Reddish-brown clay, pronounced wheel ridging on interior. 689. L8104, B80609/1. Reddish-brown clay, pronounced wheel ridging on interior. 690. L8113, B80517. Brown clay, triple-grooved handle. 691. L8121, B80690. Reddish-brown clay, trefoil mouth, triple-grooved handle (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 22: Judaea/Jerusalem). Lids and Stoppers There is a great diversity in fabric and form among the lids (Nos. 692–712) and amphora stoppers (Nos. 713, 714) presented here. The prevalent lids (Nos. 692–699) are cooking pot and casserole lids made of cookware, as is the waster lid (No. 712). Made in the same fabric as the locally produced baking dishes and lids, Nos. 700 and 701 may be their lids (see Nos. 323–334). Less common are lids with a pierced wall (No. 707), and saucer- and bowl-lids generally made in a fine fabric (Nos. 704–706, 709–711). The term ‘saucer- and bowl-lids’ indicates that these types are reversible and multi-functional. Cookware Lids 692. L8104, B80609/2. Solid knob, brown to gray clay, wheel ridging on exterior. 693. L8121, B80611. Solid knob, brown clay, wheel ridging on interior and exterior. For parallels to Nos. 692 and 693, see Oleson et al. 1994:1110, K53, with slip, of undetermined origin, dated from the late Hellenistic period to the mid-third century CE.

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694. L8075, B80461. Brown clay, interior surface grayish-brown, feather rouletting on upper part, wheel ridging on interior, fragment broken on all sides (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 7: Negev). 695. L8137, B80809/4. Perforated knob, reddish-brown clay, gray core, wheel ridging on exterior and interior, remains of soot on lower exterior (Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 33: Judaea/Jerusalem). Reference: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 127. 696. L5347, B52444/4. Gray clay, exterior surface reddish brown, interior surface brown. 697. L8159, B81114/6. Perforated knob, outer layer of reddish-brown clay, inner layer of gray clay, exterior and interior surface brown, traces of soot on rim. 698. L8007, B80400. Solid knob, outer layer of brown clay, inner layer of gray clay. 699. L5295, B52198/2. Reddish-brown outer layer, gray inner layer, wheel ridging on interior. Lids in Baking-Dish Fabric The fabric of Nos. 700 and 701 is close to that of locally produced lids and baking dishes, imitating Italian prototypes (Nos. 323–334). In contrast to lid No. 323, these lack the distinct pointed rim, hence they are grouped together with the cookware lids. 700. L8182, B81350/1. Brown clay. 701. L8123, B80758/5. Brown clay, knife-paring inside, wheel ridging on exterior. Small Lid 702. L8047, B80780; L8050, B80185; L8104, B80609. Three joining fragments of a small lid with a solid knob that has a string-cut top, gray to dark brown clay, discolored in fire. Reference: Tushingham 1985: Fig. 25:20, post-70 CE. Knob of Large Lid 703. L8107, B80986/4. Flat knob with two grooves, reddish-brown clay, thin, dull reddishbrown slip, stacking mark on interior. Saucer-Lids 704. L8137, B80800/1. Saucer-lid, light brown clay, string-cut base. The same form occurs at Petra ez Zantur in green ware (Schneider 1996:148, Fig. 591). The author suggests that such lids were used to cover strainer jugs of the same fabric. For similar forms of different fabric, see also Oleson et al. 1994:1110, K54, with slip, of undetermined origin, dated from the late Hellenistic period to the mid-third century CE; Geva and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:189, Pl. 6.3:17.

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705. L8149, B81009. Saucer-lid, light brown clay, gray core, ‘cream-ware’ (RosenthalHeginbottom 2005:275–277), string-cut base; the lid could have been used for a strainer jug. Saucer-Lid with Central Knob This fragment belongs to a specific lid type with a carefully shaped cylindrical knob emerging from the bottom of the bowl. As two better-preserved residual specimens (Fig. 6.2:16, 17) came to light in loci of the northwestern shops along the western portico of the Cardo, associated with Byzantine material, the reader is referred to the discussion in Chapter 6. 706. L8053, B81037. Yellowish-light brown, finely levigated clay, tiny grits barely visible, smooth polished exterior, string-cut base, relatively small knob apparently damaged before firing. Lid in Openwork Technique (Kerbschnitt) Lids in openwork technique are known to have served as covers for incense burners (thymiateria). They occur over a long span of time. Ceramic parallels for this shape and technique were found at Paneas, where complete examples with a pointed top and perforated holes, made of local fabric, originated in a context dated to the second half of the fourth–beginning of the fifth centuries CE (Israeli 2008:111, 116–117, Fig. 7.11:30, 31). A similar though flatter lid of an incense burner with a loop handle at the top is located in the Eretz Israel Museum collection, Tel Aviv, dated to the seventh century CE (Zevulun and Olenik 1979: Ill. 93). An intact incense bowl with a loop-handled lid came to light in a tomb in Amman, dated to the late second century CE (Cat. Cologne 1987:282, No. 259, photo; Harding 1951:32, drawing). Parallels in bronze are known from the Byzantine period in museum collections (Israeli and Mevorah 2000:99–101; Stiegemann 2001:145–147), and the shape and band of Kerbschnitt have a parallel in a metal cover from the Tukh el-Qaramus treasure, dated to the Ptolemaic period (Adriani 1939:37–38, Fig. 24). 707. L8107, B80680; L8123, B0749. Three joining fragments of a small lid in openwork, reddish-brown clay, tiny grits barely visible, brown-burnished exterior. This dome-shaped lid is divided by three grooves into three equal bands. The lower and upper bands are plain, while the middle band is decorated with perforated lozenges in openwork technique. Although this technique is a hallmark of the Byzantine period, the context for our lid is clearly Roman. Knob of Lid 708. L8140, B80913. Knob of lid, brown clay, not cookware, exterior and interior surface light brown, incised ‘X’ on top. Bowl-Lids 709. L8104, B80427/3. Bowl-lid, brown clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 10: clay from Judaea/Jerusalem vicinity).

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710. L8167, B81273/2. Bowl-lid, reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface reddish brown to light brown, interior surface reddish brown. 711. L8167, B81276/1. Bowl-lid, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, interior surface reddish brown. The three bowl-lids with a carinated profile (Nos. 709–711) appear to be the predecessors of the popular fourth–early fifth-century CE bell-shaped lids with knob handles manufactured in a pottery workshop at ʻEn Yaʻal (Weksler-Bdolah 2016:108–109, 112*– 113*, Figs. 16:1–4; 17:1–7, 9); a similar lid of the same date, from Jerusalem’s Upper City, is a product of that workshop (Magness 2006:185–186, Pl. 7.2:1–7; Weksler-Bdolah 2016:109). However, as no complete vessels were preserved in the present assemblage, it is unclear whether there was a knob handle similar to No. 703 or a flat base like Nos. 704, 705 or a ring foot like a simple bowl. Waster Lid 712. L8125, B80865/3. Reddish-brown clay, wheel ridging on interior, cooking ware. It appears that the rim was accidentally indented before firing, and as a result this vessel could not have been used as a lid but served as a bowl. Amphora Stoppers Mold-made, disc-shaped stoppers used to seal amphoras were not generally used, but are prevalent with the widely distributed Lamboglia 2 and Dressel 6A amphoras that contained wine (Hayes 1997:34, Pl. 10 right; Lindhagen 2009:88–89, Figs. 1, 2). There is substantial kiln-site evidence for amphora production on the west coast of the Adriatic, with over half a dozen centers (Bezeczky 2013:116–118 for references to sites, fabrics and contents). The production of Lamboglia 2 amphoras began toward the end of the second century BCE and probably continued until the transition to Dressel 6A in the last third of the first century BCE, ending toward the mid-first century CE (Lindhagen 2009:85; Bezeczky 2013:115). In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, a single fragment of a Lamboglia 2 amphora was recovered (No. 510), which is either residual, together with the two stoppers, or the highquality amphoras reached Jerusalem in secondary use after 70 CE. In Judaea, Lamboglia 2 amphoras were imported during the reign of Herod the Great to Jerusalem (Finkielsztejn 2006:172–173; 2014:215–216), Jericho (Bar-Nathan 2002:135–136, Nos. 354–359) and Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:333–335, Pls. 68:36–38; 69:39–42). Stoppers were recorded in Jerusalem (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:113, Pls. 4.4:18; 4.10:14) and Masada (Bar-Nathan 2006:217–219, Fig. 68, Pls. 36; 37:1–25). For a different type of stopper, see No. 303, a juglet with a peg-like toe. 713. L8122, B80738/1. Brown clay, smooth polished surface, central knob missing, decorated with eight piriform drops. 714. L8121, B80635/1. Brown clay, micaceous, surfaces poorly worked, import.

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R ing Stands Ring stands are a common item in assemblages from the late Second Temple period in Judaea, and particularly in Jerusalem. A large quantity was recovered in the excavations of the Jerusalem Jewish kiln site, where they were manufactured (Berlin 2005:43, 45, Fig. 11; Hershkovitz 2005:289–290; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:249–250). In view of their findspots related to pottery workshops and kilns, Berlin’s suggestion that they functioned as drying supports for vessels after manufacture and before firing is most convincing (Berlin 2005:45), and inscribed stands may indicate the output of individual potters. They do, however, occur in domestic contexts, albeit in much smaller numbers as at the legionary kiln site, and could also have been used for supporting round-bottomed cooking pots in the kitchen (Geva and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:189; Geva 2010:128). In Beirut, low pot stands of a different shape were locally manufactured in the second century, while taller stands were most likely related to pottery production (Reynolds 1997–1998:49, Fig. 187; Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:80). 715. L8053, B80190/2. Reddish-brown clay, gray core. 716. L8165, B81212/3. Reddish-brown clay, surface light brown.

Pedestal Stands Relatively common in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage are fragments of thick, coarse bases with a diameter of 12.5–22.0 cm, in the form of hollow feet tapering upward. With the exception of No. 725 made in roof-tile fabric, the medium-coarse legionary fabric of the other stands is homogenous, while sizes and profiles are diverse; presumably the height varies in relation to the width. As none of them have their upper part preserved, it is unclear if all these bases should be reconstructed in the shape of the single specimen that preserves a solid, constricted central part and the beginning of an upper, open bowl or basin above it (No. 719). The tapering bases (Nos. 717, 718, 720, 721), bearing characteristic grooves and ridges, represent a common shape of ceramic receptacles set on pedestals in the southern Levant during the Roman and Byzantine periods (for a Roman vessel from Hawara, Egypt, see Hayes 1997:87, Pl. 35, height 18.5 cm). Petrographic analysis identified No. 717 as a local product (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 47: Moza marl), and a similar fragment was retrieved in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 113). The morphological feature of external ridging and the smooth exterior in contrast to the rougher interior defines the fragments as bases, although the profile of No. 721 is not unlike the necks of some jars (cf. Nos. 518, 523, 528). The shape and fabric of No. 722 correspond to the shallow bowls/basins with ‘pie-crust’ band decoration (Nos. 414–416). The resting surface of No. 723 is not flat but beveled; however, with no parallels for the profile among jars, the fragment is considered a base. Too little is preserved of Nos. 724 and 725 to assess their shape.

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By comparison to similar items in other ceramic assemblages, and based on No. 719, the only fragment preserving the connection between an upper vessel and a base, it can be concluded that these hollow bases were pedestals supporting upper bowls, which functioned as candelabra or thymiateria. To date, there are no parallels from first–second-century CE contexts; it is only at Masada that a single painted stand or foot with three steps and profiled walls has been found, originating in a Zealot context (66–73/74 CE; Bar-Nathan 2006:262, No. 49, Pl. 46, the base diameter according to the drawing is c. 9 cm and not as stated). In shape, the Masada stand is close to the clay candelabra designed to support multiple-wick lamps and candle-holders from the Late Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. These candelabra have a high hollow base with exterior ridging, flaring at the bottom, while the stem is nearly straight (Bisheh 1972:162, Fig. 2; Zevulun and Olenik 1979:83–84, Ills. 223, 224; Rahmani 1983:225–228, Fig. 1:7; Cat. Cologne 1987: No. 260, a late third-century CE candle-holder from Gerasa). A fair number of pedestal bowls came to light in the debris of a pottery workshop at ʻEn Yaʻal, installed on top of the ruins of a villa occupied by a Roman army officer or veteran and destroyed in the late third or fourth century CE (Weksler-Bdolah 2016:108). WekslerBdolah points out that the workshop was in operation in the fourth and early fifth centuries, after the Tenth Legion had left Jerusalem, and that the ceramics found in the kiln and the waste heap represent the local repertoire that had developed since 70 CE under Roman influence (Weksler-Bdolah 2016:109). Although the basic form of the pedestal bowls is similar to those from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, there are marked differences in size. The vessels from ʻEn Yaʻal are uniform in size (Weksler-Bdolah 2016:112*, Figs. 24:10–16; 25:9), the bases with a diameter of c. 6–8 cm and an estimated height of c. 15 cm (the upper bowls are not preserved). The pedestal stands from the present assemblage have diameters of 12.5–20.0 cm, hence they are twice the size of the pedestal bowls from ʻEn Yaʻal. Due to lack of evidence, the height remains unknown. However, as the ratio between the diameter of the base and the height of the vessels is 1:2 at ʻEn Yaʻal; in analogy the examples discussed here could have reached 40 cm. The use of the ʻEn Yaʻal vessels is unclear, although without evidence for a contemporaneous habitation unit at the site, a function in the manufacturing process of the ceramics produced in the workshop is quite likely, similar to the tall cylindrical pot stands from Beirut (see below). The vessels in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage may have been forerunners of the later candelabra, the bowls attached to the top of the pedestals designed to hold lamps and candles, and perhaps also used as thymiateria for the burning of incense; for this, a perforated lid would have been placed on the bowl. The only lid with pierced walls (No. 707) has a diameter of 20 cm, and therefore was better suited for a simple bowl. At Athens, a large lid, suited for thymiateria, came to light in a late Hellenistic context; its diameter is 36.5 cm (Vogeikoff-Brogan 2000:321–322, Fig. 24:75). The possibility that fragment Nos. 717–725 belonged to high pot stands, like those found at Beirut, or pedestal feet placed in tombs at Gerasa, is ruled out for lack of shared features in size and form (for references, see Nos. 731, 732).

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717. L8154, B81228/3. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish light brown (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 47: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 718. L8060, B80320/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 719. L8144, B81097/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 720. L8104, B80427, B80441. Brown clay, reddish-brown core. 721. L8125, B80912/2. Light brown clay. 722. L8137, B80999/4. Brown clay, reddish-brown core. 723. L8146, B81031. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. 724. L8131, B80763. Light brown clay, band- and wavy-line combing on upper surface. 725. L8131, B80767/1. Light brown clay, roof-tile fabric, base of unusually large and heavy stand, estimated diameter c. 50 cm.

Pipes and Tubuli Alongside the enormous quantities of unstamped roof tiles, riders and a few bricks, several fragments of ceramic drain and vent pipe drums and tubuli were also found in the present assemblage. The fabric is hard, with small and occasional medium-sized grits. Drain pipe Nos. 726–728 have a narrower socket and an outer, well-pronounced flange, and Nos. 729 and 730 have a wider socket and an inner flange, while two unclear fragments (Nos. 731, 732), which are definitely not necks of storage jars, may have been vent pipes or tall pot stands. Nos. 733 and 734 are fragments of tubuli. Drain Pipes Large quantities of drain pipes similar to Nos. 726–730 have been excavated at sites throughout the Roman Empire. Their characteristic features include a wide and flaring end with an inner recess (Nos. 729, 730), while the other end is slightly narrower and tapered with an exterior flange (Nos. 726–728); the tapered end of one pipe is inserted into the flaring end of another pipe. Examples of such pipes have been recovered at sites in the southern Levant, including the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:280, No. 216, a complete pipe), the fill of the Fortified Building at Ramat Ha-Nadiv (Silberstein 2000:462, Fig. 21) and a farmstead in Western Galilee (Getzov 2000:80*, 202, Fig. 7:24), destroyed in the second half of the first century CE, found together with Tyrian storage jars (see our No. 493), representing a material culture different from that of the Jewish settlements in Galilee. Fragmentary drain pipes like No. 726 were found at the

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Beirut kiln site BEY 015, dating to the late first–early second centuries CE (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:80, 90, Fig. 19:5–6). 726. L8107, B80465. Reddish-brown clay. 727. L8113, B80586. Light brown to reddish-brown clay with yellowish tinge on exterior. 728. L8107, B80986/7. Light brown to reddish-brown clay with greenish tinge on exterior. 729. L8145, B80891/3. Light brown clay. 730. L8144, B80961/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Vent Pipes or Pot Stands Fragment Nos. 731 and 732 recall the cylindrical vent pipes used in bathhouses, their shape eliminating their use as drain pipes, although No. 731 has two low ridges on the exterior. Parallels from ‘Ein ez-Zeituna are c. 8 cm in diameter and up to 40 cm in length and are closely ribbed on the exterior and interior (Glick 2006:57–58, Fig. 12:5, 6). The cylindrical tubes produced for use as hypocaust pilae in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks are different from our finds (Arubas and Goldfus 2008:1829). Alternatively, these fragments may belong to cylindrical stands. Examples from Masada have a flaring foot and rim (Bar-Nathan 2006:225–227, Pl. 38) and are divided into tall stands (Bar-Nathan 2006: Pl. 38:1, preserved height 40 cm, rim diameter 21.5 cm), medium-sized stands (Bar-Nathan 2006: Pl. 38:7, height 11 cm, rim diameter 15.5 cm) and low stands (Bar-Nathan 2006: Pl. 38:8–10, height 3.8–4.0 cm, rim diameter 8 cm). Many of the complete stands were found in rooms containing storage jars or baking ovens; however, as most came to light in household contexts, Bar-Nathan suggests that their main use was in household activities and not in storage. A different function is assigned to tall cylindrical stands that came to light in the excavation of five kilns in Beirut (Site BEY 015), dating to the late first–early second centuries CE (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:90, Fig. 19:7–13). The upper parts have an outer diameter of 11–13 cm and the bases of 15–17 cm; the entire height is unknown as no complete stands were preserved. The upper sections with rounded rims resemble the profile of Nos. 731 and 732. It has been suggested that they were used during the various stages of pottery production to support vessels, possibly amphoras (Reynolds et al. 2008–2009:80), parallel to the function of ring stands for supporting round-bottomed vessels, probably cooking pots (Nos. 715, 716). Additional parallels to stands were found in tombs at Gerasa, where, again, no complete examples were preserved (Fisher 1938:567, Fig. 45:X12, X13; 570, Fig. 47:X53). These three fragments are wider at the bottom, their slanting walls ridged and grooved on the exterior. A first–second-century CE date is not unlikely, as Fisher points out that although these looted tombs had a long history from the first–second centuries through to the Early Islamic period, many of the vessels appear to date to the first–second centuries (Fisher 1938:551).

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731. L8125, B80930/1. Brown clay. 732. L8065, B80240. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Tubuli These two fragments, chosen from among a fair number of broken tiles, belong to the rectangular box flue tiles (tubuli), which vertically lined the walls of bathhouses and guaranteed the heating of rooms with steam-bath functions, for example the caldarium, by circulating hot air. In Jerusalem, remains of a Herodian-period bathhouse were found beneath the pavement of the Nea Church (Gutfeld 2012:165–169), where the well-fired tiles measure c. 11.5 × 9.0 cm and are 29.5 cm high; their walls are 1 cm thick, and each tile has small vents to let the hot air spread. Another bathhouse was discovered in the Jewish Quarter Area P-3, where many tile fragments were retrieved (Avigad 1983:104–106). During the time of Herod the Great, Roman-style bathhouses were installed in luxurious dwellings of the upper class in Jerusalem and in the royal palaces (Masada—Netzer 1991:92; Jericho—Netzer 2001:214; Cypros—Netzer and Damati 2004:270, Ill. 321, the tiles measure c. 16 × 10 cm and are 34 cm high). At the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, a fragment of a rectangular tubulus stamped with small heart-shaped designs was found (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 177). The second-century legionary bathhouse unearthed on the eastern slopes of Jerusalem’s Western Hill (Mazar 2011:80–81) yielded a number of rectangular tubuli fragments (Reuven 2011:123–125, Fig. 4.1:1–4). The tubulus recovered in the debris of the second–third century Roman villa at ʻEn Yaʻal indicated the existence of a bathhouse (Weksler-Bdolah 2016:108, 113*, Fig. 24:20). It is evident that rectangular tubuli were employed in bathhouses built before and after 70 CE; plausibly, they were locally produced as it would have been inefficient to transport them over a long distance. 733. L8122, B80742/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. 734. L5299, B52248/1. Reddish-brown clay, gray slip on interior, fabric appears to be terra rossa.

Brazier Lugs These brazier lugs are made of a hard fabric with small and medium-sized grits; some are of roof-tile fabric. Locally manufactured braziers following the tradition of Aegean Hellenistic braziers are quite common at Hellenistic and Roman sites in Israel (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:205–207, Fig. 5.2:5, a plain lug). A plain brazier lug of ‘eastern Mediterranean origin’ from the harbor of Caesarea Maritima is dated to the Hellenistic–Roman periods, with plain local braziers from Sidi Khrebish (Benghazi) cited as comparisons, which date no earlier than the second half of the second century CE (Oleson et al. 1994:144–145, K86).

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735. L8113, B80557. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface brown, incised decoration, back of lug not smooth (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 19: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 736. L8144, B81209. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown, roof-tile fabric (several large inclusions). 737. L8144, B80924/3. Light brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown, roof-tile fabric.

Ṭabun Fragments Fragment Nos. 738 and 739 were probably part of a clay stove (ṭabun), constructed of a cylinder of unknown height with three protrusions on the inner, upper edges designed to support a cooking pot (see the suggested reconstruction in Reich 2003: Figs. 9.1, 9.2). These two fragments are most likely residual, with parallels from pre-70 CE contexts in Jerusalem (Reich 2003:292–295; Nenner-Soriano 2006:310, Pl. 15.1:21–26; 2010). 738. L8038, B80132. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface yellowish light brown. 739. L8182, B81350/13. Gray clay, exterior surface light brown, many small and large white and gray grits and limestone inclusions.

Oil Lamps and Lampstands A substantial and variegated assemblage of lamps was retrieved in the Western Wall Plaza excavations. Unfortunately, mostly fragments were recovered, which impedes the assessment of types and a full iconographic study. Two distinct groups predominate: the first comprises Roman-type volute lamps with a decorated discus, including Broneer Type XXI (Nos. 740–756), Broneer Types XXII and XXIII (Nos. 761–784), and the Levantine round discus lamps with a short nozzle (Nos. 787–813). The second group comprises local lamps with a spatulate nozzle in the Judaean tradition (Nos. 822–825). Uncommon are Knidian lampstands (Nos. 785, 786), Phoenician lamps (Nos. 814–817), factory lamps (Nos. 818, 819) and Molded Judaean lamps (Nos. 826, 827). The Roman Imperial volute lamps with decorated discus display an unmistakably foreign character with regard to shape and imagery. In the time of Herod the Great until 70 CE, the volute lamps of Broneer Types XXII–XXIII were rare in Judaea, while finds from habitation levels in Jerusalem’s Upper City indicate occasional imports of Broneer Type XXI (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:381–382). Lamps of Broneer Types XXI–XXIII are common at coastal and inland sites with a pagan or mixed population, for example Dora (Stern 1994:305, 308–309; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:241–243) and Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:223–227). They are also well-represented in regional collections acquired mainly in Beirut and Jerusalem (Kennedy 1963; Rey-Coquais 1963; Rosenthal and Sivan

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1978; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981; Israeli and Avida 1988). In the late first century CE, the Levantine round discus lamps, a derivative of Broneer Type XXV, appear; the motifs of the lamps of Broneer Types XXI, XXII and XXIII continue to be displayed on the discus, while the number of lamps with a plain discus increase. For some fifty years these lamps were produced and used contemporaneously, and in late Trajanic–early Hadrianic times the round discus lamps replaced the lamps of Broneer Types XXI–XXIII, becoming the dominant type throughout the second–third centuries CE. We can assume with a degree of certainty that the use of volute lamps with decorated discus reflects the material and spiritual culture of the Levant and signals the acceptance of and participation in the Roman Imperial visual culture. In Jerusalem (and in Judaea), the volute lamps constitute a new iconographic trend, reflecting a post-70 CE development in a non-Jewish society. A crucial question for the evaluation of the lamp assemblage is where the lamps were manufactured. Based on visual inspection, two fabric groups can be distinguished. The first fabric group comprises a clay fired light brown and reddish-brown, with a thin, dull red, gray or brown, often blotchy slip, and tiny, hardly visible, white and gray grits. This is the fabric of the Broneer Type XXI lamps (Nos. 757–759), defined as cream ware, and the round discus lamp (No. 800), the latter and No. 757 made of Moza marl (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample Nos. 34, 17). The second group comprises a distinctive thin, soft fabric of yellowish clay with tiny, hardly visible gray grits. The thin, dull, dark gray slip is mostly worn. The petrographic analyses of three lamps of Broneer Types XXII and XXIII in this fabric (Nos. 773, 775, 779) resulted in the definition ‘unknown/not Israel’ (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample Nos. 24, 50, 43). Based on visual inspection, lamps of Broneer Types XXII–XXIII (Nos. 763, 764, 774, 778, 781, 782, 784), round discus lamps (Nos. 795, 798) and Phoenician lamps (Nos. 814, 815) are of the same fabric. Hayes has suggested a Palestinian origin for lamps of this ware that imitate early Italian volute lamps with a triangular nozzle dating to the first century CE (Hayes 1980a:90–91, Nos. 361–364). A special feature of a number of lamps in the first fabric is the smooth highly polished surface, defined as cream ware; the surface treatment is characteristic of several shapes produced at the legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:275–277; for examples from the present assemblage, see Nos. 57, 88, 188, 292, 595, 601). However, the assignment of origin based on visual inspection can often be misleading: two round discus lamps (Nos. 792, 809), seemingly belonging to the first fabric group, proved to be ‘unknown/not Israel’ (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample Nos. 27, 29). Most likely of local production are the lamps made in the surmoulage technique, which creates plaster molds prepared from an original lamp. Lamps made in plaster molds display tiny air bubbles that are visible to the eye (Nos. 772, 777, 818). When dating archaeological contexts, lamps, like sigillata wares, serve as chronological markers. In this catalogue, the dating evidence and the geographical distribution of lamp types and discus motifs are presented. Additional dating evidence for the lamps from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage is provided by the absence of typical second-century lamps. These include the Gerasa imitations of Broneer Type XXI with decorated handle shields, which date from the first quarter of the second century CE and are present in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005: Fig. 11:4, 5) and the Temple Mount

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excavations (Mazar 1969: Pl. XIII:1–3); and Corinthian and certain Phoenician lamps, both represented at Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:227–228, 236–237). Phoenician lamps with a shoulder wreath are represented in small numbers only (Nos. 814–817). Thus, the chronological framework falls within the time span between 70 CE and the first quarter of the second century at the latest.

Roman-Type Lamps Broneer Type XXI These popular imperial lamps with Italian prototypes were produced in the East in a number of workshops. With their rounded, seldom angular nozzles imitating bronze lamps, they began to be produced in some quantity in the late first century BCE and throughout the first century CE, continuing somewhat later in the East (Bailey 1980:199–201, Type D). In the Upper City of Jerusalem, Broneer Type XXI lamps were sporadically imported before 70 CE, and all appear to be of eastern rather than Italian manufacture (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:381). The lamps were more common at coastal sites such as Dora (Ovadiah 1985: Pl. 41:7; Stern 1994:305, 309; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:241–242) and Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:225–226), and in areas settled by the Nabataeans (Negev 1986:126–127). The excavations at Petra ez Zantur revealed that imports occurred during the second and third quarters of the first century CE, while local imitations were produced from c. 75–125 CE (Grawehr 2006:291–294). Italian imports of Broneer Type XXI have been recorded at Masada (Bailey 1994:82–84, Nos. 152–159; on p. 93 the suggested date is from Augustan times until the Flavian period). In the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, local imitations of clay lamps of Broneer Type XXI and of bronze lamps with crescent-shaped handle shields were produced (Magness 2005:99–100). A fragment from the Eastern Cardo might also belong to this production line (Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2017: Fig. 4:8). Lamps of this type at Nysa-Scythopolis are considered imports (Hadad 2002:131–133, Nos. 511 [volute nozzle], 512 [leaf-shaped handle]). Of special interest is the complete lamp placed as an offering beside a burial covered with roof tiles at Caesarea Maritima, which could well have been the tomb of a soldier (Porath 2007:48, Fig. 4; p. 56). Another lamp, possibly from the same mold, was found at Dora in the course of the 1924 excavations of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem (Sussman 2012:195–196, No. 45). Porath identifies the three figures depicted on the Caesarea lamps as the three fates (Parcae); however, this interpretation is unlikely. Depicted is a mythological scene: to the left, Phaidra is standing, in the center Hippolytos is seated with the nurse standing behind him, and to the right is Hippolytos’ dog. The closest comparison for the composition of the scene is found on a wall painting in a private house at Pompeii (Hodske 2007:233, Pl. 142:2). A complete lamp of Broneer Type XXI placed as a tomb offering in Chamber C of Cave 1 at Akeldama raises the question: who were the users and owners of this type of lamp? It is made of orange clay with a red slip and is considered to be either an import or a local imitation of pre-70 CE date (Ben-Arieh and Coen-Uzzielli 1996:83, Fig. 4.8:1; 92).

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Its shape and fabric suggest a Knidian import or a local product of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. Although sporadic Knidian imports already occurred at the time of Herod the Great, it is more likely that this lamp dates to the time of the cremation burials deposited in Cave 1 after 70 CE, perhaps in the late first or early second centuries (Avni and Greenhut 1996:35). The authors note that the earlier Jewish burials were not cleared out and suggest a reuse by members of the Tenth Legion or by the civilian pagan population, the latter supported by the burial of a juvenile and a child. There is frequent evidence for cremation in the Jerusalem area, which is typical of Roman army personnel, and in my opinion, it is unlikely that the local pagan population would have adopted the practice so quickly. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that soldiers and officers, together with their officially forbidden, yet tolerated families and offspring, were laid to rest in the cave, and the lamp can be attributed to them. This proposed assignment and date is confirmed by the occurrence of the same type of lamps in a post-70 CE context in Jerusalem’s Upper City; based on visual inspection, the lamps are products of the legionary kilnworks (Area F-6; RosenthalHeginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.1:2, 4, 5; 2017b: Fig. 12). The lamp fragments from the Western Wall Plaza excavations do not include Italian and Knidian imports, with the exception of the lampstand, No. 785. Lamp No. 747 is a local product of Moza marl, and on the basis of its fabric, No. 750 is also a local product, both most likely imitating Knidian prototypes. Based on visual inspection, I suggest that most of the Type XXI lamps are local. The clay is well-levigated with tiny white and gray grits, hardly visible to the eye. The red, reddish-brown and brown slips are mostly thin and dull, yet applied in a manner to emphasize the relief decoration (e.g., the handle shield, No. 748). 740. L8144, B81097/1. Brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior. 741. L8053, B81000/2. Brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, a leaf design between the volutes. 742. L8167, B81279. Light brown to gray clay, light brown exterior with traces of brown slip, soot on nozzle. 743. L8126, B80681. Brown clay, shiny, dark brown slip. The nozzles of Nos. 742 and 743 are unusual, with two projections at the top. 744. L8153, B81068. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, dull, dark gray slip, partly worn, on exterior and base. 745. L8053, B80352/1. Right volute, light brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on exterior. 746. L8165, B81179/1. Left volute, light brown clay, burnished exterior.

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The shoulders of Nos. 745 and 746 are decorated with an indistinct leaf design. 747. L8137, B80837. Light brown clay, thin red slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 34: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). Only the left harnessed horse-head volute is preserved. A close parallel on a Knidian lamp is found in the British Museum, dated 70–80 CE (Bailey 1988:336, Q 2688). In the workshop of the Knidian lamp maker Romanesis, lamps of Broneer Type XXI with extended projecting volutes ending in an animal head, usually a horse’s head, became quite popular (Bailey 1988:326–327; for the evidence that Romanesis produced lamps earlier than 70–80 CE, namely in the mid-first century or even before, see below). It is probable that an imported lamp was copied by the potters of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. A complete imported lamp, though probably not a Knidian product, was found at Dora (Stern 1994:309), and local imitations without slip appear at Nysa-Scythopolis (Hadad 2002:22, Nos. 35, 36). Handle Shields Variously shaped handle shields are a characteristic feature of Broneer Type XXI lamps. In bronze lamps, they were both heat shields and light reflectors. On the clay lamps they were mainly decorative, although they protected the hand when the lamp was carried (Fitch and Goldman 1994:135). 748. L8121, B80839. Hollow triangular handle attachment with triangular palmette springing from acanthus rinceaux, light brown clay, dull red slip. 749. L8107, 80991. Hollow, same motif as No. 748, but not from same mold, light brown clay, dark brown slip. The combination of a palmette and an acanthus, as in Nos. 748 and 749, is a common motif, as at Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:273, No. 179), Tyre (Marchand 1996:58, No. 4), Dora (Ovadiah 1985:166, Pl. XLI:7; Stern 1994:309; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:287, Fig. 5.20:1, 2), Nysa-Scythopolis (a local imitation, unslipped with a stylized palmette, Hadad 2002:20, No. 30) and Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:128, L30, Fig. 48, possibly Italian; Sussman 2008:226, No. 52) and Masada (Bailey 1994:83, No. 157). For further parallels, see Perlzweig 1961:74, No. 27, an import dated to the late first– early second centuries CE; Fitch and Goldman 1994:139, Fig. 72, No. 678, dated 25/20 BCE–40/45 CE. 750. L8053, B81005. Reddish-light brown clay, polished surface with a spot of reddishbrown slip on upper and lower part, a local product. 751. L8144, B81198. Pierced handle with two triangular grooves above it on the back of the handle shield, light brown clay, thin, dull dark brown slip, a local product.

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These two hollow handle shields (Nos. 750 and 751) are leaf- or fruit-shaped, forming an oval topped with a knob, and a ribbon at the bottom; a vertical central groove divides the convex surface into two halves and a ridge encircles the oval close to the edge. In the lychnological literature, the handle shape is often described as vulvate, identified with the female genitalia (for Italian lamps, see Bailey 1980:213, Q 1025; 221, Q 1050; for Knidian lamps, see Bailey 1988:336, Q 2688; 339, Q 2713; Pastutmaz-Sevmen 2005:287, Fig. 5, from the workshop of Romanesis). Considering that the vulva is rarely depicted as a separate object in Roman art, a neutral term of leaf or fruit is better suited (Melander 2014:44–46, Cat. V, 2–3). In Jerusalem’s Upper City, a complete red-slipped lamp and the handle shield of a second lamp came to light in a cistern in Area F-6 (Avigad 1983: Ill. 237, 1989:65; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.1:2, 4; 2017b: Fig. 12). Additional lamps were recovered at Byblos (Dunand 1954: Pl. CCVIII:12950, two nozzles), Beirut (Mikati 1998:59, Pl. 16:4), Tyre (Marchand 1996:58, No. 6), Dora (Stern 1994:305) and Caesarea Maritima (Porath and Gur 2015:9, Fig. 2.4:4). 752. L8144, B81058. Solid handle attachment in the shape of a stylized acanthus leaf made of raised lines, the edge of the shield cut to follow the shape of the leaf, light brown clay, dull reddish-brown to brown slip. For Jerusalem, see Hayes 1985:183, 189, Fig. 49:13; Ben-Arieh and Coen-Uzzielli 1996:83, Fig. 4.8:1, a complete lamp from the Akeldama tombs; for Corinth, see Broneer 1930:167, No. 383, a more complex version. 753. L8021, B80128. Solid leaf-shaped handle shield, mottled ware, reddish-brown clay with light gray core, exterior layer light brown, thin dark gray to brown slip. Based on visual inspection, Nos. 752 and 753 are local products of the legionary kilnworks. 754. L8104, B80551/1. Hollow, triangular handle shield in shape of a leaf, brown clay, reddish-brown to dark brown slip on upper and lower parts of handle. References: Magness 2005: Fig. 31:6, a local parallel of Moza marl; Hadad 2002: No. 512, from Nysa-Scythopolis. 755. L8174, B81304/6. Hollow, trefoil-shaped handle shield, light brown clay, thin brown slip. Reference: Rosenthal and Sivan 1978: No. 385, a more elaborate version from Gerasa. 756. L8182, B81350/12. Hollow, crescent-shaped handle shield, the left half preserved, gray clay, smooth dark brown slip, knife-paring, same fabric as No. 770. Lamps with crescent-shaped handle shields were manufactured in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:101, Fig. 32:6, 7). Two such handles came to light at Masada (Bailey 1994:83–84, Nos. 157–158) and another in the Gerasa potter’s store (Iliffe 1945: No. 128). For further parallels, see Fitch and Goldman 1994:148, No. 734; Bémont 2003:114, DP 4: No. 195.

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Unclassified, Large Fragment Nos. 757–760 belong to large lamps with a single or several nozzles in the style of Broneer Type XXI lamps. Occasional finds of large lamps of unusual shape have come to light in the Roman East (Hayes 1980a:112–113, No. 448). The small fragments preserved do not permit us to determine the shape or, in particular, the number of nozzles. Based on visual inspection, the four fragments of large lamps presented here were produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. Three fragments (Nos. 757–759) can be attributed to the cream ware, characterized by a smooth highly polished surface (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:275–277; 2011:206–207, Nos. 44, 45). A lamp with four nozzles at four cardinal points, made of a different fabric (light brown clay, the surface burnished) came to light in the 1968 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:240–241, No. 6). Similar four-nozzled lamps are known from Asia Minor (Bailey 1988:414, Q 3295) and Egypt (Cat. Berlin 1967:112, No. 1041). Large lamps with two, three and seven nozzles were manufactured in the potter’s workshop at Gerasa, dated to the first quarter of the second century (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:90–95). 757. L8144, B81015/1. Reservoir fragment, light brown clay, partly reddish-brown core, smooth exterior, cream ware. 758. L8144, B81015/2. Reservoir fragment, same fabric as No. 757. 759. L8104, B80530/1. Handle-shield fragment, light brown clay, reddish-brown core, cream ware. 760. L8154, B81127/1. Reservoir fragment, reddish-brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on top. Broneer Types XXII and XXIII As relatively few nozzles of this type were preserved in the assemblage, it is impossible to establish the ratio between volute lamps with triangular and rounded nozzles, Types XXII and XXIII respectively. Only a single fragment of a triangular nozzle has been preserved (No. 761), and four fragments of rounded nozzle lamps (Nos. 762, 765–767); the other fragments can belong to either type (Nos. 763, 764, 768–784). The most recent discussions of this type can be found in the report of the excavations at Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:223–225) and in a cistern in Jerusalem’s Upper City (Area F-6; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a: Pls. 25.1:8–10; 25.2:1–12). These lamps are well-attested in excavations and in public and private collections. They comprise the predominant types of the first century CE, both in Italy and the Roman provinces. It should be noted that in the second-century hippodrome at Caesarea Maritima, no examples of either type are represented (Vine and Hartelius 1986). 761. L8119, B80372. Nozzle fragment of Broneer Type XXII, light brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, soot on nozzle.

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762. L8104, B80587. Nozzle and reservoir fragment of Broneer Type XXIII, on base impressed foot-print stamp (planta pedis), brown clay, thin brown to gray slip on exterior with drippings on interior. 763. L8164, B81169/1. Base fragment with impressed foot-print stamp, yellowish clay, dull dark gray slip, mostly worn, same fabric as No. 775 (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 50, unknown/not Israel), possibly same lamp. 764. L8137, B81003/1. Base fragment with impressed foot-print stamp, same fabric as Nos. 763 and 775. 765. L8104, B80530/2. Nozzle, shoulder and discus fragment of Broneer Type XXIII, light brown clay, shiny dark gray slip on exterior, reddish-brown slip on part of interior. 766. L8159, B81175. Nozzle, shoulder and discus fragment of Broneer Type XXIII, light brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip, remains of discus scene, soot on nozzle, same fabric as round discus lamp No. 789. 767. L8145, B80891/1. Nozzle fragment of Broneer Type XXIII, tongue on nozzle, same fabric as Nos. 766 and 789. 768. L8187, B81404/3. Nozzle, shoulder and discus fragment, light brown clay, thin, blotchy, reddish-brown slip, remains of a discus scene, leaf design between the volutes. 769. L8104, B80426. Reservoir fragment, light brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip, partly worn. 770. L8123, B80927/1. Reservoir fragment, dark brown clay, dark brown slip, blotchy on lower half, splashes on interior, made in a plaster mold, same fabric as No. 756. 771. L8165, B81217/1. Reservoir fragment, light brown clay, dark gray to brown blotchy slip, made in a plaster mold. Lamp Nos. 768–771 display the different shapes of the reservoir. Lamp Nos. 770 and 771 are relatively thick-walled, and the grooves and ridges around the discus are shallow. Decorated Discus Fragments of Broneer Types XXII and XXIII On thirteen lamps (Nos. 772–784) the discus decoration is nearly completely preserved or there are adequate remains to define the figure-type. The lamps’ fragmentary state, with the nozzles missing, makes an assignment to Type XXII or XXIII impossible. In general, the same motifs occur on lamps with triangular nozzle (Type XXII) and rounded nozzle (Type XXIII). In Italy the manufacture of both types began in Augustan times and continued into

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the reign of Trajan (Bailey 1980:154, 199). In the eastern Mediterranean Italian imports were replaced by imitations produced in local workshops in Asia Minor already from Augustan times onward (Pergamon—Heimerl 2001:87; Ephesos—Meriç 2002:123–124, 150–152; Knidos—Kögler 2010:74–76). Levantine workshops followed suit; among the production sites identified to date are Beirut (Mikati 1998:57–59), Tyre (Mikati 2003), Petra (Grawehr 2006; 2011) and Alexandria (Młynarczyk 1995). With these products swiftly dominating the first century CE lamp market, the populations in the Roman East joined the Roman visual koine in their iconography and decorative motifs. Among the lamps from the Knidian workshop of Romanesis found in the southern Levant, a signed lamp from Masada depicting three grotesque figures carrying an object above their heads is attributed to the Second Roman Garrison (74 to c. 115 CE; Bailey 1994:86–87, 97, 99). At Caesarea Maritima, lamps signed ‘Romanesis’ are associated with the Tenth Legion (Sussman 1996:350). These finds indicate a post-70 CE date for the import and local manufacture of Broneer Type XXI and XXIII lamps. Additional evidence comes from the Upper City of Jerusalem where, during the Herodian period until 70 CE, occasional imports of Broneer Type XXI lamps with a decorated discus, with a plain discus or with a floral design appeared, while lamps of Types XXII and XXIII were rare (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:381–382). Lamps with figurative Roman images were rejected by the Jewish population on religious and ideological grounds. It was only after 70 CE, with the change of population—now comprising ethnically Roman and pagan military and administrative personnel––that Roman-type volute lamps with a figurative discus became the dominant lamp type, as documented by the Western Wall Plaza assemblage and the contents from a cistern in Area F-6 in the Upper City (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:298; 2017b:57). 772. L8053, B80590. Light brown clay, thin, dark brown slip on top, made in a plaster mold, as indicated by the tiny blisters. The figure-type is Victory with a plain round shield (Leibundgut 1977:132–133, Nos. 374– 379, Motif 1, dated from the time of Augustus until the end of the first century; Bailey 1980:26–28, Fig. 22: Q 829, Q 854, Q 855). A more elaborate version has a shield with New Year’s greetings (Leibundgut 1977: Motif 2, dated from the second quarter of the first into the second century; Cahn-Klaiber 1977:41, No. 255, c. middle of the first until the second century). This motif was also used in the workshop of the Knidian lamp maker Romanesis (see also No. 779; Bailey 1980:26–28, Fig. 22: Q 957–959; Fitch and Goldman 1994:114–115, No. 525, Fig. 65). Lamps with this figure-type were excavated at Byblos (Dunand 1954:463, No. 11629, Fig. 507), Gabala in Lebanon (Rey-Coquais 1963:151–152, No. 16) and Dora (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:278, Fig. 5.20:9). There are additional lamps in the collections of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Israeli and Avida 1988:27, No. 27), and an example with Victory in a different pose in the collections of the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, is said to be from Tubas (Hayes 1980a:90, No. 362). 773. L8122, B80739. Yellowish clay, reddish-brown core, dull dark gray slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 24, unknown/not Israel).

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The figure-type is Eros in a resting pose with a lyre. Of the complete scene, only the seated figure with a wing, leaning on his right arm, is preserved. Not preserved is the lyre to the left of Eros, which was as high as the seated figure, and his outstretched left hand that is grasping the lyre (Leibundgut 1977:146, No. 690, Motif 80, its prototype was Apollo playing the cithara and the change to Eros trivialized the subject, dated to the end of the first to end of the second century; Bailey 1980:20, Q 1306, central Italian, dated to the first half of the second century, 1988:284, Q 2294, Judaea/Palaestina and Syria, dated 40–100 CE; Bémont 2003:61, D 008; Bémont and Chew 2007:66, D 49, L IV; 347–348, AS 2, Pl. 85, unknown provenance, Syria/Palaestina?). Local and regional finds were reported in Jerusalem (Tushingham 1985:61, Fig. 25:12; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.2:5, 2017b: Fig. 6), Byblos (Dunand 1958:1054–1055, No. 19045, Fig. 1164), Sidon (ReyCoquais 1963:150, No. 9), Tyre (Marchand 1996: 62, Nos. 33–34) and Dora (RosenthalHeginbottom 2017b: Figs. 7, 8, with planta pedis). 774. L8165, B81217, B81205. Yellowish clay, dull dark gray slip, mostly worn, biga facing right, only the wheel is preserved. 775. L8164, B81155/1. Yellowish clay, dull dark gray slip, mostly worn, biga facing right, planta pedis on base probably the same lamp as No. 763 (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 50, unknown/not Israel). 776. L8152, B81061/1. Reddish-brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip on top, biga facing left, only the wheel and the tail are preserved. The very common biga figure-type appears on Nos. 774–776 (Goethert-Polaschek 1985:232, Motif No. 118). This figure-type can occur with or without a charioteer (Bailey 1988:59–60). In the Levant, lamps are recorded from Jerusalem (Avigad 1983: Ill. 252, Broneer XXIII; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.2:9, 10), Tyre (Marchand 1996:59, No. 9, Broneer Type XXII), Capernaum (Loffreda 1996:134–135, Fig. 59a:213), Dora (Stern 1994:308, Fig. 212, Broneer XXIII; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:278, Fig. 5.20:8, Broneer XXIII with planta pedis), Caesarea Maritima (Holum et al. 1988:131, Fig. 87, Broneer XXII), Herodium (Loffreda 1996:134–135, Fig. 59a:213, Photograph 66), Oboda (Negev 1986:128, No. 1110) and Petra (Horsfield and Horsfield 1942:196, No. 422, Pl. XLV). For a lamp from Carthage, see Deneauve 1969:136, Nos. 473, 474; for lamps in collections, see Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:35, No. 128; Bémont 2003:86, D 096; Bémont and Chew 2007:348, AS 4, Pl. 85, from a workshop in Syria-Palaestina. This figure-type also occurs on round discus lamps (see Neidinger 1982:166, No. 36, from Antipatris, on the floor of a shop built after the Romans razed the city in 68 CE on their way to Jerusalem). Another lamp is in the Adler Collection (Adler 2004:65, No. 392). 777. L8158, B81261. Four joining fragments, reddish-brown clay, thin red slip on top, mostly worn, local cream ware, made from a plaster mold, as indicated by the tiny blisters.

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On the discus is a gladiator facing to the right in a pose of preventing attack or retreating. He wears a loin cloth, greaves or leg-bindings and probably boots. His left arm, probably with a manica or bound for protection up to the shoulder, is ready to stab with a short sword. The head and shield are missing. An interesting detail is the location of the filling hole, which is above the right knee rather than between the feet, as was normal. In the missing section, the gladiator possibly held a small shield to protect his upper body or his head (Bailey 1980: Fig. 56: Q 783, Q 790, 1988: Fig. 57: Q 1957, Q 2434 for likely position; Goethert-Polaschek 1985:227, Motif 103, the filling hole is on the left; Heimerl 2001:196, Motif 147, No. 159, Pergamon). The motif of one or two gladiators was very popular in Italian (Bailey 1980:51– 55) and provincial lamp production (Leibundgut 1977:164–171, 191; Bailey 1988:55–58; Heimerl 2001:196, Motifs 135–153). In the Levant, examples were found in the Tyre area (Rey-Coquais 1963:150–151, Nos. 11, 12), at Nysa-Scythopolis (Hadad 2002:133, No. 513; Sussman 2008:225, No. 45), Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:100, No. L26, Fig. 32, Pl. 18, an Italian import) and Oboda (Negev 1986:128, No. 1108). Two such lamps are known in collections, one of Broneer Type XXII in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (Israeli and Avida 1988:27, No 25), the other of Broneer Type XXIII acquired in Jerusalem (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:29, No. 95). 778. L8122, B80686/1. Yellowish clay, traces of dark brown to gray slip on top (RosenthalHeginbottom 2017b: Fig. 9). This figure-type is the trophy comprising a cuirass on a pole above two shields or greaves. In the Roman provinces, lamps were locally produced, for example at Vindonissa (Leibundgut 1977:170, Motif 230, cuirass, Motif 235, two greaves) and Pergamon (Heimerl 2001:196, Motif 155, Nos. 368, 369, 889). In the Levant, parallels are found at Jerusalem (RosenthalHeginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.2:1, 2; 2017b: Fig. 9), Tyre (Rey-Coquais 1963:151, No. 15; Marchand 1996:62, Nos. 36, 37), Dora (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017b: Fig. 11, with planta pedis), Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:225, No. 47), Netanya (Sussman 2012:194, No. 34) and on Cyprus (Bailey 1988:55, Fig. 65; 303, Q 2396). The trophy also appears on gold aureii and silver denarii from the mint of Rome, commemorating the subjection of Judaea, the oval shields placed in a vertical position (Meshorer 1998:107–109, Nos. 398–403). Crossed shields are shown on Roman administration coins, minted under Domitian after 83 CE in Caesarea Maritima (Meshorer 2001:192, Pl. 80:391–392). On coins of Aelia Capitolina minted under Marcus Aurelius, the two shields flank the cuirass on the pole (Meshorer 1989:33, No. 46). Meshorer points out that on coins, the depiction of trophies is normally connected with war or military victory. However, as there is no information concerning which war the trophy on the Jerusalem coins refers to, Meshorer suggests that it was used here as a general symbol of military success that the city wished the emperor, and such an interpretation might be relevant for lamps as well. 779. L8144, B81254/3; L8158, B81255/1. Light brown to yellowish clay, thin, dark brown to reddish-brown slip on top; the filling hole is centrally placed on the discus in the middle of the scene (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 43: unknown/not Israel).

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780. L8137, B81200. Light brown clay, thin red slip. The figure-type on Nos. 779 and 780 depicts the herdsman Tityrus in two versions, not from the same mold. Lamp No. 779 preserves most of the scene, which is similar to that on an Italian lamp in the British Museum (Bailey 1980:174, Q 923). A curious detail is the position of the right arm and the stick/staff: the arm is outstretched as if to pick an olive from the tree, while the stick seems to float in front of the figure. On No. 780, the farmer stands opposite the tree with his right arm at his waist (resembles Bailey 1980:162, Q 869). This figure-type is found in various parts of the Empire, with or without the name Tityrus, and has been discussed by several authors (Leibundgut 1977:157–158, Nos. 198–200, Motif 146; Bailey 1980:44–45, Fig. 48: Q 869, Q 923; Goethert-Polascheck 1985:241, Motif 144; Bémont 2003:79, D 071). Lamps with this scene were manufactured in several production centers, among them the factory of Romanesis (Heres 1968:198, Nos. 133, 136). There is a tendency on the part of the lamp makers to omit various elements; the complete scene includes the farmer Tityrus/herdsman, goats, a tree and a sleeping dog. In excavations at Alexandria, an ancient dump from a workshop or store dated to the third century contained lamp fragments with the Tityrus scene (Młynarczyk 1995: 205, Pl. 4:8; 1998:345, Fig. 16a–b; 347, Fig. 20a–c), attesting to provincial imitation of Italian lamps. It is clear that two (or more) similar molds were being used and that there was a gradual degradation of the relief. The repertoire that was being copied in the Egyptian workshop was Italian. The Italian prototype of this figure type, dated c. 30–70 CE, is described by Bailey (1980:44–45, Fig. 48: Q 869, Q 923). On the left of the discus stands a bearded figure, on the right is a tree, probably an olive tree. The figure represents the peasant farmer Tityrus, one of the two participants in Virgil’s First Eclogue, also called Bucolics. He is standing on a ground line facing right and leaning on a stick, with his weight on his right leg, wearing a short tunic, sandals, and the skin of a cloven-hooved animal over his shoulders, tied by the forelegs. Behind him, in relief letters, is the name TITVRVS. The tree has a nest with a young bird, and an adult bird perches on a bough above the nest. The figure is looking at four animals––sheep and goats––between him and the tree. In another version, there are six goats: a goat on hindlegs to the left of the tree, reaching up to eat the leaves (below is a sleeping dog), three goats graze to the right of the tree, and two goats graze below the tree at the level of the goatherd. The subject of the farmer Tityrus/herdsman (and the figure-type of Victory No. 772) occurs also on volute lamps produced by the Knidian lamp maker Romanesis. In the British Museum Catalogue, Bailey (1988) concludes that Knidian lamp production ceased around 70 BCE and was revived around 70 CE with the manufacture of volute lamps that became very popular in the East and quickly pushed aside the predominant Italian imports (Bailey 1988:326–327). In his comprehensive study of the output of the Romanesis factory, Heres suggests that it was located at Miletus and that its extensive exports began only after 100 CE; thus, all the lamps found in Athens, Dalmatia, Italy, Tunisia and Egypt are post-100 CE (Heres 1968:203–204). In the recent publication on the Knidian ceramic production (Kögler 2010), evidence is presented for redating the local Knidian lamp manufacture to earlier than Bailey’s suggested 70 CE date. The fill

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of the Blocked Stoa cistern contained gray lamps of two types: the Hellenistic biconical type with ‘Knidian leaves’, and early Imperial volute lamps with a decorated discus, several from the workshop(s) of Romanesis, dated together with other ceramics to the Augustan period until about 75 CE (Kögler 2010:74–76; for the lamps, see Pls. 41: G.L1; 42:G.L2–7; 43:G.L8, G.L9). Hence, the production in the Romanesis workshop began around the mid-first century CE, possibly earlier. 781. L8048, B80180. Yellowish clay, traces of thin, blotchy dark gray slip on top. 782. L8053, B81000/3. Yellowish clay, traces of dark gray slip on top, mostly worn. Lamp Nos. 781 and 782 depict a bucolic scene of one or several sheep related to the previous figure-type of the farmer Tityrus/herdsman: on No. 781 is a standing sheep, and on No. 782 is an ewe, her head down, with a sucking youngster (Bailey 1988:77–78, sheep and goats; Bémont 2003:230, GA 6, Pl. 31; p. 131, D 235–236; Bémont and Chew 2007:382–383, OI 9, L IV, lamp with handle). Lamps of Broneer Type XXIII with the same figure-type were found at Byblos (Dunand 1954:90, No. 7343, Fig. 78, three sheep, from a Roman cistern), Sarepta (Pritchard 1978:182, 324, Fig. 75) and Tyre (Marchand 1996:60, Figs. 20, 21). Another was acquired in Beirut (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:30, No. 102, with a foot-print stamp on the base). 783. L8075, B80460/1. Light brown clay, thin, dull reddish-brown slip on top. The fragmentary animal appears to represent a panther/pantheress or a leopard/leopardess. This motif is not common on Roman lamps. A leopard standing in front of a tree and facing left is depicted on lamps from Byblos (Dunand 1954:63–64, Fig. 38), Sarepta (Pritchard 1978:180, 323, Figs. 71, 74) and Tyre (Marchand 1996:59, No. 11). An example of a snarling leopardess, with its head turned left and charging to the right, occurs on a late second–early third century Corinthian lamp from Athens (Perlzweig 1961:92, No. 244). A panther with its front paws on a krater with grapes appears on a lamp from Carthage, which is unlikely in the present specimen (Deneauve 1969:153, No. 600). 784. L8132, B81099/3. Yellowish clay, dark gray slip, mostly worn. The remains of the discus decoration suggest the motif is a bunch of grapes and two vine leaves (see Stern 1994:308, a round discus lamp from Dora; Bémont and Chew 2007:348, AS 3, Pl. 85, a lamp from a workshop in Syria/Palaestina), or a locust devouring a bunch of grapes with two vine leaves (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:25, No. 71; Israeli and Avida 1988:27, No. 26). Lampstands of Knidian and Local Manufacture The widely exported Knidian lampstands were mass-produced objects of daily use in household shrines, enabling the owner to both illuminate and burn aromatic substances. They are also recorded from Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Greece, former Yugoslavia, and

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Italy. The uniform style of all of them suggests that the artisan who created the prototype for the lampstands had a liking for fat little boys (Bailey 1975:71). Fragments of two lampstands were retrieved in the assemblage: No. 785 is a Knidian import and No. 786, a product of the legionary kilnworks. Such lampstands were manufactured and exported during the years 70–120 CE (Bailey 1988:329; Baldoni 2003: Fig. IV:20), and they consisted of several separate, mold-made elements. The base is a rectangular, hollow, grooved and decorated plinth. On top of the base is a squat, fluted column supporting a thymiaterion bowl. The central column is flanked by figurative lamp supports adorned with Eros statuettes, mostly as Heracles or Hypnos (Bailey 1988:340, Q 2727). 785. L4072, B40270. Fragment of standing Eros (9.5 × 5.5 cm), hard fabric, orange-brown clay, thin orange to reddish-brown slip with some blotches on exterior, micaceous, import. A parallel to No. 785 is a broken lampstand on which Eros stands on a base-line, facing forward, holding double pipes (Bailey 1988:341, Q 2735). At his side, a leafy branch curves upward. The Eros in No. 785 holds a round object in his right hand; from what is left of the object in his other hand, it could be a down-turned torch (note the preserved curls of flames) like that seen on an example in the British Museum (the imagery is also discussed by Mandel 1988:121–122, 166–167). Two lampstands found at Salamis are also similar (Oziol 1977:217–218, No. 645, Eros with a cornucopia in the left arm and the forefinger of the right hand raised to the mouth; No. 646, Eros with an unidentified object in the left hand, possibly a club, held down). 786. L8048, B81192. Base preserved (height 6.5 cm), light brown clay, smooth polished exterior, cream ware like Nos. 757–759, local product, decoration unclear: horse’s tail or coiled rope. Like the Knidian volute lamp with a horse-head projection (No. 747), lampstand No. 786 appears to have been copied and locally produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. Head-shaped drinking cups and animal-shaped vases are other mass-produced Knidian objects imported into the southern Levant (Hayes 1972:411–412; 1980b:LXIX; 2008:105–107; Baldoni 2003:7). They began to be produced at the same time as the lampstands around 70 CE and are typical of the second–third centuries. In the southern Levant, they occur at ‘Akko (Messika 1997:124, No. 13), Capernaum (Loffreda 2008:135, No. 3-t172), Shiqmona (Elgavish 1994:157, Fig. 144), Dora (Guz-Zilberstein 1989; Stern 1994: Pl. V), Caesarea Maritima (Patrich and Abu Shaneb 2008:315, No. 320, erroneously identified as an altar), Gerasa (Iliffe 1945: Pl. 6:90), Apollonia (Roll and Ayalon 1989:46, Fig. 22) and Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a: Nos. 392–394). The imitation of a Knidian cup in the shape of a ram in the Brigetio potteries at Pannonia supports the conclusion that military potters copied these Knidian products (Bónis 1977b:123–124, Fig. 11). It is surprising that none of the popular head-shaped drinking cups were retrieved in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage. The reason is probably related to the trade connections with western Asia Minor, which were more extensive with the coastal sites than with inland settlements. Furthermore, lampstands are objects connected with a specific ritual, the burning of aromatic substances, while elaborate drinking cups were locally produced and more easily available to consumers than the Knidian cups.

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Levantine Lamps Round Discus Lamps During the late first, second and third centuries CE, the most common class of lamps in the eastern Mediterranean was a relatively homogeneous type in the tradition of Broneer Type XXV, with about 50 decorative motifs identified. In Judaea, the earliest dated example originates in the Burnt House in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem. Although it was not retrieved from the destruction levels of the house, the stratigraphic context points to a late Second Temple date, prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE (Geva 2010:130, Pl. 4.8:12). The discus is decorated with a rabbit nibbling at a cluster of grapes, and on the base is an impressed foot-print stamp. Thus, the suggestion that in Jerusalem these lamps appear only from the first quarter of the second century onward is to be corrected (Kloner and Zissu 2007:145, following a suggestion by Barag and Hershkovitz 1994:127). It comprises the only type in the assemblage from the legionary bakery in the Tyropoeon Valley (RosenthalHeginbottom 2011:195–202) and is common in the cistern assemblage in the Upper City of Jerusalem (Area F-6; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a: Pls. 25.2:14,15; 25.3:1–4). The type is present in habitation levels, hiding complexes and burial contexts from the Bar Kokhba period (Porat et al. 2009:57, Fig. 5:21; Zissu et al. 2009:498, Pl. 4:30, 31). The round, flat lamps are small (c. 8–9 cm long, 2–3 cm high), thin-walled, with a small round nozzle and a sunken, usually relief-decorated discus. There is a framing ring surrounding the discus. The filling hole is placed so as not to damage the image. Because of the fragmentary state of the lamps retrieved from the Western Wall Plaza excavations (Nos. 787–813), it cannot be determined whether lamps with a decorated or a plain discus were more common. The outward-sloping shoulder can be plain or ornamented. The most common decoration is the band of impressed ovules, often resembling impressed circles, alongside other foliated or geometric impressed designs. The double axes in relief, centered on either side of the shoulder, are a particular hallmark of this type (No. 809). Close to the nozzle, there are generally double volutes in relief, although a ring encircling the wick hole is also found (Nos. 789, 790, 793, 810). Handles are rare (Nos. 797, 798). Potters’ marks are frequent and include names, monograms, letters and emblems (No. 792, 796). The lamps are made of fine ware, mostly light-colored clay with a red, brown, gray or black slip of differing quality; a few lamps are unslipped (Nos. 811–813). A number of images on the discuses could be recognized: lamp No. 795 depicts a sheep or other animal, Nos. 797 and 806 are unclear, Nos. 807 and 808 are multi-petalled rosettes, and No. 813 is possibly a biga. Among the products found in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks are a figure of a dancing maenad with a thyrsos (Magness 2005: Fig. 32:8), an animal attacking another (Hershkovitz 2005: Fig. 11:7), and a bust of Pan (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:273, No. 180). Regional and local workshops existed, for example at Jerusalem (the legionary kilnworks) and Dora (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2012), yet many questions as to origin, ware, production centers and dating remain. In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage round discus lamps of different sizes and quality were contemporaneous. Full-sized lamps such as No. 792 (at least 8 cm long) occur side by side with small lamps (L8081, B80709, not illustrated, reddish-brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip, 6.2 cm long). The reason for the

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appearance of small lamps could have been economic: small lamps need less oil and burn for less time. Apart from the size there is also the question of quality and the so-called ‘earlier’ and ‘later’ versions, assuming that lamps copying decorative features of Roman prototypes, such as volutes, ovules and pictorial discuses (Nos. 787, 788), are earlier than those without volutes, or with simplified bands of ovules or palmettes (Nos. 789–791, 793, 795, 804, 806), and those from later-generation, increasingly simplified molds (see No. 787, conch; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Pl. 3, busts of Pan with and without the shepherd’s crook). At Dora, several ‘good-quality’ lamps were retrieved from a Phase 1 context, dated to the second–early third centuries (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:324–325, Fig. 6.50:15, 19), as well as from the drainage system in use during the latest phase of settlement in the early third century (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:313, Fig. 6.39:21–24). Thus, it is evident that neither size, quality, nor slip should be considered chronological indicators, but more likely result from the economic and social status of the buyer and user. 787. L5332, B52407/11. Light brown clay, red slip on exterior with spot on interior, volute and band of vertical lines on shoulder, a conch on discus. The conch is a common motif on Roman lamps (Bailey 1980:84–85) and in Jewish art (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981:117). It is usually delicately rendered, although two discus fragments from the Temple Mount excavations bear a stylized, simplified version (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Figs. X:1; XII:4). 788. L5332, B52407/12. Reddish-brown clay, red slip on exterior and interior, volute and ovules on shoulder. 789. L8187, B81404/4. Light brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip, soot on nozzle, ovules on shoulder, same fabric as volute lamp Nos. 766 and 767. 790. L8107, B80475/2. Reddish-brown clay, thin reddish-brown slip, soot on nozzle, wreath on shoulder. 791. L8104, B80524. Light gray clay, thin, dull dark gray to brown slip with splashes on inner side of discus, ovules on shoulder, metallic fabric. 792. L8125, B80865/1. Light brown clay, thin, blotchy, reddish-brown slip on exterior with splashes on interior, impressed foot-print stamp on base (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 27: unknown/not Israel). 793. L5339, B52435. Light brown clay, thin, blotchy, reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, ovules on shoulder, too little is preserved of the discus decoration for identification. 794. L5339, B52432/13. Reddish-brown to light brown clay, dark gray slip with splashes on interior.

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795. L6130, B71459. Yellowish clay, dark brown slip on exterior, ovules on shoulder, an animal on discus, possibly a sheep. 796. L5332, B52411/4. Same fabric as No. 795, on base is a potter’s mark comprising a rosette of five dotted circles around a central one. For similar potters’ mark, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Fig. 16:1, from Afeq Antipatris; Magness 2005: Fig. 32:8, from legionary kilnworks. 797. L8125, B80892/1. Light brown clay, thin, dark gray slip on exterior, plain shoulder, pierced handle, unclear discus scene. 798. L8137, B80599/5. Yellowish clay, faint traces of dark gray slip on exterior, pierced handle with incised decoration. 799. L8152, B81099. Light brown clay, brown to dark gray, blotchy slip, pierced handle, wreath on shoulder, undecorated discus. 800. L8111, B80467. Reddish-brown clay, red slip, dolphin on shoulder (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 17: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 801. L8057, B81047. Brown clay, thin brown slip on exterior and interior, dolphin on shoulder. 802. L8053, B80602. Brown clay, thin brown slip on exterior and interior, dolphin on shoulder. Another fragment was made from the same mold as No. 802 (L8144, B80924/1), reddishbrown clay, thin, light brown slip on exterior (not illustrated); another from a different mold (L8137, B80999; not illustrated). For the dolphin as a shoulder decoration (Nos. 800–802), see Jerusalem—RosenthalHeginbottom 2017a: Pl. 25.3:2; Dora—Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:245, Type 26.6, Fig. 5.22:4; 1999:42, Fig. 81; ‘Ein ez-Zeituna—Glick 2006:56–58, Fig. 12:3, a schematic dolphin on the one preserved lateral shoulder, and a rosette opposite the wick hole; Mughar el-Sharaf—Porath and Levi 1993:33*–34*, Fig. 2:6. A dolphin on the shoulder also occurs on the Phoenician lamps with a double-convex body, dated to c. 50–150 CE (RosenthalHeginbottom 1995:247, Type 28B.4, Fig. 5.23:9; Sussman 2008:221, No. 31). 803. L5332, B52404/2. Reddish-brown clay, red slip on exterior and interior, ovules on shoulder, too little is preserved of the discus decoration for identification. 804. L8174, B81304/5. Brown clay, traces of dark brown slip on top, medium-fine ware, indistinct ovules on shoulder.

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805. L8137, B80999/7. Reddish-brown clay, brown slip on exterior, palmettes on shoulder. 806. L662, B5882. Light brown clay, red slip on exterior, simplified palmettes on shoulder, too little is preserved of the discus decoration for identification. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:18. Stamped palmettes are a common feature on lamps, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Figs. IV:2; VI:1–3. 807. L525, B5023/6. Light brown clay, red slip on exterior, a multi-petalled whirl-rosette or a conch on discus. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:17. 808. L525, B5023/7. Whitish clay, gray slip on exterior, a multi-petalled rosette on discus. Published in Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:158, Pl. 2:16; see also Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Figs. X:4, XI:5, from the Temple Mount excavations. 809. L8128, B80730/1. Reddish-brown clay, dark gray slip with red spots on exterior, red slip on part of interior, double axe on shoulder (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 29: unknown/not Israel). For a double-axe on a lamp fragment of Broneer Types XXII–XXIII, see Loffreda 1996:134–135, Fig. 59a:217, thought to be local. 810. L8126, B80687. Brown clay, dark gray slip with silvery shine, ovules on shoulder, band of vertical lines around discus, metallic fabric like No. 791. 811. L8065, B80268. Light brown clay, unslipped, ovules on shoulder, band of vertical lines around discus. 812. L6080, B60468. Light brown clay, unslipped, triangles on shoulder, central filling hole, plain discus. For similar decoration of triangles, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Fig. XII:2, from the Temple Mount excavations. 813. L8060, B80232. Light brown clay, unslipped, possibly a replica of the figure-type with a biga (Nos. 774, 775). Phoenician Lamps Very few fragments can be attributed to this type, dated to the late first–second centuries (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:246–247, Dor Type 28, c. 50–150 CE; Sussman 2008:222–223). The distinct feature is the olive, myrtle and laurel wreath on the shoulder.

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814. L8137, B80990/3. Yellowish clay, traces of thin dark gray to brown slip on exterior, wreath on shoulder. 815. L8140, B80900/1. Yellowish clay, traces of dark gray slip on exterior, tendrils on shoulder. 816. L8137, B81007/2. Gray to brown clay, dark gray to reddish-brown slip on exterior and interior, wreath on shoulder. 817. L8182, B81350/11. Gray clay, dark brown slip on exterior and interior, wreath on shoulder.

Factory Lamps Mass-produced factory lamps, also called Firmalampen, were first manufactured in workshops around Modena in the Po Valley from about the middle of the first century CE, then exported and subsequently imitated for about 300 years. Finds indicate that they were popular in the western parts of the Roman Empire and rare in the eastern parts (RosenthalHeginbottom 2015b). Characteristic features include a circular body, a wide nozzle flanked by volutes scrolled at one or both ends and terminating in a triangular or rounded shape, a deep sunken or slightly curved, either plain or decorated discus encircled by rim moldings, and a circular base with a base-ring (earlier lamps) or a slightly raised base (later lamps; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a: Figs. 7, 8). Inscriptions on the base are usually incuse, giving the name of the lamp maker and the workshop. The relief imagery on the discus is extremely varied and includes scenes, deities and mortals, daily life, animals, plants and floral patterns. 818. L8167, B81265. Gray clay, light brown coating and traces of thin brown slip on exterior, stamp FORTIS; at center of discus is an indistinct head of Jupiter Ammon, three filling holes at side and bottom. Published in Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a: Figs. 3–5. This lamp was produced in a plaster mold, as can be deduced from the blisters and the faint image. It is most likely a copy produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, although it had been exposed to extreme heat and become so brittle that it fell apart in my hand, therefore it is difficult to assess. The head of Jupiter Ammon, bearded and with ram’s horns, is frequently depicted on factory lamps, but also on discus lamps (Leibundgut 1977:137, Motif 31; for a clear example, see p. 276, No. 763, Pl. 10; Bailey 1980:280, Q 1159, brick-red, micaceous clay, North Italian, last third of first century CE). Leibundgut points out that this god was popular with the army and his appearance cannot be taken as a sign of veneration of an Egyptian god (1977:195).

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819. L8053, B80380. Brick-red clay, stamp [C]OMVNIS, Italian import produced at Modena. Published in Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a: Fig. 2. Lamps of the fabricants Fortis and Communis both appear in the first-century CE group of fabricants, with Fortis being one of the most prolific producers and active over a long period (Buchi 1975:65–93; Bailey 1988:97; for Communis, see Buchi 1975:27–33; Bailey 1988:96). In the southern Levant, imports are recorded at Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a: Fig. 6, Phoetaspus), Byblos (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a: Fig. 8, with head of Silenos), Caesarea Maritima (Sussman 2008:229; 2012: Fig. 16.1:2, 3, Fortis and Festus), while a local copy came to light at Oboda (Negev 1986:138, No. 1191, Fortis). A factory lamp from Masada, with a suggested date of 60–100 CE, is of uncertain origin as it is not North Italian and may be central Italian or a local copy (Bailey 1994:93, No. 201). The examples from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks are considered to be of local manufacture (Magness 2005:102–103). A lamp of unknown provenance in the collection of the IAA also appears to be local (Sussman 2012:200, No. 74; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015a:123, 140 n. 12).

R ectangular /Square Lamp of Gray Ware 820. L8137, B80792/1, B80803/2. Rectangular lamp with square reservoir, three joining fragments, gray clay, around the base is a low stand-ring (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 32: Lebanon, Upper Galilee, eastern Samaria or Transjordan). The top is decorated with a floral and geometric design. The large, central filling hole is surrounded by two grooved ridges set within an inner square ridge with a dotted circle in the corner. Between the inner ridge and a second ridge is a band of lanceolate leaves comprised of a pair of alternating, diagonally set leaves forming triangles; a third ridge runs along the outer edge and continues into the volute of the missing nozzle. A row of crisscross lines separates the reservoir from the nozzle. In shape, size and decoration, this lamp resembles rare lamps with a square or rectangular reservoir and a handle, of the mold-made Darom-type lamps, corresponding to the Molded Judaean lamps (Nos. 826, 827; see Sussman 1982: Nos. 92, 113, 137, 206, 219; Israeli and Avida 1988: Nos. 92, 226–231; Adler 2004: Nos. 288–292). Spatulate gray-ware lamps occur at Masada, where they date around the third quarter of the first century CE (Barag and Hershkovitz 1994:53–58, on the date pp. 55, 67; Magness 2009:81). A moldmade gray lamp from Masada was determined by neutron activation analysis (NAA) to originate along the northern coast (Yellin 1994:109, Table 2(b), MSDL 20).

Judaean Lamps Pinched-Rim Lamp The single lamp of this type is residual. It is dated to the first century BCE and was no longer in use by the first century CE (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:112–113; RosenthalHeginbottom 2016:429–430).

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821. L8060, B80850. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surfaces light brown. Lamps with Spatulate Nozzle These lamps are the principal type during the first century CE in the Jewish settlements of Judaea, but they appear also in cities with a mixed or pagan population. They were introduced toward the end of the reign of Herod the Great, or shortly afterward, and continued in use until the Bar Kokhba Revolt (Barag and Hershkovitz 1994:24–53, for the date, see p. 45; Sussman 2008:219–220; Magness 2009:80–81; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2016:431–432; the common designation as ‘Herodian lamp’ is a misnomer and should be avoided). No gray-ware lamps or lamps with a stamped nozzle decoration were recovered in the Western Wall Plaza excavations. The number of lamps with a spatulate nozzle in this assemblage is quite high and curiously, mostly nozzles with traces of soot have come to light. A probable explanation for the large number of nozzles is the fact that the nozzle is the strongest part of the generally thin-walled lamps, which broke into many small fragments when the household ceramics were cleared out and discarded in the Roman dump and in the fills above the Eastern Cardo. 822. L8162, B81153. Intact lamp, light brown clay, knife-paring on sides and lower part of nozzle, soot on nozzle. 823. L8104, B80425. Brown to gray clay, knife-paring on nozzle, soot on nozzle. 824. L8125, B80865/2. Light brown clay, knife-paring on sides and lower part of unusually large nozzle, soot on nozzle. 825. L8144, B81248/1. Light brown clay, knife-paring on sides and lower part of unusual nozzle. Molded Judaean Lamps Only two fragments of this type of lamp were identified in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage. This type is attributed to the period between the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (70–135 CE) and constitutes a local type produced in Judaea, or perhaps in the Jerusalem area (for references, see Barag and Hershkovitz 1994:72–78; Kloner and Zissu 2007:146; Sussman 2008:221–222; Magness 2009:81). 826. L8107, B80475/1. Light brown clay, smooth polished exterior, knife-paring at joint of two molds, a delicate tendril with leaves or fruit on the shoulder. 827. L8144, B80724/2. Brown clay, decoration on the nozzle consists of a fringed square with inward curving borders, surrounding a dotted circle; the raised horizontal line on the nozzle and the edge of the rudimentary volute are recognizable.

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For a parallel decoration, see Sussman 1982:123, No. 242 with fringes; No. 241 without fringes. The identification of the fringed squares as winepresses by Sussman was apparently influenced by the antithetic clusters of grapes and vine leaves on the shoulder of the lamp; in view of the fact that the three decorative elements, fringed squares, clusters of grapes and vine leaves are all of the same size, the depiction of a wine press seems doubtful.

Discussion of Lamps The typological, iconographic and chronological implications drawn from the finds presented here are important for our understanding of the changes in Judaean material culture brought about by the appearance of the Roman military personnel in Jerusalem. Although these changes were foremost a local and regional development, they can only be properly assessed in reference to the transformation of lamp production and marketing strategies that took place in the Levant in the wake of Knidian lamp makers’ imitations of Italian-type lamps, beginning in Augustan times. Typologically and iconographically, the predominant lamp types in this assemblage are Eastern derivatives and imitations of the Italian volute lamps, which are the hallmarks of the first century CE and disappear in the second century. From the late first century onward, these are replaced by the round discus lamps with a small rounded nozzle, widespread in the eastern Mediterranean during the second and third centuries. At this time, regional and local workshops for these lamps began to be established. The output of the workshops at Pergamon and Tarsos have a purely provincial character and were produced exclusively for the local market, not for export. This holds true also for Phoenicia, Palaestina and Nabataea. In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, the round discus type is represented by mostly non-iconographic examples and considering their contemporaneous use with the decorated volute lamps, the question arises whether they are an expression of social and economic differences among the population. Like the wheel-made lamps with a spatulate nozzle, they were possibly cheaper and thus acquired by soldiers rather than officers, or by people serving the Roman army personnel who did not want to use lamps with pagan decorations or could not afford to buy them. Several of the subjects depicted on the volute lamps in this assemblage derive from the standard Roman repertoire as part of the Roman visual koine and reflect the city’s character as a military station and as a Roman enclave. Some of these represent the embodiment of the Roman lifestyle of public entertainment (the gladiator, the biga) and imperial power (the trophy), while others are taken from the world of religion and mythology (Victory, Eros), poetry (Tityrus), or are genre scenes (sheep). The predominant imported and locally produced volute lamps and the two lampstands, one imported, the other locally produced, reflect the turning point in the Eastern provincial lamp production brought about by the Knidian manufacture in Augustan times. It resulted in the cessation of Italian imports and opened the market to Knidian products. At Dora, for example, a decline in trade relations with Italy during the second half

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of the first century was noted (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1995:241). In Jerusalem, the finds from the legionary kilnworks and the Western Wall Plaza excavations provide evidence for the local manufacture of lamps modeled on imported eastern prototypes, dated to the period between the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, Knidian lamps (and the very popular Ephesos-type lamps) were imported in small numbers, most likely not representing organized long-distance trade, but rather personal property acquired by individuals from travelling merchants (Hayes 1985: Fig. 49:13; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:380–381). It appears that imports did not increase after 70 CE. Although without further archaeometric analyses it is impossible to assess the numerical relation between imported and locally produced volute lamps, the evidence from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage and the large number of these lamps retrieved in the cistern in Jerusalem’s Upper City (Area F-6) suggest that a substantial proportion of the Broneer Types XXI–XXIII volute lamps and the round discus lamps were local products (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:293–294; 2017b:56–57). Unfortunately, the lamps themselves do not permit us to further narrow the timespan of two generations between the two revolts, as the conclusion that the volute lamps are primarily a first-century feature does not determine, a priori, that they were no longer in existence in the second century. Yet, with a date later than the early second century, one would expect the round discus lamps to outnumber the volute lamps in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage. A similar dilemma is reflected in Bailey’s summary of the evidence from Masada (Bailey 1994:99). As he says, it is difficult to attribute the imported lamps to the four phases of occupation. In the last phase of the Second Roman Garrison (74 to c. 115 CE), there is a Knidian lamp signed by Romanesis (Bailey 1994:97) and no lamps of the regional round discus type. Bailey puts forward three alternative explanations. I cannot concur with any of them. The first, that the round discus type was not made before 115 CE, can be dismissed as evidence is provided by the Western Wall Plaza assemblage and the Jewish Quarter excavations that the lamps began to appear in Jerusalem in the last third of the first century CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:382). In view of the popularity of these lamps in military contexts in Jerusalem, his second explanation, that the already existing type was simply not found at Masada, is as unlikely as his third explanation, that the supplies for the second garrison came from different sources. Considering the post-70 CE appearance of the lamps in Jerusalem their introduction is the result of the change from the Jewish inhabitants to ethnic Romans and to an indigenous pagan population (RosenthalHeginbottom 2017a:292–293. 298). In summary, on the one hand, the assemblage of lamps retrieved here shows a strong local tradition in the wheel-made lamps with a spatulate nozzle, and on the other hand, a Romanization with regard to shape and decorative motifs in the imports and imitations of volute lamps. Some of the local derivatives of the Broneer Type XXV round discus lamps already herald the increasing simplification in style and decoration of the later second and third centuries.

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Tableware for Drinking, Serving and Cult Although fragmentary in nature, the collection of luxury ceramic relief- and applicationdecorated tableware recovered in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, in quantity, variety and quality, is outstanding in the local material culture. By shape and function the fragments can be attributed to drinking vessels like chalices, cups and a bowl (Nos. 828–837, possibly also Nos. 857–860); amphoriskoi and jugs for drawing, storing and pouring liquids (Nos. 838– 850) and small fragments of closed vessels for precious substances such as herbs and spices (Nos. 851–853); and kraters for mixing wine and water (Nos. 854–856). When attempting to determine the prototypes for these vessels in the present assemblage, it should be stated a priori that evidence for direct imitation is lacking. Some vessels were clearly inspired by silver, bronze and clay tableware, of which substantial numbers have come to light in many parts of the Roman Empire, particularly in Italy, Gaul and the Rhenish provinces (Tassinari 1975, 1993; Künzl 1984, 1993; Baratte 1986, 1989; Conspectus 1990). Other likely influences may have come from eastern workshops in Asia Minor at Pergamon and Knidos (Mandel 1988; Hübner 1993; Baldoni 2003:6–13). Another possible source of inspiration is Egypt, where literary and papyrological sources provide evidence for the production of relief-decorated bronze and clay vessels during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, with workshops identified at Alexandria, Memphis and in the Fayum (Abdou Daoud 1998; Seif El-Din 1998). However, there is a chronological factor to be taken into account. The drinking vessels (Nos. 828– 832), presumably copying Italian Sigillata prototypes, are mainly dated to mid-Augustan and Tiberian times, and imports of such vessels to Jerusalem were sporadic, with two fragments from the Armenian Quarter excavations (Hayes 1985: Fig. 55:1, 2, Pls. 145, 146) and none recorded to date in the Jewish Quarter excavations (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:390–391). Closed metal vessels with relief-decorated handles and escutcheons (Nos. 846–850), so dominant in Italy during the first century CE, are rare in Jerusalem and Judaea-Palaestina (see below), and the variegated popular ceramic products made in Asia Minor reached the southern Levant only in the course of the second century (see below). Comparisons for the figure-types depicted on the luxury tableware from the present assemblage are drawn from minor-art objects such as metal and clay vessels, clay lamps and engraved gems, which ultimately derive from the realms of sculpture and architectural relief. Roman society, in both the civilian and military spheres, was characterized by the frequent and important ritual of the convivia, get-togethers held in dining rooms, or triclinia, where three comfortable dining couches were arranged around a central rectangular space for tables. In well-to-do circles, such meetings were exploited for the ostentatious display of wealth and luxury, especially costly silverware––the drinking silver (argentum potorium) and the eating silver (argentum escarium)––which testified to the host’s self-estimation as a member of the social elite and his attempt to evoke his guests’ admiration (Dunbabin 2003:65–66, 85–88 ). Depicted on a wall painting in the Tomb of Vestorius Priscus at Pompeii, dating to the third quarter of the first century CE, is a table laden with silver vessels, most of them arranged in pairs, emphasizing the deceased’s social standing and wealth even beyond his lifetime (Baratte 1989: Fig. 4; Stupperich 1993: Fig. 4; Dunbabin 2003: Fig. 43). The military aspired to be the equal of civil society in

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every way, and Pliny the Elder reports that when Pompeius Paulinus, Seneca’s father-inlaw, was serving in Lower Germany in 55–58 CE, he carried with him “12,000 pounds weight of silver plate,” i.e., nearly four tons (Pliny, Natural History 33:144; AvisseauBroustet, Colonna and Lapatin 2014:39). Many examples of luxury tableware vessels are known from excavations throughout the Roman Empire (Baratte 1989; Mielsch and Niemeyer 2001), such as the outstanding Hildesheim Treasure (Stupperich 1993) and the hoard from the Villa della Pisanella at Boscoreale (Baratte 1986; Dunbabin 2003: Pl. VI, Fig. 34; Avisseau-Broustet, Colonna and Lapatin 2014: Fig. 25). In the ruins of villas at Pompeii, destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, a substantial number of metal vessels, mainly of bronze, came to light (Tassinari 1975; 1993; Künzl 1984; Stefani 2003:103–104). In the Levant, high-quality silver tableware is rare, and to date there is only the treasure hoard reported to have been found in Lebanon and now in the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles. It is considered to be of Egyptian origin and dated to the very late Ptolemaic period. The hoard contained a pitcher, a pair of cups, a third cup, two jars and a ladle, all of silver, as well as a gold ring, a gold diadem and a gold aureus (Oliver 1977:114, No. 74; 1980:162, Figs. 13–16). For all those who could afford neither silver nor bronze vessels, ceramic copies served as a less-expensive substitute: Maior pars hominum terrenis utitur vasis (“The majority of mankind use earthenware vessels,” Pliny, Natural History 35:160). The vessels presented here comprise the first discovery of a substantial number of relief-decorated ceramic fragments in an archaeological context in Jerusalem, clearly associated with the Roman army and made for use by its officers and administrative personnel. The fragments of vessels for drinking and serving wine display artistic and technical standards paralleled in the East by the relief-decorated pottery produced at Pergamon (Mandel 1988; Hübner 1993; Baldoni 2003:11–13), in the Ephesos region (Mitsopoulos-Leon 1991; ZabehlickyScheffenegger and Schneider 2000), and at Knidos (Bailey 1975; Baldoni 2003:6–11), and by the lead-glazed ware from Asia Minor (see Nos. 903–907). As wine was consumed during all meals, not only in the course of the convivia, as well as during cult ceremonies, the Dionysian imagery on these vessels suited both the consumption of wine and ritual practices. The cults of both Dionysos and Mithras were popular with the Roman army. It should be noted that a complete and a fragmentary krater for sacrificial libations were unearthed to the northeast of the present excavations in 1874 by Clermont-Ganneau (republished by Magness 2003; see also Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015b:611–612, Fig. 1a). Magness interprets these two kraters as evidence of the cult of Mithras, while Gibson favors a Serapeum located on the western side of the Bethesda Pool (Gibson 2011:29, n. 36). On the basis of visual inspection, Magness suggests that the kraters were produced by military potters at the legionary kilnworks in Jerusalem. I examined the complete vessel in the Palestine Exploration Fund premises in London and confirmed that the fabric is the cream ware identified in the 1968 excavations at that site (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:275–277, Nos. 195–198, 200). Some of the relief-decorated fragments from the present excavations were petrographically analyzed, which confirmed that they, and presumably the remainder of these vessels, can also be tentatively attributed to the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks.

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In the 2009 excavations at the site of the legionary kilnworks in Jerusalem, a fragment of a rectangular or square ceramic mold, 2–2.5 cm high, came to light (Beeri and Levy 2011:39; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015b:612–613, Fig. 2), made of a relatively fine fabric similar to that of both the regular fine ware (Nos. 32–64, 85–104) and the luxury tableware (Nos. 828–850). It was used in the preparation of appliqués for clay vessels. The preserved section includes two identical male protomes and a similar head (1.5 cm high), all three depicted frontally with a grotesque face, wearing a diadem and a skull-cap; other motifs in this mold include a band of ovules and the top of a thyrsos. Petrographic analysis confirmed the attribution of this mold to the legionary kilnworks (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 54: Moza marl). Several red- or brown-slipped bowls decorated with a row of applied decorations on the exterior below the rim, including heads, masks, rosettes and geometric designs, originate in the Jerusalem area within a radius of some 25–35 km (Taxel 2007:180). For example, a bowl fragment with three closely set heads, tentatively identified as Dionysos, came to light in the 1949 excavations at the Jerusalem kiln site (Hershkovitz 2005:289, Fig. 7; Taxel 2007:175, No. 6) and another with two heads in the Valley of the Cross (Taxel 2007:175, No. 6, Fig. 4). A fair number of bowls, decorated with applied rosettes, came to light in a potters’ workshop dated to the third– fourth centuries, excavated in a rural area at Khirbat Jamjum, Gush Eẓyon (Meir, Klein and Zissu 2013:386–388, Pl. 4); it is evidence for the continuation of the Jerusalemite tradition. However, all the application-decorated bowls examined by the author are decorated with frontal heads rather than protomes and recall the applied heads of satyrs and Bes on the shoulders of locally produced kraters found at Dora (Erlich 2010:148–149). These vessels from Dora originate in early Hellenistic contexts and are so far unique and restricted to the coast (there is also an unpublished example from Jaffa, Adi Erlich, pers. comm. 2012), therefore a connection with, or influence on the Roman examples from the present excavation is out of the question. The introduction of the application-decorated technique occurred after 70 CE under Greco-Roman influence and represented a local development initially contemporaneous with the relief-decorated tableware.

Drinking Vessels Although not well-preserved, the fragments of drinking vessels can be divided into chalices (Nos. 828–832), cups (Nos. 833, 834), a bowl (No. 835) and pedestal feet (Nos. 836, 837). Unfortunately, there is little evidence for vessel size. For the chalices, a parallel from the 1949 excavation at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks suggests a diameter of c. 14 cm (Hershkovitz 2005: Fig. 11:8), while the Italian prototypes have diameters of 16–20 cm. Cup No. 833 has a diameter of 10 cm and No. 834, of 15 cm. The estimated diameter of No. 835 measures c. 13–15 cm, which is smaller than the ESA bowls of Atlante Form 26 with a diameter of 18–20 cm. Thus, it appears that the vessels produced at the legionary kilnworks are somewhat smaller than their probable prototypes. As the chalice fragments from the Western Wall Plaza excavations comprise novel high-quality products, and although the petrographic analysis of No. 828 confirmed the assumption of their local manufacture, I decided to re-examine the fragments from the 1949 and 1992 excavations at the legionary

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kilnworks in the IAA storerooms at Bet Shemesh in January 2010. New photographs were taken of the 1949 pieces, published here as Nos. 829 and 830, in order to advance the study of this ceramic category. The examination confirmed the uniformity of fabric and surface treatment of the chalice fragments from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage and the 1949 and 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. Chalices The term chalice is used here in analogy to the early Imperial Italian relief-decorated chalices. Kenrick argued convincingly that such vessels should not be described as kraters––a large deep bowl for mixing (Conspectus 1990:165; for kraters, see Nos. 854–856), although in many excavation reports the term krater is used (e.g., Magness 2005: Fig. 10:5, a product of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks; Johnson 2008a: Nos. 89–91, 94–96, unclassified and ‘molded western relief vessels’ of either Italian or Gaulish origin; 2008b: Nos. 13, 14, Italian Sigillata imports). In the early Imperial period, relief-decorated chalices formed the predominant drinking vessels. Most exquisite are the silver vessels (see the many examples in the Boscoreale Hoard, Baratte 1986), yet the red-gloss clay versions were manufactured in far greater numbers in the western and eastern Roman Empire. Italian workshops produced several variants of a basic form characterized by a hemispherical decorated body, a broad, flaring pedestal foot and a molded rim (Conspectus 1990: Forms R1, 2, 4–7). In the East, chalices were produced in ESA ware (Atlante Forms 26, 27) and in a number of local workshops in Asia Minor and the Levant. At Tarsus, a few wall fragments were found, two of them local imitations of Italian Sigillata with figured decoration, depicting Apollo and Dionysos on the one and apparently skeletal figures on the other (Jones 1950:196, 266, Nos. 693, 694), while another bowl or krater fragment depicts a naked man striding to the right (Jones 1950:266, No. 698). Their attribution to the early Imperial period is by analogy to western products (Jones’ Nos. 693 and 698 are unstratified, No. 694 is from a second– third-century context). From Ephesos, a delicate, locally produced drinking vessel with two ring handles, thumb rests and spurs depicts a popular Nilotic scene of pygmies fighting cranes. The suggested date is the second half of the first century BCE or the first to the third quarters of the first century CE (Meriç 2002:30–31, K36). Fragments recovered in the Nabataean dump at Oboda appear to be ESA ware fabric (Negev 1986:14–15, Nos. 91–98). 828. L8144, B81196. Wall fragment, mold-made, light brown clay, reddish-brown core, smooth exterior and interior surface, remains of thin reddish-brown slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 39: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). Depicted is a bearded male figure seated on a throne or chair, in side view facing left, with the upper body shown nearly en face and the head in profile, leaning slightly forward. The right arm rests on the thigh and the right hand supports the head, expressing a pensive mood. The torso is bare and a mantle is wrapped around the waist and covers the lower body, with a corner hanging over the left shoulder. A bulge below the waist and two folds are well-defined. The left arm is not indicated but seems to be holding a spear or a wand. Whether the figure was part of a scene can no longer be ascertained.

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A close parallel to the seated figure with regard to age, physical features, garment and pose, is found on a fragmentary chalice from Trier (Weidner 2009:214, No. 85, Fig. 83). The figure’s upright sitting position, the right arm out-stretched and left arm resting on the chair differ from No. 828. Both images recall Greco-Roman depictions of Zeus/Jupiter. However, certain details render this attribution unlikely. Generally, when shown seated, Zeus is depicted in an upright position, frontal or turned slightly to one side, and usually with his appropriate attributes (see examples in LIMC VIII, s.v. Zeus/Jupiter, 426–428, Nos. 18–51). He appears in the company of other gods and/or in mythological scenes where the context makes the identification obvious. An example is the seated Jupiter in the central emblem of a mosaic floor in Ouled-Agla, Algeria, with mythological figures (LIMC VIII:447, No. 305). It is possible that on the present chalice, Zeus is depicted as part of a narrative. Alternatively, this may be a sacrifice scene, for which there is a parallel on a gypsum model for a beaker, copied from a lost matrix and acquired in Egypt and now in the Berlin Museum (Schreiber 1894:470–471, Pl. V), in which the complex scene, with profane and sacral buildings and human figures, depicts a ritual performance. A stylistically similar seated figure is depicted in a scene on a modiolus from the Berthouville Treasure, which came to light in a rural sanctuary in Gaul (Baratte 1989:84– 85, No. 18; Avisseau-Broustet, Colonna and Lapatin 2014:58–63, Figs. 32–33). A muscular seated male figure facing left with a nude torso, a beard and plentiful locks of hair is identified as Zeus/Jupiter or Poseidon/Neptune, most likely the latter is depicted. His raised left arm holds a scepter. Although the position is different, it is tempting to connect the two representations. On the Berthouville modiolus, the scene is interpreted as an evocation of the legend of the origin of the Isthmian games. A stucco relief now in the Vatican Museum, found together with a second relief in a tomb on the Vigna Moroni near the Porta San Sebastiano in Rome and dated to either Flavian times or the late Domitian period, shows three seated gods: in the center is Jupiter, with Neptune on the left and Pluto or Saturn on the right (LIMC VII, s.v. Poseidon/Neptunus, 490, No. 82). Neptune is holding his trident in a pose similar to that on the Berthouville modiolus. The pose of the third figure is also reminiscent of our seated male, with the head supported by the right hand. It is argued that this gesture is particularly appropriate to Saturn, the father of the two other gods, who has a melancholy nature (Simon in Helbig 1963: No. 843), although Simon points out that he is generally shown with the mantle pulled over his head (see LIMC VI, s.v. Kronos, 144, Nos. 5–8; No. 8 is a bronze statuette in which the god has his left hand on his head). The enthroned god is depicted unveiled with a vine-grower’s sickle in his right hand and his left hand raised to his head, or veiled without an attribute and his left hand raised to his head (see LIMC VIII, s.v. Saturnus, Nos. 18, 19). The figure on No. 828 holds a spear or a wand. Hence, the identification of the seated figure is equivocal, and it is not definite that a deity is represented. 829. Wall fragment of drinking vessel, mold-made, light brown clay, thin, shiny reddishbrown slip on exterior with splash on interior.

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This is a fragment from Avi-Yonah’s excavations at the site of the Jerusalem kilnworks in 1949. The seated figure closely resembles No. 828, although fewer details are indicated; however, the position with the nearly parallel legs, the bent head and the raised right arm supporting the head are clear (Hershkovitz 2005: Figs. 11:9; 15). The legs of a second figure are preserved, suggesting a walking posture, resembling the position of the legs of the figure on No. 830, and both are of the same size. The above-mentioned wall painting in the tomb at Pompeii and hoards of silver tableware reveal that cups were produced in pairs, sometimes in sets of four, probably part of a sympotic ritual related to the custom of drinking toasts (Dunbabin 2003:66). The two drinking vessels (Nos. 828, 829) may belong to such a set. 830. Wall fragment of drinking vessel, mold-made, light brown clay, thin, reddish-brown slip on exterior, partly worn. This fragment from the 1949 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Hershkovitz 2005: Figs. 11:8; 14) shows a male figure carrying an amphora on his shoulder, holding one handle with his left hand as he pours liquid into a vessel on a table or an altar. In his right hand he holds a wand, possibly a thyrsos. The details of the effeminate face and the fingers holding one of the amphora handles attest to the high artistic standards of the potters. This scene was identified by Hershkovitz as a libation ritual. Alternatively, the figure could represent a member of the retinue of Dionysos, e.g., a young satyr, in a procession scene (Oliver 1977:116–117, No. 76). In the Greco-Roman visual arts, the image of Eros pouring wine from an amphora is frequently portrayed, although the figure on this fragment is without wings. A wall painting in Pompeii depicts Erotes as wine merchants: an Eros is pouring wine from an amphora on a pedestal into a cup held by a kneeling Eros (LIMC III, s.v. Eros/Amor, Cupido, 1019, No. 546). On a Gaulish medallion relief, an Eros carrying an amphora or vase is shown with Heracles resting (Wuilleumier and Audin 1952:22–24, No. 2). Two additional fragments of relief-decorated drinking vessels were recovered in the 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem kilnworks. The first fragment (Magness 2005:72, 78, 122, Fig. 10:5), attributed to a krater or chalice, appears to copy a chalice with a pronounced hanging rim, as suggested by Magness, and it is a simplified version with a row of dents below the molding, when compared to the Italian prototype (Conspectus 1990:168–169, Form R 2). However, considering the wall curvature and the straight, externally thickened rim, this fragment could belong to a goblet/beaker such as the Hermopolis vessel (Mielsch and Niemeyer 2001:11, Fig. 12, with a suggested date of late first or early second century). Two first-century parallels from Pompeii (Künzl 1984:213, Fig. 117) and Berthouville (Baratte 1989: No. 18) are also probable prototypes. Three figures are depicted on the first fragment: a standing female with a tall, leafy stalk or palm branch in her left hand and a vessel (maybe a jug) in her right, a second female with an outstretched arm, carrying an unidentified object, and a bearded male figure reclining at her feet, holding a patera. I do not concur with Magness’ (2005:72) suggestion that this fragment and another from the 1949 excavations (No. 830; Hershkovitz 2005: Fig. 11:8) belong to the same vessel or were made from the same mold (Hershkovitz 2005:72); the rim moldings and the wall sections do not conform. While the details are not very clear, some observations can be made. Both females carry

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objects, and they and the male figure on No. 830 are advancing to the right, as in a procession, possibly priestesses or adherents. The pose of the reclining figure, apart from the outstretched right arm, recalls the seated male on No. 828. These figures may be part of a Dionysiac procession scene. The second fragment was attributed by Magness to a jar/jug (2005:78, 122, Fig. 10:6), yet in my opinion, based on shape, size and fabric, it should be defined as a chalice. The fragment depicts a ‘seated nude male figure’ representing the resting Heracles (Magness 2005:78, 122, Fig. 10:6); at his side, a lion’s head is discernible and the lion’s skin is hanging over his left shoulder. Parallels to the seated Heracles come from Gaul, including examples in ‘Samian Ware’ from La Graufensenque of Vespasian date and from Lezoux of Hadrianic date (Oswald 1936–1937:63, Nos. 752, 757, Pl. XXXVI), and on Gaulish medallions (Wuilleumier and Audin 1952:22–24, No. 2). From the preserved fragments it is impossible to ascertain whether the drinking vessels produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks were decorated with scenes like that on the Berthouville modiolus or beaker mentioned above, rather than repetitive images (see No. 835). On most examples, a single figure is preserved (Nos. 828–830; Magness 2005: Fig. 10:6); No. 830 may depict part of a procession, in analogy to the vessel in Magness 2005: Fig. 10:5. Single figures are also preserved on several fragments from Oboda (Negev 1986: Nos. 92, 93, 95, 96). A motif of two figures (Negev 1986: Fig. 91) depicting a vintage or harvest scene with two figures—a walking male with a bent body, carrying a basket on his left shoulder and holding a bucket in his right hand, an animal skin hanging over his shoulders and back, looking toward a standing male eating a fruit—was repetitive and could have been reproduced five times around the wall of the vessel. 831. L8137, B80990/1. Probably the wall fragment of a relief-decorated chalice. Same fabric as Nos. 828–830, slip eroded, the base line is visible. Unclear if a seated figure is depicted. 832. L8144, B80886/3. Probably the wall fragment of a relief-decorated chalice. Same fabric as Nos. 828–831, slip mostly eroded, the left arm of a standing figure is preserved, holding an object wrapped in a cloth. Cups Two thin-walled cups were recovered (Nos. 833, 834). These are smaller drinking vessels than the chalices, and generally low-footed. 833. L8104, B80530/3. Cup, handle with thumb rest (inner rim diameter 10 cm), light brown clay, red lustrous slip, on top is an incised, freehand decoration of a stylized palmette flanked by a palm branch on each side. The outer edge of the handle is broken, yet the decoration indicates that only a small section is missing, suggesting a length of no more than 4.5 cm. The lower part of the handle was most likely a ring with or without a spur. Based on visual inspection of the fabric, this handle belongs to the locally produced Ware 1 of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, and due to the excellent quality of the slip,

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could be mistaken for an import (Magness 2005:70). Two similar handles were found in the legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005: Fig. 9:4, 5); the intact handle in Fig. 9:4 has a length of 3.6 cm. This type of handle consists of a flat thumb rest and a ring for the forefinger, generally fitted in pairs. Decorated handles of this type adorn low-footed or pedestal-footed, silver drinking vessels (Baratte 1986:34, 36, 42, 43, 53, 60–62), and the corresponding clay vessels are equipped with two plain handles (Ricci 1985: Pls. 94:15; 95:1, 2). Thus, it is most likely that No. 833 had two handles. The motif of No. 833 is unusual and recalls decorative elements of Jewish art of the late Second Temple period. For example, a stylized palmette is found on the central acroterion of the gable over the entrance to the Tomb of the Grapes, Jerusalem (Rahmani 1994: Ill. 4) and on an ossuary as a corner motif (Rahmani 1994: Fig. 98; Pl. 20). The palm branch also occurs on an ossuary (Rahmani 1994: Fig. 10; Pl. 23). At Pergamon, plain and decorated flat handles are common on the drinking vessels (Hübner 1993:23–26, Fig. 6, Pls. 6, 7, Type I, Form 4). Hübner (1993:26) notes that the type was frequently produced in glass, and an example found on a glass skyphos fragment from the refuse of the workshop in the Jewish Quarter excavations is dated to the mid-first century BCE (Israeli and Katsnelson 2006:423, 430, Pl. 21.21: GL 192). 834. L8107, B80980/1. Rim and wall fragment, rim diameter 15 cm, thin, non-shiny, black to gray slip, below the rim are three rows of beading, on the wall is the head of a young satyr facing right. Bowl This single bowl with a rounded base continues the tradition of the late Hellenistic, moldmade hemispherical bowls (Atlante Form 24, first century BCE–first century CE, and Form 25, the late version of Form 24, continuing into the second half of the second century CE). The vessel might be residual. 835. L8137, B80994/2. Wall fragment of bowl, thickening towards the base, ESA ware, the wall is decorated with an Eros and vine-leaf tendrils, the decoration is repetitive. The same fabric, shape and decoration as No. 835 are found on a vessel from Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b:36, No. 217). Pedestal Feet These fragments recall the pedestal feet of Italian Sigillata relief-decorated chalices (Conspectus 1990: Forms R1, 2), although they are solid and not as broad and flaring as the Italian Sigillata versions, and of course may belong to plain drinking vessels. Alternatively, they may be small beakers or egg-cups of the first century CE, known from Pompeii and Egypt (Mielsch and Niemeyer 2001:30–31, with references). A parallel from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:101, Fig. 32:5) is proposed to be the base of a lamp, although this is unlikely.

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836. L8165, B81215. Light brown clay, thin, worn, reddish-brown slip except on base (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 51: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). Another example of the same size with a reddish-brown slip is not illustrated (L8053, B80345). 837. L8107, B80435/3. Light brown clay, thin, worn, dark gray slip. Indeterminate, Possibly Jug This small fragment does not enable a definite identification of the vessel type or the iconography. The slip on both sides could suggest an open drinking vessel, although the beginning of a shoulder curve at the top points to a closed vessel. The preserved profile permits the attribution to the jugs produced at Pergamon (Mandel 1988: Pls. 1–9; Baldoni 2003: Fig. V:1) and Knidos (Mandel 1988: Pls. 25, 26; Baldoni 2003: Fig. III:1, 3). 838. L8144, L80885. Mold-made wall fragment with seated figure on chair, reddish-brown clay, dark brown slip on exterior, red slip on interior, good-quality product. The seat and legs of the chair are clear, while the assumed leg and drapery of a figure, perhaps a deity, a mythological figure or a symposiast, are uncertain.

Closed Vessels Fragments of closed vessels form the second category of luxury tableware in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage. Unfortunately, their fragmentary state of preservation makes the attribution to specific shapes and prototypes difficult. Furthermore, parallels to the imagery with Dionysian motifs are found on metal rather than clay vessels, in particular the elegant bronze jugs from Pompeii and Herculaneum (Tassinari 1975, 1993; Künzl 1984; Koster 1997:25) and from Egypt (Schreiber 1994). The fragments from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, attributed to closed vessels, can be divided into two groups, based on the manufacturing techniques: mold-made relief-decorated handles for amphoriskoi (Nos. 839– 845), and application-decorated escutcheons for jugs/oinochoai (Nos. 846–850). In the first group, the entire handle shaft was produced in a matrix and attached to the turned vessel, in the second group a separately modeled motif was applied to the surface of the vessel. In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage there are no intact mold-made handles preserved in combination with applied escutcheons, yet the combination of the motifs depicted on the handle shafts and escutcheons occurs on metal vessels. By their Dionysian imagery they represent the ceramic tableware in use at the convivia. Within the first group, the rim, handle and neck fragment of No. 839 indicates a vessel with a narrow opening and a cup-shaped rim, similar to the late Second Templeperiod Judaean jugs and juglets (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:105–106). The preserved length of the vertical handles points to a tall neck. The closest parallel to No. 839 is a complete bronze amphoriskos, defined as a perfume bottle, found in a burial in the cemetery

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of the city of Dora, in the vicinity of Kibbutz Naḥsholim (Ovadiah 1985:161–163, Fig. 1). Another similar neck fragment from Caesarea Maritima, with one handle preserved, was identified as a bowl (Johnson 2008b: No. 729, red clay and red slip). The two parallels have cup-shaped rims with a rim diameter of 6 cm, while the opening of No. 839 is twice as wide. The Dora amphoriskos, 10.4 cm high, has two handles terminating in animal paws at the lower ends; they are flat in the upper part and curve gently onto the shoulder, a shape that cannot be reproduced in clay. Although it has two handles, the neck profile of this vessel recalls the Hellenistic dome-mouthed unguentaria manufactured at an eastern production site, probably in Knidos or on Cyprus, and widely exported (Dotterweich 1999). The particular shape of the opening enabled a steady pouring without drops being wasted, which supports Dotterweich’s conclusion that it contained an expensive and precious perfumed oil or fragrance. At Knidos, the unguentaria are attested in contexts of funerary cults and sanctuary rituals (Dotterweich 1999:41–42), whereas at Dora, imports were recovered in domestic contexts (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:306, Fig. 6.27:5–12; see No. 899 for an import to Jerusalem, considered residual in the present assemblage). However, the vessels in the present assemblage presumably had two handles, as there is evidence for four identical handles made from the same mold, forming two pairs (Nos. 840–843). While the shape of this group of vessels in the present assemblage does not resemble the Campanian jugs and table amphoras but represents an innovation by potters working at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site, the imagery displays close resemblance to the Campanian repertoire and exemplifies the connectivity within the Greco-Roman visual koine. Based on the evidence discussed here, I suggest attributing the handles Nos. 839–845 to amphoriskoi for precious perfumed oils and fragrances used for bathing and personal hygiene, which replaced the Hellenistic unguentaria. The imagery on the handles (and on the escutcheons, Nos. 846–850) document the interrelations within the Greco-Roman visual koine, and at the same time represent novel creations of the potters of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. However, as is the case with all the locally produced luxury tableware from the present assemblage, to date it is impossible to determine the source of inspiration or the prototypes for shape and imagery, with extent parallels found in both the West and the East. Furthermore, as the number of relief-decorated clay jugs produced in the Levant is minimal, parallels are drawn from the substantial corpus of metal vessels. Of special interest is a singular ceramic jug from Petra ez Zantur. Preserved is part of the rim and the handle, which bears two horizontal ridges, a third one missing, and in between the ridges are four lituus-shaped, freehand applications made with a strip of clay, probably remnants of the upper end of the curved lagobolon, the club of Heracles that is also carried by satyrs (Schmid 2000:88–91, Figs. 386–388; see two examples on lead coffins, Rahmani 1999:59, Fig. 167:A, B). The escutcheon depicts a very well-executed mask of Silenos in appliqué. Most likely of local production, this item is unique within the Nabataean ceramic repertoire, and the excavator compares it to metal vessels and Ptolemaic clay jugs and braziers; he suggests a date within the third quarter of the first century BCE (Schmid 2000:88–91, Ills. 386–388).

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Handles Of the six mold-made handles recorded in the present assemblage, two pairs (Nos. 840, 841 and Nos. 842, 843) were made in the same molds. The handles vary in thickness (measured at the angle), indicating that they were knife-pared after being removed from the mold and dried (Nos. 840, 841—2 cm; Nos. 842, 843—3 cm). 839. L8144, B80884. Reddish-brown clay, thin, dull red to reddish-brown slip, rim diameter 6 cm, the upper part decorated with two lateral grooves and two flanking volutes, on the shaft are a garland and head of Pappasilenos, and the cross ridge has ten dots. An interesting technical detail can be noticed on the neck and handle fragment. While handling it, it fell apart, and on the inner surfaces the potter’s fingerprints became visible. They reveal that the potter attached the mold-made handle to the wheel-made vessel when leather-hard and that the outer surface was carefully smoothed before placing the vessel into the kiln. However, some air must have been left in a tiny void, causing the breakage. 840. L8144, B81143. Light brown clay, even, dull brown slip, knife-paring on lateral edges, section at base 2.0 × 1.5 cm, double cross ridge at the angle of the handle from which a garland is suspended, the upper part of the handle was touched accidentally before firing. Dionysian motifs, from top to bottom: head of Pappasilenos, facing right; a panther sitting upright with the left paw raised, the head turned back and the tail raised; a bowl with fruit on a table, pedestal or altar. There are two dots on either side of the satyr’s head, two dots set diagonally near the panther’s head, and the bowl is surrounded by three dots above and two below, probably indicating the separation of the individual motifs. The other three sides are plain and carefully smoothed by hand. 841. L8144, B80935. Reddish-brown clay, thin, dull red to reddish-brown slip, section at base 1.8 × 1.8 cm; the upper part of the flat handle has two lateral grooves that were part of an acanthus leaf attached at the top (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 35: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 842. L8182, B81351. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surfaces light brown, one volute preserved, section at base 1.9 × 1.8 cm. Imagery as above, preserved are Pappasilenos and the panther’s head. 843. L8144, B81202. Reddish-brown clay, thin, dull, uneven dark gray to brown slip, sides of the handle carelessly knife pared, section at base 1.8 × 1.5 cm. As it was made from a worn mold, the details of the relief decoration are less clear. Same imagery, preserved are Pappasilenos, the panther and the fruit bowl on a table, pedestal or altar. 844. L8107, B81194. Reddish-brown clay, brown slip, the place where the acanthus-leaf thumb rest was attached on the rim is clearly visible, section at base 2.0 × 1.5 cm.

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Different imagery: head of Silenos or Pappasilenos, fruit bowl, broken unidentified head (compare Tassinari 1975: Fig. 17:c, d). 845. L8152, B81052/3. Light brown clay, reddish-brown core, remains of dark gray slip on inner part of handle and above back of panther, section at base 1.8 × 1.5 cm. To date, the decorated handle shafts from the present assemblage (Nos. 839–845) form a unique collection. The only parallel is a small handle fragment from the 2009 excavations at the legionary kilnworks, preserving a Pappasilenos head and a crouched bird, possibly a dove (Rosenthal-Heginbottom, forthcoming: Pl. 4.24:4). Related in style is a decorated handle fragment from the 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:82, Fig. 12:6). From the base of the handle to the broken top, appear a frontal, clean-shaven, grotesque face, a curved stick (pedum) and a basket (probably a liknion). The head, with a chubby face and curly hair and framed by a medallion of stylized leaves, may be a poor depiction of Eros (for parallels, see Tassinari 1975: Fig. 4:e, f). The motifs and their arrangement in tiers are characteristic features of the jugs manufactured in Campanian workshops, and the handles of the Campanian jugs and the amphoriskoi from the present assemblage display the same concept of decoration. At the angle of the handles of many Campanian jugs there is a double cross ridge, below which is a single or double suspended garland with two long hanging ends (Tassinari 1975:174, 179, Fig. 17:g on p. 201). The handles from the present assemblage include examples without a garland (No. 844) or with a single garland (Nos. 839–843). By comparison to a jug from Pompeii (Tassinari 1975: Fig. 17:g), the clay handles are decorated with a simple garland formed by five or six raised dots. The fruit bowls in Nos. 840, 841, 843 and 844, comprising open dishes, were schematically copied from Campanian prototypes of more elaborate baskets filled with recognizable figs and other fruit (Tassinari 1975:181, Figs. 17:a, b, e–j). In two cases (Nos. 840, 843), the fruit bowl seems to stand on a table, pedestal or altar. Heads are generally shown in profile (Tassinari 1975:181), and parallels to those on the handle shafts from this excavation include Silenos facing to the right, on an oval bowl with a flat, ornate handle (Schreiber 1894:329, Fig. 66), and Silenos facing to the left (Schreiber 1894:364, Fig. 102). While the iconography on the handle shafts of the metal jugs is clearly related to Dionysos and his retinue, the motifs appear to be depicted without an apparent narrative intent (Tassinari 1993:181), and this holds true for the clay handles as well. In addition to the listed iconographic parallels from Campania, other examples should be mentioned. A fine, full-faced mask of Dionysos appears in combination with a palmette on a jug from the Fayum in Egypt, dated c. 100–150 CE (Hayes 1984:81–82, No. 124). A figure of Eros, clad in a waving cloak and carrying a caduceus in his right hand, is depicted on the top of the handle of a bronze jug (Koster 1997:29–30, No. 6). In the Graeco-Roman Museum of Alexandria are several bronze handles decorated with Dionysian imagery. A bronze handle with an attachment is decorated on the shaft with three heads––a female and two small boys–––and an unclear object, with a mask of Pan as an escutcheon (Abdou Daoud 1998:117–118, Fig. 1:a–c). Two similar handles bear a

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Pappasilenos at the top of the shaft and a female at the bottom, connected by a geometric decoration; the handle attachments are decorated with non-identical busts of young boys (Abdou Daoud 1998:118–120, Fig. 3:a–b). Escutcheons The second group of closed vessels comprises escutcheons consisting of separately modeled motifs applied to the lower section of handles. This technique is a common feature of metal jugs, and as the motifs are related to the cult of Dionysos, the five fragments from the present assemblage are attributed to wine jugs/oinochoai (Nos. 846–850). There are two groups of wine jugs: the earlier one from the cities destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, with manufacturing centers in Campania, and the later, Gaulish specimens with several production centers. The latter jugs have been dealt with in depth by Künzl in her publication of the hoard found near Neupotz in the Upper Rhine Valley (Künzl 1993:122–149). The elaborate, separately made handles of these wine jugs––a single example from Neupotz and an additional 45 presumably from the same workshop–– consist of four elements from top to bottom: a thumb rest, a double ridge, a vertical row of several motifs, and an escutcheon with a figurative subject. Depictions related to the cult of Dionysos are much rarer among these Gaulish vessels, while the Campanian jugs are often decorated with masks of Pan, Silenos and a satyr, as well as female and theater masks (Künzl 1993:134, 141–142; Tassinari 1993:218–219). Several jugs came to light in third-century hoards, hidden during the critical years of c. 260–275 CE, when the Alemanni crossed the Upper Rhine and raided the borderland of the Roman Empire; however, there is evidence that these jugs had been in use over a long period of time, passing through the hands of several owners, and were evidently held in high esteem (Künzl 1993:144). From the end of the first century CE to about 140 CE, clay imitations of the metal prototypes of the Neupotz workshop were produced in the region of central Gaul, as well as in Nijmegen and the Wetterau near Frankfurt am Main (Boesterd 1956; Oliver 1977, 1980; Vertet 1978– 1979; Künzl 1993:145–146, n. 89, with further references; Koster 1997:28–30, Nos. 5, 6). Of the five fragmentary escutcheons presented here, three are decorated with heads, most likely representing Dionysos (Nos. 846–848) and two with the figure of Eros the hunter (Nos. 849, 850). Based on visual inspection, their fabric indicates they were manufactured in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. The Dionysian imagery defines the vessels to which these escutcheons belonged as wine jugs/oinochoai (Tassinari 1993:218– 219), and iconographic parallels are found on the Campanian jugs. However, as none of these were imported to Jerusalem and Judaea they cannot have served as prototypes for the potters working in the Jerusalemite kilnworks (see below for locally found bronze jugs). The relief-decorated closed vessels from Asia Minor represent another possible source of inspiration for the potters. Yet, none were retrieved in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, although the production was substantial (for the only Knidian import, see the lampstand No. 785). At Pergamon, the manufacture of the oinochoai group and related vessels began in the late first century CE, while the serial production of cylindrical and conical jugs began under Hadrian (Mandel 1988:42). The Knidian production of wine jugs

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and drinking vessels in animal shape is characteristic of the second and third centuries, beginning already around the mid-first century CE (Baldoni 2003:7, Figs. III, IV). With no discernible direct influence from Campania and Asia Minor, it is suggested here that the ceramic wine jugs, like the drinking vessels and the amphoriskoi, demonstrate the establishment of local craftsmenship at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site. With the advent of the Roman military and administrative personal, it became fashionable in Jerusalem, as in many other parts of the Roman Empire, to produce ceramic luxury tableware that was less expensive than the metal version, thus promoting Roman dining habits and lifestyle. 846. L8053, B81006. Brown clay, reddish-brown slip (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 6: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). 847. L8137, B80994/1. Mottled ware, reddish-brown clay, exterior layer light brown, thin, dark gray slip. 848. L8107, B81199. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, reddishbrown slip, the upper section shows the attachment of the separately molded escutcheon to the handle shaft, leaving a narrow space of 2–3 mm; the attachment at top is 2 cm wide, the thickness of the wall of the vessel is 0.5 cm. The three frontal heads in Nos. 846–848 are closely paralleled by a wall fragment with an escutcheon from the Temple Mount excavations, made of light brown, red-slipped mottled ware (Ben-Dov 1985:205, right). The following similar details are clear: a cap (as in No. 846), straps hanging from behind the head reaching to the shoulder on all three fragments, the Hercules knot (well-preserved on No. 848, less so on Nos. 846, 847), and a palmette suspended in the center of the outer frame (a small section of which is preserved on No. 847). Heads and masks are common pictorial types on escutcheons (see Magness 2005: Fig. 11:3 for a clay jug from the legionary kilnworks; for Campanian metal jugs with a single handle, see Schreiber 1894:345, Figs. 84–86; 363, Figs. 99–101; Tassinari 1993:218–219). The chubby young face and the Hercules knot of No. 848 could point to a bust of Eros with a cuirass, rather than a winged helmet, although I did not find any close parallels for either. At Pergamon, appliqué heads of Dionysos with a diadem and wreath have been found, yet it is impossible to determine the exact vessel type to which they were attached (Hübner 1993:14, Pl. 4:29, 31; Fig. 25:19, 43). 849. L8144, B81104. Eros with a hare or rabbit, mottled ware, reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, thin reddish-brown slip on exterior, excellent workmanship, same fabric as No. 846, the maximum thickness of the attachment is 1.8 cm. 850. L8104, B80603. Same subject as No. 849, light brown to light gray clay, thin red slip on exterior (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 12: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). Reference: Magness 2005:78, Fig. 11:3, Photograph 12, two Erotes standing beside a palm tree.

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The two escutcheons (Nos. 849, 850) bearing an expressive depiction of Eros the hunter are of the same pictorial type, yet clearly made from different molds. They could belong to one- or two-handled jugs or table amphoras of various shapes (Schreiber 1894: Figs. 82, 99, 101, 103, 104). A bronze vessel from the House of Menander at Pompeii shows a similar medallion with a frontally standing Eros with a hunted animal over his shoulder (Tassinari 1993:29, B1222, No. 4685, Pl. CXLV:2; Stefani 2003:143, 147–148, No. C6). Eros the hunter is depicted in various positions on a variety of objects and materials (LIMC III:991–994, s.v. Eros/Amor, Cupido). These include Eros grasping a dead animal depicted on a mosaic in Ostia (Stuveras 1969: Fig. 7; LIMC III: No. 316), on a sarcophagus in Rome (LIMC III: No. 316), on a gem (LIMC III: No. 318) and on a lamp (LIMC III: No. 319); on another gem, Eros is kneeling with a stick on his left shoulder from which two birds are hanging (LIMC III: No. 320); on an Italian lamp of Broneer Type XXV, and on a volute lamp with a round nozzle from Carthage, a nude Eros with his head bent down, a mantle over his shoulder flying behind, is walking to the right and grasping with his left hand a stick or quiver on his left shoulder to which a dead animal––a hare or rabbit––is tied by its four legs and hanging upside-down (Bailey 1965:70, No. 246, in the Victoria and Albert Museum; Deneauve 1969:132, No. 447). Eros is depicted in various activities on a fair number of provincial lamps: Eros carrying a balance beam on his shoulders with two suspended buckets, Eros dragging or lifting game, Eros with fish and shells, or holding a bowl of fruit and an animal––probably a goat (Deneauve 1969: Nos. 444, 445, 447; Leibundgut 1977:147, Motif 87; Bailey 1988: Q 2050; Bémont 2003:62, D 008, D 012, D013; LIMC III:1014–1015, Nos. 508, 509, gem and lamp). On the escutcheons of Campanian jugs, the figure of Eros in different poses is a popular subject: a winged Eros standing in front of a panther (Schreiber 1894:364, Fig. 102); Eros holding a torch and a bowl (Schreiber 1894:348, No. 85* = Tassinari 1975: Fig. 9:c); Eros holding an amphora on his left shoulder with both hands (Schreiber 1894:461, Fig. 133); Eros pulling Heracles’ large club (Schreiber 1894:373, Fig. 109); Eros carrying a large mask and a scepter (Schreiber 1894:373, Fig. 110); and Eros riding a lion (Stuveras 1969: Pl. IV, Fig. 4). A metal handle with an attachment of a bust of a small, boy-like winged Eros is considered a local product from Alexandria (Abdou Daoud 1998:119–120, Fig. 4:a, b); a cup or beaker from Pergamon has Eros as an appliqué (Hübner 1993: Pls. 9–13); and a mold for the production of applied medallions from the legionary kilnworks at Kurucdomb (Brigetio in Pannonia), perhaps depicts Eros or a Maenad (Bónis 1977a:198–199). To the local finds of jug fragments decorated with heads two items can be added. In the Ustinow Collection in Oslo is a handle fragment of very fine clay with an escutcheon of a Medusa head with two snakes tied in a knot under her chin (Skupinska-Løvset 1978:140, UT 148, Pl. 31). To all appearances it should be attributed to the same workshop as vessel Nos. 849 and 850, and accordingly, the proposed late Hellenistic date should be revised. On a matching pair of metal handles purchased in Jerusalem, possibly belonging to an amphora, the escutcheons depict a frontal mask with an onkos (or pair of small wings) on top of a head (Hayes 1984:88–89, No. 141), for which a date in the first or early second century is suggested (for the amphora shape, see Koster 1997:41–42, No. 30).

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When contextualizing the Dionysian imagery depicted on the handle shafts and escutcheons from the present assemblage in relation to the iconography of the Greco-Roman koine in general and the Levant in particular, two artifact categories, Egyptian plaster molds and bronze jugs from Judaea/Palaestina, should also be taken into consideration, as they emphasize artistic cross-pollination and visual connectivity. Sporadic plaster molds comprise valuable comparative material. The collection of plaster molds and ancient plaster casts in the Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria, acquired from a private collector, dates from the late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods (Seif El-Din 1998). Two molds of a mask of Pan and a mask of an elderly Silenos are considered attachments for faience or metal vessels (Seif El-Din 1998:198–199, Figs. 61, 62), and two plaster casts for bronze-handle attachments bear a face of Silenos and a satyr mask (Seif El-Din 1998:202–204, Figs. 70, 71). These four specimens are parallels for the escutcheons in the present assemblage, though with different images, and shed light on the technical aspects of the manufacturing process (Seif El-Din 1998:169). Although no Campanian imports are recorded in Jerusalem and Judaea, the use of metal jugs in the first and second centuries is attested, indicating the availability of prototypes for clay imitation. Metal jugs, presumably imported from unknown workshops, were already in use in Jewish homes prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE (Avigad 1983: Ills. 195, 234; Ben-Dov 1985:162, lower left, from a cistern into which it was cast to save it from looters). In a Second Temple-period tomb at ‘En Gedi, a metal jug and two ladles were placed as grave goods (Hadas 1994:17, Fig. 23:20, 22). The jug has an opening nearly as wide as the body, and a cup-shaped rim similar to No. 839, above. The handle is decorated with a leaf flanked by two heads of long-beaked birds, and the thumb rest bears a bust of a bearded figure (Hadas 1994: Color Pl. 12). A hoard of bronze vessels, among them twelve metal jugs, which was taken as booty from legionaries or auxiliaries during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, was discovered in the Cave of the Letters in the Judaean Desert (Yadin 1963:42–83). The face on the bust decorating the escutcheon on one of the jugs was deliberately erased by the new Jewish owner for religious reasons (Yadin 1963: Figs. 17:8; 23). A complete metal jug was found in a disturbed tomb at Bet Dagan, placed near the skull (Peilstöcker 2006: Fig. 2). The handle has a leaf-shaped thumb rest, a double cross ridge, a plain shaft and an escutcheon depicting a female head with long hair, the facial features rubbed off, which could possibly represent a maenad. The handle of a bronze wine jug with an escutcheon decorated with the head of Pan from Dora belongs to a type of vessel known in legionary contexts from many parts of the Roman world, often depicting other adherents of the Dionysian cult (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2008a:98*, Fig. 80). Fragments of Closed Vessels Based on visual inspection, these three relief-decorated fragments clearly belong to the category of luxury tableware manufactured at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks.

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851. L8152, B81052/1. Wall fragment of a mold-made jug decorated with a beard, mottled ware, brown clay, exterior and interior surfaces light brown, smooth exterior with remains of dark gray slip. Assuming that the beard is part of a male head, the possibility cannot be excluded that this is a fragment of an escutcheon (Schreiber 1894:344, Fig. 81; Tassinari 1975: Fig. 4a–c; 1993: Pls. CV–CIX). 852. L5036, B50182. Shoulder fragment of a mold-made lagynos or wall fragment of a jug, reddish-brown clay, blotchy red and dark gray slip on exterior only, non-micaeous, wall thickness 1–1.2 cm. According to the wheel marks on the inside, this is probably the shoulder fragment of a lagynos (Mandel 1988:113–114, Pls. 29: K198; 30: K204), and from the fabric it appears to be a legionary product. Preserved is the upper half of a male figure––a soldier––wearing a mantle with a fibula, his left outstretched arm inserted into the horizontal grip on the inner side of a shield, the four visible ridges representing the grip’s leather strips (Mandel 1988:90, Typentafel VI 1). Alternatively, this piece could be a wall fragment of a jug decorated with a repetitive band of two soldiers facing each other (Mandel 1988: Pl. 9: P10, 11). The lagynos or jug is a local copy of relief-decorated products from the workshops at Pergamon and Knidos. Along with the fabric, the almost-grotesque style is an indicator for local manufacture, suggesting a less-skilled potter than those working in Asia Minor. The same style as No. 852 is seen on a fragment of an erotic scene from a large vessel, probably a krater or a vase, discovered in the Tyropoeon Valley excavations (Tchekhanovets 2013: Fig. 21:1). Tchekhanovets associates the fabric and relief decoration with the products of the Jerusalem legionary kiln site and defines the fragment as an attempt to imitate Roman luxury ware. 853. L8177, B80323. Handle fragment of amphoriskos, mold-made, reddish-brown clay, thin, blotchy reddish-brown slip. The preserved section of the handle permits its attribution to the vessel type of No. 839. The handle is decorated with wavy lines. A smaller jug handle decorated with a scroll and grape motif was found at the legionary kiln site (Magness 2005: Fig. 10:3).

K raters Three wall fragments of large open vessels, two with broken rim sections (Nos. 854– 856), probably kraters for mixing wine, were recovered in the Western Wall Plaza excavations. The petrographic analysis indicates that they were not made in Jerusalem or Judaea. In size, the fragments correspond to a krater for sacrificial libations unearthed in Jerusalem’s northeastern quarter and considered a product of the legionary kilnworks (Magness 2003). 854. L8107, B80651. Fragment of rim with darts(?) and rope design and of upper wall with palm tree with cluster of dates, dark gray clay, tiny white and gray grits, dark brown slip on exterior on tree and rim border.

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855. L8104, B80676. Fragment of upper wall with palm tree with cluster of dates, brown clay, traces of dark brown slip on tree (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 13: possibly Shephelah). 856. L8137, B80990/2. Small fragment of rim and upper wall with darts(?) and left top of palm tree, light brown clay, dark brown slip on tree. The palm trees on Nos. 854 and 855 were made from the same mold, although the sherds belong to two separate vessels. The estimated diameter and the thickness of the walls of these two fragments suggest a large vessel with a wide opening, most likely a krater for mixing wine and for sacrificial libations. The palm tree bears fruits, and the scaly trunk and ascending fronds are represented almost naturalistically. Depictions of palm trees are found in the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods on diverse objects: in Hellenistic-period landscapes in wall paintings at Marissa (Meyboom 1995:26, Figs. 57, 58; Jacobsen 2007: Pls. 11, 14, 17), in Nilotic land- and waterscapes (Versluys 2002: Figs. 146–148), and in Byzantine-period mosaics (Avi-Yonah 1954:25, Fig. 9, Pls. 1–4, 6–8; Piccirillo 1997: passim; Humbert 2000:123, Church of Jabaliyah; Habas 2009: Figs. 6; 10:1). In ceramics, they occur, for example, on a mold-made relief bowl from Tel Mevorakh, dated to the first century BCE and considered by the author to have been manufactured at nearby Caesarea Maritima (Rosenthal 1978:23, Fig. 3:7, Pl. 22:3) and on several locally produced Beit Naṭṭif lamps (Israeli and Avida 1988: No. 323). A schematic tree without fruits is found on a Byzantine ceramic lantern from Khirbat Yattir (Eshel, Magness and Shenhav 2000:163, Fig. 11). In Jewish belief, the palm tree is considered a typical emblem of the Land of Israel, and as such it was taken over by the Romans (Hadas 2006:35*–36*, Fig. 70 on p. 46). Palm trees are represented in both a naturalistic and a stylized manner on Jewish ossuaries from the late Second Temple period (Rahmani 1994:48–49), and they are quite common on the Judaean molded lamps manufactured between the two revolts (Sussman 1982:19, 23, Nos. 45, 183–186). On the bronze prutot struck by the Early Roman procurators of Judaea (6–26 CE), palm trees were one of several depictions neutral to the Jewish inhabitants (Meshorer 1998:93–94). On the Judaea capta coins, the Romans used the palm together with a seated mourning Jewess as the symbol of conquered Judaea (Meshorer 1998:107–113, Nos. 404, 406–415). A palm tree is depicted on the reverse of a bronze sestertius minted in Rome under Nerva in 97 CE, when the Jewish tax was abolished (Meshorer 1998:119, No. 438). In Jewish coinage issued during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the palm tree served as a national symbol (Meshorer 1998:121–138 passim; 2001:127, 149, 184–193). The petrographic analysis of No. 855 revealed it to be a close-regional product, probably originating in the Shephelah, rather than Jerusalem or Judaea. Yet, L8104, L8107 and L8137 also contained typical military ceramics, and as no late Hellenistic–Early Roman parallels are known to me, I suggest the fragments be attributed to the post-70 CE assemblage, produced in a non-local workshop by a potter who utilized a local motif that also had a symbolic meaning for the military, as seen on the Judaea capta coins.

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R ing Feet The four ring feet with fine moldings on the exterior belong to drinking vessels––chalices, cups or beakers––although attribution to a specific form is not possible. 857. L8106, B80483/1. ESA fabric. 858. L8112, B80501. Pink clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, traces of reddishbrown slip. 859. L8107, B80556. Gray clay, irregular, thin, dull slip with patches of gray, reddishbrown and light brown. 860. L5299, B52241/44. Light gray clay, thin, dark gray slip.

Unique Vessels Included here are sherds with unusual decoration (Nos. 861, 864, 865), twisted handles (Nos. 862, 863) and a multi-spouted krater (No. 866). 861. L8104, B81190. Mold-made frieze of three separate, horizontal sections, chocolate-brown clay, smoothed exterior and interior surface; traces of soot on the exterior surface at the broken top of the fragment; on the lower part of the fragment, a thin applied strip of clay of unclear function—a handle(?) (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 14: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). The vessel shape is not clear, yet the preserved section with rim and tapering wall suggests a large open vessel, possibly a krater. Several groups of people can be identified as part of a scene, although the iconography remains obscure. On the left is a line of advancing soldiers holding their shields, probably legionaries. In general, the style recalls depictions on Trajan’s Column in Rome (Gauer 1977:55–60, Pls. 8a, before the battle, 15a, laying siege). 862. L8122; B80727. Twisted handle, chocolate-brown clay. 863. L8060, L80431/1. Twisted handle, dark gray clay, exterior surface light brown. The twisted handles (Nos. 862, 863) comprise two clay coils with a diameter of c. 1 cm twisted around each other. On No. 862, a section with three finger-impressions is preserved, indicating the spot where the handle was joined to the vessel. It is unclear, however, how the handles were oriented on the vessel. Due to the lack of parallels, neither the vessel shape nor the size can be ascertained. 864. L8167, B81273/3 + 81274. Wall fragment, brown clay, closely punctured dots, wall thickness 1.1–1.4 cm.

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865. L8144, B81033. Shoulder fragment of a large jar, brown clay, yellowish-light brown coating on exterior and interior, wall thickness 0.6 cm, a row of fingertip impressions around the neck created by pressing a finger into the soft clay. 866. L8164, B81160/2. Krater with spouts/nozzles, brown clay, knife-paring between spouts, reconstructed diameter c. 17.5 cm. Reference: Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:272, No. 178, a similar fragment from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, in a non-stratified accumulation on bedrock. The rim and neck profile recalls the kraters with a triangular rim from the Second Temple period (see Nos. 369–374). The fabric appears to be legionary, although the knifeparing is a distinct feature not found on any other vessel from the legionary kilnworks, except the lamps with a spatulate nozzle (Nos. 823–825). It is tempting to define this vessel as a multi-burner lamp with at least nine projecting nozzles, which was used in symposia or rituals, although the distance between the spouts/nozzles is irregular and the exact number can only be assumed. The oil would have been poured into the ring-like channel from a vertically placed spout, not preserved. However, the absence of soot on the spouts makes this identification unlikely. It should be noted that a large lamp composed of a hollow ring, nine nozzles and a spout, also with no visible soot marks, came to light in a burial cave at Kfar ‘Ara (Sussman 1976:100–101, Fig. 6, Pl. 29:6), but there is no similarity between the two objects apart from the nine nozzles. Roman-period parallels from Gerasa include a ring lamp, probably with 13 nozzles (Iliffe 1945: No. 131), and lamps with seven nozzles and leaf-shaped handle shields, although the latter have a shallow, circular reservoir and no ring (Iliffe 1945: No. 119; Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:94–98, Nos. 382–384). Of unsure date are two large, multi-nozzled hanging lamps, one with six nozzles, acquired in Jerusalem (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:128, No. 529), the other with seven nozzles in the Hecht Museum, Haifa (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:201*–202*, Fig. 9). The concept of a vessel with multiple projecting nozzles is seen in a fragmentary Byzantine lamp from Kiludiya near Tel Mond, where a settlement from the first to ninth centuries existed (Ayalon 1996). It is relatively large, with a diameter of 22 cm and 15 reconstructed nozzles. Although the rim is not preserved and the shape of the upper section is uncertain, it was definitely not a wide-mouthed krater or deep bowl like the present vessel.

Figurines, Masks and Altars The majority of the mold-made terracotta figurines, masks and altars from the Western Wall Plaza excavations are made of the local legionary fabric (Nos. 868–874, 876, 878–881, 885, 889–893). The clay is well-levigated and the predominant color range is light brown, often with a yellowish tinge and occasionally a gray core. The tiny white and gray grits are hardly visible to the eye. The exterior is smoothly polished, producing a creamy appearance, while on the interior the clay was roughly smeared by hand and finger impressions remain. Based on petrographic analysis, figurine No. 867 was produced in a workshop located on the northern Levantine coast, from ‘Akko northward, and Nos. 875 and 877 are of unknown provenance.

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Most of the terracotta fragments are small; several pieces appear to belong to the same figurine on the basis of the fabric. On two fragments (Nos. 873, 883) are traces of Egyptian blue, identified on No. 883 as calcium copper silicate (see below). The substance was also preserved on a basin fragment (see No. 380 for discussion). In the Greco-Roman realm, blue color was commonly used on figurines for the chiton and the mantle. It was painted on a white engobe applied to the clay; in our case, the engobe is relatively thin (see Cat. Berlin 1994: No. 29, color photograph of a standing female with blue color on the mantle). The state of preservation of the engobe and the pigment depends on the conditions of deposition, and only seldom are colors well preserved. At Dora, traces of light blue paint are visible on the drapery of figurines and on the fragment of a round altar (Erlich 2010:140, Nos. 26, 38, 79, 94). While figurines, masks and altars are attested in domestic, cultic and funerary contexts throughout the Roman Empire, the findspots exclude a role in funerary rites and suggest a profane or ritual function in the living quarters of the military. Clay masks are found in many parts of the Roman Empire, with a concentration along the Rhine River and a place of manufacture at Cologne (Rose 2006). The custom of using masks spread from Italy to the provinces, and their number is taken as evidence for the degree of Romanization. The common subjects of the life-size masks are Dionysiac imagery, grotesque faces and theatrical masks. Masks have come to light in the peristyle courts and gardens of private villas, where they were integrated into a Dionysiac garden landscape. Others were unearthed in shrines, though it is unclear if they had a decorative or votive function. Of special importance are the masks from the camp of the Rhine fleet at Cologne, as they are securely dated to the first half of the second century CE and their findspot is assured: they were hung on the veranda of the barracks. The evidence seems to point to a profane use like that of the masks decorating courtyards and gardens (Rose 2006:64–66). However, some contexts speak for an apotropaic significance (Rose 2006:70). An association with the military is further ascertained by the output of workshops at Brigetio in the Province of Pannonia, where molds and small-scale satyr and tragic masks came to light in the potters’ quarters at Kurucdumb, part of the legionary kilnworks set up after 118–119 CE when the permanent camp of the Legio I Adiutrix was established (Bónis 1977a:194–195, Figs. 7, 8). Four fragmentary, small stepped altars were retrieved in the present excavations; two are handmade with knife-paring (Nos. 890, 891), while the other two are even smaller, and are mold made like the rest of the terracotta fragments.

Figurines Head of Female Figurine 867. L8107, B81195. Preserved height 4.5 cm, preserved width 3.4 cm; head of a female wearing a polos, identified as an Oriental goddess, brown clay, probably made in a plaster mold, the seam of the two halves of the mold clearly discernible, the surface uneven with

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blisters and bubbles (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 16: northern Levantine coast from ‘Akko northward). It is noteworthy that the source of mold-made lamps, figurines and masks in Beirut is usually Tyre (Paul Reynolds, pers. comm. 2013). As only the head has survived, it is difficult to determine which goddess was depicted, possibly the Phrygian mother-goddess Kybele (for images of this goddess from sanctuaries, tombs and domestic areas in the Greco-Roman world, see Simon in LIMC VIII, Supplementum 744–766, s.v. Kybele). The head could be part of a seated or standing female. The workmanship is crude; the facial features are dominated by a bulbous nose and eyes connected at the top by a horizontal line marking the eyebrows, thus forming a single unit. The nose is as wide as the mouth, which is indicated by two swollen lips, and the chin is prominent. The goddess wears a pair of heavy tubular earrings. The schematic coiffure is composed of four horizontally laid tiers of hair, indicating plaited locks, the upper three held together by a clasp; alternatively, the lower tier might represent a ribbon on the forehead. On a fragmentary marble head from Ephesos, depicting a priestess and attributed to the early fourth century CE, the same hairstyle is found (Cat. Frankfurt 1983:496–497, No. 101, with references). The head and the coiffure of No. 867 are covered by a veil hanging down onto both shoulders, which does not cover the polos (for a different version with the veil covering the polos, see Naumann 1983:252, Pl. 43:2, representing a new type of head dress in the second century BCE). The high polos is ornamented with horizontal lines and two central dots, suggesting a diadem with semi-precious stones similar to the circlet with applied bust worn by priestesses (for example on the above-mentioned head from Ephesos, Cat. Frankfurt 1983, No. 101). In Israel, the cult of Kybele is attested in the Hellenistic period (Erlich 2009a), with terracotta figurines found at Marissa (Erlich and Kloner 2008:14–15), Dora (Erlich 2010:119) and ‘Akko (Messika 1997: Fig. 2:1). Kybele is depicted on a late Hellenistic diadem from Neapolis, where she is standing in the center of the twelve gods; such diadems were worn by priests during cultic activities (Naumann 1983:278–281; Vermaseren 1987:265, No. 896). The popularity of the cult of Kybele in Asia Minor during Roman times, continuing an earlier religious tradition, is underlined by the minting of coins with her image in some 70 cities (Naumann 1983:288). Three Non-Joining Fragments of Standing Female Figurine 868. L8113, B80585. Standing figure with bent arm; preserved height 7.5 cm, preserved width 3.3 cm. L8145, B80895. Head; preserved height 3.8 cm, preserved width 2.5 cm. L8144, B81250. Leg (?) on plinth base; mold made and retouched. The right side of the torso depicts a figure clad in a mantle, the right arm bent at an angle and held in front of the breast. Most of the right half of the head is missing; the facial features are rather crude with a large nose, a deep eye socket and swollen lips. Around the head, the hair is indicted by deep, diagonal linear cuts, with some locks falling onto the shoulder.

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Two Non-Joining Fragments of Nude Female Figure 869. L8113, B80584. Lower part of body; preserved height 4.8 cm, preserved width 4.4 cm. L8113, B80477. Right leg; preserved height 5.5 cm, preserved width 3.3 cm. The fragmentary torso depicts the lower belly and the upper part of the left leg, the joint marked by a deep groove. A second deep, semicircular groove runs across the belly well below the navel. Plinths with Standing Figures 870. L8075, B80460. Left corner of a figure standing on a square or rectangular plinth, the left foot is visible, its upper part covered by a long garment; preserved height 5.5 cm, preserved width 5.3 cm; height of plinth 2.3–2.8 cm, thickness 0.7–0.9 cm. 871. L8125, B81023. Circular plinth with foot; preserved height 3.8 cm, preserved width 4.6 cm, estimated diameter 10 cm. Three Fragmentary Bases The nature of these three objects is unclear. 872. L8144, B81144/2. Circular base decorated with a row of upside-down crenellations all around the base and lanceolate leaves on the sloping section above, possibly a small altar; preserved height 3.2 cm, estimated diameter 7 cm. 873. L8152, B81052/2. Circular base, shallow relief decoration of ribbon and leaf, remains of Egyptian blue; preserved height 4.5 cm, estimated diameter 10 cm. 874. L8121, B80619/1. Three non-joining fragments of a base of a hollow figurine, preserved is the front part with a plinth and the plain back part, their seam visible with signs of knife-paring, the interior is rough; preserved height 6 cm, preserved width 3.5 cm. Head with Persian Hat 875. L8144, B81254/4. Thick-walled fragment, broken on all sides; preserved height 4.5 cm, preserved width 4 cm (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 41: unknown provenance). The identification is uncertain; discernible is the right forehead with the right eyebrow; below the pointed hat, a narrow strip of hair is marked by vertical incised lines. The Persian hat is worn by Mithras, yet the fragment is too small for a definite identification.

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Standing Draped Figure 876. L8114, B81044. Left side of schematic drapery with deep, linear folds, both the front and the inner part roughly worked with knife-paring; preserved height 7.2 cm, preserved width 4.5 cm. Torso 877. L8144, B81094/1. Unclear if this is a human or animal torso; preserved height 7 cm, preserved width 5 cm (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 37: unknown provenance). The nature of the object is unclear. A central incised line divides the fragment, with additional diagonal and horizontal incised lines on both sides.

Masks Masks of varying sizes––life-size, slightly less than life-size, and small votive and/or model masks––are attested in the Hellenistic and Roman periods (for Hellenistic masks, see Erlich and Kloner 2008:56–58; Erlich 2010:132–134). Many came to light in the depot of a local potter’s workshop at Gerasa, dated to the early second century CE (Iliffe 1945:15–17, Nos. 69–81; Cat. Cologne 1987:287). Common subjects are Dionysos and his retinue, and members of his thiasos and adherents, as well as theatrical masks. In the Jewish Quarter excavations, a mask fragment unearthed in an unstratified context might represent Dionysos. It is dated to the late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods (RosenthalHeginbottom 2003:213, Pl. 6.12:19). A slightly curved, fragmentary face from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks might be part of a miniature mask (Magness 2005:81, Fig. 12:1, suggests that it belongs to a figurine or anthropomorphic vase, or the base of a jug handle). The life-size mask found in a burial cave near Tell Abu-Shusha, dated to the late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods, is tentatively attributed to a member of the cavalry unit whose veterans were settled at Gaba Hippeon by Herod the Great (Siegelmann 1990:65, Fig. 6). However, the identification and location of the Gaba of Herod is still disputed (Dvorjetski 2009). Five fragments of theatrical masks from Hippos-Sussita and four large masks from Dora are dated to the first and second centuries (Erlich 2009b:56–57; 2010:132–134, Nos. 80–82, Roman(?), No. 83, Early Roman). A male and female mask, completely preserved with heights of 16 cm less than life-size, were placed in a tomb of the Ḥ. Qasṭra cemetery; they are interpreted as Dionysos and possibly Ariadne and dated to the second–third centuries (Cat. Haifa 1999:61, Pls. 26, 27; NEAEHL 5:1899, upper left for female mask; Erlich 2009b:56; 2010:132). Several flat or nearly flat pieces are attributed to masks, although their fragmentary state prevents a definite iconographic determination. It is suggested that Nos. 878–881 represent members of the Dionysian thiasos, in analogy to a complete satyr mask from Gerasa (Cat. Cologne 1987:287).

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Members of the Dionysian Thiasos (?) 878. L8144, B81097/3. Upper left side of a human face with outer edge preserved, piece broken on three sides, pierced suspension hole; preserved height 7 cm, preserved width 6.7 cm, edge thickness 1.2 cm. The forehead has a deep wrinkle and the edge of the left eyebrow is visible. The hair is composed of small, shallow, round curls with an impressed dot in the middle (see two mask fragments from Dora—Erlich 2010:134, Nos. 82, 83). 879. L8144, B81094/2. Fragment with trimmed edge on the left, broken on three sides; preserved height 7.8 cm, preserved width 4 cm edge thickness 1–1.4 cm. The fabric is similar to that of the mold-made drinking vessel No. 828 (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 39: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). This fragment depicts the right ear and several round locks of hair above and below it; parallel to the ear is a long lock with a hair-spiral or a ribbon. 880. L8152, B81061/2. Fragment broken on three sides; preserved height 4.7 cm, preserved width 3.2 cm, thickness 1.4 cm. This fragment shows a long double lock of hair on the right side of the mask. 881. L8144, B81073/1. Fragment broken on all sides; preserved height 2.4 cm, preserved width 3.3 cm. This fragment recalls the schematic hair indicated in relief with incised lines on a small, comic, male model mask from Gerasa (Iliffe 1945:16, Pl. V:74). Tragic Mask (?) 882. L8137, B80999/6. Fragment broken on all sides; preserved height 3.5 cm, preserved width 3.0 cm. This fragment recalls the wavy hair of a female tragic mask from Gerasa (Iliffe 1945:16, Pl. V:71; see the antefix from the legionary kilnworks, Arubas and Goldfus 1995:105, Figs. 13, 14; Erlich 2010:134, No. 85). The antefix is exhibited in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, where I had a chance to inspect it; as it is micaceous, it is unlikely to be a local product. Fragment of Mask with Egyptian Blue 883. L8125, B80954. Fragment with Egyptian blue (calcium copper silicate, Yuval Goren: Sample No. 3, pers. comm. 2010); preserved height 4.6, preserved width 3.2 cm. Indeterminate Fragments 884. L8144, B80886/2. Fragment broken on all sides; preserved height 5.6, preserved width 3.0 cm.

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885. L8104, B80676/1. Nearly flat fragment, edge to the right of the suspension hole preserved, with locks of hair depicted; preserved height 4.5 cm, preserved width 5.0 cm. Imported Mask 886. L8113, B80561. Flat fragment with left eyebrow and hair preserved, brown clay, micaceous, dark brown slip; preserved height 7.0 cm, preserved width 6.0 cm, thickness 0.5–1.0 cm. Import. Mask(?) 887. W812, B81332/1. Nearly flat fragment, reddish-brown clay, gray core; preserved height 6.7 cm, preserved width 4.7 cm, thickness of wall 0.4–0.5 cm. It is uncertain if this fragment was part of a mask; the fabric is not typical of the Jerusalem legionary products. Miniature Mask 888. L8113, B80562. Right side of a miniature mask, nearly flat with raised facial features, the right eye and eyebrow preserved, light brown clay; preserved height 9.0 cm, preserved width 5.5 cm, thickness 1.0–1.5 cm. From visual inspection, this is not a product of the legionary kiln site. Head of Pan 889. L8144, B81197. Left section of a face, reddish-brown clay, thin dark gray to brown slip on exterior, red slip on interior, on the right side is a pierced hole; preserved height 3 cm, preserved width 2.8 cm (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 40: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity). The head depicts Pan or Silenos, characterized by a bulbous nose and thick eyebrow.

Altars (Arulae ) The stepped altars (Nos. 890–893) are made of the local fabric of the legionary kilnworks: light brown clay, sometimes a gray core with small white and gray grits (as Nos. 868–885). Altar Nos. 890 and 891 are crudely modeled, handmade with knife-paring, while Nos. 892 and 893, the smaller altars, are mold made. The size of the latter suggests a votive function. The fragmentary state of these objects makes it impossible to determine if they belong to the category of horned altars (see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2008b:7*, Figs. 1a, 1b for a complete altar, 12 cm high, in the Hecht Museum, University of Haifa). The altars from Caesarea Maritima, defined as votive incense altars, are similar in shape and size to the Jerusalem examples (Patrich and Abu Shaneb 2008:315, Nos. 316–320; No. 316 is a horned altar, No. 320 with a red slip is not an altar but a fragment

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of a Knidian zoomorphic vessel). It is quite possible that they are to be associated with the Roman army. At Dora, a fragmentary altar of micaceous, reddish-yellow clay was found in a deposit dated c. 125–60(?) BCE (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:316, Fig. 6.42:8) and two fragmentary stepped altars are of Roman date (Erlich 2010:135, Nos. 91, 92). Two fragments from Hippos-Sussita could have belonged to an altar, or the base of a figurine (Erlich 2009b:57). A fragmentary altar (7 × 7 × 8 cm), the base missing, was discovered in the potter’s workshop at Gerasa, dated to the second century CE (Iliffe 1945:18, Pl. VI:98). An altar was also recovered at Byblos (Dunand 1954:89, No. 7333, Fig. 77). In the Greco-Roman realm, small clay, bronze and stone altars had a wide distribution in domestic and funerary contexts, both in the public and private sphere, and are associated with different ethnic and religious groups. Most of the data concerning their function and use comes from Egypt (Bayer-Niemeier 1988:275–276, Nos. 722–726; Fischer 1994:439– 441, Nos. 1213–1220, first–second centuries). Their use as incense burners in private and public rites is likely, evidenced by the black soot marks visible on most of them (Dunand 1990:308). Such a use is further supported by a clay figurine depicting Pataikos standing near a horned altar (half the size of the figure), and apparently sprinkling incense pellets on the altar. At his feet is an overturned pot, and further away is a jar on a stand (Philipp 1972:25, No. 22). Other figurines depict male cult servants standing near a low, horned altar (a quarter the height of the figure) holding a basket of fruit in the right hand and placing it between the horns of the altar; the left arm is clasping a jar (Fischer 1994:207–208, Nos. 378–381, Pl. 35; the version of the cult servant No. 381 is identified in another publication as Harpocrates, Dunand 1990:73, Nos. 137, 138). The question arises, is the basket of fruit to be interpreted as a pan or bowl containing charcoal or wood on which the incense pellets were sprinkled? This custom is attested in a secular context, in a reference in the Mishna from the first century CE, when it was common among Jews to sprinkle incense on burning coals after meals (the mugmar; Rahmani 1980:122). In Egypt, small incense altars were also used in the funerary cult (Soukiassian 1983:318), as attested by a first-century CE stele from Abydos that shows the deceased before Osiris throwing grains––probably incense–– onto a portable horned altar (Quaegebeur 1993:341). He suggests that the rite had a magical connotation aimed at the destruction of evil forces and appeasing the god with a perfumed sacrifice (Quaegebeur 1993:347). 890. L8107, B80674. Section of upper and lower part of a square altar, broken at the bottom, interior surfaces rough with fingermarks, knife-paring on exterior, three pronounced profiles; preserved height 4.5 cm, preserved width 5.5 cm. 891. L8123, B80755. Section of upper and lower part of square altar, interior surfaces rough with fingermarks, knife-paring on exterior; preserved height 6.5 cm, preserved width 6.5 cm. 892. L8107, B80537/1. Profiled base with straight-cut bottom; preserved height 1.8 cm, preserved width 1.5 cm.

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893. L8107, B80537/2. Profiled base with straight-cut bottom; preserved height 3.6 cm, preserved width 3.2 cm.

Unassigned Fragment 894. L8107, B80564. Fragment with indistinct relief decoration, perhaps a handle(?), light brown clay, perforated hole. Neither the nature of the object, nor the depicted decoration, is clear.

Varia In this section a number of diverse singular or uncommon ceramics from the Hellenistic and Roman periods are presented, all imported. Parallels to the late Hellenistic vessels (Nos. 895–899) have already been recorded in Jerusalem’s Upper City. Of particular interest is the inkwell (No. 900) of post-70 CE date, an essential artifact with a wide distribution, yet never found in large numbers. The pre- or post-70 CE date of the other vessels from the Roman period cannot be ascertained. Five categories of luxury tableware of the first and early second centuries: a Nabataean painted bowl (No. 901) and an Italian Sigillata cup (No. 902), and lead-, green-glazed and faience vessels (Nos. 903–910), indicate sporadic imports. It is unlikely that they are evidence for long-distance trade networks and appear to be personal items, acquired by residents or brought by visitors. Eight uncommon vessels (Nos. 911–918), including the peg toe of an amphora from the fourth century BCE (Nos. 918), conclude the section.

Hellenistic Vessels Vessels from the late Hellenistic period are residual; they comprise tableware such as the fish plate (No. 895) and bowls in Ephesos Gray Ware (Nos. 896–898), and a rare example of an imported dome-mouthed unguentarium (No. 899). These vessels complement the evidence from the habitation debris in the Upper City of Jerusalem and permit the assessment of the extent to which the local residents under Hasmonean rule participated in the Greco-Roman lifestyle (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:396–397). Fish-Plate Tradition 895. L8152, B81052/4. Plate/bowl, buff clay, grayish-brown slip, drooping rim turned sharply down and a groove on the inside. The shape is in the fish-plate tradition, the thick, drooping rim being a late feature dated to the second half of the second century BCE. The fish plate represents a shape alien to Judaean ceramics. In the Jewish Quarter excavations, imports from western Asia Minor as well as regional and local products were found, which, on stratigraphical evidence, were in use until the mid-first century BCE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:383; 2017a:192–195).

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Ephesos Gray Ware Imported gray-ware vessels do not occur in large numbers and their attribution by visual inspection to the Ephesos region needs archaeometric verification (on the fabric, see Mitsopoulos-Leon 1991:131). In Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:384), Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a:31–32) and Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b:62), less than a dozen fragments were retrieved. A general date from the first century BCE into at least the first decades of the first century CE, and perhaps into the second century, is suggested. The features of the Ephesos fabric are a brown to reddish-brown clay, a dark gray to dark brown gloss, never pure black, often with a silvery metallic shine. The surface is not as smooth as the sigillata ware and can be gritty with a quite dull engobe (Gassner 1997:39, for parallels to Nos. 896 and 897, see also the conical bowls on p. 51, Nos. 123, 124). 896. L8104, B80592/2. Bowl, brown clay, remains of lustrous brown slip, micaceous, probably from Ephesos. 897. L8104, B80427/2. Bowl, brown clay, dark brown to dark gray slip, micaceous, probably from Ephesos. 898. L8123, B80745/2. Bowl, brown clay, lustrous dark gray slip, non-micaceous, probably from Ephesos. Unguentarium Dome-mouthed unguentaria form a category well-defined by form, fabric and size. This fragment is the first evidence for an import to Jerusalem; other specimens were recorded at Dora (Guz-Zilberstein 1995:306, 376, Fig. 6.27:5–12) and Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:145, D50). The vessels were manufactured in and exported from a single, so far unknown, eastern production center, although neither the suggested localization in Knidos nor Cyprus could be definitely verified by archaeometric analysis. Their production began in the third century BCE, reached its peak in the second century, and came to an end in the first century BCE (Dotterweich 1999:39–44). The vessels’ distinct feature is the reddishbrown to grayish slip on the interior; the slip is adhesive on the interior body and tends to be slightly transparent and blotchy on the neck interior and on the lip and the neck exterior (Dotterweich 1999:6, Pl. 22). The particular shape of the mouth enabled a steady pouring with no waste (see also No. 839). The inner coating visible on most examples, yet not on No. 899, suggests that a precious aromatic substance was transported and sold for use in private dwellings and shops, funerary rituals and activities related to sanctuary cults. In an attempt to understand why this type of unguentarium has a relatively wide opening,

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Dotterweich demonstrated in tests that only a thin, gentle stream of liquid could be poured, and that no drops ran down the exterior wall, but were caught in the dome-shaped mouth (1999:41). 899. L8140, B80972. Dome-mouthed unguentarium, brown clay, exterior surface yellowishlight brown, on exterior rim and below spots of brown slip on exterior rim and below it, non-micaceous.

Roman Inkwell The inkwell, atramentarium, is never found in large numbers in military contexts (Conspectus 1990:140–141, Form 51). Thus, only single examples came to light in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 1995: Fig. 33:3) and at Vindonissa in the debris of the camp of the Thirteenth Legion (Tomašević 1970:45, Pl. 12:8). In the Roman period, inkwells in bronze and clay, of regional and local production, occur in two basic shapes: an elongated cylindrical pot (the so-called Qumran type), and a cup-like pot with nearly vertical sides, both shapes with or without a handle (Khairy 1980; Olenik 1983–1984; Goranson 1992). The Qumran-type inkwell is found in Judaea in the late Second Temple period (Magen and Peleg 2008: Pl. 5:4; Geva 2010:128, Pl. 4.6:8, 9) and in the Galilee in Jewish settlements such as Nabratein and Meiron. Several finds from Tel Kedesh, Tel Ashdod and Marissa, dating to the Hellenistic period, have recently been published, with a short overview of inkwells from the Hellenistic and Roman periods (Erlich 2017:48–50, Figs. 8–10). The cup-like inkwells have flat or slightly concave tops (Olenik 1983–1984:63, Fig. 19) and seem to derive their shape from Hellenistic prototypes in Campana A ware (Beltrán Lloris 1978: Pl. X:103). They occur in Italian and Spanish sigillata ware (Oswald and Pryce 1966:209–210, Pl. 70, with examples from the Rhine provinces and Britain; Beltrán Lloris 1978: Pl. XXXVII:450). Most of these parallels are characterized by an internal flange, a device meant to prevent the ink from splashing. One example located in the Albertina Museum, Dresden, has a flat rim and a flange around the central hole, is decorated on the exterior and has a handle (Oswald and Pryce 1966: Pl. 70:8). An example in ARS ware with a slightly convex top is considered to be of Flavian or possibly Trajanic date (Hayes 1972:177, Form 124.1, Fig. 34). The cup-like shape occurs in blue-glazed Egyptian faience in the first and second centuries CE (Nenna and Seif ElDin 2000:63, 387–388, Fig. 15, Type 22.1b) and also in lead-glazed ware (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:49, from Tarsos; Hayes 2008: No. 896, from Rome or vicinity, second century CE). 900. L8174, B81299/1. Fragment of top and upper wall. Yellowish-light brown clay, reddish-brown slip on exterior, a mold-made wreath of leaves in relief on the flat top with a groove on the outer edge.

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The closest parallels are the fragment mentioned above from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 1995: Fig. 33:3), five cup-like inkwells from Shu‘fat, north of Jerusalem (Bar-Nathan 2013:131, from a settlement dated to c. 70–135 CE), and a complete inkwell decorated with a wreath from a second-century CE tomb in Abila, Jordan (Ma’ayeh 1960: Pl. 5:1 right; Khairy 1980:159, Fig. 4a). The latter has a flat top, an outer and inner concentric ridge around the rim, a wreath in relief, a small central hole, and the onset of a handle.

Nabataean Painted Ware In Jerusalem, two categories of painted fine bowls occur in the first century CE. The first is the dominant Judaean ware, formerly termed ‘Pseudo-Nabataean’ (Nos. 230–238), the second is the Nabataean ware manufactured at Petra ez Zantur and imported to sites in Judaea. Unpublished finds from Area P in the Upper City (pers. obs.) can be attributed to bowls of Phases 3a (c. 20– 70/80 CE) and 3b (c. 70/80 until shortly after 100 CE; Schmid 2000:24–25, 84–87, Fig. 98). The ware was produced exclusively in workshops of the Petra region (Gunneweg, Perlman and Asaro 1988:342–343). At Masada the substantial number of imports dates from the period of Garrison 2 (73/74–80/87 CE; Bar-Nathan 2006: 292); painted ware bowls were also found in Camp F and attributed to the household of Flavius Silva, the Roman commander (Magness 2009:77. 83, Fig. 3:1–5). The assemblages at Masada relate to the Roman military, and it is probable that the imports to Jerusalem were ordered by the Romans. 901. L5295, B52198/1. Reddish-brown clay, brown and red paint. This small fragment can be attributed to Phase 3b at Petra ez Zantur (Schmid 2000: Color Pls. 3, 4).

Italian Sigillata With a production period from c. 40 BCE to 60 CE, Italian Sigillata should not be expected in the Jerusalem Roman dump of post-70 CE date, except for occasional ‘heirlooms’ representing personal property. Furthermore, imports of tardo italica (50–150 CE) seem to be absent in Jerusalem, and only a single fragment of a South Gaulish Sigillata bowl is known to me from the Jewish Quarter excavations. The fragment belongs to a bowl of Dragendorff 29B, a form which disappeared around 85/90 CE; a date in the last third of the first century is most likely, though a pre-70 CE date cannot be excluded (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017c:30–31, Fig. 12). It is suggested here that the military did not import tableware from Italy and that the fragment from the fill of W804 is clearly residual. From the time of Herod the Great to the end of the first century CE, sigillata manufactured in Italy was imported, though never in large numbers. It is recorded in Jerusalem (Hayes 1985:184; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:390–391), Ramat HaNadiv (Silberstein 2000:461), Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:47, 10 BCE as terminus post quem) and Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a:25–28, Italian Sigillata unclassified kraters, late first century BCE and first century CE). In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, imports from the West include the factory lamp (No. 819), and presumably some of the thin-walled vessels (Nos. 221–229), yet these

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should be seen as the personal property of individuals and cannot be taken as evidence of trade. This suggestion is strengthened by the observation that the luxury tableware (see above) does not imitate western prototypes in silver and bronze. It is further confirmed by the petrographic analysis of the fragment of a dish with barbotine decoration from the 1968 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 55: clay from Judaea, Jerusalem vicinity?; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:272–273, No. 184), for which a South Gaulish origin was suggested. Unfortunately, the petrographic result is unclear, although a western origin is unlikely. Already prior to the petrographic analysis, Magness had suggested a local manufacture for this item (Jodi Magness, pers. comm. 2012). The vessel’s date can be either pre-70 CE or post-70 CE. 902. W804, B80489/2. Cup. This tiny fragment displays the smooth, lustrous glaze of the Italian products. It is tentatively identified as a campanulate cup with a narrow hanging lip of Augustan date (Conspectus 1990:76–77, Forms 14.1, 14.2), which was mainly produced in Etruria and Lyon. The small size of the fragment makes the attribution difficult, although with a diameter of c. 10–12 cm it cannot be attributed to a plate with a narrow hanging lip (Conspectus 1990:72–73, Form 12.2). Goudineau dates the beginning of production of this type of cup to around 12 BCE (Goudineau 1968:291–292, 376, Form 18 for the cup, and Form 17 for the plate). A cup of this type was recovered at Ashqelon (Johnson 2008a:25, No. 79).

Lead-Glazed Vessels Lead-glazed ware from Asia Minor was produced in workshops at Tarsos, Perge, Mytilene on Lesbos, a hypothetical workshop at Smyrna, and a group of workshops in southwestern Asia Minor, all dating from the early first century BCE onward (Hochuli-Gysel 2002). Most widely distributed were the products from Tarsos, which are found exclusively in Palestine, Cyprus and Egypt. In Palestine and Egypt, they are distributed along, or close to, the land route to Egypt and the spice, incense and perfume route to southern Arabia (HochuliGysel 1977:108). Vessels have been identified in Jerusalem’s Upper City (RosenthalHeginbottom 2017a:301, Pl. 25.3:8, base of a skyphos), at Dora (unpublished), Caesarea Maritima (Johnson 2008b:30, No. 133, skyphos fragment with vine leaf), Oboda (Negev 1986:12–13) and Petra ez Zantur (Horsfield and Horsfield 1942:199–200, Nos. 449–457 identified as faience, but the color of the glaze is lead-glazed; Schneider 1996:137–138). 903. L8121, B80664/1. Ring-handle skyphos, rim and wall fragment with top and base of handle, the thumb rest missing. The exterior is decorated with leaves and tendrils. Yellowish-light brown clay, worn green glaze on exterior, yellowish-brown on interior except for inner lip. References: Hochuli-Gysel 1977:160, Pl. 51: T 130, antithetic vine branches with leaves, clusters of grapes and small tendrils; it is the most common plant depicted as a symbol of Dionysos and was used in all workshops (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:87–89, Pl. 33:11–15, large leaves with five lobes; Negev 1986:13, No. 68; Schneider 1996:137–138, 147, Fig. 576).

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904. L8104, B80458. Skyphos, light brown clay, worn bluish-green glaze on exterior, brown on interior. The decoration consists of a row of double concentric circles (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:82, Pl. 31, filling ornaments as finishing border, concentric circles). 905. L8146, B80897/2. Skyphos, light brown clay, worn bluish-green glaze on exterior, brown on interior. The broken decoration consists of a taenia and column (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:95–97, Pl. 36, taenia, either single or double, with short or longer falling ribbon, Tarsos Groups 2 and 3 and other Western Asia Minor workshops; for columns, see p. 97, Pl. 37:9, 10). In the lead-glazed pottery from Asia Minor, the ring-handle skyphos was the most popular type. It is suggested here that Nos. 903 and 904 correspond to Skyphos 1a with green and yellow glaze, of Tarsos Group 3 (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:25–27, Fig. 2). The ring handle with a thumb rest and a spur below it was copied from precious-metal prototypes. It was meant to facilitate drinking: the thumb is laid on the rest, the forefinger holds the ring handle, and the middle finger is below the spur (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:21, 29, see pp. 24, 26 for parallels in silver and early Italian sigillata). Group 3 dates to the beginning of the first century CE to 80/90 CE, with the main production during the first half of that century (Hochuli-Gysel 1977:120; see the skyphos acquired from an antiquities dealer in Jerusalem, now in Berlin, p. 146, T 12). On all three fragments (Nos. 903–905) the glaze on the interior is a glassy, strong yellowbrown in good condition, while the glaze on the exterior is dull and worn. 906. L8147, B80947. Small pedestal foot of a kantharos or chalice, brown clay, brown glaze on interior, green on exterior and interior of foot. 907. L8138, B80812/1. Base of a skyphos, reddish-brown clay, brown glaze with greenish tinge on exterior and interior. Reference: Hochuli-Gysel 1977:28, Fig. 7, Skyphos, Tarsos Group 3.

Green-Glazed Vessel 908. L5293, B52163. Plate/bowl, inner layer of reddish-brown clay with green glaze, outer layer of light brown clay, unglazed. Import from Parthia, dated c. 100 BCE to 100 CE. The interior glaze suggests an open vessel, although this base could also be part of a table amphora. The single find is probably residual and should not be taken as evidence for a source of supply. If owned by a member of the military, it was personal property. At Petra ez Zantur, a few green-glazed vessels have come to light. Apparently, the Nabataeans fancied the closed shapes, as indicated by a local copy of a two-handled Parthian jug with applied dots (Schneider 1996:138).

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Faience Vessels Faience vessels from Ptolemaic Egypt were traded throughout the eastern Mediterranean, and appeared in Israel in the third–second centuries BCE, but not in Syria or Lebanon (Nenna and Seif El-Din 2000:34–37). Vessels from Jerusalem’s Upper City (RosenthalHeginbottom 2006:154, with references), Dora (unpublished), Marissa (Levine 2003: Fig. 6.19:1), Mishmar Ha-‘Emeq, Samaria (Nenna and Seif El-Din 2000:432), Ashdod (Ben-Shlomo 2005: Fig. 3.114:8) and Tel Be’er Shevaʽ (Nenna and Seif El-Din 2000:432) comprise open forms such as bowls and plates. In the Roman Imperial period, three Egyptian workshops have been located where plain and decorated vessels were produced, yet others must have existed as well. The Memphis workshop produced plain glazed vessels throughout the first and second centuries (Nenna and Seif El-Din 2000:330), which were distributed throughout Egypt, but seldom beyond its borders (Nenna and Seif ElDin 2000:39–45). Examples outside of Egypt are numerically insignificant and are often recorded from coastal and inland sites along the maritime, Syrian and Arabian trade routes; thus, they were apparently the personal property of travelling merchants. The Jerusalem examples could have been owned by military personnel, or alternatively, they could be residual. 909. L8106, B80462. Small pot, yellowish-light brown clay, ivory-colored glaze with a blue spot on exterior. No parallel was found among the closed vessels in the collection of the Greco-Roman Museum in Alexandria (Nenna and Seif El-Din 2000:63, Fig. 15). The shape recalls the thin-walled mugs (compare Nos. 192–194). 910. L8138, B80812/2. Plate with ledge rim, yellowish-light brown clay, reddish-brown core, remains of white-blue glaze, on interior three vertical lines of blue on white glaze. This fragment is so small that only a tentative attribution is possible to Nenna and Seif ElDin’s Type 14.1, a rectangular plate (2000:61, 330, Fig. 13, Pl. 13:479). Like other simply glazed vessels, the plates were produced in the first–second centuries at Memphis.

Uncommon Vessels Eight vessels are difficult to assess––either there are no direct parallels or the shape is unclear. Two fine tableware fragments are of Roman date (Nos. 911, 912), while neither the shape nor the date can be determined with certainty for Nos. 913–916. The juglet (No. 917) belongs to the Roman period, yet is later than the Roman dump assemblage. The base of an imported amphora (No. 918), from the fourth century BCE, is clearly residual. 911. L8125, B80865/4 + B80874/4. Possibly hollow base, light brown clay, vessel type unclear. It appears that a central hole was roughly cut before firing, the exterior is smoothed.

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912. L8164, B81160/1. Fabric of fine tableware, light brown clay, reddish-brown exterior surface, remains of red slip on all surfaces. Vessel type unclear: the upper flat section appears to be a wide rim; the lower part is the interior of the vessel. 913. L8128, B80694/3. Brown clay, the curvature of the wall was carefully formed, the base and the outer wall are smooth, the interior looks like the inner part of a vessel, the uppermost section was cut to form a rim. Vessel type unclear, possibly an open lamp, although no soot detected. 914. L8144, B80961/3. Reddish-brown clay, light brown exterior and interior surfaces, exterior surface smooth with a groove painted dark brown inside and along the edge on both sides. Vessel type unclear, thickness of wall 0.6–1.0 cm. 915. L8125, B80892 + B80921. Cooking ware, exterior layer of reddish-brown clay, interior brown to gray; on the shoulder is a loop handle with a circular free-moving ring attached to it; there was probably a second handle. Based on visual inspection, the clay of No. 915 appears to be terra rossa and thus locally manufactured. However, neither the shape nor the loop handles with rings placed on the shoulder are characteristic features of legionary products. Several parallels for the feature of the free-moving ring handle are presented here, although they differ in vessel shape, fabric and date. A deep bowl from the Athenian Agora dated to the first half of the third century has three vertical band handles, each marked by a single longitudinal groove, and through each one is a free-moving ring (diam. 5.7 cm; Robinson 1959:63, K 34, Pl. 12). A fragment with two such handles made of cookware comes from a context dated to the first half of the second century (Robinson 1959:48, H 19, Pl. 8). A thin-walled, three-handled jar acquired in Egypt with a ring preserved is dated to the late first or second century (Hayes 1976:48, No. 243). A post-Byzantine thin-walled pot in fine buff ware (Khirbat al-Mafjar ware) from Bet Yeraḥ has a loop handle and a freemoving ring in the upper half of the neck (Delougaz and Haines 1960:38, Pls. 39:11; 58:2); however, the fabric is different and the upper part of the fixed handle has plastic decoration. A Roman wide-mouthed, two-handled jar with rings was found at Corbridge in Britain, dated 120–160 CE (Gillam 1968:19, No. 174). In Gaul, a cremation burial dated from c. 120 CE to the end of the second century contained several grave offerings, including a casserole with two vertical handles with a ring (Loridant 2001:190–191, Fig. 3:27).

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916. L8125, B80930. Shoulder and wall fragment, light brown clay. This vessel has two openings, which suggest its identification as a large ‘lamp house’. It seems that there were originally four square or rectangular openings placed asymmetrically on the upper wall below the shoulder. A parallel from Bet Yeraḥ has four large round openings set symmetrically (Delougaz and Haines 1960:36–37, Pl. 57:9, a lantern is suggested). Lamp houses occur in small and large versions (Hayes 1980a:144; Fischer 1994:427–433) and are also described as lanterns (Rosenthal 1978:150–151; Zevulun and Olenik 1979:43*, Figs. 225, 226; Magness 1993:146, Fig. 3:1–4). They were used in Roman and Byzantine times, and when plain they are difficult to date. 917. L5002, B41618. Intact juglet, medium-fine fabric, light brown clay, reddish-brown core, small grits and some large white chalky grits, string-cut base with grooved, irregular circles on the bottom, and grooves on the lower part of the vessel. This juglet is of Roman date but appears to be later than the Roman assemblage from the Western Wall Plaza excavations. The fabric differs from the finer juglets known in the late Second Temple period and the period between the two revolts. The trefoil-shaped mouth is found on the legionary cooking jugs (see No. 691). 918. L8144, B80931. Solid peg toe of an imported amphora, reddish-brown clay, gray core, light brown exterior, micaceous, some large quartz grits; dated to the fourth century BCE, from northern Aegean (Thasos; Gerald Finkielsztejn, pers. comm. 2012). This amphora fragment is clearly residual.

Catalogue Plates

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CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

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CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

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RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

460 459

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0

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10

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CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

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RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

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CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

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523 522

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528 0

10

186

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541

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187

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

553

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566

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10

188

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10

189

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

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622 620

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10

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10

191

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

645 643

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648

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657 656

658

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663 662

664 665

666 667 0

10

192

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

670

668

669

671

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684

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685 686

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691

689

690 0

10

193

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

692

693

695

694

696

698

697

699

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701

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709

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0

708

2

711

710

712

713 0

714

715

716 0

10

2

194

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

717

718

720

719

721

723

722

724

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726 727

729

728

731

730

732

733

734 0

10

195

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

737

736 735

738

739 0

10

741 740

743 742

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746

745

747

748

0

4

749

196

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

750

751

752

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756

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4

197

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

760 758

757

759

761

762

765

763

766

764

767 0

4

768

198

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

769

772

770

0

1

771

773

774

776 1

0

775

777

778 0 0

4

1

199

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

780 779

1

0

1

783

782 781

784 0

0

1

785

788

787 786 0

4

200

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

791 789

790

793

792

795

794

800

799

798

797

796

801

802 0

0

1 0

4

1

201

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

803

805

804

807

808

809

811

814

806

810

812

813

815

816 0

4

817

202

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

0

1

818

819 820

821

824

823

822

825

826 0

4

827

0

1

203

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

829

828

830

832

831

0

833 0

5

1

834 0

4

0

5

204

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

835

836

837

838 0

0

2

0

0

10

5

0

839 0

4

1

1

205

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

0

2

840

841

842

843 844

845

0

2

206

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

846

848 847

0

0

2

849

850

0

2

2

207

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

853

852 851

0

5

0

854 0

857

856

855

858

2

859 0

10

860

2

208

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

0

2

861

0

862

1

863

865

864 0

4

866 0

5

209

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

867 1

0

868 0

869

1

870

871 0

4

210

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

872

873

874

875

876

878

877

880

881

879

883

885

884 0

4

882

211

CHAPTER 2: CATALOGUE OF ROMAN POTTERY

887

886

888

890

889

892

891

893 0

894

5 0

4

212

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

895 896

897

898 899

900

902 901

903

0

905

904

906 0

2

0

907

908

910

909

911

913

912

915

914 0

916

2

2

917 0

918 10

2

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 3

Selected Roman Loci R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

In order to date the two main construction phases of the Eastern Cardo—the preparatory works and the paving of the Cardo (Strata XIIB–A)—a number of loci were selected. The ceramics retrieved from these loci originate from a secondary deposition of household debris and are divided into Groups 1–5 (Figs. 3.1–3.16). The continuous use of the Cardo in the Roman and Byzantine periods (Stratum XI) is represented by Group 6 (not illustrated). The stratigraphic contexts of Groups 1–6 are summarized here, together with any significant coin finds (see Bijovsky 2019), followed by a discussion of the ceramic finds and their chronological significance.

The Stratigraphic Context Group 1: The Dismantling of W811-W812 Wall 811-W812 was built on the bottom of Quarry 8170 in order to stabilize the earth and refuse dump that were brought to fill in the quarry preceding the Cardo’s construction. A small section of the wall was dismantled in order to analyze and date the pottery assemblage from its core. Group 2: The Roman Dump Pottery from a number of stratigraphic layers inside the refuse dump (Groups 2b–2g), which were deposited against W811-W812, reflects the period after the abandonment of Quarry 8170 (Group 2a), when it was deliberately filled up with earth and refuse. Group 2a: The quarry (L8170)—no diagnostic sherds. Group 2b: A thin layer of fill and an installation, built above the bottom of the quarry (L8151, L8159, L8162, L8165, L8167, L8187). Group 2c: Fill above Group 2b (L8146–L8148, L8152, L8155, L8158, L8160); finds include a coin of Alexander Jannaeus (80/79–76 BCE; L8148; Coin No. 10), and a coin defined as ‘Jewish uncertain’, up to 70 CE (L8152; Coin No. 32). Group 2d: Foundation trench of and/or fill along the eastern face of W811-W812 (L8132, L8144, L8154, L8157, L8164, L8166); finds include a coin of Domitian (86/87 CE; L8144; Coin No. 33). Group 2e: A thin layer of small stones and soil, which appeared to represent ground surface inside the quarry at the time of the construction of W811-W812 (L8123, L8125, L8140, L8145); east of W811-W812, above Group 2c.

12 1-W8 W81

L8126 L8147 L8151 L8104 L8121 L8125 L8050 L8145

L8159

L8137 L8155

L8107 L8132, L8157 L8166

Group 1 Group 2b Group 2c Group 2d Group 2e Group 2f Group 2g 1 m

0

L8122

L8055

L8162 L8053 L8148 L8123 L8146

L8140

L8144, L8154 L8164 L8165 L8167

L8075

L8172 L8183

Carriageway

.

L8174 L8182

Street 8020

Sidew

alk

L5332

L8187 L8152 L8158 L8160

L5283

L5333 L5336

eum

L5339

ropyla

L5299

Po astern

tico

rtico/P

L5347

E W457

Weste

rn Por

L5293 L5295

L3225 L500 L526 L662

L525

L374 L477

L4274 L4273

L319 L514

Street 4180

L4185 L4260

Group 3 Group 4a Cistern300

Group 4b

Group 5

Group 4c

Group 6

0

Plan 3.1. The pottery groups.

10 m

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

215

Group 2f: Fill above the construction ground surface of Group 2e, abutting W811-W812 (L8050, L8051, L8104, L8107, L8113, L8121, L8122, L8126, L8150); finds include a coin of Alexander Jannaeus (80/79–76 BCE; L8104; Coin No. 9) and a coin of Agrippa I (41/42 CE; L8107; Coin No. 17). Group 2g: Fill above Group 2f, abutting W811-W812 (L8053, L8055 [black ash], L8075 [yellow laminated fill], L8137). Group 3: Preparatory Works for Construction of the Cardo and Street 4180 This group includes pottery from fills of quarries and installations in the northern section of the western portico and western sidewalk (L5283, L5332, L5333) and from fills of quarries beneath the paving of Street 4108 (L4185, L4260, L4273, L4274); finds include a coin of Agrippa I (41/42 CE; L5283; Coin. No. 18). Group 4: Fill beneath the Cardo’s Flagstones This group includes potsherds found beneath paving stones of the Cardo. Group 4a: Foundation layer (only in the southern part of the site, where the flagstones were laid above the hewn bedrock): sealed under flagstones (L526, L662); unsealed but undisturbed (L500, L525, L3225); finds from L3225 include a coin attributed to Roman governors under Nero (58/59 CE; Coin No. 21) and another dating to the Great Revolt (67/68 CE; Coin No. 25). Group 4b: Fill in the quarries (in the northern part of the site, attributed to the preparatory works): sealed beneath flagstones (L5339, L5347); unsealed but undisturbed (L5293 [B52188], L5295, L5299; finds include a Hadrianic coin (117–138 CE; L5295; Coin No. 35). Group 4c: Layers of fill (like the fill of the Roman dump), sealed beneath the Cardo’s flagstones west of W811-W812 (L8174, L8182); finds include a coin dating from the Great Revolt (67/68 CE; L8174; Coin No. 29). Group 5: Fill beneath Street 8020 The pottery originates in sealed fills below the flagstones of Street 8020 (L8172, L8183). The fills are similar in their texture to the fill of the Roman dump (Group 2). Group 6: Fill of Drainage Channels and Water Cistern Finds from fills in the water system—drainage channels and a cistern (L300)—represent the period during which the Cardo was in continuous use (L374, L477, L514, L525).

216

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

The Diagnostic Ceramic Finds Group 1: The Dismantling of W811-W812 (Fig. 3.1) The ceramic finds can be securely placed within the suggested time span of c. 75–125 CE. The legionary products include a thin-walled pot (Fig. 3.1:6; No. 208), a flat-bottomed baking dish (Fig. 3.1:8; No. 331), a krater with triangular rim (Fig. 3.1:9; No. 371), two basins (Fig. 3.1:10, 11; Nos. 387, 389), two pots with grooved handles (Fig. 3.1:12, 13; Nos. 472, 476), a casserole (Fig. 3.1:19; No. 663) and a mask fragment (Fig. 3.1:20; No. 887). From within W811–W812 are roof-tile fragments (Fig. 3.1:21–23), all of Magness’ Ware 5 (Magness 2005:70): Figure 3.1:21, tegula, reddish-brown clay; Fig. 3.1:22, imbrix, greenish-light brown clay; Fig. 3.1:23, imbrix, light brown clay. The imported ESA ware is represented by two common forms: Form 48 (Fig. 3.1:1; No. 8; 40–70 CE onward) and Form 54 (Fig. 3.1:2; No. 13; 75/80–130/150 CE). Group 2: The Roman Dump (Figs. 3.2–3.9) The finds from the Roman dump constitute the major corpus of the catalogue. In order to enable a full orientation, all the sherds from these loci that are presented in the catalogue are listed here according to locus number. It should be borne in mind that roof-tile fragments were prominent throughout all levels of the Roman dump, together with a small number of clay drain pipes (Nos. 726–731) and a few bricks. The clay drain pipes included in the catalogue can be attributed to the following Groups: 2d (No. 730), 2e (Nos. 729, 731) and 2f (Nos. 726–728). Not a single tile fragment yielded a legionary stamp, and as tiles were introduced into Jerusalem by the military, this leads to the conclusion that there was a period when unstamped tiles were manufactured. The significance of this observation remains a matter of speculation (see above, Foreword). Stratigraphically, the Roman dump has been divided into Groups (2b–2g; Table 3.1) that accumulated above the quarried bedrock (Group 2a). In light of the large quantity of

Fig. 3.1 ► No.

Cat. No.

Basket

No.

Cat. No.

Basket

1

8

81309/4

13

476

81332/8

2

13

81332/18

14

486

81332/15

3

16

81332/13

15

565

81332/14

4

120

81309/6

16

568

81309/7

5

123

81332/4

17

637

81332/17

6

208

81332/3

18

642

81332/11

7

260

81309/2

19

663

81332/10

8

331

81309/1

20

887

81332/1

9

371

81332/12

21

81332/17

10

387

81332/6

22

81332/7

11

389

81309/3

23

81332/5

12

472

81309/5

217

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

1

2

3

6

4

5

9

8

7

10

11

13 12 14

16

15

18

17

19 0

10

22

20

21 0

4

Fig. 3.1. Group 1: pottery from W812.

23

218

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

pottery vessels, several common forms were dealt with according to their occurrence in Groups 2b–2g (Table 3.2). In this way, the homogeneous nature of the assemblage can be easily corroborated. For example, in Table 3.2 and Figs. 3.2–3.6, five basic forms of utility ceramics have been selected: shelf-rim basins (Fig. 3.2), basins with a flat rim (Fig. 3.3), jugs/pots/cooking pots with grooved handle(s) (Fig. 3.4), amphoras (Fig. 3.5) and casseroles (Fig. 3.6). Based on visual inspection and comparison with the products of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, these forms are considered to be of local manufacture. In addition, a cross-section of lamps is arranged according to Groups 2b–2g, illustrating the principal types and areas of origin (Table 3.3; Figs. 3.7–3.9). For the presentation of the distribution throughout Group 2 of vessels generally in use during the late Second Temple period, two classes have been chosen (Table 3.4; Fig. 3.10): small containers for liquids (Fig. 3.10:1–18) and storage jars (Fig. 3.10:19–28); the attribution is based on fabric and form. As I have argued above, the bulk of the ceramic fragments in the Roman dump should not be considered residual, but rather as contemporaneous with the legionary vessels. The historical watershed of 70 CE is definitely not accompanied by the disappearance of everyday pottery forms, although the arrival of the Roman army led to the introduction of new vessel shapes and the transformation of old shapes. On the basis of the evidence from the Roman-dump assemblage, it is impossible to separate pre- and post-70 CE vessels, and the continuation of ceramic traditions is exemplified by the ceramics retrieved from the Jewish hiding places during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (Kloner and Tepper 1987; Eshel and Porat 2009; see also Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a for an assemblage of pre- and post-70 CE ceramic finds from a cistern in Jerusalem’s Upper City). Finally, Table 3.5 lists the imported ESA cups, bowls and plates and the local red- and brown-slipped tableware according to the ‘Groups’, underlining the simultaneous use of imported and locally produced fine ware; Table 3.6 presents the figurines, masks and altars. A short appendix at the end of the chapter, accompanied by Table 3.7, presents the diagnostic sherds recovered in non-Roman and disturbed loci in order to supplement the ceramic repertoire represented in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage. Of utmost importance for the dating of the Roman dump are the numerous lamps, particularly the Roman imperial versions of Broneer Types XXI and XXII–XXIII, manufactured in manifold variations in different regions (Nos. 740–784), as well as the two lampstands, one a Knidian import, the other a local imitation (Nos. 785, 786). Only a small number of fragments could be petrographically analyzed, and therefore the suggested provenance is based on visual inspection and personal experience. It has already been pointed out above that the time span of c. 75–125 CE for the Roman dump is based primarily on the occurrence of the imperial discus lamps in combination with the predominantly secondcentury Levantine and local round discus lamps (Nos. 787–813), as well as the lack of products and imitations of the Gerasa workshop. The latter type and the round discus lamps were manufactured in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:80, 101, 102, Figs. 11:4, 5; 32:8, 9, 11). The distribution of the lamp types in Groups 2b–2g is presented in Table 3.3 and Figs. 3.7–3.9. For the assumed provenance and places of production, seven categories are suggested: two firm geographical definitions––Knidian and Italian;

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

219

local legionary, possibly manufactured at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site; local Judaean, i.e., probable workshops in the Jerusalem area and in Judaea; local/regional, i.e., probable workshops in Judaea, the coastal region and Galilee; workshops in northern Israel or on the Lebanese coast, displaying a distinct yellowish clay with a dull slip; regional, i.e., workshops in Tyre. In summary, the continuity of distribution and the homogeneity of the pottery assemblages and the figurines, masks and altars within the ‘Groups’, permit an unequivocal attribution of the Roman dump to the time span of c. 75–125 CE. From the stratigraphic evidence, it appears that Groups 2b and 2c may represent an earlier phase of activity in comparison with Groups 2d–2g (see Weksler-Bdolah 2019:40–43).

Table 3.1. Ceramic Finds in Group 2, the Roman Dump Group*

Locus

Cat. No.

2b

8151

50

2b

8159

277, 310, 490 (+ L8155), 628 (+ L8144), 697, 765

2b

8162

140, 822

2b

8165

41, 65, 67, 81, 95, 138, 145, 210, 445, 461, 463, 487, 549, 532 (+ L8167), 563, 597, 610, 658, 676, 716, 746, 771, 774, 836

2b

8167

62, 296, 321, 375, 403, 438, 452, 514, 526, 598, 710, 711, 742, 818, 864

2b

8187

29, 42, 124, 271, 398, 411, 469, 635, 661, 768, 789

2c

8146

271, 723

2c

8147

26, 36

2c

8148

106, 127, 166, 172, 189, 193, 217, 236, 279, 281, 313, 314, 316, 366, 433, 468, 534, 588

2c

8152

176, 219, 258, 776, 799, 845, 851, 873, 880

2c

8155

15, 168, 170, 179, 180, 221, 231, 232, 234, 311, 372, 606

2c

8158

20, 233 (+ L8144), 330, 489, 492, 497, 557, 566 (+ L8144), 777, 779 (+ L8144)

2c

8160

631

2d

8132

31, 63, 105, 343, 435, 453, 460, 466, 500, 525 (+ L8164), 537, 550, 784

2d

8144

1, 2–4, 40, 44, 56, 64, 98, 101, 156, 178, 185, 190, 222, 223, 229, 233, 235, 255, 261, 268, 275, 294, 302, 315, 340, 341, 361, 368, 374, 402, 407, 432, 457, 467, 493, 510, 529, 551, 552, 567, 596, 609, 628, 632, 643, 648, 650, 666, 669, 677, 719, 730, 736, 737, 740, 751, 752, 757, 758, 779, 825, 827, 828, 832, 838–841, 843, 849, 865, 868 (+ L8113 + L8145), 872, 875, 877–879, 881, 884, 889

2d

8154

68, 295, 334, 369, 434, 491, 717, 760

2d

8157

157, 483

2d

8164

45, 362, 474, 478, 763, 775, 866

2d

8166

604

2e

8123

38, 78, 86, 107 (+ L8132), 194, 288, 298, 305, 312, 351, 370, 380, 392, 404, 417, 448, 481, 521, 533, 542, 599, 634, 687, 701, 707 (+ L8107), 770, 891

2e

8125

43, 83, 102, 130 (+ L8121), 133, 144, 183, 270, 304, 328, 399, 470, 477, 485, 498, 564, 668, 712, 721, 731, 792, 797, 824, 871, 883

2e

8140

80, 455, 563, 656, 685, 708, 815

2e

8145

17, 72, 137, 220, 456, 520, 729, 767

2f

8050

212, 237, 646, 702 (+ L8047 + L8104)

2f

8051

192 (+ L8104)

220

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Table 3.1 (cont.) Group*

Locus

Cat. No.

2f

8104

9, 23 (+ L8107), 47, 54, 69, 70, 100, 119, 134, 142, 147 (+ L8107, + L8122), 149, 151, 152, 163, 169, 188, 191, 227, 276, 280, 290, 320 (+ L8137), 324, 327, 333, 336, 337, 346, 364, 365, 376, 401, 415, 444, 482, 488, 511, 541, 544, 579, 626, 627, 640, 652, 655, 665, 670, 678, 686, 689, 692, 709, 720, 754, 759, 762, 765, 769, 791, 823, 833, 850, 855, 861, 885

2f

8107

27, 28, 33, 49, 74 (+ L8122), 79, 85, 130, 141, 147, 153, 199, 200, 214, 240, 241, 267, 286, 293, 326, 396, 414, 420, 439, 518 (+L8053), 538, 547, 548, 560, 561, 659, 703, 707, 726, 728, 749, 790, 826, 834, 837, 844, 848, 854, 859, 867, 890, 892–894

2f

8113

6, 18, 59, 60, 92, 132, 139, 228, 319, 345, 437, 440, 484, 667, 690, 727, 735, 869, 886, 888

2f

8121

12, 19, 25, 37, 57, 93, 126, 128, 129, 131, 135, 154, 184, 196, 197, 204, 213, 230, 297, 323, 335, 342, 344, 367, 379, 413, 421, 422, 425, 427, 431, 441, 446, 462, 479, 480, 499, 506, 516, 527, 528, 540, 553, 558, 608, 621, 679, 691, 693, 714, 748, 874

2f

8122

7, 46, 73 (+ L8106), 143, 175, 181, 205, 264, 329, 356, 378, 424, 429, 653, 713, 733, 773, 778, 862

2f

8126

743, 810

2f

8150

436, 465, 535, 646

2g

8053

14, 71, 187, 195, 224–226, 263, 322, 377, 418, 426, 428, 451, 459 (+ L8131), 501, 502, 505, 512, 513, 518, 578, 590, 654, 706, 715, 741, 745, 750, 772, 782, 802, 819, 846

2g

8055

162

2g

8075

48, 104, 409, 507, 660, 694, 783, 870

2g

8137

5, 30, 32, 53, 66, 94, 103, 161, 198, 202, 207, 266, 289, 320 (+ L8104), 339, 355, 359, 397, 419, 430, 458, 494, 522, 523, 576, 611–613, 615, 620, 633, 644, 647, 649, 664, 672, 695, 704, 722, 747, 764, 780, 798, 805, 814, 816, 820, 831, 835, 847, 856, 882

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

Table 3.2. Five Basic Forms of Utility Ceramics from the Roman Dump, with Catalogue Numbers Group*

Shelf-Rim Basin

Basins with Flat Rim

Jugs/Pots/Cooking Pots with Grooved Handle(s)

Amphoras

Casseroles

2b

403

445

463, 469

519, 526, 532

658, 661, 676

2c

-

-

468

534

-

2d

407

-

460, 467, 474

525, 537, 529

643, 666, 669, 677

2e

404

448

470, 477

533

668, 656

2f

396

444, 446

462, 465

520

665, 679

2g

397

451

459

522, 523

644, 660, 664, 672

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

221

Table 3.3. Lamps from the Roman Dump Group*

Fig.

Cat. No.

Type

Suggested Origin

2b

3.7:1

742

Broneer XXI

Regional

3.7:2

789

Round discus

Local/regional

3.7:3

818

Factory lamp

Local legionary

3.7:4

822

Spatulate nozzle

Local Judaean

2c

3.7:5

777

Broneer XXII–XXIII

Regional

2c–2d

3.7:6

779

Broneer XXII–XXIII

Unknown provenance (Petrographic Sample No. 43)

2c

3.7:7

799

Round discus

Local/regional

2d

3.7:8

757

Broneer XXI

Local legionary

3.7:9

775

Broneer XXII–XXIII

Unknown provenance (Petrographic Sample No. 50)

3.7:10

825

Spatulate nozzle

Local Judaean

3.7:11

827

Molded Judaean

Local Judaean

3.8:1

792

Round discus

Local/regional

3.8:2

815

Phoenician

Northern Israel/Lebanese coast

3.8:3

824

Spatulate nozzle

Local Judaean

3.8:4

748

Broneer XXI

Regional

3.8:5

762

Broneer XXIII

Regional

3.8:6

773

Broneer XXII–XXIII

Unknown provenance (Petrographic Sample No. 24)

3.8:7

790

Round discus

Local/regional

3.8:8

823

Spatulate nozzle

Local Judaean

3.8:9

826

Molded Judaean

Local Judaean

3.9:1

750

Broneer XXI

Knidian

3.9:2

782

Broneer XXII–XXIII

Northern Israel/Lebanese coast

3.9:3

798

Round discus

Northern Israel/Lebanese coast

3.9:4

802

Round discus

Regional

3.9:5

805

Round discus

Local/regional

3.9:6

814

Phoenician

Northern Israel/Lebanese coast

3.9:7

819

Factory lamp

Italian

3.9:8

820

Square/rectangular molded lamp

Lebanon/Upper Galilee/eastern Samaria/ Transjordan (Petrographic Sample No. 32)

2e

2f

2g

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

222

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Table 3.4. Distribution of Small Containers for Liquids and Storage Jars (Second Temple-Period Types), with Catalogue Numbers Group*

Containers for Liquids

Storage Jars

2b

-

563

2c

281, 311, 316

588

2c–2d

-

566

2d

261, 268, 302

551, 552

2e

312, 270, 288, 304, 305

562, 564

2f

264, 267, 280, 290

553, 579

2g

263, 266, 289

576

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

Table 3.5. Distribution of Imported ESA Ware and Local Slipped Tableware, with Catalogue Numbers Groups*

ESA

Local Slipped Tableware

2b

-

41, 42, 50, 62

2c

15, 20, 26

36

2d

1–4

40, 44, 56, 63, 64

2e

17

38, 43

2f

6, 7, 9, 12, 18, 19, 23, 25, 27, 28

33, 37, 46, 47, 49, 54, 57, 59, 60

2g

5, 14

32, 48, 53

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

Table 3.6. Distribution of Figurines, Masks and Altars, with Catalogue Numbers Groups*

Figurines

Masks

Altars

2b

-

-

-

2c

873

880

-

2d

872, 875, 877

878, 879, 881, 884, 889

-

2e

871

883

891

2f

867, 869, 874

885, 886, 888

890, 892, 893

2g

870

882

-

* Group 2a produced no diagnostic sherds

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

1

2

3

4

5 0

10

Fig. 3.2. Group 2: Shelf-rim basins. No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2b

403

8167

81277/2

2

2d

407

8144

81091/1

3

2e

404

8123

80758

4

2f

396

8107

80607

5

2g

397

8137

80801

223

224

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

1

2

3

4

5

0

10

Fig. 3.3. Group 2: Basins with flat rim. Fig.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2b

445

8165

81212/1

2

2e

448

8123

80754/2

3

2f

444

8104

80416/3

4

2f

446

8121

80648/4

5

2g

451

8053

81002

225

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

2 1

3

4 5 6

7

8

9 10

11 0

10

Fig. 3.4. Group 2: Jugs, pots and cooking pots with grooved handle(s). Fig.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2b

463

8165

81211

2

2b

469

8187

81400/1

3

2c

468

8148

81125

4

2d

460

8132

80775/3

5

2d

467

8144

81227

6

2d

474

8164

81160/3

7

2e

470

8125

80715

8

2e

477

8125

80872/1

9

2f

462

8121

80635/2

10

2f

465

8150

81030/2

11

2g

459

8053 8131

81099 80767/3

226

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

2 1 3

4

5

6

8 7

9

11 10 0

10

Fig. 3.5. Group 2: Local amphoras. No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

2b

519

8167

81264

2

2b

526

8167

81276/2

3

2b

532

8167

81272

4

2c

534

8148

80936

5

2d

525

8132 8164

81260/2 81155/4

6

2d

537

8132

80775/1

7

2d

529

8144

81146

8

2e

533

8123

80765/1

1

9

2e

520

8145

80948/1

10

2g

522

8137

80996

11

2g

523

8137

81007/1

227

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

3

1

2

5 6

4

8

7

11

10

9

13

12

14

15 0

10

Fig. 3.6. Group 2: Casseroles. No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2b

658

8165

81187

2

2b

661

8187

81400/3

3

2b

676

8165

81182/3

4

2d

643

8144

81227/2

5

2d

666

8144

81079/1

6

2d

669

8144

81233/2

7

2d

677

8144

80961/1

8

2e

668

8125

80922/1

9

2e

656

8140

80900/2

10

2f

665

8104

80630

11

2f

679

8121

80833/2

12

2g

644

8137

80816/4

13

2g

660

8075

80246

14

2g

664

8137

80990

15

2g

672

8137

80990/4

228

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

3

2

1

5

4

7

6

11

9

0

10 8 0

4

Fig. 3.7.Group 2: Lamps. No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2b

742

8167

81279

7

2c

799

8152

81099

2

2b

789

8187

81404/4

8

2d

757

8144

81015/1

3

2b

818

8167

81265

9

2d

775

8164

81155/1

4

2b

822

8162

81153

10

2d

825

8144

81248/1

5

2c

777

8158

81261

11

2d

827

8144

80724/2

6

2c–2d

779

8158 8144

81255/1 81254/1

1

229

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

1

2

3

0

4

5

6

4

7

8

9

Fig. 3.8. Group 2: Lamps. No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2e

792

8125

80865/1

6

2f

773

8122

80739

2

2e

815

8140

80900/1

7

2f

790

8107

80475/2

3

2e

824

8125

80865/2

8

2f

823

8104

80425

4

2f

748

8121

80839

9

2f

826

8107

80475/1

5

2f

762

8104

80587

230

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

1

2

3

5

4

6

1

0

7

8 0

1 0

4

Fig. 3.9. Group 2g: Lamps. No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

750

8053

81005

2

782

8053

81000/3

3

798

8137

80599/5

4

802

8053

80602

5

805

8137

80999/7

6

814

8137

80990/3

7

819

8053

80380

8

820

8137

80792/1

231

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

2

1

4

3

8

7

6

5

11 10

14

13

12

9

18

15

16

17

21

20

19

24 23

22

25

27 26

28 0

10

Fig. 3.10. Group 2: Small closed vessels and storage jars.

232

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

◄ Fig. 3.10 No.

Group

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

2c

281

8148

80860/2

2

2c

311

8155

81123/5

3

2c

316

8148

81226

4

2d

261

8144

81151/1

5

2d

268

8144

81078

6

2d

302

8144

81254/1

7

2e

270

8125

80941/1

8

2e

288

8123

80762

9

2e

304

8125

80892/2

10

2e

305

8123

80918

11

2e

312

8123

807

12

2f

264

8122

80742/3

13

2f

267

8107

80986/3

14

2f

280

8104

80598

15

2f

290

8104

80587

16

2g

263

8053

81001

17

2g

266

8137

80110

18

2g

289

8137

81007/3

19

2b

563

8165

81184

20

2c

566

8144+ 8158

81137/3 81221/2

21

2c

588

8148

81132/1

22

2d

551

8144

81233/1

23

2d

552

8144

80966

24

2e

562

8140

80378

25

2e

564

8125

80921/2

26

2f

553

8121

80619/2

27

2f

579

8104

80441/2

28

2g

576

8137

81017/2

Group 3: Preparatory Work for the Cardo and Street 4180 (Fig. 3.11) From loci representing the preparatory work for the Cardo (Fig. 3.11:1–20), the latest ceramics comprise several legionary products, such as fragments of the ‘earlier version’ of the round discus lamps (Fig. 3.11:19–20; Nos. 787, 788; see also Group 4, Figs. 3.12:12– 14; 3.13:3, 4; Nos. 806–808, 793, 794). Most of the other fragments belong either to the late Second Temple-period repertoire or are to be considered of late Second Temple-period tradition (Fig. 3.11:3–5, 7–9, 14–16; Nos. 171, 174, 177, 282, 291, 317, 577, 582, 622). Among the tiny lamp fragments (not illustrated) are six pieces of a round discus lamp from L5293 (B52155, B52160, B52188) and three from L5295 (B52191, B52198); in L5299 (B52242) a small shoulder and discus fragment of a Broneer XXII–XXIII lamp was found,

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

233

the discus decorated with a conch-like motif (see Nos. 787, 807 for this motif on round discus lamps) or a whirl-rosette. Evidence that the builders of the Cardo dug deep into the Iron Age levels is also reflected in the ceramic finds, such as the Iron Age sherds from L5137 (with the exception of a roof-tile fragment, B50993/6) and L5211 (apart from two fragments of a Roman round discus lamp, B51565). The eleven diagnostic sherds from the preparation of the southern street (Fig. 3.11:21–31) cannot be attributed to common types and do not permit precise dating. Six are defined as legionary (Fig. 3.11:21, 23–25, 27, 31; Nos. 146, 246, 253, 259, 395, 681) and five as probable Second Temple-period products (Fig. 3.11:22, 26, 28–30; Nos. 182, 318, 587, 618, 623), which could be either pre- or post-70 CE.

Fig. 3.11 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

90

5283

52096/1

2

136

5332

52407/10

3

171

5332

52411/3

4

174

5333

52416/2

5

177

5333

52416/1

6

273

5332

52404/3

7

282

5283

52096/3

8

291

5332

52412/2

9

317

5283

52096/2

10

383

5332

52411/5

11

391

5332

52404/4

12

517

5332

52404/3

13

545

5283

52010/4

14

577

5332

52412/1

15

582

5332

52441/2

16

622

5332

52404/1

17

630

5333

52416/3

18

674

5332

52411/1

19

787

5332

52407/11

20

788

5332

52407/12

21

146

4185

41756/2

22

182

4274

42215/3

23

246

4273

42210/6

24

253

4185

41756/1

25

259

4260

42109/1

26

318

4273

42210/4

27

395

4260

42109/2

28

587

4185

41756/5

29

618

4274

42215/1

30

623

4185

41756/6

31

681

4185

41756/9

234

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

3

4

2

1

5 6

8

7

9

11 10

12

14

15

13

16

18

17

19

21

0

20

2

22

25

23

2

24

27

26

29

0

28

30

31 0

10

Fig. 3.11. Group 3.

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

235

Group 4: Fill beneath the Cardo’s Flagstones (Figs. 3.12–3.16:1–20) The few diagnostic fragments retrieved from beneath the flagstones originated in three Groups: 4a, 4b, 4c. Group 4a (Fig. 3.12:1–14): This is the foundation layer above the hewn bedrock in the southern part of the site, and includes material sealed under flagstones (Fig. 3.12:1, 3–6, 8–10, 12) and unsealed but undisturbed material (Fig. 3.12:2, 7, 11, 13, 14). Three fragments of round discus lamps (Fig. 3.12:12–14; Nos. 806–808) and two of kraters/ deep bowls (Fig. 3.12:9, 10; Nos. 347, 357) comprise the latest sherds attributed to the local legionary production. Rims of jugs (Fig. 3.12:1–3; Nos. 113, 114, 121), a shallow medium-fine bowl (Fig. 3.12:4; No. 242) and a small deep bowl (Fig. 3.12:7; No. 256) are shapes in the local tradition of the Second Temple period, and a pre-70 CE date cannot be excluded. The storage jar (Fig. 3.12:11; No. 575) of the same fabric as the jug in Fig. 3.12:2 (No. 114) is unique––it is definitely local and probably had two ring handles on the shoulder. The bowl with rouletting on the outer wall (Fig. 3.12:6; No. 254) has a different decoration style and surface treatment than the Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls, and precise dating is impossible. Group 4b: This is the fill in the quarries in the northern part of the site and includes material sealed under flagstones (Figs. 3.12:15–40; 3.13:1–4) and unsealed but undisturbed material (Figs. 3.13:5–25; 3.14:1–22; 3.15:1–9), which together form a homogenous group. The single Nabataean painted sherd is dated by analogy to the output of the Petra ez Zantur workshops to c. 70/80 until shortly after 100 CE (Fig. 3.15:8; No. 901). Lamp fragments (Fig. 3.13:3, 4; Nos. 793, 794), a bowl (Fig. 3.12:15, No. 51), a ‘cream ware’ jug (Fig. 3.13:6; No. 88), a thin-walled pot (Fig. 3.13:16; No. 209), basins/deep bowls (Figs. 3.12:29, 30; 3.13:24, 25; 3.14:1–4; Nos. 348, 394, 381, 382, 385, 386, 390, 449), a cooking jar (Fig. 3.14:22; No. 645) and storage jars with a ledge rim (Fig. 3.12:38, 39; Nos. 592, 593) can all be attributed to legionary production; the two joining fragments of jar No. 592 (Figs. 3.12:38 and 3.14:12) came to light in L5299 and L5399 respectively. Group 4c: This is a layered fill beneath the Cardo’s flagstones to the west of W812 (Figs. 3.15:10–29; 3.16:1–20). The finds from L8174 and L8182 are presented together. A number of legionary shapes are present: a bowl and a small jar in mottled ware (Fig. 3.15:11,12; Nos. 52, 61), jugs in ESA tradition with an angular handle (Fig. 3.15:13, 14; Nos. 96, 97), a thin-walled pot (Fig. 3.15:20; No. 203), a basin (Fig. 3.15:23; No. 388), shelf-rim basins (Fig. 3.15:24, 25; Nos. 405, 408), a basin with pinched handles (Fig. 3.15:26; No. 423), cooking pots with grooved handles (Fig. 3.15:27–29; Nos. 471, 473, 475), casseroles with pinched handles (Fig. 3.16:10, 11; Nos. 673, 675) and an amphora (Fig. 3.16:1; No. 524). The occurrence of ESA Form 58 or 60, dated to the first half of the second century CE (Fig. 3.15:10; No. 21), suggests a date within the first quarter of the second century, as these two forms are associated with earlier forms (see Chapter 2, Nos. 1–28). Noteworthy legionary vessels are the molded handle fragment (Fig. 3.16:19; No. 842) and the inkwell (Fig. 3.16:20; No. 900).

236

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

In summary, precise dating is not possible for individual fragments recovered in Groups 4a–4c; however, as the latest sherds are legionary products and in view of the Hadrianic coin from L5295, it can be concluded that these deposits are no later than the first quarter of the second century, and the suggested time span of c. 75–125 CE is feasible. In a preliminary account of the Eastern Cardo’s finds, Group 4 was dated to the late second–early third centuries (WekslerBdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:152). However, considering them in the context of the entire assemblage (which was not known when the preliminary report was written), it is clear that Groups 4b and 4c contain a considerable amount of clearly legionary types that correspond with the suggested time span. The few diagnostic sherds from Group 4a are more difficult to date. The three fragments of round discus lamps of the ‘later version’ (Fig. 3.12:12–14; see also Nos. 787–813), in comparison with lamps from Group 4c (Fig. 3.16:15–18) and Group 3 (Fig. 3.11:19, 20), can be placed at the end of the suggested time span, in the first quarter of the second century, rather than the last quarter of the first century CE. Thus, it can be determined that Group 4a represents the latest activities of the Cardo’s construction.

Fig. 3.12 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

113

662

5882

22

244

5339

2

114

525

5023/1

52431/16 52433/2

3

121

526

5035/3

23

247

5339

52432/17

4

242

662

5887

24

249

5339

52434/4

5

248

526

5035/2

25

250

5339

52432/18

6

254

526

5025/1

26

251

5347

52445/3

7

256

525

5023/2

27

283

5339

52432/1

8

274

526

5033

28

284

5339

52432/3

9

347

526

5035/4

29

348

5347

52446

10

357

526

5035/1

30

394

5339

52434/2

11

575

525

5023/3

31

400

5339

52432/7

12

806

662

5882

32

559

5339

52432/10

13

807

525

5023/6

33

569

5339

52433/1

14

808

525

5023/7

34

571

5339

52432/9

15

51

5339

52431/2

35

574

5339

52432/15

16

109

5339

52432/4

36

583

5339

52432/2

17

110

5339

52432/11

37

586

5339

52432/8

18

116

5339

52432/14

38

19

167

5339

52434/5

592 (see also Fig. 3.14:12)

5299 5339

52248/4 52431/1

20

173

5339

52434/1

39

593

5347

52445/1

21

243

5339

52432/6

40

600

5339

52434/3

1

2

4

3

5

8

7

6

9

10

12

11

13 2

0

15

16

19

14 0

0

2

18

17

20

21

23

22

24

25

28 26

27

29 30

32

31

33

35

38

34

36

39

37

40 0

10

Fig. 3.12. Group 4a (1–14); Group 4b (15–40).

2

238

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Fig. 3.13 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

625

5339

52432/5

2

696

5347

52444/4

3

793

5339

52435

4

794

5339

52432/13

5

10

5299

52241/41

6

88

5295

52191/2

7

108

5299

52244/12

8

112

5293

52188/6

9

115

5295

52217/5

10

117

5299

52248/3

11

118

5299

52248/2

12

158

5293

52188/2

13

159

5293

52152

14

160

5293

52188/3

15

186

5295

52217/6

16

209

5299

52241/1

17

257

5293

52186

18

278

5295

52195

19

285

5293

52162

20

292

5295

52194/1

21

301

5299

52248/6

22

349

5299

52241/27

23

353

5299

52243/2 + 5

24

381

5295

52190/3

25

382

5299

52243/1

239

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

2

1

3 0

4

4

5 6

7

12

10

11

9

13

15

14

17

8

16

20

19

18

22 21

23

24

25 0

10

Fig. 3.13. Group 4b.

240

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Fig. 3.14 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

385

5299

52244/7

2

386

5293

52188/4

3

390

5299

52244/4

4

449

5295

52194/2

5

555

5295

52194/3

6

573

5293

52155

7

580

5295

52217/3

8

581

5293

52188/5

9

584

5295

52217/1

10

585

5295

52217/4

11

589

5299

52243/9

12

592 (see also Fig. 3.12:38)

5299 5399

52248/4 52431/1

13

595

5295

52198/3

14

601

5299

52241/36

15

602

5295

52191/1

16

603

5295

52191/2

17

605

5299

52247

18

617

5295

52190/2

19

619

5293

52188

20

624

5295

52217/2

21

636

5299

52241/32

22

645

5299

52244/8

241

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

1 2

3

4

6

7

8

5

11

12

10

9

14

15

16

13

18

19 17

20

22 21 0

10

Fig. 3.14. Group 4b.

242

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Fig. 3.15 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

680

5299

52244/6

2

682

5293

52155/1

3

683

5295

52191/1

4

684

5299

52244/6

5

699

5295

52198/2

6

734

5299

52248/1

7

860

5299

52241/44

8

901

5295

52198/1

9

908

5293

52163

10

21

8174

81340/2

11

52

8174

81304/2

12

61

8174

81296

13

96

8174

81341/2

14

97

8174

81341/1 81346

15

111

8174

81340/1

16

122

8174

81302/1

17

150

8174

81304/1

18

164

8174

81303

19

165

8174

81302/5

20

203

8174

81341/1

21

252

8174

81302/6

22

332

8182

81350/5

23

388

8174

81304/3

24

405

8174

81302/7

25

408

8182

81350/10

26

423

8174

81302/8

27

471

8174

81340/3

28

473

8182

81350/7

29

475

8182

81350/3

243

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

1

2

4

3

6

5

8

7

9

12

11

10

15 13

16

14

17

18

21

19

20

23

22

25

24

27 26

28 29 0

10

Fig. 3.15. Group 4b (1–9); Group 4c (10–29).

244

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Fig. 3.16 ► No.

Cat. No.

Locus

Basket

1

524

8174

81302/9

2

567

8182

81350/2

3

570

8182

81350/4

4

614

8174

81302/2

5

616

8174

81304/4

6

629

8182

81350/6

7

638

8174

81302/3

8

639

8174

81299/2

9

651

8174

81299/3

10

673

8174

81302/4

11

675

8182

81350/8

12

700

8182

81350/1

13

688

8182

81347

14

739

8182

81350/13

15

755

8174

81304/6

16

756

8182

81350/12

17

804

8174

81304/5

18

817

8182

81350/11

19

842

8182

81351

20

900

8174

81299/1

21

82

8172

81292/1

22

309

8183

81354/1

23

539

8172

81292/2

24

641

8172

81293

245

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

3

2

4

1

5

7 6

9

8

11

10

12 13

14

16

15 0

0

19

21

22

2

20

18

17

2

0

2

23

24

0

10

Fig. 3.16. Group 4c (1–20); Group 5 (21–24).

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Group 5: Fill beneath Street 8020 (Fig. 3.16:21–24) The fill beneath the flagstones of the northern street contained four diagnostic sherds (Fig. 3.16:21–24; Nos. 82, 309, 539, 641). However, only the shoulder fragment of a storage jar (No. 539) can be identified as a typical legionary product on the basis of fabric and decoration. Group 6: Fill of Drainage Channels and Water Cistern The continuous use of the Eastern Cardo in the Roman and Byzantine periods is attested by the finds from several loci: A fill that accumulated on the bottom of Drainage Channel 514 contained coins of the second and third centuries CE (Coin Nos. 38, 39, 42), as well as several fragments of small, round to oval lamps with a large filling-hole and impressed ovules on the shoulder, which are no earlier than the third century (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:99–103), three fragments of Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls and a Fine Byzantine Ware amphoriskos. Between the stone slabs of the roof of Cistern 300 (L374, L477), and in the narrow severance channel (L475) near the cistern, coins and glass vessels from the third and fourth centuries were discovered (see Bijovsky 2019; Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming: L374, L477, L475).

Summary It can be concluded from the above discussion that the ceramics from the selected Roman loci form a homogenous assemblage, and there are no intrusions later than 150 CE. On the basis of a detailed investigation of such well-defined classes as ESA tableware, lamps, and particularly the large number of ‘military’ utility wares, a date range within the last quarter of the first century CE and the first quarter of the second century is proposed. It would seem that many of the vessels typical of the Second Temple period, which comprise some 20% of the ceramics from the Roman dump, were requisitioned by the Romans after 70 CE. Other finds are residual, such as the occasional sherds dating to the Iron Age, Persian and Hellenistic periods, along with the stone vessels and fragments of frescoes and architectural elements associated with the Jewish inhabitants of pre-70 CE Jerusalem.

Appendix In order to present a catalogue of Roman pottery from the Western Wall Plaza excavations with the greatest variety of ceramic forms, a number of diagnostic fragments from nonRoman and disturbed loci are also included (Table 3.7). Most of the disturbed loci in the 8000 series (Area H) originate adjacent to the Roman dump or overlie it (including W800, W802). Wall 804 and W811 are sections of the major Roman support wall discussed in Group 1 (W812); in these sections, some disturbances were noted during the excavations, hence the sherds are included here. Some of the disturbed loci are fills from the western and eastern porticos (L4072, L5036). Other loci included here have locus numbers

CHAPTER 3: SELECTED ROMAN LOCI

247

in the 6000 series (Area F) and are related to the preparatory construction works or the laying of the Cardo (L6080 = Group 4b; L6130 = unsealed fill in the Iron Age quarry; L6144 = a Byzantine drainage channel). For easy reference, all the sherds from the disturbed loci are listed here with their suggested attribution. The largest category comprises vessels defined by visual inspection as legionary products. Two clearly residual pieces are of pre70 CE date (W804, No. 902; L8060, No. 821), and together with the few other pre-70 CE fragments retrieved from loci related to the Roman dump (see Nos. 316–318, 739, 901, 903–910), they lend support to the suggested interpretation that the bulk of the finds from the Western Wall Plaza excavations are post-70 CE and that they originate in a single, twophase secondary deposition (Strata XIIA–B), with a well-defined time span (c. 75–125 CE).

Table 3.7. Diagnostic Sherds from Non-Roman and Disturbed Loci Locus/Wall

Cat. No.

Vessel Type

Comments

W800

546

Thin-walled jar

Legionary (by fabric)

W802

87

Jug

Legionary (by fabric)

24

ESA plate

Import, Roman

262

Small pot

Local, Roman

406

Shelf-rim basin

Legionary (by fabric)

902

Italian Sigillata

Import, Early Roman

W811

338

Baking dish

Legionary (by fabric)

4072

785

Lampstand

Knidian import, Roman

5036

852

Jug/lagynos

Legionary (by fabric)

6080

812

Lamp

Local, Roman

6130

795

Lamp

Roman

6144

239

Judaean Painted

Local, Jerusalem or Judaea

443

Basin

Legionary (by fabric)

698

Lid

Local, Roman

39

Red-slipped bowl

Legionary (by fabric) (Petrographic Sample No. 2)

238

Judaean Painted

Local, Jerusalem and Judaea

657

Casserole

Local, Roman

753

Lamp (Broneer XXI)

Local, Roman

201

Thin-walled pot

Local, Roman

W804

8007 8014 8018 8021 8027

215

Thin-walled pot

Local, Roman

8036

308

Jug

Local, Roman

8038

738

Brazier lug

Legionary (by fabric)

216

Thin-walled pot

Local, Roman

218

Thin-walled pot

Local, Roman (Petrographic Sample No. 4)

358

Deep bowl

Legionary (by fabric)

530

Amphora

Legionary (by fabric)

125

Jug

Probably Roman

450

Basin

Legionary (by fabric)

55

Mottled bowl

Legionary (by fabric)

801

Lamp

Legionary (by fabric)

8046

8049 8057

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RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Table 3.7 (cont.) Locus/Wall

8060

8061 8063

8065

Cat. No.

Vessel Type

Comments

75

ESA table amphora

Import, Roman

354

Deep bowl

Legionary (by fabric)

508

Amphora

Import, Roman

515

Amphora

Import, ‘Rhodian-type’

554

Storage jar

Local, Roman

718

Pedestal foot

Legionary (by fabric)

813

Lamp

Local, Roman

821

Judaean pinched lamp

Local, 1st c. BCE

863

Twisted handles

Legionary (by fabric)

504

Amphora

Import, Roman

509

Amphora

Import, Roman

447

Basin

Legionary (by fabric)

352

Deep bowl

Legionary (by fabric)

464

Pot

Legionary (by fabric)

732

Pipe

Legionary (by fabric)

811

Lamp

Local, Roman

8066

324

Flat-bottomed dish

Legionary (by fabric)

8069

543

Local amphora

Legionary (by fabric)

8095

350

Deep bowl

Legionary (by fabric)

8100

91

Jug

Legionary (by fabric)

8103

77

Red-slipped jug

Legionary (by fabric)

34

Cup

Legionary (by fabric)

73

ESA jug

Import, Roman

373

Krater

Legionary (by fabric)

531

Local amphora

Legionary (by fabric)

857

Foot of drinking vessel

Legionary (by fabric)

909

Faience vessel

Uncertain date

287

Juglet

Local, Roman

8106

8110

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 4

Petrographic Analyses of Local and Imported Ceramics Anat Cohen-Weinberger and R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

The present chapter combines the study by fabrics and shapes of the Roman pottery (Chapter 2) and the petrographic analyses of selected ceramics, primarily of the Roman period, from the Western Wall Plaza excavations. The main goal is to expand our understanding of both the local character and the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Roman Jerusalem through the microscopic lens. Several samples were analyzed in order to verify whether they were imported or locally made, among them an unclassified piece not from the Roman dump, most likely dating to the Byzantine period (Table 4.1:1; Fig. 6.1:6), four Roman-type volute lamps (Table 4.1:24, 27, 43, 50; Nos. 773, 792, 779, 775) and a Levantine round discus lamp (Table 4.1: 29; No. 809), a dish (Table 4.1:53; No. 29) and two figurines (Table 4.1:37, 41; Nos. 877, 875). Determination of the provenance (of selected ceramic types) contributes to a better understanding of the locally manufactured assemblages, including their traditional attributes and the foreign influences, and helps to draw tentative lines of foreign connections by identifying the imported vessels and their imitations. We will first describe the samples selected for the study, the petrographic comparison strategy and the geological setting of the site. We will then present the petrographic results, followed by a summary and discussion of the provenance of the samples.

The Samples Fifty-five samples of diagnostic sherds were chosen for petrographic analysis (Table 4.1). The bulk of the samples originated in a clear stratigraphic context of the massive ‘Roman dump’, related to the preparatory works carried out by the Roman army after 70 CE during the planning of the Eastern Cardo. The typological study of the lamps and the fine tableware, particularly the imported ESA ware, has determined the time span of the assemblage to be between 75 and 125 CE (see Chapter 5). Most of the samples are of fine ware and lamps; they were chosen as it is the goal of the petrographic study to demonstrate the scope of the local manufacture of these categories, often considered imports. Only 14 samples were taken from the utilitarian pottery, because they are already well known as the product of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks; in addition, most of the utilitarian pottery could be attributed by visual inspection, with reasonable certainty, to the local Jerusalem workshops. The utilitarian vessels comprise two baking dishes (Table 4.1:4, 20; Nos. 325, 335), a pan (Table 4.1:11; No. 337), a basin (Table 4.1:6; No. 418), two cookware lids (Table 4.1:7, 33; Nos. 694, 695), a bowl-lid (Table 4.1:10; No. 709), a shelf-rim basin (Table 4.1:18; No. 410), a trefoil-mouthed cooking jug (Table 4.1:22; No. 691), a krater/

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ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

deep bowl (Table 4.1:23; No. 342), an amphora (Table 4.1:28; No. 485), a basin handle (Table 4.1:30; No. 435), an imported amphora (Table 4.1:36; No. 493), a local amphora (Table 4.1:38; No. 529) and a storage jar (Table 4.1:48; No. 606). In addition, an open vessel fragment, possibly of a krater (Table 41:14; No, 861), a pedestal foot (Table 4.1:47; No. 717) and a brazier lug (Table 4.1:19; No. 735) were also included. The remainder of the analyzed fragments can be divided into four groups: 1. Fine tableware: red-slipped and mottled bowls and cup (Table 4.1:2, 31, 42; Nos. 39, 32, 44), filter jug and jar (Table 4.1:21, 44; Nos. 135, 137), two strainer jugs (Table 4.1:9, 26; Nos. 134, 133), a thin-walled, wide-mouthed vessels and a cup (Table 4.1:3, 8, 15, 46; Nos. 218, 153, 193), a table amphora (Table 4.1:25; No. 102), a small jar (Table 4.1:52; No. 62), a bottle/unguentarium (Table 4.1:49; No. 277) and a jug (Table 4.1:45; No. 314). 2. Lamps (Table 4.1:17, 24, 27, 29, 32, 34, 43, 50; Nos. 800, 773, 792, 809, 820, 747, 799, 775). 3. Luxury tableware with relief decoration (Table 4.1:5, 12, 13, 35, 39; Nos. 846, 850, 855, 841, 828) and the foot of a chalice (Table 4.1:51; No. 836). 4. Figurines (Table 4.1:16, 37, 41; Nos. 867, 877, 875) and a mask (Table 4.1:40; No. 889). The petrographic results from the assemblage of the Western Wall Plaza excavations were compared to the products of the Jerusalem legionary kiln site (Goren 2005; Cohen Weinberger, forthcoming), and the results of two finds from the latter site were included here: a mold from the 2010 Crowne Plaza excavations (Table 4.1:54; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015:613, Fig. 2) and a red-slipped dish, either an imported or locally made vessel from Avi-Yonah’s 1968 excavations (Table 4.1:55; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:272–274, No. 184).

Petrographic Research, Background and Comparison Strategy The aims of a petrographic analysis are to identify the raw materials used in the production of the ceramic vessels, describe their variability, determine the geological sources of the raw materials, and assess the possible geographic regions in which the vessels were manufactured. A number of pottery workshops and kilns from the Middle Bronze Age to medieval times have been excavated in Jerusalem and its close vicinity, and continue to be unearthed to this day.1 The pottery from most of these workshops was examined petrographically (see, e.g., Goren, Finkelstein and Na’aman 2004:263; Goren 2005; Amitai-Preiss, CohenWeinberger and Har-Even 2017; Cohen-Weinberger, forthcoming), and technological

For example, a Middle Bronze Age pottery workshop at Naḥal Refa’im (Eisenberg 1993:1280), a Hellenistic pottery workshop at Umm Tuba (‘Adawi 2015), Roman-period production sites at Ḥorbat Ha-Moẓa (Billig 1996; Adan-Bayewitz et al. 2016), the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Arubas and Goldfus 2005; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005; Levi and Beeri 2010) and Giv‘at Ha-Mivtar (Abu Raya 1997:100), a Late Roman/Byzantine kiln at ‘En Ya’el (Weksler-Bdolah 2016), Early Islamic- and Mamluk-period kilns at Nebi Samwil (Magen and Dadon 1999:68; Benny Har-Even, pers. comm. 2017), and a Mamluk-period workshop at Kh. el-Burj (Ramot; Adrian Boas, unpublished). 1

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251

aspects of the production were revealed. These studies, as well as other provenance studies of pottery and clay artifacts from sites in Jerusalem and its vicinity (e.g., Goren, Kamaiski and Kletter 1996; Adan-Bayewitz et al. 2008; Mazar et al. 2010; Cohen-Weinberger, Szanton and Uziel 2017) and the published geological and pedological data (e.g., Ravikovitch 1969; Arkin et al. 1976; Sneh and Avni 2011), provide a comprehensive database of the local raw materials used in ceramic production.

The Geological Setting An assessment of the geological setting of the site of the Western Wall Plaza in Jerusalem and its vicinity was carried out based on published data, aimed at identifying the potential provenance of the raw materials (for the geology of the site, see Gill 2019). Jerusalem is situated in an area dominated by Cenomanian, Turonian and Senonian rocks of the Judea and Mount Scopus groups. Chalk and chert of the Menuha and Mishash formations dominate the area to its east (Arkin et al. 1976). The Old City of Jerusalem and the City of David are situated on the carbonate rocks of the Turonian Bina Formation. To the west, the Cenomanian formations of the Judaea Group are exposed, including the dolomitic Weradim Formation, the chalky Kefar Shaul Formation, the dolomitic Aminadav and BetMeir Formations and the clay/marl Moza Formation (Arkin, Braun and Starinsky 1965; Arkin et al. 1976). Of all the above formations, only the Moza Formation contains clay minerals of appreciable volume (Taitel-Goldman, Heller-Kallai and Sass 1992; TaitelGoldman 1993:18–21). This formation crops out along the western flank of the northnortheast-trending Ramallah monocline (Arkin et al. 1976; Sneh and Avni 2011), at least 5–6 km to the west of the Old City. Another source of clay in the area of Jerusalem is derived of clay-rich soils such as terra rossa that develops on hard limestone and dolomite rocks (Ravikovitch 1981:58–59; Singer 2007).

The Petrographic R esults The results of the petrographic analyses are clustered into Petrographic Groups A–I according to the characteristics of the raw material (Table 4.1; Fig. 4.1). Group A The matrix of this group is calcareous, optically active and rich in tiny (below 50 µm) rhombohedral dolomite crystals. It contains tiny nodules of ore minerals. This raw material is identified as the marl unit of the Moza Formation that is exposed over vast areas on the Judaean–Samarian mountains. Most of the analyzed pottery is related to this petrographic group. Group A is divided into two subgroups based on the non-plastic components.

252

i

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

j

Fig. 4.1. Photomicrographs of petrographic groups: (a) Group A1—Moza marl with sand-sized dolomite rhombs (Table 4.1:38); (b) Group A2—Moza marl with quartz sand (Table 4.1:18); (c) Group B1—Moza clay, Table 4.1:45; (d) Group C—terra rossa soil, Table 4.1:46; (e) Group D—loess soil, Table 4.1:7; (f) Group E—Taqiye marl, Table 4.1:13; (g) Group F—rendzina soil, Table 4.1:23; (h) Group G—Lower Cretaceous clay, Table 4.1:32; (i) Group H—northern Levantine coast, Table 4.1:16; (j) Group I—micaceous clay, Table 4.1:36. The photographs were taken under crossed polarized light.

CHAPTER 4: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS

253

Subgroup A1 has no or few sand-sized non-plastic components, (f:c ratio {0.062mm}= ~98–90:2–10),2 including fossilized mollusk shell fragments, often with hematite infillings, and usually sand-sized dolomite rhombs that originated from the capping Aminadav Formation (Fig. 4.1:a; Table 4.1:2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 31, 34, 35, 38–40, 42, 51, 52; Nos. 39, 846, 148, 337, 850, 861, 153, 800, 32, 747, 841, 529, 828, 889, 44, 836, 62 and Sample 54, not in the catalogue). Subgroup A2 is rich in sand-sized non-plastic components (f:c ratio {0.062mm}= ~90– 80:10–20) that are similar to those of Subgroup A1, with the addition of abundant mediumsorted, sub-rounded to rounded quartz grains (up to 1 mm), as well as rarely other minerals such as feldspar and hornblende (Fig. 4.1:b; Table 4.1:6, 10? 18, 19, 26? 30, 44, 47; Nos. 418, 709, 410, 735, 133, 435, 137, 717). These non-plastic components most likely originated in the coastal sand dunes of Israel and were deliberately added to the paste. Group B This group is characterized by fine clay, rich in iron oxides, and often contains argillaceous nodules. Group B is identified as the clay unit of the Moza Formation that is exposed over vast areas on the Judaean–Samarian mountains. The use of this clay for pottery production is well known from sites of different periods that are distributed along the backbone of these mountains (see, e.g., Glass et al. 1993; Goren, Finkelstein and Na’aman 2004:262– 264, with references). Subgroup B1 has no sand-sized non-plastic components (Fig. 4.1:c; Table 4.1:45; No. 314). Subgroup B2 is rich in non-plastic components (f:c ratio {0.062mm}= ~85:15), comprising medium-sorted quartz grains of up to 1 mm, as well as idiomorphic rhombohedral dolomite crystals and dolomite fragments from the overlying Aminadav Formation (Table 4.1:10? 49; Nos. 709, 277). Subgroup B3 is also rich in non-plastic components (f:c ratio {0.062mm}= ~85:15), with medium-sorted, sub-rounded quartz grains as well as decomposed carbonatic fragments and rare quartzolite, chert, quartz geodes and feldspar grains (Table 4.1:21, 25? Nos. 135, 102). The quartz grains in Subgroups B2 and B3 most likely originated from the coast and were deliberately added to the paste. Group C This group is characterized by ferruginous clay rich in silt-sized quartz grains and accessory minerals such as feldspar, zircon, hornblende, epidote and mica (Fig. 4.1:d; Table 4.1:3, 4, 20, 22, 28? 33, 46, 48? Nos. 218, 327, 335, 691, 485, 695, 193, 606). Opaques are common. This petrographic group is identified as terra rossa soil, which is commonly

The f:c ratio expresses the relative proportions of the fine (f) and coarse (c) components of a fabric. In this case, the boundary between these two components is 0.062 mm, which is the boundary between silt and sand size (Kemp 1985:22). 2

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ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

developed in Judaea, Samaria and the Galilee mountains. The parent material is hard limestone, dolomitic limestone or dolomite. A large amount of aeolian particles from an external source was incorporated into the soil (Wieder and Adan-Bayewitz 2002:395). Terra rossa soil was extensively used as ceramic raw material during antiquity (see, e.g., Goren, Kamaisky and Kletter 1996). Some samples related to this group (e.g., Table 4.1:3, 4, 20, 33; Nos. 218, 327, 335, 695) contain silt- to sand-sized idiomorphic rhombohedral dolomite crystals that are derived from the Cenomanian dolomitic formations (e.g., the marl unit of the Moza Formation or the overlying Aminadav Formation). Some samples contain different quantities of sand-sized quartz grains and usually some other minerals such as feldspar, hornblende and rare pyroxenes (especially Table 4.1:4, 22, 28, 46, 48; Nos. 327, 691, 485, 193, 606). These components are derived from coastal sand that was deliberately added to the paste. Ḥamra soil, which is widespread along the coast, is characterized by a ferruginous matrix and abundant quartz sand. A petrographical differentiation between terra rossa soil with deliberately added coastal sand and ḥamra soil is not easy. Hence, the petrographic determination of Table 4.1:28 (No. 485) and Table 4.1:48 (No. 606) is problematic. In these two samples there are also no idiomorphic rhombohedral dolomite crystals. Dolomite crystals (e.g., Table 4.1:4, 46; Nos. 327, 193) could point to soil that developed on a dolomitic parent material and indicate a provenance on the Judean– Samarian anticline. Group D The matrix is silty and rather carbonatic (Fig. 4.1:e). The silt is well-sorted and contains mainly quartz, along with a recognizable quantity of other minerals, such as hornblende, zircon, mica minerals, orthopyroxene and feldspars. Ore minerals are also abundant in this fraction. The sand-sized non-plastic assemblage includes quartz grains in one sample (Table 4.1:9; No. 134) and a few fine carbonatic particles in another (Table 4.1:7; No. 694). The first sample (Table 4.1:9; No. 134) includes a considerable amount of silty mica laths with a misty appearance, which could be due to a high firing temperature. Based on the published data (Goldberg et al. 1986; Porat 1986–1987:112–115, 1989:50–52; Goren 1987, 1991:101–104, 1996; Goren and Gilead 1987; Rognon et al. 1987; Gilead and Goren 1989:7), this matrix is identified as loess soil, which occurs in the Levant mainly in the northern Negev and the southern Shephelah.3 Group E This group is characterized by a calcareous, optically active matrix. The non-plastic components include rare, fine quartz grains and unidentified (Paleogene?) foraminifera (Fig. 4.1:f). This raw material is most likely marl of the Taqiye Formation of the Paleocene

It is noteworthy that in the present context, the term ‘loess’ refers to a set of aeolian and alluvial silty-clay sediments that occur in the northern Negev and the Shephelah (Ravikovitz 1981:341–386). 3

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Age (Bentor 1966:72–73). The distribution of the Taqiye Formation is widespread, and is exposed in the northern and central Negev, Judaean Desert, along the western slopes of the Judaean–Samarian mountains, and in other areas in central and northern Israel and Lebanon. Equivalent beds also appear in Egypt (Esna shales) and as far as Morocco and Turkey (Bentor 1966:73). A single vessel is related to this group (Table 4.1:13; No. 855). The fine sand-sized quartz grains suggest an aeolian contribution from the coast. The Taqiye-marl exposures located a short distance from the coastal sands such as in the Shephelah region, as well as those in the western part of Naḥal ‘Iron, are a possible provenance of this vessel, although other areas cannot be ruled out. Group F This group is characterized by calcareous, optically active, foraminiferous clay rich in silty quartz grains and some silty hornblende grains (Fig. 4.1:g). The non-plastic components include rounded chalk fragments, chert, grog, foraminifera and some fine quartz grains. This raw material is identified as rendzina or rendzina-derived soil, which occurs widely on chalky rocks in the Mediterranean climate zone of Israel (Dan et al. 1977; Singer 2007). Rendzina soils are also exposed east of the Western Wall Plaza excavations (Ravikovitch 1969; 1981). Only one vessel is related to this group (Table 4.1:23; No. 342). Group G The clay is argillaceous, ferruginous and optically active. Argillaceous and ferruginous shale fragments appear in the clay along with abundant opaques that are often rhombohedral (Fig. 4.1:h). The non-plastic components include a few decomposed carbonate and quartz grains. This raw material is identified as Lower Cretaceous clay, which has been described in detail (Greenberg and Porat 1996; Cohen-Weinberger and Goren 2004:75; Goren, Finkelstein and Na’aman 2004:103–105). Lower Cretaceous formations crop out widely in the Lebanon mountains and less frequently in the Anti-Lebanon and Ḥermon mountains, and also on the eastern slopes of the Galilee hills, in Transjordan (south of Wadi Zarqa), eastern Samaria (Wadi el-Malikh and Wadi el-Far‘ah) and the Negev (Sneh, Bartov and Rosensaft 1998). A single vessel is related to this group (Table 4.1:32; No. 820). Group H The matrix is optically active and rich in foraminifera. The non-plastic components (f:c ratio = ~90:10) include well-sorted, fine quartz grains, Tertiary foraminifera, Amphiroa sp. {0.062mm} algae fragments and a single microcline (Fig. 4.1:i). The coralline algae of the genus Amphiroa occur in bioclastic coastal sediments of Quaternary to Recent age (Buchbinder 1975; Sanlaville 1977:161–177; Almagor and Hall 1980; Sivan 1996; Walley 1997). In northern Levantine coasts, in some localities, the Amphiroa constitutes nearly 70% of the sand components (Gavish and Friedman 1969; Buchbinder 1975; Sanlaville 1977:161–177; Almagor and Hall 1980; Bakler 1989; Sivan 1996; Walley 1997; Bettles 2003:141, 184; Griffiths 2003; Ownby and Griffiths

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2009). Paleocene and Pliocene marl rocks crop out between Tyre and Sidon and north of Tripoli (Dubertret 1962). Along the northern coast of Israel, from ‘Akko northward, the beach sand is composed almost exclusively of carbonates (Nir 1989:12–15), while on the Lebanese coast the dominance of calcareous components decreases, constituting about 30% of the beach sands (Emery and George 1963:7). Thus, the quartz grains suggest a provenance in coastal Lebanon rather than the northern Israeli coast. However, sand composition can vary considerably within a short distance along the coast (Emery and George 1963:7; Sanlaville 1977:162–164; Nir 1989:12– 15; Bettles 2003:103–106, 111, 112). Abundant Amphiroa sp. algae fragments and quartz grains are typical non-plastic components in the raw material of the pottery that was manufactured in the large-scale Phoenician pottery production center in Sarepta during the Iron Age (Anderson 1987; Bettles 2003).4 A single figurine is related to this group (Table 4.1:16; No. 867). Group I This group is characterized by a micaceous, optically active matrix (Fig. 4.1:j). The abundance of mica laths in the clay rules out Israel as a source. The vessels related to this group (Table 4.1:1, 24, 27, 29, 36, 43, 53; Fig. 6.1:6, Nos. 773, 792, 809, 493, 779, 29) often contain no temper, which hampers identification of a more specific provenance. Non-plastic components do appear in one sample (Table 4.1:38), including serpentine fragments and radiolarian chert, suggesting an ophiolithic complex, which appears on the northern Syrian coast, as well as in many other places around the Mediterranean (Whitechurch, Juteau and Montigny 1984). This amphora (Table 4.1:36; No. 493) has parallels at sites on the northern Levantine coast. Group J This group is characterized by calcareous matrix, optically non-active with a dense microstructure. The non-plastic components are rare, hampering provenance identification. Two figurines (Table 4.1:37, 41; Nos. 877, 875) and a single lamp (Table 4.1:50; No. 775) are related to this group.

Summary and Discussion Most of the samples from the Roman dump were made of the marl or clay from the Moza Formation. As it comprises the only significant clay/marl formation in the Judaean and Samarian mountains, it was used extensively for pottery production at sites in this region. The best-known pottery production center in the region was excavated at the Jerusalem International Convention Center. It was installed during the Hasmonaean period and taken over by Roman military units after 70 CE (Levi and Beeri 2010:120–121). However, the use of Moza clay/marl does not necessarily establish the location of the pottery workshop

Thin-sections from Sarepta were kindly shown to me by Ayelet Gilboa and Yuval Goren, who sampled the vessels as part of a research project on Phoenician pottery, courtesy of The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 4

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257

at this specific site, as other workshops must have been established in the conquered city or in the Jerusalem area, close to and in connection with military installations. The petrographic results of the Roman pottery from the dump suggest a preference for the marl unit of the Moza Formation over the clay unit. Within the group of utilitarian vessels, the petrographic results were not unexpected in view of previous analyses (Goren 2005). In the non-cooking ware, Moza marl prevailed. An amphora was imported from the northern Levantine coast, the area of Ugarit (Table 4.1:36; No. 493). Particularly intriguing is the assumed local origin of the amphora with deeply grooved handles (Table 4.1:28; No. 485), by shape assigned to the Beirut amphora class ‘AM 72’ (Reynolds et al. 2008– 2009:79–80), the most common amphora type in the present assemblage. Cooking vessels, namely globular cooking pots and casseroles, are generally made of terra rossa, which, like Moza marl, points to a manufacturing radius around Jerusalem and within Judaea. As concluded on the basis of visual inspection, much of the analyzed fine tableware was made of Moza marl (see Table 4.1), except for a single strainer jug (Table 4.1: 9; No. 134) made of loess soil from the Negev or the Shephelah, two thin-walled, wide-mouthed vessels (Table 4.1:3, 46; Nos. 218, 193) and a baking dish (Table 41.1:4; No. 325) that were made locally of terra rossa soil. The lamps form a separate category, as they display a great diversity of so-far unidentified production centers. While a fair number of iconographic parallels are known, the locations of the various probably eastern workshops remain an enigma. Of eight lamp fragments analyzed, only two were made of Moza marl (Table 4.1:17, 34; Nos. 800, 747), while five are of ‘unknown/not Israel’ provenance (Table 4.1:24, 27, 29, 43, 50; Nos. 773, 792, 809, 779, 775), and a singular square/rectangular lamp of gray ware was manufactured in Lebanon, Upper Galilee, eastern Samaria or Transjordan (Table 4.1:32; No. 820). Based on visual inspection, it appears that only one factory lamp (No. 819) was imported from Italy, while known groups of local lamps (Nos. 822–827) and Phoenician lamps (Nos. 814–817) are identified. For other lamps, an origin in southwestern Asia Minor cannot be excluded, a subject that should be investigated (see the Knidian lampstand, No. 785). The fragments of figurines and masks are unfortunately relatively small. Three figurines, apparently made of different material from the assumed legionary fabric, were analyzed. One sample (Table 4.1:16; No. 867) was found to originate in a workshop on the Levantine coast, from ‘Akko northward, while the other two are of unknown provenance (Table 4.1:37, 41; Nos. 877, 875). A fragment of a mask was made of Moza clay/marl with Aminadav sand (Table 4.1:40; No. 889). The petrographic results of a dish (Table 4.1:53; No. 29), attributed to a Cypriot workshop based on shape and fabric, did not yield a clear-cut result, as the well levigated and highly fired clay hampers identification of a more precise provenance, using petrographic analysis. The origin of another unique piece––a red-slipped dish most likely from the Byzantine period (Table 4.1:1; Fig. 6.1:6)—is also unknown. In addition to the finds from the Western Wall Plaza excavations, a fragment of a redslipped bowl from the 1968 excavations at the Jerusalem kiln site was checked, for which a southern Gaulish origin had originally been suggested (Table 4.1:55; see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:272–273, No. 184). On the other hand, Magness had proposed a local manufacture (pers.

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comm. 2007). The current petrographic result indicates that the vessel was made from a Judaean clay, so that an origin from southern Gaul can definitely be excluded. Petrographic analyses of the vessels from the Jerusalem legionary kiln site also suggest a preference for the marl unit of the Moza Formation, rather than the clay unit (Goren 2005). It should be noted that a comprehensive study is currently under way to determine the raw materials that were used at the kilns of the Binyene Ha-Umma–Crowne Plaza Hotel excavations. Selection of certain raw materials over others is interesting5 and can be attributed to technological, geopolitical or other considerations or constraints.

Adan-Bayewitz et al. 2016 suggested a change in clay preference in the area of Jerusalem before and after the Great Revolt due to historical processes. 5

CHAPTER 4: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS

Table 4.1. Inventory and Results of the Petrographic Analysis Sample No.

Locus

Basket No.

Cat. No.

Description

Provenance

Petrographic Group

1

5143

60352

Unclassified (Fig. 6.1:6)

Dish/plate with applied goat motif

Unknown/not Israel

I

2

8014

80040

39

Dish/bowl, ESA imitation

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

3

8046

80408/1

218

Thin-walled, wide-mouthed vessel

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

4

8047

80173

325

Local imitation of ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware baking dish

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

5

8053

81006

846

Escutcheon with head

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

6

8053

81034/2

418

Basin

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2

7

8075

80461

694

Lid

Negev

D

8

8093

80705

148

Cup

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

9

8104

80418/1

134

Strainer jug

Negev, Shephelah

D

10

8104

80427/3

709

Bowl-lid

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2/ B2

11

8104

80579

337

Pan

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

12

8104

80603

850

Escutcheon with Eros

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

Figure (Not to Scale)

259

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ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Table 4.1 (cont.) Sample No.

Locus

Basket No.

Cat. No.

Description

Provenance

Petrographic Group

13

8104

80676

855

Krater with palm tree

Possibly Shephelah

E

14

8104

81190

861

Fragment with relief decoration, possibly krater

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

15

8107

81193

153

Thin-walled cup

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

16

8107

81195

867

Figurine

Levantine coast from ‘Akko northward

H

17

8111

80467

800

Lamp, dolphin on shoulder

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

18

8112

80485

410

Shelf-rim basin

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2

19

8113

80557

735

Brazier lug

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2

20

8121

80615/2

335

Baking dish

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

21

8121

80640/1

135

Filter jug

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)?

B3?

22

8121

80690

691

Trefoil-mouthed cooking jug

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

23

8121

81615

342

Krater/deep bowl

Shephelah

F

Figure (Not to Scale)

CHAPTER 4: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS

Table 4.1 (cont.) Sample No.

Locus

Basket No.

Cat. No.

Description

Provenance

Petrographic Group

24

8122

80739

773

Lamp with Eros

Unknown/not Israel

I

25

8125

80689

102

Table amphora

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)?

B3?

26

8125

80715/2

133

Strainer jug

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2?

27

8125

80865/1

792

Lamp base with planta pedis

Unknown/not Israel

I

28

8125

80941/2

485

Amphora handle

Judaea/coastal?

C?

29

8128

80730/1

809

Lamp, double axe on shoulder

Unknown/not Israel

I

30

8132

81099/1

435

Basin handle

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity) and coastal sand

A2

31

8137

80792/2

32

Cup, ESA imitation

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

32

8137

80792/1 80803/2

820

Lamp, rectangular/ square of gray ware

Lebanon, Upper Galilee, eastern Samaria or Transjordan

G

33

8137

80809/4

695

Lid

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

34

8137

80837

747

Lamp with horse-head projections

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

35

8144

80935

841

Handle shaft with Dionysian motifs

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

Figure (Not to Scale)

261

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ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Table 4.1 (cont.) Sample No.

Locus

Basket No.

Cat. No.

Description

Provenance

Petrographic Group

36

8144

80966

493

Amphora

Northern Levantine coast, area of Ugarit

I

37

8144

81094/1

877

Figurine

Unknown

J

38

8144

81146/2

529

Amphora

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

39

8144

81196

828

Chalice with seated male figure

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

40

8144

81197

889

Mask

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

41

8144

81254/4

875

Figurine

Unknown

J

42

8144

81248/4

44

Bowl

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

43

8144 + 8158

81254/3 81255/1

779

Lamp with the herdsman Tityrus

Unknown/not Israel

I

44

8145

80883/1

137

Filter jar

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2

45

8148

81118

314

Jug

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

B1

46

8148

81253

193

Thin-walled, wide-mouthed vessel

Judaea/ Jerusalem

C

47

8154

81228/3

717

Pedestal foot

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A2

Figure (Not to Scale)

CHAPTER 4: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSES OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS

Table 4.1 (cont.) Sample No.

Locus

Basket No.

Cat. No.

Description

Provenance

Petrographic Group

48

8155

81083/1

606

Storage jar

Coastal/Judaea?

C?

49

8159

81140

277

Bottle/ unguentarium

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

B2

50

8164

81155/1

775

Lamp with biga

Unknown/not Israel

J

51

8165

81215

836

Pedestal foot of chalice

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

52

8167

81267/2

62

Small jar

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1

53

8187

81404/1

29

Dish

Unknown/not Israel

I

54

Crowne Plaza excavations 2010

Mold

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)

A1 variation

55

Jerusalem legionary kiln site (excavation 1968)

Red-slipped dish

Clay from Judaea (Jerusalem vicinity)?

?

Figure (Not to Scale)

263

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Rosenthal-Heginbottom R. 2015. The Kiln Works of the Legio Decima Fretensis: Pottery Production and Distribution. In L. Vagalinski and N. Sharankov eds. Limes XXII (Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies Ruse, Bulaaria, September 2012). Sofia. Pp. 611–618. Sanlaville P. 1977. Étude géomorphologique de la région littorale du Liban. Beirut. Singer A. 2007. The Soils of Israel. Berlin–Heidelberg–New York. Sivan D. 1996. Paleogeography of the Galilee Coastal Plain during the Quaternary (Geological Survey of Israel Report GSI/18/96). Jerusalem (Hebrew; English summary). Sneh A. and Avni Y. 2011. Geological Map of Israel 1:50,000. Jerusalem Sheet 11-II. Jerusalem. Sneh A., Bartov Y. and Rosensaft M. 1998. Geological Map of Israel 1:200.000. Sheet 1 and 2. Jerusalem. Taitel-Goldman N. 1993. Mineralogy of the Argillaceous Strata of the Judean Group in the Jerusalem Hills. M.Sc. thesis. The Hebrew University. Jerusalem. Taitel-Goldman N., Heller-Kallai L. and Sass E. 1992. Clay Minerals and Feldspars in Argillaceous Strata of the Judea Group in the Jerusalem Hills. IJES 44:71–79. Walley C. 1997. The Lithostratigraphy of Lebanon, a Review. Lebanese Science Bulletin 10:81–108. Weksler-Bdolah S. 2016. A Villa and a Pottery Kiln from the Late Roman–Byzantine Periods at ʻEn Yaʻal (Naḥal Refa’im), Jerusalem. ʻAtiqot 87:71*–119* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 107–110). Whitechurch H., Juteau T. and Montigny R. 1984. Role of Eastern Mediterranean Ophiolites (Turkey, Syria, Cyprus) in the History of the Neo-Tethys. In J.E. Dixon and A.H.F. Robertson eds. The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean. Oxford. Pp. 301–317. Wieder M. and Adan-Bayewitz D. 2002. Soil Parent Materials and the Pottery of Roman Galilee: A Comparative Study. Geoarchaeology 17:393–415.

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 5

Contextualizing the Cultural and Social Shifts R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

This chapter comprises four parts: a short presentation of the evidence for dating this assemblage, an evaluation of the iconographic subjects depicted on the lamps and the tableware, an examination of the evidence for social class and ethnic affiliation based on the use of specific ceramic categories and imagery, and a discussion of the changes in material culture brought about by the military-style pottery introduced by the Roman army.

Dating Evidence Two classes of ceramics are commonly used as relatively secure dating tools for the GrecoRoman world: fine ware and lamps. The imported fine tableware vessels attributed to Eastern Sigillata A ware in this assemblage (Nos. 1–28, 65–76, 835) fall within the time span between 70 and 135 CE, which I have narrowed to the last quarter of the first to the first quarter of the second centuries. Form 54 (Nos. 12, 13), with a time span between c. 75/80–130/150 CE, is often associated with Form 60A (Nos. 19, 20), dated c. 100–150 CE, and while the latter is still attested throughout the second century, the presence of the former enables lowering the date. It is the occurrence of the earlier forms upon which the dating of the assemblage should be based. ESA ware was most probably manufactured in eastern Cilicia in the Gulf of Iskenderun (Reynolds 2005:575; Lund, Malfitana and Poblome 2006; Olson and Killebrew 2011), and the products of these workshops––cups, bowls, plates and jugs, as reflected in the deposits from the Eastern Cardo––were the major source of supply of tableware for the Roman military after 70 CE, probably reliant on merchants who had already been active in Jerusalem during the late Second Temple period. The imports were soon replaced by local imitations (compare No. 14 with Nos. 39, 44). The better-quality ‘imports’ and the imitations of ESA forms and the related mottled ware (Nos. 32–55) are represented in about equal numbers. As observed by Magness (2005:70), some locally produced red-slipped vessels with a dark, even, lustrous slip “could easily be mistaken for imports.” The only fragment of a local product to qualify for such a description in this assemblage is the handle with a thumb rest and a ring (No. 833). When samples were chosen for petrographic analysis, ESA ware was not taken into consideration; yet there is room for further analysis and study. From a comparison of the distribution of the imported ESA ware and local red- and brown-slipped bowls, cups and jars in the six fill layers of the Roman dump, it can be concluded that the ESA ware is manifest in five of the six fills, while the local products appear in all of them. This analogy of imported and local production further supports the suggested dating of c. 75–125 CE.

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In his preliminary account of the excavations in the Jewish Quarter, Nahman Avigad published three complete ESA bowls of Form 58 or 60 and a mottled-ware bowl, which he attributed to the destruction by the Romans in 70 CE (Avigad 1983: Ill. 233). The vessels were retrieved from the fill of a reused Second Temple-period cistern (L2667) in Area F-6 (Geva 2000: Fig. 1.3; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:298, Pl. 25.4:9, 11, 14), and it was clear that they post-date 70 CE and should be attributed to c. 70–120 CE. The three fragments of Cypriot Sigillata (Nos. 29–31) can be attributed to the same time span as Eastern Sigillata D/Cypriot Sigillata. The dish (No. 29) is a very common shape that occurs in the destruction deposit of the floor of Room II in the House of Dionysos at Paphos, together with ESA Form 58 (Nos. 17, 18); the terminus post quem for the destruction of the house is 117–119 CE (Hayes 1991: Fig. 69:2, 3, 6). The bowl (No. 30) is dated to the mid to second half of the first century CE. The shallow bowl (No. 31) continues throughout the second century. These three items are insufficient as dating evidence; however, it is clear that the island’s ceramic industry did not serve as a supply source for the Roman army in Jerusalem. This holds true for the other sparsely represented imports of eastern and western origin as well (see Nos. 221–229, 819, 903–910). Some of these, although recovered from the Roman dump, are possibly residual pieces or personal property, and cannot be considered relevant for dating. Comparison of the red-slipped ceramics from the Roman dump with those published from the Jerusalem legionary kiln site highlights several differences. The locally produced bowls from the latter display a greater variety in shapes and sizes, and are considered “clearly local imitations in form, ware, and surface treatment of western sigillata, not the eastern sigillata characteristic of Palestine” (Magness 2005:70, Figs. 1–5). However, the ESA ware and its imitations from the 1968 excavations of the Jerusalem kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:273–275) and the Cardo’s Roman dump (for imitations, see Nos. 44–55, 77–98) present the opposite picture. The explanation might be chronological: the two assemblages could represent different phases of production, the finds from the Eastern Cardo dating to c. 70/75– 125/130 CE and those from the legionary kilnworks associated with the post-135 CE phase, when indeed the output of ESA was much smaller than in the late second and first centuries BCE and the first century CE. Of course, such a suggestion leads to additional unsolved questions with regard to understanding the differences in the two assemblages. What is the significance of the unstamped and stamped roof tiles, the latter absent in the Roman dump? What is the degree of certainty with which it can be assumed that the ‘military’ vessels from the Roman dump were manufactured at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, and were not the output of another Jerusalemite or Judaean potters’ workshop? The petrographic results of Moza clay and marl, as well as terra rossa, and the common repertoire, suggest an attribution to the same workshops, although they are not definite proof. The production at the Jerusalem kiln site resumed after the site had been abandoned––not destroyed––in the wake of the Great Revolt (Berlin 2005:33). Yet, who were the potters? (Magness 2005:108; RosenthalHeginbottom 2015b:615–616; 2017c:40). A unifying denominator of the assemblages from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks and the Cardo’s Roman dump is the fact that Italian Sigillata and South Gaulish Sigillata are absent (except for a single fragment of Italian Sigillata [No. 910] and a South Gaulish bowl from the Upper City, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017c: Fig.

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12). Even if we assume that there were contacts with Italy and the western provinces, Italian fine wares would not be expected in the Roman dump, as they were in decline as exports to the Levant by the Flavian period (Reynolds 1997–1998:57). Gaulish Sigillata came to light in Caesarea Maritima (Oleson et al. 1994:94), probably indicative of different supply sources for the military and the civilian population. Taking into consideration that the troops brought to Judaea had been stationed in the East for some considerable time, it is mere speculation to look for the origin of the military potters and the prototypes for the repertoire locally––they could be anywhere. Imported and locally manufactured lamps are present in large numbers in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, although their state of preservation is quite poor, comprising mainly nozzles with soot and tiny reservoir fragments. Three main groups––the mold-made Imperial Roman Broneer Types XXI, XXII–XXIII (Nos. 740–784), the Levantine round discus lamps (Nos. 787–813) and the wheel-made local lamps with a spatulate nozzle (Nos. 822–825)–– constitute the bulk. The first group is predominant in the first century CE and by the late first to early second centuries is replaced by the second group. The third group is attested until the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, and thus cannot assist us in defining the chronological frame. The proposed time span for the Roman dump, from the last quarter of the first to the first quarter of the second centuries, is determined by the well-represented, predominantly first-century lamps of Broneer Type XXI, the single imported Knidian lampstand dated to around 70–120 CE (No. 785), the absence of clearly second-century lamps such as the Gerasa imitations of Broneer Type XXI with decorated handle shields, and Corinthian products. In fact, the absence of the Gerasa lamps attests to the early second century as a definite terminus ante quem for the Roman dump. These Gerasa lamps with a high handle shield decorated with heads or masks of Dionysos or Pan were found in Jerusalem in the Temple Mount excavations and in the Jewish Quarter excavations, and were manufactured in the legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:80, with references, Fig. 11:4, 5, Photographs 13, 14, the description of the clay as orange-red with dark red slip corresponds to the legionary fabric). In her discussion, Magness compares them to products from Pergamon and Brigetio in Pannonia, without referring to the finds from the local potter’s workshop at Gerasa, dated to the first quarter of the second century (Iliffe 1945:20, No. 118; Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:90, Nos. 368, 369); however, in view of the leaf-shaped handles from Jerusalem and Gerasa (Iliffe 1945: Nos. 119, 125–127; Rosenthal and Sivan 1978: Nos. 378–386; Magness 2005: Fig. 31:5–8; Nos. 752–754), a probable regional link should not be excluded, even though the prototypes of these clay lamps are bronze lamps with handle shields decorated with masks of Dionysos, a Satyr or a woman that were manufactured in Italy during the time span of c. 50–150 CE (Bailey 1996:40, Q 3669, 3670). The contribution of the large quantity of utility wares––the military pottery par excellence––to the dating of this assemblage is very limited. The basins, deep bowls, mortaria, dolia and cooking vessels are all related to the preparation, consumption and storage of food. The large amount of glass and animal bones, particularly domestic and wild pig, in the Roman dump indicates the redeposition of domestic/household waste. Pig bones are absent in pre-70 CE Jewish Jerusalem, but frequent in the deposits of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks related to the Roman military (Horvitz and Lernau 2010:297).

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Flat-bottomed baking dishes include a few imported ‘Pompeian Red’ Ware pans and lids (Nos. 319–322), yet local imitations outnumber them by far. The same holds true for the ceramics uncovered in Beirut, where local pans were predominant and imports were rare from the beginning of the colony (Pellegrino 2010:154–155). In the western Roman provinces, Italian imports had been replaced by local copies by the late first century CE (Berlin 1993:39). Among the finds from the Jerusalem legionary kiln site, imports were no longer present, an observation of chronological significance (Magness 2005:7). Since the imports to Jerusalem began in the time of Herod the Great, most likely only after 15 BCE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:215–217; 2006:159; 2014:392–393), the probability of residual pieces in the Roman dump cannot be excluded. Entirely lacking is the Italian orlo bifido pan, rarely imported into pre-70 CE Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2003:216–217; 2014:393). In Beirut, Italian imported dishes and local imitations are typical in the mid-first-century cistern deposit, rare in 100–150 CE deposits and absent in deposits of late second and third centuries (Reynolds 1997–1998:46; 2004:125). The comparison between Jerusalem and Beirut strengthens the conclusion that in Jerusalem the Roman military did not acquire Italian ceramic products. In her typology of Jerusalem ceramics, Magness classes the basins in three basic forms: shelf-rim, rilled-rim and arched-rim (Magness 1993:202–209). Altogether, there is a large variety of small and large modules and rim and wall profiles, and several variations represented in the Roman dump must be added to the known repertoire. The earliest appearance of the plain shelf-rim basins (Nos. 396–402) is dated by Magness to the late first or second century, while the earliest appearance of the rilled-rim (Nos. 381–386) and arched-rim (No. 351) basins was set in the late third or early fourth centuries. The 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem kiln site led to a revision of this chronology, with the first appearance of rilled-rim and arched-rim basins determined to be no later than c. 200 CE (Magness 2005:105). The study of the basins from the Roman dump revealed that arched-rim basins with band and wavy-line combing are rare (No. 351 from Group 2e [see Chapter 3]; Nos. 350, 352, and an example from the 1968 excavations at the kiln site, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:118). Band and wavy-line combing is a common feature on the legionary amphoras (Nos. 526, 529, 532, 536, 537); on the basins, however, ‘pie-crust’ bands and single incised wavy lines on the rim and upper wall are more common. The date of the beginning of the manufacture of arched-rim basins on a large scale is, therefore, still open, while the appearance of shelf-rim and rilled-rim basins can be safely placed in the last quarter of the first century, on the basis of their predominance in the Roman dump. Commercial amphoras, most of them clearly imports, were retrieved in much smaller numbers than the locally produced amphoras in roof-tile fabric with decorative elements common on other utility vessels (Nos. 519–540). The occurrence of mostly eastern-origin imported amphoras in all layers of the Roman dump (see Chapter 3: Groups 2a–2g) fits well the time range of 75–125 CE. In the 1992 excavations at the site of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, no amphoras or storage jars were retrieved, with the exception of a high-necked jar with a grooved rim (Magness 2005: Fig. 33:5). In the 1968 excavations, several vessels came to light that were assigned to the workshops based on visual inspection. Thus, the evidence for legionary production of jars is ambiguous. On the one hand, the vessels may have been manufactured

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elsewhere, in a so-far unknown workshop; on the other hand, amphoras of the heavy variant (Nos. 519–540) fit into the repertoire of utility vessels manufactured at the kiln site. The matter is further complicated by the storage jars that display a great variety in fabric, shape and size (Nos. 551–589). Jars with a high neck are attributed to Berlin’s Ceramic Phases 2–4 (late first century BCE to 70 CE), though they are made of non-workshop pottery (Berlin 2005:45–47, Fig. 14). Interestingly, jars with a high neck are not represented among the late Second Temple-period vessels from the 1968 excavations (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 7–9, 132, 133). An important chronological factor in dating the Roman dump is the absence of ceramics that were in fashion during the second century, an observation that once again points to a date no later than the early second century for the deposit. One example of a ceramic group that is missing is the Gerasa clay lamps mentioned above. Another missing group is drinking cups and vases in shapes of animal heads made in Knidos, vessels that were a popular and widely distributed export during the second century and are found at all major sites along the Mediterranean coast. So far, they have not been recorded in Jerusalem. A third missing ceramic group is that of Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls, which are restricted, with a few exceptions, to the area in and around the city. Their first appearance was formerly attributed to the late third or early fourth century, but now they are considered to have appeared no later than 200 CE, together with the equally popular rilled-rim and arched-rim basins (Magness 2005:104–105; 2006:184–185). A single example of a bowl from the legionary kilnworks with ‘light rouletting’ and a grooved and ridged rim “might be related to the Roman legionary production” (Magness 2005:103, Fig. 34:7). Magness’ supposition (2005:105) that the manufacture of these bowls already began in the second century gains support from the discovery of rouletted bowls in the 1968 excavations at that site (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: Nos. 79, 80, 154). In addition, numerous bowls were revealed in the legionary bakery close to the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount enclosure, which could have been constructed in the second half or the last quarter of the second century based on evidence from the loci sealed beneath the floors of the bakery (e.g., a coin of Marcus Aurelius; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2011:210–213). In the present excavations, fragments of three Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls and third-century lamps with a large filling-hole were retrieved from drainage channels (e.g., L514), reflecting the continuous use of the Eastern Cardo (see Chapter 3: Group 6). To my knowledge, the earliest occurrence of these bowls outside Jerusalem is a single specimen from the Caves of the Coin, which served as a hiding place during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (Porat et al. 2009:57, Fig. 5:10). Shelf-rim and rilled-rim basins are present in the Roman dump and thus securely dated from the last quarter of the first century onward. For the rouletted bowls and the arched-rim basins, a third-century date is now accepted, yet the beginning of their manufacture is still unclear. Two dates appear possible. Their production may have begun while the legionary kilnworks were still functioning, i.e., during the Hadrianic or Antonine period. Alternatively, their production may have begun after c. 200, when the kilnworks had ceased to function (Magness 2005:105; 2011:319–320). The presence of a rouletted bowl in a refuge cave from the Bar Kokhba period, and the single occurrence of an archedrim basin in Group 2e (No. 351), prevent us from settling the issue of their date.

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Iconography Two classes of ceramics––lamps and tableware––bear mold-made or applied iconographic depictions derived from the standard mythological repertoire of the Greco-Roman world. In Jerusalem, apart from sporadic finds, particularly from the excavations in the Armenian Garden, the Temple Mount and the Jewish Quarter, these two classes were identified as products of the Roman military in the course of the extensive and ongoing work at the site of the legionary kilnworks (Jerusalem International Convention Center). The collection from the latter site is now supplemented by the finds from the present excavations along the Eastern Cardo––the first time that a substantial quantity has come to light within the city limits in a well-defined stratigraphic and chronological context. In addition, Roman-type volute lamps and locally produced factory lamps were recorded in the fill of a cistern in Area F-6 of the Upper City, with a date of c. 70–120 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017a:287– 298). In contrast to the inhabitants of pre-70 CE Jerusalem, these finds represent a different, non-Jewish, population. The subjects depicted on the lamps are typically Roman, and not necessarily military, and comparanda have been published from the habitation levels and fills of many coastal towns in the southern Levant. The tableware derives its shapes and imagery from contemporaneous metal prototypes prevalent in the Greco-Roman culture, yet it emerges as a local creation in the provincial ‘military style’ (see below), while the lamps comprise both regional imports and local products. It has already been mentioned that the lamps are quite fragmentary and only a limited repertoire of subjects could be identified. These comprise less than a dozen subjects: Victory, Eros, a biga, a gladiator, a trophy, the farmer/herdsman Tityrus, sheep, a panther, a bunch of grapes, and dolphins (see Nos. 772–784, 800–802). Eros is also depicted on a Knidian lampstand (No. 785). The limited repertoire is manifest in comparison to the number of subjects common in the region (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981:99–120), the output of the eastern potter’s workshop of Romanesis (Heres 1968), and the great variety of pictorial types represented for example in the fills of the legionary camp at Vindonissa (Leibundgut 1977:190). Leibundgut first raised the question whether the choice of subjects was an expression of general prevailing tendencies, or rather, programmatic intent determined the preference for specific depictions; in the northern Roman provinces, such lamps were used almost exclusively by the military (Leibundgut 1977:194). At present, it is impossible to assess the acceptance or non-acceptance of the provincial lamps with a decorated discus in areas of Jewish settlement such as Judaea and the Galilee, as few sites of the second half of the second and the third centuries have been excavated. From tomb offerings, it appears that the customary local tradition of lamps with a wide central filling-hole was deeply rooted in these areas, while discus lamps predominated in areas of non-Jewish settlement, often in conjunction with the Roman military and civil administration (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2010:219; 2012:313). For Jerusalem, the matter is even more complicated as the question of a Jewish presence after 70 CE is in dispute; in addition, the late second- and third-century lamps retrieved from the legionary bakery to the southwest of the Temple Mount are characterized by their small size and the absence of images, or a simplified floral or geometric decoration on the discus, which might reflect the economic and social status of the buyer and user (see Nos. 787–813).

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The mold-made tableware vessels for drinking, serving and cult comprise the most outstanding discovery among the locally produced ceramics from the Eastern Cardo excavations. Together with several finds from the 1949 and 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem kiln site, isolated fragments recovered in Jerusalem or acquired on the antiquities market, they shed new light on the life-style of the Roman military and administrative class in Jerusalem. Unfortunately, their fragmentary state presents problems in defining the iconographic subjects and the vessel types. The drinking vessels display single figures, probably Kronos/Saturn (No. 828 from the Roman dump; No. 829 from the 1949 Jerusalem kiln site excavations) and the reclining Heracles (Magness 2005: Fig. 10:6), who may be part of a scene. A male youth carrying an amphora and possibly a thyrsos (No. 830; Hershkovitz 2005: Fig. 11:9), thus a member of the Dionysiac thiasos, and a possible Dionysiac procession with three figures could be part of a scene rather than a repetitive design (Magness 2005: Fig. 10:5). In addition, there are two cup fragments, one decorated with the head of a young Satyr, the other with an Eros and vine-leaf tendrils, most likely a repetitive motif (Nos. 834, 835). Fragments of closed vessels bear decorations on the handle shafts and the escutcheons (Nos. 839–850). The only example with the upper part preserved (No. 839) has a cup-shaped rim and could belong to a two-handled amphoriskos; a pitcher or jug is less likely because of the relatively narrow neck. The handle shafts are adorned with isolated items, the most complete version comprising, from top to bottom, the head of Pappasilenos, a panther, a bowl and a table or altar (No. 840). Subjects depicted on escutcheons include frontal heads of Dionysos or Eros (Nos. 846–848) and figures of Eros the Hunter (Nos. 849, 850) in this assemblage, as well as a Medusa head in the Ustinow Collection in Oslo (Skupinska-Løvset 1978:140, UT 148, Pl. 31). In the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, there is a predominance of Dionysiac imagery: Dionysos and his retinue, members of his thiasos, adherents and Eros; they are also represented on masks (Nos. 878–881). Three small fragments of large kraters are decorated with almost-naturalistic palm trees with fruits (Nos. 854–856), and petrographic analysis of No. 855 indicates that it was not a product of the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks but originated in the Shephelah. Finally, four fragments of large vessels are difficult to classify (Nos. 861–864). One is a wall fragment of an open vessel, elaborately decorated with friezes: a line of advancing soldiers is discernible. A pair of twisted handles belongs to a vessel of unclear shape and size. The surface of two joining fragments of a large, thick-walled vessel is covered with closely punctured dots. This technique recalls the surface treatment of complete and fragmentary vases decorated with images of the Mithraic cult, discovered by ClermontGanneau in 1874 in a rock-cut chamber close to the Church of the Sisters of Zion on the Via Dolorosa and defined as kraters for sacrificial libations (Clermont-Ganneau 1899:49–76). In her publication of the important finds from this chamber, Magness suggests that the vases were manufactured in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks by military potters, and that the cult of Mithras was established by the Roman military in Jerusalem (Magness 2003:168–169). Concerning the surface treatment, Magness writes “A rather curious detail is that the whole surface of the vase, especially the stamped parts, is pitted with little holes made with the point of a sharp boasting tool or knife.” (Magness 2003:165). Considering

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that the complete Mithraic vase has two twisted handles, and that the fragment with the frieze of soldiers is made of Moza marl, it is quite feasible to attribute these fragments to cultic vessels. In the Roman army, commanders and units had to perform specific cultic actions and sacrifices related to the imperial cult, to festivals, rituals and ceremonies; these included the supplication, with the consumption of wine and the burning of incense, and the immolatio, the blood sacrifice (Stoll 2007:453). Special vessels were required for these ceremonies. The scarcity of fragments of cult vessels in the Roman dump can be explained by the fact that this accumulation originated in living quarters. The clay imitations of exquisite metal ware with Dionysiac iconography were part of the sumptuous outlay for the convivia, the social get-togethers held in dining-rooms. No wine was drunk before the libation (spondeum), the ceremony of offering some of the wine to the gods. Dionysos and his thiasos were ubiquitous in the visual arts of the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Thus, in the Hellenistic ceramic repertoire of Ephesos, medallion bowls and jugs/pitchers were decorated with silenoi, satyrs, maenads, erotes and actors (MitsopoulosLeon 1991:55–66), and this deep-rooted tradition of Dionysiac images continued in Roman times. In an inscription from Nysa-Scythopolis, Dionysos is venerated as the city’s founder and his cult is attested as the major cult in the city by a variety of finds––from marble sculpture to coinage (Barkay 2003:111–132). The manifold representations of Dionysiac imagery on mosaics and wall paintings, on marble tables and sculptures, on textile wall hangings and garments, on vessels of silver, bronze, clay and glass, on sarcophagi and lead coffins, emphasize their enormous popularity throughout the Empire and among all social classes (for a comprehensive discussion of finds from the Late Roman period, see Parrish 1995). In the publication of the mosaic floor from the triclinium in the House of Dionysos at Sepphoris, which was erected in the late second or early third century and apparently destroyed in the earthquake of 363 CE, Talgram and Weiss (2004:125) interpret the decorative program thus: “The depictions on the floor express three central ideas: the life of Dionysos as a model for those experiencing the Dionysiac mysteries, the relationship between Dionysos and Herakles, and the ambience of the symposium.” The intent of the Dionysiac imagery was to cause the symposiasts to ponder the consequences of drunkenness, and to counsel moderate drinking. It is only Dionysos who can drink pure wine without risk; humans must consume it diluted with water. For the act of dilution, performed in the midst of the guests, the symbolic sharing krater was essential. As the number of kraters with relief decoration is minimal (Nos. 854–856), the numerous widemouthed vessels, plain or decorated with grooves, band- and wavy-line combing, produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks, could have served this purpose (Nos. 340–374). Tableware is defined as a luxury item, imitating precious metal vessels, and was introduced to Jerusalem by the Roman military personnel. Two conclusions can be drawn from these finds. Firstly, the few fragments underline the fact that only the elite among the army and administrative personnel could afford such vessels for festive occasions. Thus, it comes as no surprise that parallels from other excavation sites in Jerusalem are also limited. Secondly, the iconography of the tableware, as well as the lamps, adheres to cultural traditions inherent in Roman society and reflects the advent of a new and different population.

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Social Class and Ethnic Affiliation The identification of the potters working at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site is closely related to the question of whether Jews continued to live in the city and/or the vicinity after 70 CE. Kloner and Zissu (2007:141, 147–148) suggest that some Jews were living in the ruins of the city between 70 and 132 CE, and they were connected in some way to the Roman garrison. However, the historical evidence for this is meager, while recent archaeological evidence provides some information. The attested use of the Jewish burial caves during that period is inconclusive, as the dead may have originated in settlements in the Jerusalem periphery or even further away (Kloner and Zissu 2007:147). The excavators of the Akeldama Caves suggest that the cremation burials placed alongside Jewish ossuaries with no signs of destruction can be attributed to the military––soldiers or veterans of the Tenth Legion, or civilian members of the canabae, as not only males were buried (Avni and Greenhut 1996:35; Kloner and Zissu 2007:144). For the third century, there is evidence for the relationship between the military and the local population: among the grave goods from two burials in Jerusalem, dated no later than 240 CE, are pairs of earrings placed near the heads of the deceased in each tomb. As both are males, and only women wore earrings at that time in the Orient, the excavators suggest that the burials be attributed to Roman legionaries (or veterans), and that their spouses offered their personal jewelry as part of the funerary ritual (Gath and Rahmani 1977:213; see also Rahmani 1960:143 for a burial of a young woman connected to the military). It should be noted that for the period immediately after 70 CE, the location of the legionary camp and the veterans’ settlement, and even the existence of canabae, are a matter of dispute and the various suggestions and assumptions are speculative. Bieberstein argues that as a result of the stationing of military units in the conquered and destroyed city (the matter of the exact location of the legionary encampment is irrelevant in this context), a nearby settlement (a hybrid form of the canabae and vicus) would have arisen, “consisting of relatives and dependents of the soldiers, merchants, artisans, among whom were perhaps, or probably, also Jews and Jewish-Christians.” He further points out that Jerusalem was not a colony of discharged soldiers, and that after the capture of Macherus 800 veterans were settled at Emmaus (Bieberstein 2007:136–137). The question of whether military or native potters worked in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks is addressed in the Introduction (above, Chapter 1). Following the presentation and discussion of the finds, it can be concluded that in the time span between the end of the Great Revolt and the beginning of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, two phases can be discerned: an early production phase with Jewish potters until the late Trajanic–early Hadrianic times, and a later production phase without Jewish potters continuing until the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2015b: 615–616; 2017c:39–40). This evidence needs confirmation by additional excavations; to date some general observations can be made. 1. The fact that the late Second Temple-period production area at the kiln site in the Jerusalem International Convention Center shows no signs of destruction and that pottery

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manufacture resumed after a temporary gap, suggest two alternative interpretations: the work was resumed by military potters, or some native potters were employed. Derivatives of local Judaean types are noticeable in the globular cooking pots and the storage jars, and possibly also in the small containers for precious liquids and ointments. The Roman garrison at Masada used local juglets (Bar-Nathan 2006:191), and excavations in Camp F at Masada have demonstrated that food supplies transported from afar were stored in locally produced, bag-shaped jars, which formed the bulk of ceramics retrieved there (Magness 2009:86). Several small open vessels characteristic of the late Second Temple period are not present in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, among them the ‘miniature’ cups (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:107) and the fine cups with everted, ledged rims (Geva and Hershkovitz 2006:109–110). Instead, egg-shell cups with a flaring profile or a carinated wall, often decorated with rouletting, are common (Nos. 147–154), their profile recalling the small, cast, conical glass bowls with a diameter of c. 10 cm from the refuse of the glass workshop in the Jewish Quarter excavations, dated to the mid-first century BCE (Nos. 147–152; Israeli and Katsnelson 2006: Pl. 21.12: GL 11–112, 114). 2. The Eastern Cardo’s Roman dump did not furnish evidence for the copying of Italian Sigillata, contrary to the evidence from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks where, on the other hand, ESA is not found. I do not concur with Magness’ suggestion that some of the military potters working at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks had previously been employed in the Danube or Rhine provinces (Magness 2005:108). With respect to the fine tableware with relief decoration from the Western Wall Plaza assemblage, the ware, technique, style and iconography all point to a pan-Roman concept, together with creativity and innovation that created an idiosyncratic style, while dependent on Roman metal prototypes. The contemporaneous imports and imitations of ESA ware, and the local vessels in marbled technique, indicate an eastern source of supply; the copies could have been produced by military or native potters alike, and indicate a change in production strategy. 3. The wide range of utility wares for preparing, serving and storing food does not differ from types common in the western Roman provinces, and if native potters were employed, they had to be trained accordingly. The ‘military’ pottery types were evidently not sold to the civilian population in Jerusalem and beyond; the few parallels from the city and its vicinity, as well as from Caesarea Maritima, are to be linked with the activities of Roman army units. It is unknown how long this ruling persisted, or if it changed at some point, especially following intermarriage with the local population, which is attested in the third century (Gath and Rahmani 1977:213–214). I shall try to demonstrate both the potential and the limitations of interpreting the evidence provided by ‘military’ pottery. At Dora, complete and fragmentary lamps came to light in contexts of the late second and early third centuries, on which a heron and a crab are depicted (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1999:49*, Fig. 80; 61, Fig. 81; 2012:313, Figs. 8, 9). Additional lamps with the same figure-type are recorded from excavations in Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1981: Fig. VI:1, 2), Samaria (Crowfoot, Crowfoot and Kenyon 1957:373), Antipatris (Neidinger 1982: Pl. 23:5) and ‘Ein ez-Zeituna (Glick 2006:57, Fig. 12:2). The latter site is a road station (mansio)

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or highway rest stop (mutatio) established on an important Roman road near the legionary camp of Legio-Lejjun at the end of the first or the beginning of the second century, and quite likely on behalf of the military administration. The wading bird on all these lamps is identified as a heron by the elongated ornamental crest of two feathers protruding from behind the ears, as well as the long neck, bill and legs. In Egyptian art, in both the secular and religious realms, the heron is one of the most frequently represented birds; it is the Egyptian benu-bird (also the Greek phoenix), venerated as the incarnation of the God Ra, the sun-god of Heliopolis, and Osiris, the god associated with death, resurrection, eternal life and fertility (Houlihan 1986:13–16). Together with other lamps on which Egyptianinfluenced subjects are shown (the sphinx, the locust, grotesquely depicted persons such as dwarfs, pygmies and cinaedoi), these pictorial types indicate the arrival of a new population element, namely military personnel transferred from Egypt during the reign of Septimius Severus in the wake of the administrative and military reorganization of the province of Syria. Dora became part of Syria Phoenicia and a military unit was stationed at the site (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2010:219; 2012:313). Along with the lamps, this proposed interpretation is further supported by finds such as clay incense cups, lead votives and a lead mirror, as well as bronze sealing boxes often, though not exclusively, associated with the Roman army (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2008a:98–99*, 105*). 4. Further evidence for the employment of military potters and the use of pottery by military and administrative personnel is the fact that vessels of pan-Roman shapes were manufactured in the provincial workshops. Examples from the present excavations include flat-bottomed pans (Nos. 323–331), a lamp with horse-head projections of Broneer Type XXI (No. 747) and a lampstand (No. 786)––the last two most likely after Knidian prototypes––and a copy of an Italian factory lamp (No. 818), which were produced in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. 5. Whether manufactured by military or native potters, or both, the bulk of the fine ware and the utility vessels, as well as many lamps, were locally made in the Jerusalem area. Moza clay and marl and terra rossa were used, continuing the Second Temple period supply sources. Thus, the policy in Jerusalem was no different from that at other military encampments, for example at Carnuntum in Pannonia (Grünewald 1979:90–91). In summary, the general picture that emerges from the above observations indicates a separation between the Roman military personnel and the native Jewish population, resulting in two separate social and ethnic entities. At all the locations in Jerusalem where a fair amount of ‘military’ pottery has been uncovered––the Roman dump of the present excavations, the legionary bath and bakery unearthed in the Temple Mount excavations, the fill of the cistern in Area F-6 in the Upper City, and the excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks––the social identity of the dwellers can be defined as non-native and foreign. The only exception so far is the cremation burials in the Akeldama Caves, most likely to be attributed to non-native military or administrative personnel, although there is no way of asserting whether the buried had lived in Jerusalem or in the surroundings. The

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archaeological evidence that the Upper City of Jerusalem was razed to the ground may indicate that at first the canabae with artisans, merchants and prostitutes were established outside the walled area. The preparatory construction works for the Eastern Cardo and the legionary bath and bakery, as well as the activities in the Tyropoeon Valley, attest to the planning of public space under Roman rule. In the Upper City, on the slopes of the southwestern hill, one would expect to find the living quarters of the army officers from which the Roman dump originated. It is unlikely that barracks and private houses were erected near each other, as the city planners aimed at a differentiation between public and private space and between high-ranking officers and the rank and file. After 70 CE, ethnic Romans and indigenous pagans dwelt in the city, and even though Josephus refers to a total destruction in 70 CE, some dwellings must have been refurbished to accommodate the new settlers (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017c:285–286, 320–321). The accumulation defined as the Roman dump is related to the planning of the city’s new orthogonal layout under Hadrian, implying that even if old buildings were not entirely ruined they had to be dismantled, as their orientation did not fit well into the new urban landscape (WekslerBdolah and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:48–49). In recent historical and archaeological studies, scholars argue convincingly that Aelia Capitolina was founded in 119 CE, culminating in the rebuilding of Jerusalem as a Roman urban center with an orthogonal layout (Caponi 2010:498; Di Segni 2014:448–449; Weksler-Bdolah 2014:56; WekslerBdolah and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014:48–49). This conclusion is corroborated by the dating of the fill of the cistern in Area F-6 of the Jewish Quarter, which originates from a habitation context and was deposited when the building above the cistern was dismantled around 120 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017c:284–286).

‘Military Style’ Pottery and the Changes in Material Culture The nature of the accumulation in the Eastern Cardo’s Roman dump is clearly domestic. The large quantity of pig bones, the soot on the lamps, the luxury tableware for dining and the large number of utility vessels for food processing and storing, all suggest that it originated in nearby living quarters and should be attributed to army officers (and administrative personnel), rather than simple soldiers. This conclusion is further strengthened by the many globular cooking pots and wide-mouthed casseroles in small and larger modules, as well as the flat-bottomed pans, which all seem to be suited to individual rather than communal cooking in a contubernium, where a meal for eight–ten persons was prepared, and large metal cauldrons must have been necessary (Grünewald 1979:86). It has been suggested that there was a standard military repertoire for the products of the legionary workshops set up in the camps along the Rhine and the Danube, characterized by conformity in ceramic forms as well as similarities in surface treatment and decorative elements (Grünewald 1979, 1983; Sorge 2001). Magness reached the same conclusion in her study of the finds from the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005:104–108). In my opinion, the finds from the Roman dump only partly support this interpretation, as on the one hand there is a continuation of local shapes and fabrics in plain tableware, storage jars and cooking ware, while on the other hand there is innovation in the creation of mold-

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made tableware and utility vessels. In the time span between the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the production and distribution of the legionary pottery corresponds to what Reynolds terms the ‘cellular’ structure of the city and its territory, a model that prevailed in the Levant during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods (Reynolds 2005:575). Considering that a feature of the ‘military style’ is the imitation of metal vessels in clay together with stamped vessels (Bónis 1977b:139), the manufacture of the luxury tableware recovered in the Western Wall Plaza assemblage is a local development, also ultimately deriving from metal prototypes. The utility wares from the same excavation can be defined as ‘military style’, as the shapes are of the standard legionary repertoire and satisfy the legionary requirements: flat-bottomed pans, kraters, deep bowls, mortaria, dolia, amphoras, storage jars, cooking pots and casseroles. Their common features include grooved rims, grooved handles, band- and wavy-line combing on rim and wall, impressed circles and ‘pie-crust’ rims. The latter decorative element continues a local tradition already appearing on late Hellenistic and Early Roman kraters. The handles with two, three or four grooves can be considered a hallmark of the legionary pottery and are found on fine tableware jugs and amphoras and on several types of utility vessels (see the full list under Nos. 459–473). The convenient shape of shelf-rim, rilled-rim and arched-rim basins continued into the Byzantine and later periods (Magness 1993:202–209). A change occurred sometime during the second half of the second century, or after 200 CE, when the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks no longer functioned. As a result, the markets were opened and native civilian potters began to imitate legionary types, in particular the flatbottomed pans, rouletted bowls, rilled-rim and arched-rim basins, setting the ceramic trend for the following centuries. It is tempting to link this change to the visit of Septimius Severus in 200 CE, which resulted in a notable increase in building activities throughout the province. During his reign, the relationships between members of the military units and their dependent women and children were legalized. An earlier date for the change in the distribution pattern of ‘military’ types, namely during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE), is suggested by a small site at Alon Shevut, situated near the twelfth milestone on the Jerusalem–Hebron road (the tenth milestone discovered along the road carries an inscription of 170 CE). The structural remains consist of a miqveh complex and a large, hewn underground water installation. The miqveh went out of use after the Bar Kokhba Revolt with the cessation of Jewish settlement in the North Hebron Hills (Amit 1999:75, 82). Only eight diagnostic sherds are published, seven of them attributed to the Byzantine period, among them two Jerusalem Rouletted Bowls (Amit 1999: Fig. 9:2, 3; see our Figs. 6.1:1, 6.2:2, 3), an arched-rim basin and a basin with a ‘pie-crust’ band (Amit 1999: Fig. 9:5, 6). The latter is dated to the sixth–eighth centuries, yet the ‘pie-crust’ band is a common decorative element on large utility vessels manufactured in the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks. A major route like the Jerusalem–Hebron road was of great importance to the Roman administration, and army units could very well have been involved in its maintenance. Bearing in mind the second-century date of the kilnworks and the inscription dated 170 CE on the tenth milestone, a late second-century date is possible for the pottery from Alon Shevut. One of the rouletted bowls (Amit 1999: Fig. 9:2) has a parallel in the finds from the legionary kilnworks (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 80). These bowls

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are not common in the second-century repertoire, yet they support Magness’ suggestion that their production might have begun prior to 200 CE (Magness 2005:105) and corroborate evidence for such from the Temple Mount excavations (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2011:220– 222). The few ceramic finds from Alon Shevut can be taken as evidence for a change in the distribution pattern of ‘military’ types in the late second century. Two classes of ‘military’ vessels are not present in the Roman dump. The first is the incense cup, the turibulum. Perhaps a single fragment belongs to such a vessel in the present assemblage (No. 138), while one cup was retrieved in 1968 at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks in a non-stratified accumulation (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005: No. 152), and none in the 1992 excavations at the same site. It is generally assumed that incense cups had a cultic function in Mithraea and burials; another suggestion is their use as lamps with a swimming wick. As they were found in the barracks of the legionary camp at Carnuntum, where no shrines have been identified, Grünewald (1979:89) advocates their use as lamps, without excluding another function. The second class absent in the Roman dump comprises handles with animal heads, which are part of either a handled dish (trulla or patera) or a ladle (cyathus or simpula). Seven clay imitations of these popular metal vessels used during dining are known so far from Jerusalem, six from the legionary kilnworks and the seventh from the Armenian Garden excavations (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 25:21; Magness 2005:80–81, 83–84, Fig. 13; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:277, Nos. 199, 200). Close parallels from Kurucdomb, the potters’ quarter at Brigetio in Pannonia, are the basis for Magness’ suggestion that military potters were transferred from that region in order to work in Jerusalem, from where returning soldiers took a Bar Kokhba coin to Brigetio (Magness 2005:108). The observation that vessels with animal heads are lacking in the assemblage from the Eastern Cardo, but present in the legionary kilnworks, lends support to the proposal here, based on the dissimilarity of the two assemblages, that they should be attributed to different time spans, the former to c. 75–125 CE, the latter to the period shortly before or after the Bar Kokhba Revolt. If so, the transfer of military units could have led to the arrival of military potters. Unfortunately, neither the 1968 nor the 1992 excavations at the Jerusalem International Convention Center provided unequivocal dating evidence for the beginning of the legionary production there. However, the renewed excavations at the site in 2009 established that Jewish potters were still employed in the kiln site until the late years of Trajan’s reign or the early years of Hadrian’s, at the time of the Diaspora Revolt in Egypt, Cyrene and Cyprus (115–117 CE; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2017c:39–40). From that time onward, the ethnic identity of the producers, buyers and users of the ceramics manufactured at the Jerusalem kiln site can be defined as non-Jewish, and it is the social class of army officers and administrative personnel, some ethnic Romans though most indigenous pagan inhabitants, to whose households the ceramics from the Roman dump can be assigned. From that time onward, the population of Jerusalem (and of Judaea) participated in the Roman visual and material koine, reflected in the imagery and ceramic repertoire of the Western Wall Plaza assemblage.

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 6

Pottery from Byzantine Loci R enate Rosenthal-Heginbottom

This chapter presents ceramic vessels from loci relating to building activities in the Byzantine period (see WWPE I), comprising imported fine tableware, lamps and the common range of the local repertoire, including Fine Byzantine Ware and several shapes that continue into the Islamic period (Figs. 6.1, 6.2). Comparisons for the local vessels are restricted to material published from Jerusalem, particularly the Jewish Quarter and the Temple Mount excavations (Magness 2003, 2006; Mazar 2003). The finds from the City of David excavations are incorporated into the ‘Jerusalem Ceramic Chronology’ (Magness 1993), which is the standard typological and chronological reference book. Some of the dates have since been revised on the basis of the excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kilnworks (Magness 2005). The ceramic finds discussed and illustrated in this chapter were recovered in the following locations (Plan 6.1): 1. The eastern portico: the mosaic pavement and its foundation layer (L4253, L8042); 2. The western portico (L5143, unsealed); 3. The western portico, the northwestern cells (L6210, L6213, L6220, L6221); 4. Unstratified: one lamp fragment. Finds from the one or two steps (0.3–0.6 m height, 1.5 m overall width), between the open carriageway and the sidewalk and portico that run along the western edge of the Cardo (L5181, L5308, L5338, L6081), are not illustrated here. These steps were mostly built of flagstones similar to those of the street, although laid in a different, north–south orientation. In two places, they also have a different paving, apparently a result of repairs. In the southern part of the Cardo, the steps are built of smaller, square-shaped flagstones, hewn across with parallel lines (L5338, Segment B, see WWPE I: Plan 3.3). In one specific place in the southern part of the Cardo, a repair was made using broken Cardo flagstones with smaller stones between them (L5308). The pottery finds from the makeup of the pavement repair in these two loci yielded a few diagnostic Roman sherds (discus lamps, Eastern Sigillata A ware, a mortarium), and three sherds of the Byzantine period that cannot be more precisely dated (two ribbed body sherds of jugs or storage jars, and a shoulder fragment of a Kerbschnitt jug).

The Eastern Portico Remains of a mosaic floor were exposed in the eastern portico, which had been badly damaged by subsequent building activities. The mosaic itself was preserved in narrow segments, mainly where Early Islamic walls were built directly above it, thus sealing it. Most of its remains, however, consisted of the floor’s foundation layer without the overlying tesserae.

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L5143 Carriageway

m ylaeu /Prop ortico P n r Easte

L5248

Western

Portico

L8042

L4253

L491

Byzantine 0

Ummayad 10

m

Plan 6.1. Byzantine and Ummayad loci (see Chapter 7).

The foundation layer (L4253, L8042) was made of small to medium-sized fieldstones, densely arranged and sunk into a hard, blackish, cement-like soil. Within this layer were some 50 coins together with pottery sherds. The coins had been intentionally inserted into the foundation layer at the time of its construction. The latest identified coins within this ‘foundation-deposit hoard’ were minted by Justinian I (548–565 CE; see Bijovsky 2019: Coin Nos. 148–155). The ceramics were all of the Roman and Byzantine periods, mostly body fragments with a small number of diagnostic pieces; there were also occasional Iron Age and Persian-period sherds. Not illustrated from L4253 is a Phocaean Red Slip Ware dish/bowl of Form 3 (B42178; see below for a similar shape, Fig. 6.1:8, 9) and the base of a local, gray-slipped Roman discus lamp (B42171/2).

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Bowl. Fig. 6.1:1; L4253, B42024/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. The fabric already heralds the Fine Byzantine Ware. Reference: Magness 1993:191–192, Rouletted Bowl Form 4—‘Related Wares’, suggested date: sixth–first half of seventh centuries or later. Fine Bowl. Fig. 6.1:2; L4253, B42024/3. Small bowl with incurved rim, thin-walled metallic fabric, light brown clay, gray core. Typical late Second Temple-period local product, continuing after 70 CE; see No. 171. Bowl. Fig. 6.1:3; L4253, B42024/2. Reddish-brown clay, cookware. See No. 247. Lamp. Fig. 6.1:4; L4253, B42171/1. Candlestick lamp, light brown clay. In the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, small and large candlestick or slipper lamps are the dominant type in Judaea, the small lamps dating from the second half of the fourth to the mid-sixth centuries, the large lamps from the mid-sixth to the late seventh or early eighth centuries; for parallels see Magness 1993:250–253; 2008:130–131; Vincenz 2013: 123–129. Basin. Fig. 6.1:5; L8042, B80778. Reddish-brown clay, gray core, thin, dull, irregular dark brown slip on exterior and interior, band-combing. Below the line of band-combing is a fingerprint (this spot is unslipped) and a very small curved incision, pointing to probable wavy-line combing. On the basis of fabric and general form, an attribution to the arched-rim basins of Form 2A is most likely, even though the rim is not typically arched (Magness 1993:206–208; 2003: Pl. 18.1:11). It is the prevailing form of the sixth–seventh centuries; some examples earlier than the sixth century are known.

The Western Portico (Not Sealed) The ground level of the western portico, including its underground cisterns, was integrated into Early Islamic buildings and remained in use from that period onward. As a result, very few sealed loci of the Roman and Byzantine periods were preserved, and not all of them yielded pottery finds. The ground level was hewn into the natural rock (L490, L5348) in most of the excavated area, or laid above architectural remains and earthen fills of the Iron Age in its northern part (W518, W521, W524). None of the original portico paving is preserved other than the covering flagstones laid above cisterns. If the rock surface was covered with paving stones, they were all robbed in antiquity. Three coins were found inside narrow natural cracks in the bedrock, one of which dates to the years 518–538 CE (Coin No. 120, L5348), while the other two could not be identified (B52451–2) and do not appear in the catalogue (WWPE I). In the southern part of the western portico, two cisterns were unearthed that were still in use until 1967. The southernmost cistern (L712) was covered by a barrel vault

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upon which thin flagstones were laid (L709). The foundation layer above the barrel vault and beneath the flagstones (L717) yielded one non-diagnostic potsherd of Fine Byzantine Ware, probably dated to the sixth–eighth centuries. The northern cistern (L300) was covered with flat arches upon which thin flagstones, cemented together, were laid (L374, L477). Four coins were retrieved inside the cement between these flagstones, one dated to the third century and three to the fourth century (Bijovsky 2019: Coin Nos. 45, 74, 76, 85). Inside a hewn, narrow, sealed water channel that entered the cistern (L476), glass vessels of the fourth century were found (see GorinRosen, forthcoming). In the northern part of the excavations, the western portico was constructed directly above remains of Iron Age buildings. Its flagstones were robbed in antiquity, and all that remained was the fill used to level the layer (L5137, L5143). This fill contained potsherds of the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Judging by the upper elevation of the Iron Age walls upon which the flagstones of the Cardo and western portico were laid (and subsequently robbed), we can reconstruct the surface level of the western portico at c. 727.60 m. To the west of the northwestern part of the western portico, a small square was paved (L6014, L6057, L6060). As the square is located in a place that was usually occupied by shop-cells, two shops were ‘moved’ further to the west. The probable reason for this change was the re-use of an earlier cistern (L6170), the ceiling of which served as the pavement of the small square at level 729.60 m. Consequently, in this area we assume the existence of two surface levels in the western portico: the lower, eastern one at 726.60 m and the upper one at 729.60 m; however, the latest pottery retrieved is contemporaneous. Unclassified Imported Dish/Plate. Fig. 6.1:6; L5143, B60352. Reddish-brown clay, micaceous, lustrous red slip on exterior only (see Chapter 4: Petrographic Sample No. 1: unknown, not Israel). The identification as a flat-based dish is suggested by the clearly visible wheel marks. Alongside the preserved applied motif of a billy goat, there seem to be two more to the right and below it, suggesting a group of animals. It is definitely an import. I have not been able to identify the source; the fabric is neither African Red Slip nor Phocaean Red Slip Wares.

The Northwestern Cells North of Plaza 6014, an elongated space––either another cell or a passage leading from the Cardo westward––was partially unearthed. It is partly enclosed within walls and paved with flagstones, some of which have survived (L6213). A coin of the late fourth century was retrieved from the foundation layer of the floor (Bijovsky 2019: Coin No. 64, dated to 383–395 CE). Fills 6211 and 6220 were sealed underneath the flagstones, while the unsealed Fill 6210, located to the south of Fill 6211, seems to be identical with the sealed fills. In the eastern part of L6213, the unsealed Fill 6221 lay above the Iron Age layer; it was covered by Fill 6051, which contained three coins of Roman and Byzantine date (Coin No. 34, Hadrian; Coin No. 40, third century; Coin No. 95, 450–550 CE).

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1

2

3

5

4

0

2

6

7 0

2

2

0

8

9

10

11 0

13

2

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14 15

16 0

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Fig. 6.1. Selected Byzantine pottery.

2

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African Red Slip Ware. Fig. 6.1:7; L6220, B61629. Decorated fragment of a dish, Hayes Form 61, or a bowl, Form 67. Three types of stamped patterns on the inner bottom of the vessel help us to determine its shape and date. The palm branch (Hayes 1972:229–231, Type 4, ovoid, with double central rib), the circle (Hayes 1972:236, Type 31, two concentric circles with dot-fringes) and the grille-pattern (Hayes 1972:241, Type 69, square, with diagonal cross-bars), which occur in combination, are typical of Hayes Style A (ii), and can be attributed to very common vessels of Form 61A, dated c. 325–400/420 CE, or of Form 67, first group, dated c. 360– 420 CE (Hayes 1972:100–107, 112–116, 218). Phocaean Red Slip Ware. Fig. 6.1:8; L6213, B61697/2. Hayes Form 3F, early sixth century. Form 3 is the most widely distributed vessel of this class in Palestine; for an updated list, see Johnson 2008a:67–68, Nos. 198–200. Initially classified as Late Roman C Ware, Hayes introduced the term Phocaean Red Slip Ware, which is now widely accepted (Hayes 1980b:525–527). Phocaean Red Slip Ware. Fig. 6.1:9; L6213, B61450/2. Probably the base of a dish/bowl of Form 3, dated 450–550 CE (Hayes 1972:329–338). Lamp. Fig. 6.1:10; L6220, B61624/1. Candlestick lamp, light brown clay, soot around wick-hole. Lamp. Fig. 6.1:11; L6220; B61627/12. Lamp, light brown clay. For parallels and date, see Fig. 6.1:4. Lamp. Fig. 6.1:12; L6210, B61456. Lamp handle, light brown clay. The raised handle shield is shaped like a cross and decorated in the center with an X-ornament in relief. Reference: Magness 1993:254, oil lamp Form 3D, dated mid-sixth–late seventh/early eighth centuries. This handle belongs to a slipper lamp with an ornamented handle shield, a type related to bronze prototypes (Rosenthal and Sivan 1978:161, Nos. 665, 666; Israeli and Mevorah 2000:107; Stiegemann 2001:206–207, Cat. No. II.1:1). The fabric, date, and the decorative element of a schematic palm branch between filling-hole and wick-hole on this example connect it to the much more common candlestick lamps (Magness 1993: Form 3A–B), indicating that slipper and candlestick lamps are contemporaneous variants of the same type. References: Jerusalem—Aharoni 1964: Fig. 26:12–14; Tushingham 1985: Fig. 32:42; Shapira and Peleg 2003:107, 188, Pls. I.17:16, II.4:7; Geva (Abu-Shusha)—Sussman 1988:99, No. 59, cross-shaped handle with X; Samaria—Crowfoot, Crowfoot and Kenyon 1957:375, Fig. 89:6; collections: Adler 2004:151, No. 943; Israeli and Avida 1988:145, 150, Nos. 408, 429–432; Skupinska-Løvset 1978:80, UT 56, Pl. 14. Slipper lamps are both local and regional (for a lamp from the Hauran, see Fansa and Bollmann 2008:146, No. 12). The frequent use of the letter chi is to be interpreted as a

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symbol related to Christ, being the first letter of his name in Greek (Stiegemann 2001:227– 228, Cat. No. II.20), although the chi-rho monogram is more accepted. The Fine Islamic Ware bowls presented here continue the Fine Byzantine Ware shapes and their dating overlaps in part, yet they all appear to date from the post-Byzantine period (for this designation, see Stacey 2004:90). Retrieved from the sealed Fill 6220 and the unsealed Fill 6221, they provide evidence for the re-laying of the flagstones in later times and reflect the precariousness of relying on data from finds retrieved from beneath the Cardo’s flagstones. Fine Islamic Ware Bowl. Fig. 6.1:13; L6221, B61668. Dark gray clay. References: Magness 1993:195–196, Fine Byzantine Ware Form 1B, dated mid-sixth–late seventh/early eighth centuries; common in Jerusalem and its periphery, as at Khirbet edDeir (Calderon 1999:142–143, Pl. 4:1–5); for Caesarea Maritima, see Arnon 2008:30, 64, No. 311, Pl. IV:3, from Stratum VIIIa, late seventh–first half of eighth centuries; this type of fine-ware cup is attested from the late Byzantine Stratum IX into Stratum VII, late eighth–early ninth centuries. As the base is missing, the later variant, Form 1D, cannot be excluded, although there is no knife-paring on the exterior. Fine Islamic Ware Bowl. Fig. 6.1:14; L6220, B61666/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Reference: probably Magness 1993: Fine Byzantine Ware Form 1B; however, as the base is missing, the later Forms 1D and 1E cannot be excluded. Fine Islamic Ware Bowl. Fig. 6.1:15; L6220, B61625/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown. Reference: Magness 1993: Fine Byzantine Ware Form 1F, dated seventh–eighth centuries or later. Fine Islamic Ware Bowl. Fig. 6.1:16; L6220, B61631/1. Brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, thin band of slip on exterior below lip, burnishing on exterior and interior. Reference: Magness 1993: Fine Byzantine Ware Form 1F. Bowl. Fig. 6.2:1; L6220, B61627/4. Deep bowl, reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown to reddish brown. The shape recalls Fine Byzantine Ware bowls of Form 1B, see Magness 1993:195, dated mid-sixth–late seventh/early eighth centuries. Jerusalem Rouletted Bowl. Fig. 6.2:2; L6220; B61627/9. Brown clay, gray core, dark gray, mostly worn slip. Reference: Magness 1993:185–187, Form 1.11, dated to late third/early fourth through fifth centuries.

290

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Bowl. Fig. 6.2:3 L6213, B61697/4. Deep bowl, Jerusalem Rouletted Bowl fabric, reddishbrown clay, gray core, thin dark brown slip on interior, upper rim and exterior around ridge. Reference: Magness 1993:191–192, Rouletted Bowl Form 4—‘Related Wares’, dated sixth–first half of seventh centuries or later. Bowl. Fig. 6.2:4; L6213, B61697/3. Reddish-brown clay, worn red slip preserved on top and exterior of rim. This vessel could be a local copy of the common African Red Slip Ware Form 93B with a short, thick rim, dated c. 550–500 CE (Hayes 1972:145–148). Bowl. Fig. 6.2:5; L6220; B61627/8. Reddish-brown clay, light brown slip. Reference: Magness 2006:184, Fig. 7.1:7, 8 (the latter might be a stopper). Jug. Fig. 6.2:6; L6220, B61627/1. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown. The profile recalls Fine Byzantine Ware Jug Form 1C with a triangular rim, for which a date from mid-sixth–early eighth centuries is suggested (Magness 1993:239; Mazar 2003: Pl. III.5:6). Jug Handle. Fig. 6.2:7; L6220, B61624/2. Handle with applied plastic element on the top consisting of a disc with a pointed knob, light brown clay, exterior and interior surface yellowish-light brown. A close parallel to the plastic element was unearthed at Ramla (Sion 2004:78, Fig. 12:59). The handle shape and decoration belong to jugs of fine, buff cream-ware dated to the Abbasid period (Arnon 2008:36–37, 130, No. 521f for handle from Stratum VII, late eighth–mid-ninth centuries; see also Delougaz and Haines 1960:38–39, Pl. 43:24–27, 29– 32 for handles; Pls. 39:10; 58:7 for two-handled pot; Warmsley 2001:313, Fig. 2:8; Stacey 2004:144, Fig. 5.60). Jar. Fig. 6.2:8; L6213, B61456. Wall fragment, light brown clay, exterior surface yellowishlight brown. This fragment can be attributed to wide-mouthed jars, sometimes with holes perforated with a finger or a stick (Stacey 2004:134–135, Fig. 5.45:2, from Stratum IV, early Abbasid, 750–880 CE). Storage Jar. Fig. 6.2:9; L6220; B61627/7. Gaza amphora, chocolate brown to light gray clay, clay particles on exterior surface. References: Magness 1993:225–226, storage jar Form 4C, dated late sixth–seventh centuries, 2003: Pl. 18.1:22; Arnon 2008:32, 80, No. 813, a cylindrical ‘Gaza Jar’, Stratum VIIIa, late seventh–first half of eighth centuries. Storage Jar. Fig. 6.2:10; L6220, B61666/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior surface light brown, neck incised with an X before firing. Reference: Magness 1993:227–230, Form 6B, dated late sixth/seventh–eighth centuries.

291

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2

3

1

4

5

6

9 7

8

12 10

11

13 14

15

18

16

19

17

20 0

22

21 10

23 0

2

Fig. 6.2. Selected Byzantine pottery.

0

2

292

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

Painted Fragment. Fig. 6.2:11; L6220, B61627/10. Wall fragment of thin, metallic storage jar, reddish-brown clay, gray core, exterior surface gray, thin white paint. Reference: Arnon 2008:32, 76, ‘Northern Palestinian’ storage jar, Type 812a, Stratum VIII (LRA 6). Basin. Fig. 6.2:12; L6210, B61450. Arched-rim basin, brown clay, reddish-brown core, exterior surface light brown. Reference: Magness 1993:204–206, Form 1, dated late third/early fourth–sixth centuries. Basin. Fig. 6.2:13; L6220, B61626. Arched-rim basin, brown clay, exterior and interior surfaces light brown. References: Magness 1993:204–206, Form 1, dated late third/early fourth–sixth centuries; the close parallel to the basin in Fig. 6.2:13, listed by Magness under No. 4, originates in the Jewish Quarter excavations, in a context dated before the mid-sixth century. The sixth century date is confirmed by the ceramic assemblage from the monastery at Khirbat ed-Deir, where arched-rim basins of Magness Forms 1–3 are common (Calderon 1999:141– 142, Pl. 3). Basin. Fig. 6.2:14; L6220, B61630/2. Arched-rim basin, light brown clay. Reference: Magness 2003: Pl. 18.1:10, Form 1, dated late third/early fourth–sixth centuries. Basin. Fig. 6.2:15; L6220; B61627/6. Incurved-rim basin, light brown clay. Reference: Magness 1993:210–211, post-Byzantine. In the publication of the burial caves at Luzit in the Bet Guvrin area, the incurvedrim basin is described as a vessel common in Judaea from the end of the Byzantine period to the beginning of the Early Islamic period, though the occurrence of candlestick lamps and lamps with a raised knob handle point to a long period of use of the caves from the midsixth into the eighth centuries (Avni and Dahari 1990:304–305, 312, Fig. 5:1). Lid. Fig. 6.2:16; L6220, B61625/1. Two non-joining fragments of the same fabric, reddishbrown finely levigated clay, gray core, exterior and interior surface light brown, string-cut base. Lid. Fig. 6.2:17; L6213, B61697/5. Reddish-brown finely levigated clay, gray core, brownburnished bands, string-cut base. The type of lid in Fig. 6.2:16, 17 is classified by Magness as Form 2, dated to the sixth–mideighth centuries (Magness 1993:248). A close parallel in shape and fabric is a lid from Area G of the City of David excavations (Magness Form 2.4), of which only the central knob is preserved. The characteristic feature of this type of lid is the carefully shaped cylindrical knob emerging from the bottom of the bowl, tapering upward and ending in a collar and a concave top. Looking at the other lids, Magness Form 2.1–3, 5–6, there are morphoIogical variations, therefore I do not concur with her classification of all lids as Form 2. Firstly, the finely worked central knob with collar and concave top differs from the low knobs with curved sides of Magness Form 2.1–3. Secondly, these lids have heavy bases and thick walls, different than the lid in Fig. 6.2:16. Thirdly, while according to the reconstruction,

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the knob of the latter lid takes up two thirds of the height of the bowl, the knob of Form 2.1 has the same height as the bowl rim, the knob of Form 2.2 is slightly below the bowl rim, and the knob of Form 2.3 rises above the bowl rim. As the lids in Fig. 6.2:16, 17 came to light in loci of the northwestern shop along the western portico of the Cardo, in which the bulk of the material was Byzantine, they are presented and discussed here; however, in my opinion their form and fabric indicate a pre-Byzantine, i.e., Roman, post-70 CE date. Both are made of finely levigated clay and have string-cut bases, although this latter feature does not have chronological significance (two Byzantine lids with a central knob from Caesarea Maritima both have a string-cut base, see Adan-Bayewitz 1986:106–107, Fig. 3:14–17; Patrich and Abu Shaneb 2008:309, Nos. 173–185). In Judaea, a number of lids with a central knob are attested: in the Temple Mount excavations (Adler and Peleg 2007:80), a monastery near Jericho (Netzer and Birger 1990:198–199, No. 4) and at ‘En Gedi (Vincenz 2007:249, Pl. 21:3–5); their fabric is described as similar to that of Fine Byzantine Ware, which is not the fabric of the lids in Fig. 6.2:16, 17. The Roman date of these two lids is corroborated by a third example made of the same fabric that came to light in a locus in the Roman dump (No. 706), along with legionary ceramics; the central knob is low and was apparently damaged before firing. Other examples were found in the 1968 excavations at the Jerusalem legionary kiln site (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2005:279, No. 214, at the time wrongly attributed to the Byzantine period), and in the Armenian Garden excavations (Tushingham 1985: Fig. 30:9). Hence, the lids from the northwestern shop are defined as residual, and it appears that they are the prototype for the Byzantine lids with a central knob found in Jerusalem and elsewhere. The longevity of the form is attested at Beirut, where they are still present in a seventh-century context (rubbish dump, BEY 006 5503; Paul Reynolds, pers. comm. 2013). Cooking Jug. Fig. 6.2:18; L6220; B61627/5. Cookware, gray clay, exterior surface brown, interior surface reddish brown. Reference: Magness 1993:245, cookware jug with trefoil-mouth Form 5.3, dated sixth– seventh centuries. Cookware Lid. Fig. 6.2:19; L6220, B61631/2. Reddish-brown clay, exterior and interior surface light brown, remains of soot on exterior rim and wall. Cookware Lid. Fig. 6.2:20; L6220; B61627/11. Raised knob handle with a vent hole, reddish-brown clay. Reference: Magness 1993:215, casserole lid, in use over a long span of time from the Late Roman period to Islamic times. Cookware Lid. Fig. 6.2:21; L6220, B61630/1. Lid with a solid knob, reddish-brown clay. Zoomorphic Vessel. Fig. 6.2:22; L6220, B61666/3. Upper part of a zoomorphic vessel with two horns preserved, light brown to gray clay, the front side covered with a yellowishbrown slip, the rear side with a thin reddish-brown slip, both sides painted black.

294

RENATE ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM

This fragment can be attributed to a group of horned-animal-shaped vessels common in the Early Islamic period, which are either plain or painted (Patrich and Abu Shaneb 2008:313– 314, Nos. 300–308, with references; see also Baramki 1944:73–74, Fig. 16:10–12, 18, 19; Tushingham 1985: Fig. 32:23, 47; Stacey 2004:141).

Unstratified Lamp Fragment African Red Slip Ware Lamp. Fig. 6.2:23; L8077, B80269. Lamp handle with part of shoulder. The flat shoulder and the decoration permit attribution of this lamp to Hayes Type IIA, dated c. 420–500 (Hayes 1972:314; Anselmino and Pavolini 1981: Form X, Pl. CLX:2–7). The pattern consists of fringed circles, with one side truncated (Hayes 1972:250, 252 Type 137), alternating with six-petalled rosettes with a circle in the center (Hayes 1972:239, Type 49), beginning from the handle with the latter. In Ennabli’s catalogue of lamps from Tunisia, shoulder stamps with the outer circles of the rosettes open are labelled Pattern H 2, and the circles, called discs, are Pattern B 2 (Ennabli 1976:256–257); a combination of the two is not represented in those collections. The workshops that produced these lamps have been located at Sidi Marzouk Tounsi in central Tunisia, from where they were exported in large numbers throughout the Mediterranean (Peacock, Bejaoui and Ben Lazreg 1990:70). In comparison with the imported African Red Slip Ware bowls and plates, the number of lamps in the southern Levant is small (Sussman 1988:94, No. 28; Calderon 2000:155, Pl. 28:105, Fig. 46; Sussman 2008:252–253, Nos. 217–221), most likely because they are not superior to the locally produced lamps.

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

Chapter 7

Pottery from Drainage Channels 491 and 5248 Miriam Avissar

The fill inside two drainage channels, L491 and L5248 (see Plan 6.1), yielded small pottery assemblages datable to the late sixth and seventh centuries CE. These channels were part of the original drainage system of the Cardo in the Roman and Byzantine periods (Strata XII–X). They were blocked with dirt and went out of use when a large residential building was built upon the western part of the Cardo in Stratum IX. These assemblages, therefore, provide a clear terminus ante quem to the narrowing of the Cardo and the end of its monumental design.

The Pottery from Channel 491 (Fig. 7.1) This small assemblage consists of bowls, a krater, cooking vessels, storage jars, jugs and a lamp fragment. The small bowl with an incised wavy line (Fig. 7.1:1) can be identified as Fine Byzantine Ware Form 1A, dated from the mid-sixth until the late seventh or early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:193–194). The wide bowl with red slip and rouletted decoration (Fig. 7.1:2) should be classified, according to its fabric, as Egyptian Red Slip Ware of a type intended to copy African Red Slip Ware Form 82 (Hayes 1972:387–393). The krater (Fig. 7.1:3) seems to imitate in form the necked cooking pots, though the fabric is different. These kraters are common in the north of Israel and occur at Capernaum (Peleg 1989: Fig. 60:52) and Kursi (Tzaferis 1983: Fig. 8:2, 3). Similar vessels are also reported from Pella (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982: Pls. 145:2; 147:6) and Amman (Harding 1951: Fig. 3:27, Pl. III:27), where they are dated to the Umayyad period. The necked cooking pot with a slightly triangular rim (Fig. 7.1:4) corresponds to Magness’ Cooking Pots Form 4A (Magness 1993:219), dated from the fifth–sixth centuries to the late seventh–early eighth centuries. The casserole lid (Fig. 7.1:5) cannot be dated precisely, as this type has an extended chronological span. Casseroles with matching lids first appeared in the Roman period and the form continued in use until the tenth–eleventh centuries. Bag-shaped storage jars with a vertical rim with an outer bulge (Fig. 7.1:6) are the most common type of storage jar in the late Byzantine period (Pieri 2007: Type 3, Fig. 8:8–11). They are especially common in the south of Israel and the coastal plain. These storage jars are well represented at Caesarea (Adan-Bayewitz 1986:91–97, Fig. 1:4–7), where the pottery assemblage is dated from the third decade of the seventh century to about 660 CE. Similar storage jars also turned up at Nes Ẓiyyona (Singer 2004: Fig. 1:7), and at Ḥorbat ‘Aqav, Ramat Ha-Nadiv (Calderon 2000:127–129, Fig. 16, Pl. XVII:11), and a large production center was discovered in the vicinity of Ramla.1 The

As yet unpublished; Alexander Onn kindly supplied this information.

1

296

MIRIAM AVISSAR

1

2

3

4

5

6 7 8

0

9

10

10

11 0

2

Fig. 7.1. Channel 491, pottery.

storage jar with a slightly tapering neck (Fig. 7.1:7) corresponds to Magness’ Storage Jars Form 5A and is dated from the sixth to the early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:126). The amphora (Fig 7.1:8) seems to correspond to Amphora Type 9 from Caesarea (Adan-Bayewitz 1986:104, Fig. 2:13, 14, Ills. 107, 108). The jug (Fig. 7.1:9) should be identified as Fine Byzantine Ware based on its fabric and surface treatment; however, the form is uncommon in this ware. The jug

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◄ Fig. 7.1 No.

Object

Basket No.

Description

1

Fine Byzantine Ware bowl

4915/23

Light brown clay, incised wavy line

2

Egyptian Red Slip Ware bowl

4915/13

Light brown clay, red slip, roulette band on exterior

3

Egyptian Red Slip Ware krater

4841/1 + 5

Very light reddish-brown clay

4

Cooking pot

4915/21

Dark reddish-brown clay

5

Casserole lid

4915/25

Dark reddish-brown clay

6

Storage jar

4915/81

Light brown clay

7

Storage jar

4915/1

Light brown clay, fired to very light brown on surface

8

Amphora

4915/7

Very light brown clay, many minute white grits

9

Fine Byzantine Ware jug

4915/9

Light reddish-brown clay, fired to very light brown on surface, dark bands

10

Jug

4915/73

Very light brown clay

11

Candlestick lamp

4841/7

Small fragment of shoulder preserved; light brown clay

with an out-turned thickened rim (Fig. 7.1:10) is a common form and should be dated from the mid-sixth to the eighth centuries (Magness 1993:239, Jars, Jugs and Juglets Form 1C). Channel 491 also yielded a fragment of a large candlestick lamp (Fig. 7.1:11), a type dated from the midsixth to the seventh–early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:251–252, Oil Lamps Form 3A). Thus, this small assemblage seems to fit into a chronological span from the mid-sixth century to the end of the seventh century, while the presence of the necked cooking pot (Fig. 7.1:4) suggests a date closer to the second half of the seventh century.

The Pottery from Channel 5248 This assemblage is slightly richer than that from Channel 491, and contains some earlier pieces as well. The assemblage includes plain bowls, two types of Fine Byzantine Ware bowls, and Cypriot Red Slip Ware bowls. The cooking-ware vessels comprise a necked cooking pot, a casserole/cooking bowl and a lid. The storage jars are mainly of local production from the vicinity of Jerusalem. Channel 5248 also yielded an amphora, a lid, a drain pipe, and two complete candlestick lamps as well as several fragments. Simple plain bowls (Fig. 7.2:1, 2) were produced throughout the centuries and cannot be precisely dated. The arched-rim basin (Fig. 7.2:3) corresponds to Magness’ Form 1, dated to the late third–early fourth centuries and probably also later (Magness 1993:204–206). The shelf-rim basin (Fig. 7.2:4) is a residual Roman piece of the late first– second centuries to the third century (Magness 1993:202). Two types of Fine Byzantine Ware bowls are represented by the hemispherical bowls with a ring base and decorated with an incised wavy line (Fig. 7.2:5, 6), which correspond to Magness’ Form 1A and date from the mid-sixth to the late seventh–early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:193–194); and bowls with an out-turned drooping rim (Fig. 7.2:7, 8) that appear later and are dated from the mid-seventh to the ninth–tenth centuries (Magness 1993:198–201, Fine Byzantine Ware Bowls Form 2C). The two bowls of Cypriot Red Slip Ware (Fig. 7.2:9, 10) can be

298

MIRIAM AVISSAR

Fig.7.2 ► No.

Object

Basket No.

Description

1

Bowl

51808/7

Light brown clay

2

Bowl

51808/4

Light reddish-brown clay, fired to buff on the exterior

3

Arched-rim basin

51808/17

Light reddish-brown clay, gray core

4

Shelf-rim basin

51808/20

Light brown clay

5

Fine Byzantine Ware bowl

51808/21

Light brown clay, incised decoration

6

Fine Byzantine Ware bowl

51808/13

Light brown clay, incised decoration

7

Fine Byzantine Ware bowl

51808/16

Light brown clay

8

Fine Byzantine Ware bowl

51808/19

Light brown clay, exterior knife-pared

9

Cypriot Red Slip Ware bowl

51808/9

Gray clay, fired to dark gray on surface, light brown discoloration on rim

10

Cypriot Red Slip Ware bowl

51808/10

Reddish-brown clay, reddish-brown mottled wash inside and out

11

Cooking pot

51808/12

Dark reddish-brown clay

12

Casserole

51808/2

Brown clay

13

Casserole lid

51808/11

Dark reddish-brown clay

14

Storage jar

51808/3

Light brown clay, folded rim, low neck

15

Storage jar

51808/8

Brown clay, fired to grayish brown on surface

16

Storage jar

51808/18

Reddish-brown clay, fired to gray on surface, well fired

17

Storage jar

51808/14

Light brown clay

18

Storage jar

51808/5

Light reddish-brown clay, fired to very light brown on surface, gray core

19

Amphora

51808/1

Buff clay

20

Lid

51808/6

Light gray clay

21

Water pipe

51808/25

Reddish-brown clay

assigned to Hayes’ Form 9. The bowl with the heavier rim (Fig. 7.2:9) should be identified as Hayes’ Form 9 B–C, dated from 580/600 CE to the end of the seventh century, while the second bowl (Fig. 7.2:10) corresponds to Hayes Form 9 A, dated to c. 550–600 CE (Hayes 1972:379–382, Figs. 81, 82). The necked cooking pot with a slightly out-turned rim (Fig. 7.2:11) is a late version of this type, and corresponds to Magness’ Cooking Pot Form 4C, dated fifth–sixth to late seventh–early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:220). The latest form of necked cooking pots can still be found in Early Islamic post-Umayyad contexts (Jerusalem—Tushingham 1985: Fig. 36:3, 10; Ramla—Kletter 2005: Fig. 18:1–3), but it went out of use following the appearance of the glazed cooking pots. Casseroles/cooking bowls began to appear in the Roman period and continued until the tenth century and even later (Avissar 1996:139). Examples with conical walls (Fig. 7.2:12), however, seem to have been popular prior to the mid-sixth century (Magness 1993:212–213, Nos. 1–5, 7, Casseroles Form 1). Casserole lids (Fig. 7.2:13) cannot be precisely dated. The storage jar with a low neck and out-folded rim (Fig. 7.2:14) is unusual in this region and is more

299

CHAPTER 7: POTTERY FROM DRAINAGE CHANNELS 491 AND 5248

2

1

3 4

7 6

5

9

8

11

10

12

14

13

15

16

17

19

18

21

20 0

10

Fig.7.2. Channel 5248, pottery.

common in northern Israel. Similar jars were reported at Tell Keisan (Landgraf 1980: Fig. 22:4–8), where the assemblage is dated from the first half of the sixth century to about the mid-seventh century––the settlement is said to have ended no later than 638 CE (Landgraf 1980:61). Three storage jars (Fig. 7.2:15–17) can be assigned to Magness’ Storage Jars Form 5A, dated from the late sixth to the early eighth centuries, while the storage jar

300

MIRIAM AVISSAR

with a long neck (Fig. 7.2:18) seems to correspond to Magness’ Form 6A, dated from the sixth–seventh to the eighth centuries (Magness 1993:226–230). It must be mentioned that these storage-jar types continue to appear in post-Umayyad contexts (Ramla—Sion 2004: Fig. 11:45, 47; Kletter 2005: Fig. 19:14). The amphora with a slight ridge below the rim (Fig. 7.2:19) should be assigned to the type recovered from the shipwreck at Yassi Ada, near Bodrum, Turkey, and dated to 625/626 CE or soon after (Bass 1962: Col. 552–557, Fig. 6 b; see also Pieri 2007: Figs. 3, 4, Late Roman Amphorae 1B). The lid (Fig. 7.2:20), resembling a small bowl turned upside down, was a common form with a rather long chronological span. It was dated by Magness from the sixth to the mid-eighth centuries (Magness 1993:247–248, Lids and Stoppers Form 1), but continues to appear also in postUmayyad contexts (Ramla—Sion 2004: Fig. 14:79–81; Kletter 2005: Fig. 20:4, 5). The drain pipe (Fig. 7.2:21) shows a thick layer of lime-scale on the interior, indicative of prolonged use. The lamps (Fig. 7.3) are of the larger version of the candlestick type, and date from the mid-sixth to the seventh–early eighth centuries (Magness 1993:251–252, Oil Lamps Form 3A). The lamp with two wick-holes (Fig.7. 3:3) is unusual. The pottery assemblage from Channel 5248 should apparently be dated to the second half of the seventh century, as indicated by the presence of Fine Byzantine Ware bowls of Magness’ Form 2C. The earlier pieces, such as the shelf-rim basin and the conical cooking bowl, seem to be residual.

Fig. 7.3 ► No.

Object

Basket No.

Description

1

Candlestick lamp

51818/1

Complete; light brown clay

2

Candlestick lamp

51818/2

Complete; light grayish-brown clay

3

Candlestick lamp

51808/22

Fragment of shoulder and nozzle with one wick-hole preserved; light brown clay

4

Candlestick lamp

51818/3

Fragment of shoulder preserved; light brown clay

CHAPTER 7: POTTERY FROM DRAINAGE CHANNELS 491 AND 5248

2

1

4

3 0

4

Fig. 7.3. Channel 5248, lamps.

301

302

MIRIAM AVISSAR

R eferences Adan-Bayewitz D. 1986. The Pottery from the Late Byzantine Building (Stratum 4) and Its Implications. In L.I. Levine and E. Netzer eds. Excavation at Caesarea Maritima 1975, 1976, 1979—Final Report (Qedem 21). Jerusalem. Pp. 90–129. Avissar M. 1996. The Medieval Pottery. In A. Ben-Tor, M. Avissar and Y. Portugali. Yoqne‘am I: The Late Periods (Qedem Reports 3). Jerusalem. Pp. 75–172. Bass G.F. 1962. Underwater Excavations at Yassi Ada: A Byzantine Shipwreck. Archäologischer Anzeiger 77:537–564. Calderon R. 2000. Roman and Byzantine Pottery. In Y. Hirschfeld. Ramat Hanadiv Excavations: Final Report of the 1984–1998 Seasons. Jerusalem. Pp. 91–165. Harding G.L. 1951. Excavations on the Citadel, Amman. ADAJ 1:7–16. Hayes J.W. 1972. Late Roman Pottery. London. Kletter R. 2005. Early Islamic Remains at ‘Opher Park, Ramla. ‘Atiqot 49:57–99. Landgraf J. 1980: Keisan’s Byzantine Pottery. In J. Briend and J.-B. Humbert. Tell Keisan 1971– 1976: Une cité phenicienne en Galiiée. Fribourg. Pp. 51–100. Magness J. 1993. Jerusalem Ceramic Chronology: Circa 200–800 CE (JSOT/ASOR Monograph Series 9). Sheffield. McNicoll W.A., Smith R.H. and Hennessy J.B. 1982. Pella in Jordan I: An Interim Report of the Joint University of Sydney and the College of Wooster Excavations at Pella 1979–1981. Canberra. Peleg M. 1989. Domestic Pottery. In V. Tzaferis. Excavations at Capernaum I: 1978–1982 Winona Lake. Pp. 31–113. Pieri D. 2007. Béryte dans le grand commerce méditerranéen: Production et importation d’amphores dans le Levant protobyzantin (Ve–VIIe s. ap. J.-C.). In M. Sartre ed. Productions et échanges dans la Syrie grecque et romaine (Actes du 2e Colloque international sur la Syrie antique, Tours, 12–13 juin 2003) (Topoi orient-occident Suppl. 8). Paris. Pp. 297–327. Singer K. 2004.The Pottery Assemblages from the Excavations at Ṣarafand el-Kharab, Nes Ẓiyyona. ‘Atiqot 46:49–58 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 131*). Sion O. 2004. An Early Islamic Period Settlement in Ramla. ‘Atiqot 46:67–92 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 133*). Tushingham A.D. 1985. Excavations in Jerusalem 1961–1967 I. Toronto. Tzaferis V. 1983. The Excavations of Kursi-Gergesa (‘Atiqot [ES] 16). Jerusalem.

R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2018, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II (IAA Reports 64)

R eferences (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 5, 6)

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IAA R eports

No. 1 G. Avni and Z. Greenhut, The Akeldama Tombs: Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1996, 129 pp. No. 2 E. Braun, Yiftah’el: Salvage and Rescue Excavations at a Prehistoric Village in Lower Galilee, Israel, 1997, 249 pp. No. 3 G. Edelstein, I. Milevski and S. Aurant, Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds: Excavations at Manahat, Jerusalem, 1987–1989, 1998, 149 pp. No. 4 C. Epstein, The Chalcolithic Culture of the Golan, 1998, 352 pp. + plans. Hardcover. No. 5 T. Schick, The Cave of the Warrior: A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert, 1998, 137 pp. No. 6 R. Cohen, Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev I: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I (Hebrew, English Summary), 1999, 396 pp. No. 7 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, Jericho: The Jewish Cemetery of the Second Temple Period, 1999, 202 pp. No. 8 Z. Gal and Y. Alexandre, Horbat Rosh Zayit: An Iron Age Storage Fort and Village, 2000, 247 pp. No. 9 U. Dahari, Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period: The Archaeological Remains, 2000, 250 pp. No. 10 Z. Yeivin, The Synagogue at Korazim: The 1962–1964, 1980–1987 Excavations (Hebrew, English Summary), 2000, 216 pp. No. 11 M. Hartal, The al-Subayba (Nimrod) Fortress: Towers 11 and 9, 2001, 129 pp. No. 12 R. Gonen, Excavations at Efrata: A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages, 2001, 153 pp. No. 13 E. Eisenberg, A. Gopher and R. Greenberg, Tel Te’o: A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Site in the Hula Valley, 2001, 227 pp. No. 14 R. Frankel, N. Getzov, M. Aviam and A. Degani, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee: Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, 2001, 175 pp. No. 15 M. Dayagi-Mendels, The Akhziv Cemeteries: The Ben-Dor Excavations, 1941–1944, 2002, 176 pp. No. 16 Y. Goren and P. Fabian, Kissufim Road: A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site, 2002, 97 pp. No. 17 A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report I: Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, 2003, 183 pp. No. 18 A. Golani, Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, 2003, 261 pp. No. 19 H. Khalaily and O. Marder, The Neolithic Site of Abu Ghosh: The 1995 Excavations, 2003, 146 pp. No. 20 R. Cohen and R. Cohen-Amin, Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands II: The Iron Age and Persian Period (Hebrew, English Summary), 2004, 258 pp. No. 21 D. Stacey, Exavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods, 2004, 259 pp. No. 22 Y. Hirschfeld, Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994, 2004, 234 pp.

No. 23 S. Ben-Arieh, Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim, 2004, 212 pp. No. 24 M. Dothan and D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod VI: The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), 2005, 320 pp. No. 25 M. Avissar, Tel Yoqne‘am: Excavations on the Acropolis, 2005, 142 pp. No. 26 M. Avissar and E.J. Stern, Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel, 2005, 187 pp. No. 27 E.C.M. van den Brink and Ram Gophna, Shoham (North), Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel, 2005, 214 pp. No. 28 N. Getzov, The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations, 1994–1995, 2006, 204 pp. No. 29 A.M. Berlin, Gamla I: The Pottery of the Second Temple Period, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2006, 181 pp. No. 30 R. Greenberg, E. Eisenberg, S. Paz and Y. Paz, Bet Yerah: The Early Bronze Age Mound I: Excavation Reports, 1933–1986, 2006, 500 pp. No. 31 E. Yannai, ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel, 2006, 308 pp. No. 32 T.J. Barako, Tel Mor: The Moshe Dothan Excavations, 1959–1960, 2007, 276 pp. No. 33 G. Mazor and A. Najjar, Bet She’an I: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Caesareum and the Odeum, 2007, 316 pp. No. 34 R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg, Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976–1982, 2007. In 2 parts. Part 1: Text, 410 pp.; Part 2: Plates, Plans and Sections, 332 pp. No. 35 A. Erlich and A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report II: Hellenistic Terracotta Figurines from the 1989–1996 Seasons, 2008, 208 pp. No. 36 G. Avni, U. Dahari and A. Kloner, The Necropolis of Bet Guvrin—Eleutheropolis, 2008, 238 pp. No. 37 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas I: The Roman to Early Islamic Periods: Excavations in Areas A, B, E, F, G and H, 2008, 196 pp. No. 38 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas II: Small Finds and Other Studies, 2008, 256 pp. No. 39 Z. Greenhut and A. De Groot, Salvage Excavations at Tel Moza: The Bronze and Iron Age Settlements and Later Occupations, 2009, 363 pp. No. 40 M. Hartal, Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the NorthernSuburbs, 2009, 212 pp. No. 41 N. Getzov, R. Lieberman-Wander, H. Smithline, and D. Syon, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations I: The Early Periods, 2009, 168 pp. No. 42 N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E.J. Stern, D. Syon, and A. Tatcher, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods, 2009, 232 pp. No. 43 J. Seligman, Nahal Haggit: A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel, 2010, 277 pp. No. 44 D. Syon and Z. Yavor, Gamla II: The Architecture, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2010, 216 pp. No. 45 A. Kloner, E. Eshel, H.B. Korzakova and G. Finkielsztejn, Maresha Excavations Final Report III: Epigraphic Finds from the 1989–2000 Seasons, 2010, 247 pp. No. 46 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project:The Gazetteer, 2010, 360 pp. No. 47 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project:Landscape of Settlement: From the Paleolithic to the Ottoman Periods, 2011, 356 pp. No. 48 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash, Bet She’an II: Baysān: The Theater Pottery Workshop, 2011, 411 pp. No. 49 Y. Alexandre, Mary’s Well, Nazareth: The Late Hellenistic to the Ottoman Periods, 2012, 180 pp.

No. 50 D. Ben-Shlomo, The Azor Cemetery: Moshe Dothan’s Excavations, 1958 and 1960, 2012, 238 pp. No. 51/1 E.J. Stern, ‘Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 1: Text, 2012, 192 pp. No. 51/2 E.J. Stern, ‘Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 2: Plates, 2012, 172 pp. No. 52 D. Ben-Ami, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv‘ati Parking Lot) I, 2013, 396 pp. No. 53 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima Volume I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part I: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2013, 244 pp. No. 54 R. Greenberg, Bet Yerah, The Early Bronze Age Mound II: Urban Structure and Material Culture, 1933–1986 Excavations, 2014, 316 pp. No. 55 E. Yannai, Y. Nagar, Bet Dagan, Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries, 2004–2005 Excavations, 2014, 260 pp. No. 56 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 1, 2014, 260 pp. No. 57 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part 2: The Finds, 2015, 224 pp. No. 58/1 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 1: The Stratigraphy and Finds, 2015, 288 pp. No. 58/2 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 2: The Architecture, 2015, 382 pp. No. 59 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 2, 2016, 380 pp. No. 60. M. Hartal, D. Syon., E. Stern and A. Tatcher, ‘Akko II: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Early Periods, 2016, 242 pp. No. 61. R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Da‘adli, Bet Yerah III: Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra, the 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, 2017, 230 pp. No. 62. G. Mazor, W. Atrash and G. Finkielsztejn, Bet She’an IV: Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis: The Amphora Stamps and Sealings from Tel Iztabba, 2018, 196 pp. No. 63. S. Weksler-Bdolah, A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2019, pp. 276. No. 64. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations II: The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo, 2019, 337 pp.