Jerusalem Western Wall Plaza Excavations I : the Roman and Byzantine Remains ; Architecture and Stratigraphy 9789654066945, 9789654066952, 9654066947

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IAA Reports, No. 63

Jerusalem Western Wall Plaza Excavations Volume I The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Architecture and Stratigraphy

Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah and Alexander Onn

With contributions by

Gabriela Bijovsky, Dan Gill, Shua Kisilevitz, Orit Peleg-Barkat and Michael Sebbane

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY JERUSALEM 2019

The Western Wall Plaza Excavations Israel Antiquities Authority

IAA EXPEDITION DIRECTORS: SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH ALEXANDER ONN

VOL. I: JERUSALEM: THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE REMAINS: ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editors-in-Chief: Judith Ben-Michael, Zvi Greenhut Series Editors: Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, Shelley Sadeh Volume Editor: Ezra S. Marcus Production Editor: Lori Lender Front Cover: The Cardo at the foot of the hewn cliff, looking southwest (photograph, Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah) Back Cover: The Eastern Cardo in the Old City of Jerusalem, looking north toward the Moslem Quarter; left: the Jewish Quarter; upper left: the Christian Quarter (photograph, Assaf Peretz) Cover Design and Production: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Layout and Typesetting: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Illustrations: Natalya Zak, Elizabeth Belashov Printing: Ayalon Printing, Jerusalem Copyright © 2019, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem, 91004 ISBN 978-965-406-694-5 EISBN 978-965-406-695-2 www.antiquities.org.il

In Memoriam

Alexander Onn, 1946–2012

Senior Archaeologist in the IAA since 1981 Director of the Western Wall Tunnels Excavations and Co-director of the Western Wall Plaza Excavations, 2006–2012

Contents

ABBREVIATIONS

vi

FOREWORD

vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

1

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

17

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah AND BYZANTINE PERIODS (STRATA XII–X) Stratigraphic Sections

29 89

CHAPTER 4: ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE EASTERN CARDO

Orit Peleg-Barkat

117

CHAPTER 5: BOARD GAMES FROM THE EASTERN CARDO

Michael Sebbane

147

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

Gabriela Bijovsky

165

CHAPTER 7: THE CARDO IN URBAN CONTEXT

Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

195

REFERENCES

201

APPENDIX 1: BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND BUILDING STONES IN THE WESTERN WALL PLAZA EXCAVATIONS AND THE JERUSALEM AREA

Dan Gill

209

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Shua Kisilevitz

251

vi

Abbreviations

AJA BA BAR BAR Int. S. ESI HA HA–ESI IAA Reports IEJ JRA JRA Suppl. S. JRS JSP NEAEHL NEAEHL 5 OIP PEF PEQ RB QDAP SBF WWPE II

WWPE III

ZDPV

American Journal of Archaeology The Biblical Archaeologist Biblical Archaeology Review British Archaeological Reports International Series Excavations and Surveys in Israel Ḥadashot Arkheologiyot Ḥadashot Arkheologiyot—Excavations and Surveys in Israel Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Israel Exploration Journal Journal of Roman Archaeology Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series Journal of Roman Studies Judea and Samaria Publications E. Stern and A. Lewinson-Gilboa eds. New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 1–4. Jerusalem 1993 E. Stern ed. New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem 2008 Oriental Institute Publications Palestine Exploration Fund Palestine Exploration Quarterly Revue Biblique The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom. Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations II: The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo (IAA Reports 64). Jerusalem 2019 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn. Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations III: The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Miscellaneous Studies (IAA Reports). Jerusalem Forthcoming Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

vii

Foreword

This volume is the first in a series describing the results of the salvage excavations conducted in the northwestern part of the Western Wall Plaza, in an area that was designated for the construction of a visitors’ center, between the years 2005 and 2010 on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) and financed by the Western Wall Heritage Foundation (Fig. 1). The excavation site is bordered in the north by a staircase that ascends from the Western Wall Plaza toward the Jewish Quarter and the market (Silsilah Street); in the south, it borders the Aish Ha-Torah Yeshiva. Despite the fact that the Old City of Jerusalem has been continuously investigated during the last 150 years, it is the first time that this area, which is located c. 100 m west of the Temple Mount, has been excavated and thus, the results are of great significance to the archaeology and history of Jerusalem. Our excavations descended c. 10 m below the modern surface, reaching bedrock, and exposed 15 strata that span 2700–2800 years between Late Iron Age quarries—the earliest occupation of the site—and the large, open area of the Western Wall Plaza, which was constructed upon the remains of the Mughrabi Quarter in 1967 by the State of Israel (Figs. 1, 2).

Publications The present monograph marks the first of a three-volume final report on the Roman- and Byzantine-period remains, including fragmentary remains of the Late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods (Second Temple periods), and especially the remains of the Eastern Cardo that were exposed along the entire area of the excavation. Additional volumes will be dedicated to the stratified finds below and above the Cardo: the late Iron Age remains (eighth–sixth centuries BCE), which were sealed underneath the street’s flagstones, and the strata that accumulated on top of the Roman Cardo in the Early Islamic, medieval and Ottoman periods, as well as modern twentieth-century remains, until the creation of the Western Wall Plaza. This volume covers primarily the Roman and Byzantine stratigraphy of the site. The site’s location and previous research conducted in adjacent areas, the excavation methodology, the conservation policy and an overview of the main finds of the entire excavation by strata, are described and discussed in Chapter 1. The stratigraphy and architecture of the Roman period are discussed next. The meager remains of the Second Temple period are described in Chapter 2, and the architecture and stratigraphy of the main thoroughfare of Aelia Capitolina, known to scholars as the Eastern Cardo in the Roman and Byzantine periods (second–early seventh centuries CE), in Chapter 3. The architectural decoration of the Cardo is addressed in Chapter 4 (Orit Peleg-Barkat),

viii

and the board games that were incised on its flagstones are discussed in Chapter 5 (Michael Sebbane). The coins of the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods are published in Chapter 6 (Gabriela Bijovsky). The volume’s results are summarized and the archaeological finds within their urban context are briefly discussed in Chapter 7 (Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah). A geological overview of stone utilization in Jerusalem and the site appears in Appendix 1 (Dan Gill). The list of loci and walls was compiled in Appendix 2 (Shua Kisilevitz).

Fig. 1. The excavation site and the Western Wall in 1967 (photographer, Amnon Weksler). Dome of the Rock

El Aqsa Mosque

Western Wall Plaza

Excavation Site

Fig. 2. The Western Wall Plaza and the excavated area, December 2008.

ix

Volume II is dedicated to the pottery finds that were found in Roman and Byzantine loci (Renate Rosenthal-Heginbottom), as well as two assemblages of the late Byzantine and Ummayad periods (late sixth–late seventh centuries CE; Miriam Avissar); the latter was important for dating the Cardo’s demise. Volume II also includes a petrographic study of selected pottery (Anat Cohen-Weinberger and R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom). Volume III, although concentrating on the publication of the small finds, also includes a study of the quarries at the site (S. Kisilevitz and S. Weksler-Bdolah). Among the small finds from the Roman and Byzantine periods are three Roman military bread stamps (Leah Di Segni), glass vessels (Yael Gorin-Rosen), metal objects (Guy D. Stiebel), groundstone tools, opus sectile fragments (Brigitte Ouahnouna), Byzantine stone and marble finds (Lihi Habas), faunal remains (Liora K. Horwitz) and shells (Henk K. Mienis). In addition, residual Second Temple-period finds recovered within the Roman dump are presented: fragments of fresco wall paintings (Silvia Rozenberg), a flan mold (Donald T. Ariel) and chalk vessels (S. Kisilevitz). Preliminary reports of the 2005–2009 excavation seasons have been published (Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2009; Weksler-Bdolah, Kisilevitz and Onn 2015). Other studies and summaries of the finds have also appeared (Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007, 2008, 2012; Weksler-Bdolah 2009, 2014; Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009; Weksler-Bdolah and Onn 2010, 2017; Kedar, Weksler-Bdolah and De‘adli 2012; WekslerBdolah and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2014; Weksler-Bdolah, Kissilevitz and Onn 2015). In addition, small finds of special importance, mainly seals and small finds of the Iron Age and bread stamps of the Roman military, were published as rapidly as possible (Ornan et al. 2008, 2012; Di Segni and Weksler-Bdolah 2012; Keel 2012; Ornan 2012; Vainstub 2012; Kletter, Saarelainen and Weksler-Bdolah 2014; Brandl 2015).

Acknowledgements The 2005–2009 excavations were directed by the authors, and the 2010 season was directed together with S. Kisilevitz. The excavations (Permit Nos. A-4604/2005, A-4710/2006, A-5002/2007, A-5432/2008, A-5568/2009; map ref. 22219–22220/63155–63158) were carried out on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), and financed by the Western Wall Heritage Foundation. Additional excavation seasons, each lasting a few months, took place during 2010, 2017 and 2018 (Permit Nos. 5835, 8503, 8211 respectively). Since 2017, construction work at the site has been accompanied by archaeological excavations (Permit Nos. A-8053/2017; A-8211/2018), directed by S. Weksler-Bdolah with the assistance of Meidad Shor (area supervisor, 2018). This report was submitted before the latter excavations; however, the conclusions offered here have not changed and their results were integrated only where they added important information. The excavations were carried with the assistance and participation of a large staff: B. Ouahnouna, S. Kisilevitz. Pablo Betzer, Larissa Shilov, Irena Zilberbod and M. Shor, area supervisors; L. Shilov and Kioshi Inoue, the wet sieving of the Iron Age sediments; Yoseph Ohayon, Ra’ed Abu Ta’a, Arieh Gavri’eli, Eliyahu Bahar and Shimon Cohen, excavation

x

administration. The field plans and sections were drawn by Vadim Essman, Mark Kipnis, Mark Kunin, Vachislav Pirsky, Tania Kornfeld and Ya‘akov Shmidov; M. Kunin and T. Kornfeld drew the architectural elements; Natalia Zak, Elizabet Belashov and Irina Berin drafted the plans and sections; Tsila Sagiv, Assaf Peretz and S. Weksler-Bdolah took the field photographs; Doron Gahali and Pascal Partush of the Skyview Company, the aerial photographs; and Benjamin Ajami was site safety officer. The finds were treated in the laboratories of the IAA: Clara Amit and Mariana Sulzberger, photography; Raisa Vinitsky, Yelena Kupershmidt, Mia Raznisky, Victoria Nosikovsky and Gali Beiner, metal object treatment; Oded Raviv and Raisa Vinitsky, stone and bone conservation; Josef Bukengolts and Adrienne Ganor-Varnai, pottery restoration; Dalit Weinblatt and Mannie Goodman, drawing of the pottery, stone and glass finds; and Carmen Hersch, figure preparation. Preliminary conservation of the architectural remains was carried out by the IAA Conservation Department, headed by Evgeny Ivanovski and Aliza van Zaiden, who also studied the ancient construction methods. In 2016–2018, Yossi Vaknin and Haim Makureya headed the conservation work. Our thanks are extended to the Western Wall Heritage Foundation, its director Mordechai (Solly) Eliav and deputy director Chen Kanari, and to Refael Kutchmark, Ofer Cohen (Shoham Galnor Engineering Co., Ltd.) and Yosef Sandetch (Ashmar Co., Ltd.), Eitan Stekel and Ronnie Marziyano for all the technical assistance they rendered throughout the excavation, and since 2017, Itamar Morgenstern of Shoam Engineering & Development Ltd. Special thanks are extended to the anonymous readers of the reports and to the volume editors, Ezra Marcus, Shelley Sadeh, Lori Lender and the IAA Monograph Series editor, Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, and Judith Ben-Michael, the former head of the IAA publication department and Z. Greenhut, present department head, all of whose work helped bring the report to completion. This first volume of the Final Report of the Western Wall Plaza Excavations is dedicated to the memories of Alexander Onn and Miriam Avissar, our colleagues, who passed away—Alexander in 2012, and Miriam in 2015. Alexander Onn joined the Western Wall Plaza excavations in 2006 and from 2007 also directed the excavations in the nearby Western Wall Tunnels. Alexander was an excellent archaeologist and his many skills in field archaeology contributed greatly to the success of the project. Miriam Avissar participated in the excavation from its inception and was responsible for sorting and identifying the pottery vessels. After the excavation, she started working on the final report of the Islamic and Ottoman pottery—a task that unfortunately was not completed before her untimely death. Miriam’s basket lists, which were prepared at the time of the excavation, formed the basis for the relative chronology of the various strata. Her great knowledge, her gentleness, and her meticulousness contributed greatly to the excavation. Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah March, 2019

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 1

I ntroduction Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

The Site The excavation area is located in the northwestern area of the Western Wall Plaza, whose current configuration was created in June 1967, approximately 100 m west of the western wall of the Herodian Temple Mount (Plan 1.1). The excavation area is situated on the northeastern slope of ancient Jerusalem’s ‘Western Hill’—the present area of the

Herod’s Gate Damascus Gate

Moslem Quarter t.

lorosa S

Via Do

St. / Ha-Gay

David St.

Armenian Quarter Armenian Garden

David’s Tomb

The Excavation Jewish Quarter St.

Khabad St.

Jaffa Gate

Te m p l e Mount Dome of the Rock

El-Wad

Christian St.

Holy Sepulchre

Khan ez-Zeit

St.

New Gate

Christian Quarter

Lion’s Gate (St. Stephen’s Gate)

Western Wall Plaza

Jewish Quarter Dung Gate

Zion Gate

Dormition Abbey

0

Mount Zion

Plan 1.1. The Old City of Jerusalem with the location of the Western Wall Plaza excavations and features mentioned in the text.

200 m

2

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Jewish Quarter, the Armenian Quarter and Mount Zion. The Western Hill slopes sharply to the northeast, toward the confluence of the Transversal (Hebrew, Naḥal Ha-Ẓolev, also known as Naḥal Ha-‘Arev) and the Tyropoeon Valleys. Quarries of the late First Temple period created a rocky, stepped slope with an overall height of c. 18 m along the excavated area, descending from an elevation of c. 740.00 m at the top of the cliff in the southwestern part of the excavation area down to 722.00 m in the northeastern part.1 The quarrying activity was corrected for the orientation of the hill’s slope, which resulted in a zigzagging line that extends across the slope in a northwest–southeast direction. This line divides the excavated area into an upper area in the south and a lower area in the north. The topography was altered and reshaped considerably in the Roman period, when a high vertical cliff (max. height 11 m) was carved all the way along the slope in a north–south direction, parallel to the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. This cliff, which was a ‘by-product’ of the construction of the Eastern Cardo, still separates the elevated Jewish Quarter from the lower Western Wall Plaza. The excavated area (35 × 50 m, c. 1.5 dunams) is at the foot of this cliff (Fig. 1.1). This excavation area is also situated along the course of el-Wad (Arabic; Hebrew: Ha-Gāy) Street, which was still well-defined in this area before 1967 and still exists in the northern part of the Old City. This street led from the Damascus Gate in the north to the area of the Dung Gate in the south, preserving the course of the Eastern Cardo of Aelia Capitolina, a route that continues to serve as one of the principal arteries in the Old City of Jerusalem (Plan 1.1). The entire width of the ancient street, including the sidewalks and the row of shops along either side, was exposed at a depth of c. 4.5 m below the current plaza level. This excavation enabled the architectural development of the street and its environs to be investigated from its construction in the early second century CE until 1967. Prior to the current excavations, no archaeological excavations had been conducted in either this specific area or in the Western Wall Plaza (c. 10,000 sq m). Despite this lack of archaeological investigation, the area has been discussed prominently in studies, mainly because of its proximity to the Temple Mount and its historical importance.

Previous Archaeological R esearch near the Site Many locations adjacent to the Western Wall Plaza excavation area have been investigated in the past and their findings are relevant to the presentation and discussion of the new excavations and the periods represented. Thus, a summary of the principal excavations in the southeastern part of the Old City follows according to location. In each location, the results are described in chronological order, from earliest to latest, emphasizing findings that make a significant contribution to the current excavations.

1

All elevations are above mean sea level.

3

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Dome of the Rock / Temple Mount

Wailing Wall

Western Wall Plaza

Excavation Site

Fig. 1.1. The Western Wall Plaza and the excavations in the foreground, looking east.

4

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

The Western Wall of the Temple Mount, Robinson’s Arch, Wilson’s Arch and the Great Causeway (Plans 1.2, 1.3) From the beginning of archaeological research in Jerusalem in the second half of the nineteenth century, the Temple Mount area was extensively studied. Palestine Exploration Fund researchers Charles Warren and Charles Wilson carried out detailed investigations of the Temple Mount’s Western Wall (Wilson 1865, 1880; Warren and Conder 1884:172–209).

Warren’s Gate 1 3

Wilson’s Arch

2

4

Temple Mount 5

10

Eastern Cardo

Barclay’s Gate 6

7

Robinson’s Arch

8 9

11

Ottoman City Wall

.... .

........

ity

l

al

W

eC

12

in nt

za

13

By

Street 0

50 m

Plan 1.2. Previous excavations in the vicinity of the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount with Late Roman and Byzantine remains (from north to south): (1) Barbé and De‘adle 2007; (2) Hamilton 1933; Magen 1979; (3, 4) Onn, Weksler-Bdolah and Bar-Nathan 2011; (5) this volume; (6) E. Mazar 2011:11–83; (7) E. Mazar 2011:30–37; (8) E. Mazar 2011:145–170; (9) Gordon 2007: Fig. 18.3; (10) Baruch and Weiss 2009; (11) Johns 1948: Soundings I, III; Reich 2008; (12) Johns 1948: Soundings V, VI; Ben-Dov 1985; based on Warren 1884: Plan V; (13) BenAmi and Tchekhanovets 2013: Fig. 9 (this plan based on Warren 1884: Plan V; Gordon 2007: Fig. 18.3).

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

5

Warren dug a series of shafts along the wall, excavating down to bedrock. He identified the original Herodian building courses and the overlying courses belonging to later repairs, which he attributed to the Roman and Byzantine periods (between the reigns of Hadrian and Justinian). Two gateways were identified in the Temple Mount’s western wall, as well as two ancient arches that presumably supported other entrances during the Herodian period. The arches and gateways were named after the explorers who first discovered them (from north to south on Plan 1.1): Warren’s Gate, Wilson’s Arch, Barclay’s Gate and Robinson’s Arch. Large-scale excavations were carried out in the 1970s near Robinson’s Arch and south of the southern wall of the Temple Mount, directed by Benjamin Mazar and Meir BenDov (Plan 1.2:6–9, 12; Mazar 1969, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1978; Ben-Dov 1982; Mazar 2000, 2003, 2007, 2011). In the 1990s, Ronny Reich, Ya‘akov Billig and Yuval Baruch renewed excavations in this area, and in the Dung Gate’s area (Plan 1.2:11; Baruch and Reich 1999; Reich 2008:1808; Reich and Billig 2008). Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, additional excavations have been conducted near the foundations of the Western Wall, in the area of Robinson’s Arch, directed by R. Reich and Eli Shukron, and by Joe Uziel and Moran Hajabi. Remains of the Herodian period included the paved street along the Western Wall of the Herodian Temple Mount overlying a sophisticated drainage system, the pier of Robinson’s Arch and the series of arches associated with the staircase that led up to the Temple Mount. Above the Herodian street, large fallen stones were discovered that have been attributed to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. A Roman-period stratum was revealed, lying on top of the destruction layer, and was attributed by the archaeologists to the Roman period, between the second and third centuries CE. A number of buildings were discovered, including a bakery (Plan 1.2:8), a bathhouse, and latrines (Plan 1.2:6, 7), which were identified as military structures and were proposed to have been part of the Tenth Legion’s camp (Mazar 1999, 2000, 2011:1–8, 11–84; Stiebel 1999; Reuven 2000, 2011). Remains of the Byzantine period included a residential quarter that lay to the south and southwest of the Temple Mount (Plan 1.2:9), with a number of courtyard houses that underlay large public buildings identified as Umayyad palaces (Mazar 1969, 1971; BenDov 1975; Mazar 2003, 2007; Gordon 2007). The bathhouse (Plan 1.2:6), which was dated to the Roman period by Mazar, was also used during the Byzantine period (Baruch and Reich 2001:172–178). To the north of the present Western Wall Plaza, the monumental Wilson’s Arch is incorporated into the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. A long, arched causeway that extended to its west is known as the ‘Great Causeway’, the ‘Giant Viaduct’ or ‘Wilson’s Bridge’ (Plans 1.2:3; 1.3: The Great Causeway). The causeway, which is about 100 m long, with an overall width of about 11 m, was built of two parallel, adjacent rows of arches. The causeway supported an ancient street, identified by many as the Decumanus of Aelia Capitolina, that led to the main entrance gate on the Temple Mount’s western side and follows, more-or-less, a similar course to that of the modern Street of the Chain. Flagstones of the decumanus were exposed along this street (Abu Riya 1991; Gershuny 1992; KoganZehavi 1997). The western end of the Great Causeway crossed above the Eastern Cardo

6

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

of Aelia Capitolina (Plans 1.2:2; 1.3). Wilson’s Arch, the Great Causeway and the ‘Secret Passage’, which is a narrow, vaulted passage stretching along the southern side of the Great Causeway, were first recorded and initially discussed about 140 years ago. Titus Tobler was the first to discover the arch incorporated into the Western Wall of the Temple Mount (Warren and Conder 1884:195), and it was documented by Melchoir de Vogüé (1864: Pl. I). At the time, the arch’s span was enclosed by walls and served as a reservoir, known as the ‘el-Buraq reservoir’. Wilson also documented the arch, which still bears his name, as

)

24

ay

sew

The

au at C

Gre

5

The

ret Sec

e

sag

Pas

uilding

oman B

Late R

Late Roman Building

Cardo

Monumental Building

Iron Age Building

Cardo

}

Early Roman Roman

0

20 m

Plan 1.3. Excavations at the Great Causeway and the Eastern Cardo (after Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2009: Plan 2; plan of the Great Causeway from Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2010a: Plan 5).

Mount

Wilson’s Arch

Temple

)

Foundation/Dam Wall

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

7

well as the series of vaults belonging to the Great Causeway. He suggested that the Great Causeway had first been constructed in the Herodian period and subsequently restored in the Byzantine period (Wilson 1865, 1880). Warren sank two shafts into the foundations of Wilson’s Arch, one adjacent to the Western Wall and the other beside the arch’s western pier. The shafts reached natural bedrock at an elevation of 715.44 m alongside the pier, and at 713.33 m adjacent to the Western Wall (13–15 m beneath the modern ground level of the present-day prayer hall, at 728 m). Using explosives, Warren then breached a passageway to the west through the arch’s supporting pier and recorded a vaulted room to the west of the arch. Warren then entered an adjacent monumental hall to its west, which he named the ‘Masonic Hall’ (Plan 1.3: Monumental Building, Eastern Hall; Warren and Conder 1884:200–201, Pls. XXXIII, XXXV, XXXVI). Warren also examined the vaults of the Great Causeway located at a higher elevation. He believed that the Great Causeway, of which Wilson’s Arch formed a part, was built in the Late Roman period (Warren 1876; Warren and Conder 1884). Beneath the western vaults of the Great Causeway, Warren documented a broad wall, 14 m across, which he interpreted as the foundation of the ‘First Wall’ of the Second Temple period (Plan 1.3: Foundation Dam Wall). Robert W. Hamilton (1932) exposed the top of the same wide foundation wall again in the 1930s while excavating along el-Wad Street beneath the westernmost vault of the Great Causeway (Plans 1.2:2; 1.3). He believed that the wall was built as a foundation for the Great Causeway and dated it to the Roman or Byzantine period. After 1967, some of the vaults beneath the Great Causeway were cleaned out by the Ministry of Religious Affairs under the supervision of Meir Ben-Dov, and subsequently under the supervision of Dan Bahat (2013). At the same time, a passageway was breached from the Western Wall Plaza to Wilson’s Arch, and the area of the arch began to be used as a prayer hall. In the 1990s, the Masonic Hall was investigated by Bahat (1994; 2013:113–128) and renamed the ‘Herodian’ Hall. In the vaults between this hall and the pier of Wilson’s Arch, excavations under the direction of Bahat revealed plastered ritual baths (miqvehs) of the Second Temple period (Plan 1.3; Bahat 2007, 2013:102–113). Ben-Dov (1985:122–123) suggested that during the Second Temple period, Wilson’s Arch and the adjoining arches were built as an intersection similar to that to which Robinson’s Arch belonged, and that the vaulted bridge known as the Great Causeway was from a later date. Bahat (1994) believed that the causeway was originally built in the Second Temple period, but had been rebuilt together with Wilson’s Arch in the Umayyad period. In the 1990s, excavations were carried out by Rafa’ Abu Riya (1992), Lilly Gershuny (1992) and Elena Kogan-Zehavi (1997) in the Street of the Chain, above the arches of the Great Causeway and the vaulted ceiling of the Secret Passage (Plan 1.4:13). Flagstones of a street pavement were discovered there, dated by Gershuny to the Second Temple period, and by Abu Riya to the Roman period. Kogan-Zehavi noted that the ancient street had been reconstructed in the Ummayad period. Part of an impressive stairway of the Second Temple period was exposed at the same time in the plaza in front of the Chain Gate, above the pier of Wilson’s Arch (Plan 1.4:14; Kogan-Zehavi 1997; Geva 2008b). The discovery of the flagstones led Kloner (2006) to propose that the original Great Causeway had been destroyed in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, then repaired in the Late Roman period

8

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

to support the street that has been identified as the decumanus (see above). Kloner also proposed attributing Wilson’s Arch as part of this Roman-period construction stage. Excavations were conducted (2007–2012) by Alexander Onn underneath the vaults of the Great Causeway and to the south of the pier of Wilson’s Arch (Plan 1.2:3, 4; Onn, Weksler-Bdolah and Bar-Nathan 2011; Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2016). A monumental building was exposed south of the causeway (Plan 1.3), whose eastern hall had been documented by Warren (Masonic Hall) and excavated by Bahat (see above). Onn exposed its western hall and a fountain (Onn and Weksler Bdolah 2016), and a suggestion was made to identify the building as a composite Herodian triclinium with a fountain (Patrich and Weksler-Bdolah 2016).

Herod’s Gate Damascus Gate

1

Moslem Quarter t.

lorosa S

Via Do

2

Christian Quarter

3

4 Te m p l e Mount

St.

New Gate

Armenian Quarter Armenian Garden

David’s Tomb

/ Ha-Gay

Dome of the Rock

El-Wad

St. Khan ez-Zeit

Street o Khabad St.

Jaffa Gate

5 6 hain 7

f the C

David St.

Jewish Quarter St.

Christian St.

Holy Sepulchre

Lion’s Gate (St. Stephen’s Gate)

8

Jewish Quarter

13

14

9 10

11 Dung Gate 12

Zion Gate

Dormition Abbey Mount Zion

0

200 m

Plan. 1.4. The Old City of Jerusalem with the location of excavations and surveys along el-Wad Street: (1) Magen 1994; (2, 3) Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2007:193, Fig.1:1, 3; (4) Warren and Conder 1884:236; (5) Johns 1932; (6) Barbé and De‘adle 2006; 2007; (7) Hess and Eisenberg 1977; (8) Hamilton 1933; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2007:201–202; (9) Eastern Cardo in the Western Wall Plaza (this volume); (10) Baruch and Weiss 2009; (11) Johns 1948; Baruch and Reich 2003; Reich 2008; (12) Johns 1948; Ben-Dov 1982:227–233; Baruch and Reich 2003; (13, 14) Abu Riya 1992; Gershuny 1992; Kogan-Zehavi 1997.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

9

These excavations have prompted the reconstruction of four successive routes that led to the Temple Mount from the west, in the Early Roman and Roman (post 70 CE) periods (Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2010a, 2010b, 2017). Prior to the Herodian expansion of the Temple Mount, a walkway led from the Upper City to the Temple Mount. It crossed the Tyropoeon Valley on top of a 14 m wide wall, which served as both a dam and a bridge (Plan 1.3: Foundation/Dam Wall; Weksler-Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009:140–142; Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2010a). When the Temple Mount enclosure was expanded in the Herodian period, a new entrance gate was built on the site of the present-day Chain Gate, immediately above Wilson’s Arch, and a staircase was built that ascended from west to east to the front of the gate (Kogan-Zehavi 1997). Unlike Robinson’s Arch, Wilson’s Arch was not destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, apparently because the Roman army used it. In the Roman period, possibly in the early second century CE, a narrow bridge was built between the slopes of the Western Hill and the ruined, but still impressive Temple Mount, possibly connecting the camp of the Tenth Roman Legion with the ruined temenos. The bridge consisted of the northern row of arches of the Great Causeway, which abutted Wilson’s Arch. Later, in Aelia Capitolina, possibly during Hadrian’s reign, the narrow bridge was widened with another row of arches (the southern row) and a wide street (the decumanus) was built over both rows—the Great Causeway. South of the Great Causeway, additional buildings were erected in the Late Roman period (second–fourth centuries CE; Plan 1.3: Late Roman Building). Ha-Gāy Street In over fifteen different places along Ha-Gāy Street, from the Damascus Gate in the north to the Dung Gate area in the south, sections paved with large flagstones have been exposed. They are identified as belonging to a public square on the inside of the Damascus Gate (Plan 1.4:1) and an ancient street that follows the route of the modern street (Plan 1.4:2–7, 9–12). The ancient street has been identified as the Eastern Cardo of Aelia Capitolina, which is depicted on the Madaba mosaic map. The street was first examined in 1869 and appears in a report recording a 45 m long section of a drainage channel south of the intersection between el-Wad Street and the Via Dolorosa (Plan 1.4:4; Warren and Conder 1884:236). In the 1930s, when shafts were dug along the course of el-Wad Street to repair and maintain the municipal drainage system, sections of the ancient street paved with large stone slabs laid diagonally to the course of the street were exposed. They were also discovered at the intersection with the Via Dolorosa (Plan 1.4:2, 3; Kloner and Bar-Nathan 2007:193–200) and in many other places, including c. 25 m south of the Cotton Market (Plan 1.4:5; Johns 1932); east of the street, inside the Ohel Yiẓḥak building (Plans 1.2:1; 1.4:6; Barbé and De‘adle 2006, 2007); between the Cotton Market and the Ha-Gāy Street tunnel (Plan 1.4:7; Hess and Eisenberg 1977); and in the tunnel where the Eastern Cardo passed beneath the Great Causeway (Plans 1.2:2; 1.4:8; Hamilton 1933; Kloner and BarNathan 2007:201–202). A large section of the Eastern Cardo has recently been unearthed in the current excavations in the Western Wall Plaza (Plans 1.2:5; 1.4:9). Rock-hewn cells that

10

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

functioned as shops were discovered along the street further south (Plans 1.2:10; 1.4:10; Baruch and Weiss 2009), followed by sections of the street paved with large stone slabs to the north and south of the Ottoman city wall (Plans 1.2:11, 12; 1.4:11, 12; Johns 1948; Ben-Dov 1982:227–233; Baruch and Reich 2003; Reich 2008). Most of the ancient street’s pavement was found 2.5–4.0 m lower than the modern street level. A wide, deep drainage channel ran along the center of the Cardo, under the paving stones. North of the excavated area, a few sections of the channel were found to have been built and covered with stone vaulting that was connected via drainage shafts to the overlying pavement, whereas in the southern section of the excavated area, the channel was rock-hewn and covered with stone slabs. The Jewish Quarter In the 1970s and 1980s, extensive archaeological excavations directed by Nahman Avigad were conducted in the Old City’s Jewish Quarter (Avigad 1983; see also Geva 2000, 2003, 2006a, 2010a, 2014; Gutfeld 2012; Gutfeld and Geva 2014). In 2003, Hillel Geva and Oren Gutfeld excavated underneath the Ḥurva Synagogue at the top of the Western Hill (Geva 2008a) and in 2009–2010, excavations were conducted near the Burnt House (Sion and Rapuano 2014). The finds of major importance included the First Temple Broad Wall and the Israelite Tower (Avigad 1983:49–54; Geva 2000), the latter located at the summit of the Western Hill. They were attributed to the reign of Hezekiah (Iron II) and it is generally agreed that during his reign the city’s defenses were first expanded to encompass the Western Hill. The scant remains of dwellings, some predating the line of the defenses and overlaid by them, were also found. The Second Temple-period remains included sections of the city wall and towers built along the same alignment as that of the First Temple-period defenses. These sections are generally considered to represent the ‘First Wall’ that was initially built in the Hasmonean period, probably in the second century BCE (Geva and Avigad 2000). South of the wall, a number of large dwelling compounds, dating to the Hasmonean and Herodian periods, were discovered (Avigad 1983:64–204, 1993; Geva 2006b, 2010b). Inside the houses, most of which had a series of several floors, many ritual baths (miqvehs) and water installations were found. The Herodian houses were destroyed in a fierce fire that has been associated with the destruction of the Upper City in 70 CE. Avigad’s excavations revealed only scant remains of the Roman, Aelia Capitolina period (second–fourth centuries CE), including a Roman installation, probably a pool (Sion 2011). Remains of the Byzantine period include a long section of a colonnaded street identified as the Western Cardo (Avigad 1983:213–226; Geva 1993:775–776; Gutfeld 2007:71–73, 2012). This cardo was flanked on both sides by wide porticos beyond which lay cell-like shops in certain sections. Excavations directed by Geva and Gutfeld exposed a narrow street branching off the Western Cardo to the east (Geva 2008b). The Western Cardo is similar in its general plan and dimensions to the Eastern Cardo. Avigad (1983:213–226), Reich (1987:164–167), Geva (1993:775–776) and Gutfeld (2007:71–73, 2012) date this section of the Western Cardo to the sixth century CE. Gutfeld suggested that an earlier Byzantine street predated it. Yoram

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

11

Tsafrir (1999b:295–296) proposed that the street was first built when Aelia Capitolina was founded and that it was repaved at a lower level during the Byzantine period. East of the Western Cardo, in the southern part of the Jewish Quarter, remains were discovered of the Nea Church compound, which is depicted on the Madaba map (Avigad 1983:229–246; Geva 1993:776–777; Gutfeld 2012).

The Current Excavations Excavation Areas (Plan 1.5) Prior to the commencement of excavation, the northern part of the site was occupied by a twostory building—a remnant of the Mughrabi neighborhood (Fig. 1.2). The building was renovated after June 1967 and subsequently served as the local police station and the administrative offices of the Western Wall Foundation. To the south of this building, the southern part of the site was covered with dirt and construction debris from the post 1967 rebuilding of the Jewish Quarter, just above and west of the excavation area. This debris covered the hewn cliff and created a more moderate slope. Following the removal of the modern debris, Area A was opened in 2005, south of the building. Subsequently, the work expanded northward and eastward forming excavation Areas B, C, D, E, F, H and I (Plan 1.5).

Fig. 1.2. Area A at the start of excavations, looking west. The police station building on the right was subsequently demolished (photographer, Yuval Baruch).

12

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

F H E

C D

B

A

I

0

10 m

Plan. 1.5. The excavation areas.

In June 2007, the southern part of the Police Station building was dismantled in order to allow the opening of Area B, north of Area A. During this operation, a ritual bath (miqveh) of the Second Temple period carved into the upper part of the bedrock cliff was unearthed. Area C was opened around the miqveh in order to safeguard its remains while the removal of the building was completed; Area C was later integrated into Area B. In May 2007, following the documentation and complete dismantling of the Police Station building, Area E was opened north of Area B. This area was later divided into two parts: Area E, under the building itself, and Area F, in the area extending to the site’s northern limit. This division was due to the presence of a rich Iron Age stratum in Area F,

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

13

where bedrock descends dramatically. This Iron Age stratum is absent in the remainder of the site. Concurrent with the opening of Areas E and F, the excavation was expanded to the east, with Area D to the east of Areas A and B, followed by Area H in the northeastern part of the site. Finally, Area I was opened in the southeastern part of the site, bordering Areas A and D. Excavation Methodology and the Recording System Each excavation area was provided with its own bank of loci, wall and basket numbers, unique for each excavation area. The excavation was conducted manually and descended from surface to bedrock, 8–10 m in the northern part of the site and 5–6 m in the south. Each area’s locus, basket and wall numbers all begin with the same unique numeral, for example, in Area C, wall numbers are 300–399, locus numbers are 3000–3999 and basket numbers are 3000–3999. The number ‘7’ was reserved for the cataloging of finds from wet sieving. Loci Excavation began in squares, or small square-like areas, separated by balks. As soon as walls were uncovered, the balks were documented and dismantled, and locus numbers were assigned to the architecture. A locus defines a confined homogenous feature (an earthen fill, a stony fill, a burnt layer, a floor layer, an installation, a pit, etc.). Locus numbers were changed according to their nature (color, texture, etc.). In the case of floors, four different loci were assigned: (1) the thin accumulated fill above the floor that marks the final use of the floor and establishes a terminus ante quem for its construction; (2) the floor itself; (3) the floor’s infrastructure, if it could be discerned; and (4) the locus representing the sealed fill under the floor. While (2) and (3) are usually indicative of the floor’s construction date, in some cases the terminus post quem for the beginning of its construction relied on (4). Baskets Each basket represents a defined layer within a locus, usually no more than 0.2–0.4 m deep. Small finds were assigned the same basket number, with the details of the material from which it was made, e.g., B4006 (for pottery), B4006G (for glass), B4006M (for metal), B4006B (for bones), etc. Special finds, such as a coin, an oil lamp, a bone tool, a seal, etc., were assigned a separate basket number and their origin was noted in the daily log book. Sieving Soil of floor levels and other important loci was sieved, and the fill of the Iron Age stratum was wet-sieved through a fine sieve. The finds recovered by wet-sieving were given new basket numbers starting with 7000, and their original locus and basket numbers were marked in the daily log book.

14

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Conservation Policy Remains of periods spanning the seventh century BCE to 1967 were unearthed at the site. However, it was necessary to dismantle most of the later architectural remains to allow the continuation of the excavation toward bedrock. A decision was therefore made by the IAA to preserve some remains from each period, so that in the future, when the site is open to the public, the urban chronological development will be reflected and can be validated. The remains of the Roman Cardo, with some Byzantine additions, and the Iron Age building from the lowest strata, were all preserved in place. Some of the Cardo’s flagstones that were lifted in order to excavate sealed material beneath them were returned to their original place by the IAA conservation unit. The northeastern corner of the Early Islamic building and segments of its walls and peristyle courtyard were preserved. Pointed arches and vaults of the Late Islamic–medieval period, as well as industrial installations of this period, were preserved as well. The primary conservation of the walls took place during 2009 and again in 2016, in preparation for the building that is to be constructed above the remains.

Stratigraphic Overview Fifteen archaeological strata were revealed in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, spanning c. 2700 years of human activity on the slopes of the Western Hill. The earliest remains in the investigated area belong to quarries of the late Iron II, probably around the eighth and seventh centuries BCE. Following their abandonment, late seventh-century BCE buildings were built on the rock terraces created by the quarries. These were abandoned following the destruction of the city in 586 BCE, and the area remained unoccupied for several centuries. During the later Second Temple period (first century BCE–first century CE), residential buildings were once again built atop the terraced rock, with several hewn installations integrated in their ground level. After the destruction of the city in 70 CE, a Roman colonnaded street, identified as the Eastern Cardo of Aelia Capitolina, was paved in the second century CE across the entire excavated area, running straight from north to south. The route of the Roman street reshaped the topography, creating a vertical, manmade cliff hewn along the western side of the street, and a leveled surface, 24 m wide, at its foot. This route was maintained and preserved over the next 1800 years, although its level rose about 4.5 m and its width narrowed from 24 m to about 2.5 m in the twentieth century, before 1967. A summary of the highlights of the strata revealed in the Western Wall Plaza excavations is presented in Table 1.1.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

15

Table 1.1. The Stratigraphic Sequence of the Western Wall Plaza Excavations* Stratum

Period

Date

Main Finds

I

Modern

1967

Western Wall Plaza

II

Modern

c. 1920–1967

Buildings

III

Late Ottoman

Nineteenth–early twentieth centuries CE

Renovations of earlier buildings

IV

Late Islamic–Early Ottoman

Late fifteenth–mid-sixteenth centuries CE

Buildings, elevation of street level, narrowing of street

V

Late Islamic

Fifteenth century CE

Installations, refuse pits

VI

Late Islamic

Late twelfth/thirteenth–fifteenth centuries CE

Buildings

Tenth–late twelfth centuries CE

Soil fills

VII VIII

Early Islamic

Eighth–ninth centuries CE

Buildings, elevation of street level

IX

Early Islamic

Second half of seventh/early eighth centuries CE

Narrowing of the Cardo, building on the west

X

Byzantine

Fifth–early seventh centuries CE

Renewal of pavements, cistern

XI

Late Roman–Early Byzantine

Third–fourth centuries CE

Cistern

XII

Roman

Second century CE

Eastern Cardo

XIII

Late Hellenistic– Early Roman (Second Temple period)

Second century BCE–70 CE

Low-Level Aqueduct, installations, quarries

XIV

Iron II (First Temple period)

Seventh century BCE–586 BCE

Buildings, alley; destruction layer

XV

Iron II (First Temple period)

Eighth century BCE(?)

Quarries

*Dates may be slightly modified in subsequent volumes.

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 2

R emains of the Second Temple Period (Stratum XIII) Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

The excavation yielded only scant remains from the Second Temple period, including rockhewn, plastered installations and small finds. The installations were probably incorporated into the ground floors of the Second Temple-period buildings that were demolished when the surface was leveled for the paving of the Eastern Cardo. As a result, only those portions of the buildings that were below the level of the Cardo remained. In addition, remains of an aqueduct were also found cut into the bedrock on a gradual south–north slope that formed part of the Low-Level Aqueduct, sections of which have been excavated and discussed in the past (Patrich 1982; Billig 2002; Mazar 2002 and references therein). All the installations discovered here were damaged by later quarrying and only partly preserved. The aqueduct was located at the top of the hewn rock face and the other installations were found on the upper rock terrace within the excavation site. They were attributed to the Second Temple period and identified as water-related installations on the basis of stratigraphy and their resemblance to similar Second Temple-period installations. It must be stressed, however, that the installations were not related to each other and none of them yielded datable finds in situ. In addition, remains of a quarry on the lowest terrace inside the site (L8170; see Kisilevitz and Weksler-Bdolah, forthcoming) were dated to the end of the Second Temple period or immediately after 70 CE.

Water Cistern 6170 A round water cistern (L6170; Plan 2.1: Section 1-1) was found in the northwestern corner of the excavation. It was hewn at an elevation of 729.00 m (diam. at base 4.5 m, depth 5.5). Its walls were coated with several layers of hydraulic plaster, of which the most recent was gray (Fig. 2.1). Inside the cistern were earthen deposits to about half its depth; it appeared to have been in use until the late Islamic period. The cistern was only partially excavated. In the Roman period, the upper part of the cistern was removed as part of the leveling for the Cardo. The lower part remained in use and was now roofed with stone slabs supported by stone arches (Fig. 2.2). These served as the pavement for a subsequent small rectangular courtyard built over the top of the cistern (L6014; see Chapter 3). Although stratigraphically, the cistern and the courtyard could be contemporaneous, the relationship of the latter’s planning to the architecture of the Eastern Cardo, the height of the bedrock surrounding the cistern and the marked difference in the general plan of the vicinity, all suggest that Cistern 6170 predated the Cardo. Apparently, when the bedrock was hewn and the area leveled in order to pave the street, the existing water cistern was preserved and changes were made in the street plan in order to achieve this goal. Cistern 6170 cannot be dated with certainty, but it probably originated in the Second Temple period.

18

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 2.1. Cistern 6170, looking north.

Fig.2.2. Ceiling of Cistern 6170 (Stratum XII), stone arches covered with stone slabs, from below, looking north.

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

19

Installation (Miqveh?) 2050

6

1

A rock-hewn rectangular installation (L2050; 1.5 × 1.5 m, preserved depth 1.1 m) with six hewn steps was exposed c. 10 m south of Cistern 6170 (Plan 2.1: Section 2-2; Fig. 2.3). Five steps (length 1.0 m, width 0.2–0.4 m, depth 0.3–0.4 m) descend from west to east, while the sixth step faces north (preserved length 0.8 m, width 0.4 m). The western and eastern sections of the installation were damaged: the upper step in the west and the two lower steps in the east were cut, perhaps due to the quarrying of the Cardo and the rows of cells (L5297, L5227) to its west. The installation, therefore, is earlier than the Roman Cardo.

L6170

5

1

5

2

2

3

6

L8170

L2050

3 L5336

L2022

4

8

4

L9588

7

L116

7

9

9

10

8

10

Stratum XIII Quarry Line 0

Plan 2.1. Plan and sections of Second Temple-period remains.

10 m

20

731.00

L6014#

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

731.00 731.00 729.00

731.00

L6014#

L6014#

729.00

L6014# 729.00 727.00

729.00

L6170

727.00

L6170

727.00 725.00

727.00

L6170

725.00

725.00 723.00

725.00

L6170

723.00

1-1

723.00 733.00 723.00

733.00

1-1

733.00 732.00 733.00

1-1 1-1

732.00

L5227

732.00 731.00

732.00

L2050

W302

731.00 730.00

731.00

L5227

W302

731.00

L5227 L2050

W302 730.00 W302

730.00 729.00 730.00

L2050

L5297

L5297

729.00

L5297

729.00 728.00 729.00

728.00

L5297

728.00 727.00

728.00

727.00

2-2 2-2

727.00

2-2

727.00

2-2

729.00

736.00 736.00

729.00 729.00 728.00

729.00

728.00 727.00

735.00 735.00 734.00

735.00

727.00L5336

734.00

L5336

727.00 726.00

727.00

736.00 735.00

736.00

728.00

728.00

L5227 L2050

726.00L5336

734.00 733.00

734.00

3-3

L5336 726.00

L2022

3-3 3-3

726.00

4-4 4-4 4-4

725.00 725.00 725.00 724.00 724.00 724.00 724.00

723.00

L8170

723.00 722.50 722.50

L8170 L8170 L8170

5-5 5-5

722.50

5-5

722.50

5-5

4-4

733.00

3-3 725.00

723.00

L2022 L2022

733.00

733.00

723.00

L2022

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

W812

W811 726.00

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

725.00 727.00

724.00

W812

W811 726.00

723.00

725.00

722.00 727.00

7.00

W812

W811

724.00

#L8020

#L8020

L8170

6-6 W811

#L8020

W812

726.00

6.00 723.00

L8170

741.00 725.00

5.00 722.00

739.00

6-6

724.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

739.00

723.00

738.00

722.00

737.00

L8170

L116 6-6

741.00

735.00

739.00

733.00

L8170

6-6

737.00

739.00

736.00 741.00

738.00

735.00 739.00

737.00

L116 737.00

731.00 741.00

735.00

729.00 739.00

L116 733.00

727.00 737.00

L116

734.00 737.00 739.00 733.00 735.00 738.00

8-8

735.00

732.00 733.00 737.00

734.00

731.00 731.00 736.00

733.00

730.00 729.00 735.00

727.00

729.00 724.00

732.00

729.00 727.00 734.00

726.00

727.00 723.00

735.00 727.00

L116 729.00

733.00 726.00 727.00 731.00 725.00

7-7

731.00

725.00 733.00 727.00

8-8

W958

L9588 9-9

8-8

8-8

W958

727.00

730.00

739.00

724.00 732.00 726.00

726.00

729.00 731.00 725.00 7-7

725.00

730.00 724.00

724.00

W958

L9588 7-7

L116 Ottoman Pipe

738.00

L9588

723.00

729.00 723.00

7-7

L116

731.00

736.00

L116

L116

9-9

737.00

W958

736.00

L9588

723.00

735.00

9-9

9-9

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

10-10

21

22

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 2.3. Installation (miqveh?) 2050, looking southwest.

The plan of the installation and its stratigraphy suggest that it was intended as a miqveh or underground storage facility of a Second Temple-period structure that was built on the slopes of the Upper City. However, as the installation was not plastered, it probably was not completed or ever used. The reason may be that its quarrying exposed a natural karstic cavity in the bedrock.

R itual Bath (Miqveh ) 2022 Some 5 m south of Installation 2050, a rock-hewn installation coated with gray hydraulic plaster (L2022) was exposed in the upper part of the cliff at an elevation of c. 735.00 m and identified as a ritual bath (miqveh; Plan 2.1: Section 4-4; Fig. 2.4).1 It was damaged after the Second Temple period and was only partly preserved. It is a narrow rectangular room that widens slightly in its lower, northwestern part, hewn along a southeast–northwest axis (preserved measurements: length 4.5 m, width 1.4–2.0 m). The entrance to the installation was on its eastern, higher side, but it was not preserved. From the entrance, the bathers would

While Miqveh 2022 was exposed during the main excavation, its western and northern edges were recognized only in 2017. 1

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

23

Fig. 2.4. Miqveh 2022, looking southeast.

descend five rock-hewn, plastered steps (width 1.4 m, depth 0.2–0.5 m, rise 0.3–0.4 m) to an immersion pool formed of two wider steps (the upper step—width 2 m, depth 0.8 m, rise 0.5 m; the lower step—width 2 m, depth 1.4 m). The miqveh was destroyed several times: first, in 70 CE, when the entire building was probably destroyed. After 70 CE, in the Roman period or later, its northern part was demolished when a row of rectangular rooms was built west and above the western row of shops along the Cardo. Last, an industrial installation (L318; diam. 4 m, depth 4 m), perhaps a large settling pit of a winepress, was hewn north of the miqveh, and a small, shallow, squarehewn installation damaged the original entrance level east of the upper step. It seems that Miqveh 2022 was originally incorporated in a private dwelling, similar to installations that were found in Second Temple-period houses higher upslope (Avigad 1983:83–138; 1993:729–735; Geva 2006a, 2010a).

Installation 5336 Approximately 10 m east of Miqveh 2022, at an elevation of 727.70 m, the lower part of a rock-hewn, plastered installation was discovered (L5336; Plan 2.1: Section 3-3). The installation is more-or-less rectangular (2.9 × 3.5 m, depth 1.5 m) and oriented on a northeast–southwest axis. A shallow socket (width 1.0 m, depth 0.5 m) was incorporated into its northern wall. The face of the western wall is irregular. Traces of gray hydraulic plaster, of the kind typical of Second Temple-period installations, was preserved on the bottom and sides of the installation. The form of the installation, its alignment corresponding with the natural topography and, especially, the hydraulic plaster coating, invite comparison with Miqveh 2022. It is possible that, like the miqveh, Installation 5336 was also incorporated into the lower floor (or basement) of a Second Temple-period building that was built on the slopes of the Upper City. After the destruction of the city, when the area was razed to the ground and leveled in preparation for

24

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

paving the Eastern Cardo, the remains of the building were removed together with the upper parts of the installation itself, and it was deliberately blocked up with an earth and stone fill and leveled off at the height of the rock, i.e., the western portico of the Eastern Cardo. The exact purpose of the installation could not be identified. While its size and the plaster coating of its walls were similar to those of private ritual baths, the absence of any steps and its depth (c. 1.5 m) rule out identifying it as a miqveh. The purpose of the socket in its northern wall is also unclear. The installation may have been used for food storage or as a water cistern.

The Low-Level Aqueduct at the Top of the Vertical Rock Face Remains of an 11 m long and 0.3–0.4 m wide section of a hewn aqueduct (L116; Plan 2.1: Sections 7-7, 8-8, 10-10; Fig. 2.5) were documented in the southwestern part of the excavated site after earth dumped on top of the rock face was cleared; no scientific excavation was conducted in this area. The exposed section of the aqueduct was very close to the edge of the present cliff face and followed a general south–north orientation, along an existing protrusion in the present cliff (Plan 2.1). About 11 m north of the excavation’s southern boundary, it assumed a general northwesterly direction and from there its continuation could not be traced. This detour was probably required owing to the rock surface dropping away to the north, and the need to maintain the aqueduct’s elevation (Plan 2.1: Section 8-8). In the southern part of the exposed section, a 5 m length of the aqueduct’s western hewn wall was preserved to a maximum height of 1.4 m (Fig. 2.5). Slightly to the north of this point, the western wall was completely removed, as was the eastern wall along the entire length of the exposed aqueduct. As in other known sections of this aqueduct, traces of plaster were found on the inside and a system of interlocking ceramic pipes (diam. c. 0.2 m) was apparently inserted during the Ottoman period. The ceramic pipe was embedded in a layer of stone and mortar (debesh). An Ottoman-period wall, which had been built against the cliff face, covered the layer of debesh that sealed and preserved the pipe (Fig. 2.5), supporting this date. The section of aqueduct exposed in the current excavations had already been discovered and documented in the nineteenth century (Wilson 1865; Kümmel 1904), when it was attributed to the Low-Level Aqueduct of the Second Temple (Hasmonean) period, which carried water from Solomon’s Pools toward the Temple Mount. Subsequently, it was buried under modern refuse. A number of other sections of the Low-Level Aqueduct have been identified in the past to the south, but most have not been documented in any detail. One section was discovered when the foundations for the Porat Yosef Yeshiva were being excavated (Billig 1997:47, n. 20). Another section was discovered next to the steps leading down from the Jewish Quarter to the Western Wall Plaza, and its northern continuation was clearly observed for about 25 m underneath the Aish Ha-Torah Yeshiva building, which underwent extensive renovations in 2000–2010 (Billig 1997:47, n. 21). There, the rockhewn sides of the aqueduct were preserved to a height of 1.5 m. The section of aqueduct exposed anew in the current excavations is the northernmost surviving section of the LowLevel Aqueduct known to date.

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

25

During construction work at the site in 2018, it was possible to observe the rock cliff and the aqueduct, immediately south of the excavation area, where the rock cliff had been damaged at an unknown date, prior to 2005. Three phases of the aqueduct’s construction can be tentatively discerned (by inspection only): In the latest phase, a ceramic pipe was laid into the aqueduct during the Ottoman period. Prior to this, the eastern hewn wall of the Hasmonean aqueduct had collapsed, while the western wall was preserved to its full height. Parts of the cliff wall below the aqueduct level were also damaged. The Ottoman amendment therefore included a reconstruction of the aqueduct’s course over terraced retaining walls that lined the bedrock cliff. A fill of stones and mortar (debesh) blocked the gap between the retaining walls and the bedrock cliff. The western rock-hewn wall of the aqueduct, as far as can be seen, is slightly stepped and the deeper part, slightly narrower than the upper part, is coated with plaster containing small pieces of pottery. This situation may indicate an original hewn phase (probably from the Second Temple period), whose level was higher (738.20 m), and a later phase when the base of the aqueduct was deepened by a meter (737.20 m) and apparently plastered (it could not be determined if the plaster was part of the channel, or part of the Ottoman debesh).

Ottoman supporting wall

Ottoman ceramic pipe Hewn wall of aqueduct (notice the stepped wall) Remains of hydraulic plaster Ottoman mortar (debesh) inside earlier aqueduct

Bedrock

Fig. 2.5. Low-Level Aqueduct (L116), looking south. Note Ottoman-period clay pipe inside the hewn channel.

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Quarries Two quarries were found in the vicinity of the Eastern Cardo that can be associated with the Second Temple period. In the northeastern part of the excavation site, on a low rock terrace at about 722.50 m, were the remains of Quarry 8170 (Plan 2.1: Section 6-6; Fig. 2.6; see Chapter 3). The earth and stone fill blocking the quarry included potsherds from the Second Temple through the post 70 CE Roman period. Thus, it is unclear whether the quarry was begun at the end of the Second Temple period or after 70 CE. The location of the quarry, on the slope of the Upper City, is surprising in view of its proximity to the Temple Mount. At the southern limit of the excavation, another small section of a quarry, consisting of quarrying steps and severance channels, was revealed (L9588; 2.0 × 2.5 m; Plan 2.1; Fig. 2.7; WekslerBdolah, Kisilevitz and Onn 2015). The steps extended from the northwest to the southeast, perpendicular to the natural bedrock slope in this area. The size of the quarried stones can be reconstructed based on the negatives left in the bedrock (average dimensions 0.50 × 0.75 m). Fig. 2.6. Quarry 8170, looking south.

Fig. 2.7. Quarry 9588, view from above, looking south.

CHAPTER 2: REMAINS OF THE SECOND TEMPLE PERIOD (STRATUM XIII)

27

It was impossible to accurately date Quarry 9588, other than to conclude that it predates the Eastern Cardo, which overlies W958 inside the quarry. The quarry’s orientation resembles the other features from the First and Second Temple periods that were discovered in the excavation area. Furthermore, it differs significantly from the straight north– south quarrying lines that were uncovered west of Quarry 9588, which are related to the construction of the Eastern Cardo. It therefore seems that Quarry 9588 should be dated to the First and/or Second Temple period.

Summary The absence of buildings from the Second Temple period within the excavation site is striking. The scant remains that were discovered include only rock-hewn and plastered installations on the upper terrace—a water cistern, one or two miqvehs and, a rectangular installation— and an aqueduct in the southern part of the area. These finds indicate a high probability that the area contained buildings that were demolished when the Eastern Cardo was paved. The dwellings that presumably stood here in the Second Temple period were in all probability of a type similar to the large and magnificent private dwellings found in previous excavations higher up the slope, whose lower levels yielded the remains of water cisterns and ritual baths (Avigad 1983:83–138, 1993:729–735; Geva 2006b, 2010b). The excavation site produced remnants of frescoes of a style typical of the Upper City houses (see Rozenberg, forthcoming), coins of the Hasmonean and Herodian periods until 70 CE (see Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 4–32), traditional Judean-style pottery vessels (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019), chalk vessels (Kisilevitz, forthcoming), a flan mold (Ariel, forthcoming), and various fragments of Second Temple-period architectural decorations, including columns and capitals (see Chapter 4). These finds probably originated in the Upper City houses that stood within the excavation site itself, or in the vicinity, presumably upslope. The remains of a quarry with no associated buildings were discovered in the northern section of the area examined, on a low rock terrace. The fact that a Second Temple-period quarry was located 100 m from the Temple Mount is unexpected. At this stage, it cannot be determined if the quarry was part of an area that was left deliberately unbuilt in order to form a barrier zone between the residential area of the Upper City and the public buildings that were built along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount, near Wilson’s Arch (Bahat 2013:113–132; Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2016; Patrich and Weksler-Bdolah 2016). Another possibility is that the quarry, of which only a small part has been examined at present, is associated with a small undeveloped area that remained isolated between the buildings and continued to be used as a quarry. The northernmost known part of the Second Temple-period Low-Level Aqueduct was exposed anew atop a rock face in the southwestern part of the excavation site. The northern continuation of the aqueduct has not been documented. Nevertheless, it was generally assumed in the past that, from this point, the aqueduct continued northward for a short distance and then turned eastward to cross the Tyropoeon Valley on top of the Great Causeway, toward the large cisterns inside the Temple Mount (see, for example, Wilson 1865; Kümmel 1904; Billig 2002). However, this proposal is no longer tenable.

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Recent excavations inside the vaults of the Great Causeway have demonstrated that it was probably built after 70 CE. It was preceded in the Second Temple period by a 14 m wide foundation wall that served as a bridge across the Tyropoeon, the top of which is at 730.00 m (Onn, Weksler-Bdolah and Bar-Nathan 2011), 7.5 m below the elevation of the aqueduct (737.50 m). It is, therefore, possible to suggest that in the Hasmonean period, the Low-Level Aqueduct continued to flow from the cliff edge in a northwesterly direction at an appropriate height, skirting the streambeds of the Transverse and Tyropoeon Valleys. Once it had crossed the Tyropoeon Valley in the area of the Damascus Gate, the aqueduct may have flowed southward toward the Temple Mount along the course of what is known today as the ‘Hasmonean Aqueduct’ (Bahat 2013:303–313). It presumably entered the Temple Mount at the topographical saddle in its northwestern corner, which separates the area of today’s Dome of the Rock from the Antonia Hill (Weksler-Bdolah 2011b).

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 3

The Eastern Cardo in the Roman and Byzantine Periods (Strata XII–X) Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah The remains of the eastern colonnaded street, identified as the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem (L6037, L8108, L5272, L5291, L720, L9546—all subsumed into L8108), were revealed along 46 m, nearly the entire length of the excavation (Plan 3.1; Figs. 3.1, 3.2). The excavated section of the street was constructed on a gentle slope along a straight course parallel to the Western Wall of the Herodian Temple Mount, in a north-northwest–southsoutheast orientation. In describing the remains of the Cardo, the following terms have been used: the main street or street refers to the 8 m wide main carriageway in the center of the Cardo. The street was bordered by open sidewalks 1.5 m wide on each side, higher than the level of the street, which were in turn flanked by 6.0–6.5 m wide roofed porticos, with colonnades separating them from the sidewalks. The total width of the Cardo (including the street, the sidewalks and the porticos) was 23.5–24.0 m, or approximately 80 Roman feet (23.68 m).1 Beyond its western portico, a row of cells, probably used as shops, was hewn into the cliff face, adding a further 5.5–6.0 m to the total width. Evidence was also found to the east of the street of two additional streets, or large paved squares, perpendicular to the Cardo, which led in an easterly direction (L8020 in the north, L4108 in the south).2 These streets were parallel, 29.4–30.0 m apart, the equivalent of approximately 100 Roman feet (29.6 m), from the edge of the curbstones of Street 8020 in the north to the southern side of a heart-shaped base (L4276) or the southern side of a staircase (L4271) in the south. This chapter presents the remains of the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem from its construction in the Roman period (Stratum XII) and its use during the Late Roman and Byzantine periods (Strata XI, X). In the Early Islamic period (Stratum IX), the width of the street was limited to its eastern half, as new buildings were constructed on the western half and on the porticos.

The Natural and Urban Topography before the Cardo’s Construction As described above (Chapter 1), this section of the Cardo lies on the northeastern slope of the western hill of ancient Jerusalem, approximately 100 m west of the Western Wall of the Temple Mount (see Fig. 1.1). Here, the northeasterly sloping bedrock and the precipitous

This calculation is based on 1 Roman foot = 29.6 cm. I am indebted to Yoram Tsafrir, who brought this detail to my attention. 1

The northern of the two (L8020) was exposed in a limited area and its precise nature could not be determined (see discussion below). The southern one (L4108) is 8 m wide and was most probably a street. 2

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W804

L6170

Street L8020

Western

Eastern P

Portico

ortico / P

ropylaeu

m

alk Side w

Carriageway

W424

W457

L300 Street

L4108

L712

Strata XII–X Water Installations 0

10

m

Plan. 3.1. The Eastern Cardo (Stratum XIIB).

31

Jewish Quarter

L3235

W300

L5311

L5

L5291

28

3

Cardo (L8108)

Fig. 3.1. The Cardo, at the foot of the hewn cliff. Above—buildings in the Jewish Quarter.

Fig. 3.2. The Eastern Cardo, looking northwest.

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drop that resulted from intensive quarrying in the First Temple period onward created two terraces, the northern one (Plan 3.1, north of the quarry line) about 4 m lower than the southern one (Plan 3.5: Section 4-4). Prior to the Cardo’s construction, buildings were constructed on these slopes, some of which were preserved to a height of 5 m above the bedrock (Stratum XIV). Subsequent Second Temple-period remains (Stratum XIII) were razed when the Cardo was built, apart from the lower parts of some hewn and plastered installations, including a ritual bath (miqveh) and a water cistern (see Chapter 2). It is difficult to estimate the exact state of these buildings when construction of the Cardo began, i.e., whether parts were still standing or had been burnt and totally ruined like those in the Upper City. The few extant remains were not burnt, although this does not prove anything about the state of the upper parts of these buildings.3 The remains of the ancient quarry, as well as the remains of the First Temple-period buildings and the Second Temple-period installations, are oriented to the natural topography. They lay perpendicular to the slope of the hillside, diagonal to the cardinal directions of the compass, namely northwest–southeast—all in the path of the planned course of the Eastern Cardo.

Preparation of the Cardo’s Infrastructure (Stratum XIIB) The Cardo was constructed in two main phases: an initial phase (Stratum XIIB) in which extensive work was carried out in preparing the Cardo’s infrastructure along the intended elevation and route of the street, and a second phase (Stratum XIIA) when the paving stones were laid and columns were erected. Stratum XIIB included a sequence of works whose precise order is difficult to determine. First, the existing surface elevation was probably lowered to just below the planned street level, during which any higher remains were demolished, the high bedrock was hewn, and walls below the planned street level were reinforced and stabilized to act as retaining walls in order to prevent the earthen fill from shifting and subsiding (Plan 3.2; Figs. 3.1–3.4). The southern part of the exposed section of the street was hewn into the western hillside, creating a high, vertical, north–south cliff face along the western side of the street, with a row of shops at street level (Figs. 3.2, 3.5). The surface was then leveled by redistributing the earth and rubble and deliberately filling in earlier low-lying areas and open quarries. During this infrastructure work, a sophisticated drainage system was installed, including both hewn and built channels. Small finds from the dump that was deposited in the ancient quarry during this operation enable it to be dated. The finds include, among others, coins (see Chapter 6), potsherds (WWPE II), glass fragments (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming) and inscribed military bread stamps (Di Segni, forthcoming).

For a detailed description of the First- and Second Temple-period remains, see Ornan et al. 2008:115–117; 2012; Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2008, 2009; Weksler-Bdolah and Onn 2010; Keel 2012; Vainstub 2012; Brandl 2015; Ornan, Weksler-Bdolah and Sass 2017). 3

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CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

L5333 L5336

L8156 L8106 L8178 L8125

L8054

L5339 L5298 L5299 L5347 L5292 L5293 L5295

L8187, L8188 L8170

L8068

L8093

L8101

L5332

W301

L619 L658

W322

L5348

L3097

W457

W317

L3220

W806

W300

L3070

L8129

L4300

L536

W45

L547

L491

L502

W424

L491

L8149, L8189

W805

L2022

W302 L5311

L8123

W321

W322

4 30 W

8

W39

L8068 L8173

L8174 L8182

2 W81

939 W

W566

L5297

L6011 L6153 #

20

L5283

L5227

W

L8184

L8183 L8172

W811

07 W3

W306

613

W6 L6092 L5326 L5332

L3006 W310

L6144 L6216

24 W6

L5000

611

8

W30

04 W6

L6170

24 W5

L6071

W

L5137 L5153 L5172 L6093

L6199

L6028

05 W6

18 W5 1 W52

W600

L6070 W603 L6068

L5133 L6039 L6097

L6073

L6110

L6220

L6046

W810

L5143-L6096

W614

L490

L373 L4126 L4274 L4185 L4273 L514

L466

L116

L4252 L4260 W958

L9580 L9588

W999

L9076 L703 L9075

Rock-Cutting and Lowering of Bedrock Level Adaptation of Earlier Building Remains Construction of Retaining Walls Installation of Drainage System Roman Dump 0

10

m

Plan 3.2. Preparatory work for the Eastern Cardo (Stratum XIIB).

34

Fig. 3.3. The Eastern Cardo, looking east. Note the Cardo’s flagstones were laid directly on top of the walls of Iron Age Building 6153.

Fig. 3.4. View of the Eastern Cardo, looking west, and Iron Age Building 6153.

Fig. 3.5. View of the hewn cliff, looking south. The rock cliff is divided into different sections, seperated by hewn gutters or built walls, preserving the outline of the Roman shops at the foot of the cliff. Buildings from the medieval period were built above the Roman Cardo level, along the same lines.

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

35

Quarrying, Removing and Reshaping the Rock Face in Line with the Street Despite the western hillside’s precipitous descent from southwest to northeast (see Fig. 3.1), the course of the colonnaded street in the excavated area was not governed by the natural topography, but cut into the slope, continuing in a straight line from north to south. The course was formed by removing the upper rock slope and the bedrock was leveled as a foundation, apart from several vertical rock partition walls that were left in place (see below). By quarrying through the natural rock, a sheer cliff face (about 11 m high) was formed to the west of the street from north to south, creating a distinct 29 m long physical division (W322) between the elevation of the western hill and the paved street below (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections: 2-2, 25-25, 29-29, 30-30; Figs. 3.1, 3.5). The street, porticos and shop cells were hewn, from the outset, on stepped terraces and the street level (L3220) was lower than the flanking porticos (western portico—L5332, L5348, L490, eastern portico—L4300; Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 13-13, 21-21, 25-25, 28-28). The severance channels that separated the quarried blocks left behind orthogonal grooves along the path of the carriageway (Plans 3.2; 3.5: western side of street, between Channel 373 (west) and Channel 536 (east); in eastern side of street—L619, L658). Their pattern parallels the axis of the Cardo but differs from the diagonal orientation of the earlier quarry from the First and Second Temple periods, which was adapted to the slope of the western hill (Plan 3.2: L8170, L8129, L9588; and quarried line of rock in northwest, west and south of the Iron Age building and Alley 5153). This difference in orientation is of chronological significance; namely, the diagonal orientation of the quarries characterized the First and Second Temple periods, while the orthogonal quarrying operations characterized the Roman period. High rock walls in the west (from north to south: W308, W307, W306-W310, W566, W302, W300, W321, W301, W317, W45) and east (W457, W424), and vertical rock terraces between L5348 (west) and L3220 (east), separated the street and the porticos, the porticos and the shops, and the various shop cells. They were hewn on an axis parallel or perpendicular to the street’s orientation (Plan 3.5: Sections 2-2, 25-25). The street was delineated by a rock terrace in the west (height 0.3–1.0 m) and a low rock-hewn stylobate wall (W457) in the east (Plan 3.2). The surface of the western portico in the northern part of the excavated area was stepped (L5283, L5332; Plan 3.2), suggesting that, for unknown reasons, the leveling was not completed. The southern part of the western portico, unlike the northern part, possessed a gradual north–south incline at roughly 727.00 m (L5348, L490; Plan 3.2). The western part of the western portico was delineated by a row of hewn cells, probably used as shops. Along the front of this row and between the shops, the bedrock partition walls were preserved to a height of 3.5–4.0 m above the floors of the portico and cells (Plan 3.2). Bedrock W566, W321 and W317 stood along the shop fronts and W308, W306-W310, W302, W300, W301 and W45 were preserved between the different shops. The eastern portico was delineated by hewn rock walls on the west (W457) and the east (W424; Plan 3.2; Fig. 3.6). The rock floor of the eastern portico (L4300), in the southern section of the excavated area, was leveled at approximately 726.40 m (Plan 3.2). A hewn entrance incorporated in W424 probably led to a building or shop to the east of the street, beyond the limits of the excavation (see below).

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 3.6. The eastern portico (L4300), looking south. To right, W457; to left, W424 with an opening.

The meticulous quarrying works, the symmetrical appearance of the street and the porticos flanking it are obviously the result of a detailed architectural plan. They also indicate that the street, the porticos and the shops were quarried simultaneously. The quarrying itself cannot be dated with any certainty. It clearly preceded the paving of the Cardo. In the earthen fill blocking one of the severance channels (L658) in the street’s eastern section, at the base of Stylobate 457 (Plan 3.2), small Roman-period potsherds were found. These indicate that the quarrying, which obviously took place before the severance channel became blocked with earth, was conducted during the Roman period or earlier. Adaptation of Earlier Buildings and Installations to the Cardo’s Level Modifications to the Walls of Earlier Buildings The walls of First Temple-period Building 6153, which was exposed in the northern part of the excavated area (Plan 3.2), were preserved to a considerable height. The upper part of the building was clearly removed deliberately, and the tops of its walls were leveled to their present height in order to support the overlying street paving. Examples of this relationship are Cardo Flagstone 5181 overlying W605 (Figs. 3.3–3.5; Plan 3.5: Section 6-6), and Cardo Flagstone 6081 overlying W604. The tops of the walls of Building 6153 and another First Temple-period building to its west (Plan 3.2) were preserved by the builders of the Cardo to an increasingly greater height toward the west, to a level commensurate with the needs of construction (Plan 3.5: Sections 6-6, 7-7; Figs. 3.1, 3.4).

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

37

Not only were the walls of the earlier buildings lowered and leveled to serve as support for the street, but they were also repaired wherever stones were missing. One such repair was detected in W610, near its intersection with W604 and W605. The wall was evidently damaged when its upper parts were removed and repaired with longer and larger stones than those used in its original construction. Leveling the Area of the Earlier Building Once the upper parts of the earlier buildings had been removed to the requisite height and the tops of the remaining walls had been strengthened, earthen fills were deposited between the early walls, then leveled and tamped down (L5153, L5326, L6011, L6092, L6097; Plan 3.2). Carefully arranged surfaces of smoothed fieldstones (L5133, L5172, L6073, L6093, L6095; Plan 3.2) were discovered in several places on top of the earthen fills. The finds, which include a few coins and fragmentary artifacts from the Roman period from the top of the earth and stone fills and the surrounding stone surfaces, indicate that they were tamped down in the Roman period, probably in preparation for the street’s construction. For example, L5153 yielded a coin minted in Jerusalem at the end of the Second Temple period, in 58/59 CE (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 23). Early Rock-Hewn Installations The hewn and plastered installations from Stratum XIII (L6170, L2022, L5336; see Chapter 2), found at several locations below the Cardo’s axis and to its west (Plan 3.2), were underground installations originally incorporated into the lower stories of residential buildings (see Chapter 2; Avigad 1983:139–143). When the buildings were demolished in preparation for the construction of the Cardo, the installations’ lower parts remained as open cavities that had to be filled. Cistern 6170 is located in the northern section of the row of shops to the west of the Cardo (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 8-8). Its lower part was preserved and incorporated into the Roman structure by the construction of two stone arches extending from north to south over the mouth of the pit, and the laying of thick square stone slabs above them (see Fig. 2.1). In order to preserve the cistern, changes were made in the original plan of the street: the stone slabs that covered the cistern formed a small square on a raised level to the north of the southern row of shops, and two shop cells (L3006, L6028) were moved to the west (Plan 3.2). Miqveh 2022, a rock-hewn and plastered installation whose upper parts were removed during the infrastructure work or later (see Chapter 2), is located west of W322 and two adjacent shop cells (L5311, L3070; Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 20-20). Installation 5336 is located east of Shop 5311, at a lower elevation than Miqveh 2022 (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 19-19). The upper part of the installation was probably removed when the bedrock was lowered to provide the foundations for the western portico (L5348). Earth and stone were used to deliberately fill Installation 5336; the top of this fill (L5333) was paved with stones, only one of which was preserved in the corner of the installation (Plan 3.2). Thus, the installation was blocked and leveled off at the same elevation as the western portico, making this operation, therefore, part of the infrastructure work carried

38

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

out along the route of the Cardo. Potsherds from deposits in the installation date from the end of the first to the beginning of the second centuries CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 3). Intentional Fill of Pits and Quarries Early Quarries South of Building 6153 Early quarries on the axis of the street created two rock terraces across the slope, divided by a rock wall running in a zigzag line from northwest to southeast (Plan 3.2). The difference in elevation between the terraces was approximately 4 m. The lower terrace, in the northern part of the area, was the location of Building 6153 (Plan 3.2; see Chapter 1). To its south, in the area of the abandoned quarries (Plan 3.2), layers of earth and stone gravel containing a large quantity of potsherds had accumulated (L5283, L5292, L5293, L5295, L5298, L5299, L5339, L5347). The Cardo’s paving slabs were placed directly on top of these fills after they were leveled and tamped down (Figs. 3.7, 3.8). Some of the Cardo’s flagstones were later robbed, but the tamped fills below them were largely undisturbed. They were investigated carefully, and termed ‘unsealed (but undisturbed) fill.’ The most recent pottery vessels from these fills date from the last quarter of the first century CE to the first quarter of the second century CE (75–125 CE) or between 70 and 130 CE (RosenthalHeginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 3). Two coins were found within these fills; the later of the two, from an ‘unsealed (but undisturbed) fill’ (L5295), was minted in Antioch during Hadrian’s rule (117–138 CE), but with no precise minting date (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 35). Similar strata of earth and stone fills containing Roman-period vessel fragments were also found inside earlier quarries discovered in the southern part of the Cardo (L9588) and in the southeastern part of the excavated site, in fills (L4273, L4274) beneath Street 4108 that led from the Cardo in an easterly direction (Plan 3.2). In Quarry 9588, oriented northwest–southeast (diagonal to the Cardo, see Chapter 2; Weksler-Bdolah, Kisilevitz and Onn 2015), a north–south wall (W958; length 2 m, width 1.1 m, preserved height 1.98 m) was discovered on the hewn bedrock c. 1.5 m below the level of the street, and aligned parallel to the Cardo. After the wall was built, an earthen fill (L9580) was piled up on either side (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 38-38). The upper courses of the wall and the stones of the Cardo’s pavement that probably lay on the wall and its associated fills, were robbed in a later period (W958; Plan 3.3). The short section of W958 that was exposed was insufficient for determining whether it was built in the Roman period as a retaining wall for the earthen fills on which the street was founded, or whether it was part of an earlier structure from the First or Second Temple period.

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

Channel 491

Channel 5248

↑ Fig. 3.7. The Eastern Cardo, the western portico and the shop cells, from above, looking west. To left, Channel 491 crossing the western portico; to right, Channel 5248. Arrow marks the spot where the sidewalk overlies the fill of the quarries.

Fig. 3.8. The Eastern Cardo, looking north. Close-up of the paving stones and sidewalk of the street, overlying the fill of the quarries (L5293, L5295).

39

40

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Quarry 8170 and the Roman Refuse Dump A large quarry (L8170) below the northern section of the Cardo’s eastern portico remained in use until the end of the Second Temple period or the beginning of the Roman period (Plans 2.1; 3.2; Figs. 3.9–3.11; see Kisilevitz and Weksler-Bdolah, forthcoming). The remains of the quarry were partially exposed southeast of the corner between the Eastern Cardo and Street 8020 (Plan 3.3), which branches off the Cardo in an easterly direction. Stratigraphic analysis of the layers of earth, stones and ash blocking up the quarry after it was abandoned shows that there was a sequence of several stages culminating in the quarry being completely filled and then sealed by the streets above. Excavation constraints dictated that only part of this ‘refuse dump’ to the east of foundation W811-W812 was investigated. The northern boundary was Street 8020. Its southern boundary was the built-up external wall of an Islamic-period water cistern (L4115), and its eastern boundary was a disturbance from the Islamic period cutting into the Roman fills c. 2 m west of the excavation’s eastern boundary (Plan 3.2). The fill of the refuse dump continued north underneath the pavement of Street 8020 (Plan 3.5: Section 11-11). The excavated area of the Roman refuse dump was 5 × 9 m. The bottom of the quarry (elevation 722.00–723.00 m) is approximately 4 m lower than the streets constructed over it. The finds from the layers of earthen fill deposited during the various phases date to between 75 and 125 CE, with no possibility of distinguishing between them chronologically (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Groups 2a–2g). The following is a general description of the phases that were discerned: Construction Phase A. After the quarry fell into disuse, an installation composed of an elongated heap of stones with a curved outline (L8151, L8156, L8159, L8162) was built on bedrock at the bottom of the quarry (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 11-11, 14-14). South of this installation was a thin accumulation of earth fill (L8165, L8167, L8187; for the pottery finds, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 2b). Construction Phase B. Fills of earth and small- and medium-sized fieldstones were deposited over the top of Installation 8156 and above the bottom of Quarry 8170 to a height of up to 2 m above bedrock (L8146, L8147, L8148, L8152, L8155, L8158, L8160; Plan 3.5: Sections 11-11, 14-14, 15-15). These fills, which blocked up the former quarry, are moreor-less horizontal (for the pottery finds, see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 2c). Construction Phase C. A broad supporting wall (W811-W812), approximately 22 m long, 2.8–3.1 m wide at the base and 3.5 m high, was built north–south on the remains of the quarry on the same axis as the eastern stylobate (W457) of the Cardo (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 18-18; Fig. 3.9). The top of the wall was damaged in later periods and only parts of it survived. In the process, W811-W812 apparently cut through the layers of earth and stones that had already accumulated on the bedrock bottom at an earlier stage (see above, Construction Phase B; Plan 3.5: Sections 11-11, 14-14, 15-15, 16-16). As a result, different locus numbers were given to adjacent parts of the wall: to the broad foundations (W805-

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

41

W806-W811-W812) and to the narrower, approximately 1.6–1.8 m wide upper part (W804). The southern part of the foundation wall (W806) abutted the remains of a vertical cliff wall from the earlier quarry. South of this cliff face, a hewn rock wall (W457) continued in the same line and is identified as the eastern stylobate of the Cardo (Plan 3.2). The two faces of W811 were made of courses of hewn, medium-to-large building blocks with dressed outer faces, separated by smaller leveling stones. The wall’s core was constructed of small- and medium-sized fieldstones (Plan 3.5: Section 14-14). The eastern face of the foundation wall had two distinct parts, built in different ways, with a vertical join between them: W805-W811 in the south and W812, which jutted out from it approximately 0.2 m, in the north (Plan 3.5: Section 18-18). The eastern face of W812 was built of fieldstones, but not in properly laid courses; it was probably a repair to W805-W811. At the time of excavation, the removal of part of W812 revealed pottery sherds of the same date as the rest of the fills (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 1). A water channel (L8068) was incorporated into the western section of W811-W812 (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 16-16). The channel followed a winding course inside the wall and appears to have been inserted into an already existing wall. In the southern section of W805, the channel emerged from the wall, veering southwest to continue south underneath the Cardo’s paving. During excavation, a foundation trench (L8132) was identified adjacent to the eastern face of W811-W812 (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 2d). A thin layer of small fieldstones, potsherds and dressed stones (L8123, L8125) apparently sealed the foundation trench and the strata abutting the eastern side of W811-W812 at an elevation of about 724.50–725.00 m (Plan 3.5: Sections 11-11, 14-14). At the time, we identified this layer as the ground surface level of the builders of W811-W812 (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 2e). However, subsequent review of the drawn sections (see above and Plan 3.5: Section 17-17) suggests that all of the fills alongside the wall were deposited only after its construction, indicating that there was no foundation trench (e.g., Fig. 3.10); it is therefore difficult to decide whether the wall preceded or postdated the lower fills above the bedrock (Construction Phases A and B). Construction Phase D. Above the presumed ground level (L8123, L8125) and against the eastern face of W811-W812, earth and ash layers were deposited, filling and leveling the quarry pit to a height of approximately 726.20 m, upon which the street’s paving stones were laid (L8020; Plan 3.5: Section 11-11). These layers contained numerous finds characteristic of a refuse dump and therefore the entire fill of the quarry was termed the ‘Roman refuse dump’. As many of the fill layers inside the dump were burnt, along with their associated finds, it may be assumed that they were burned at the site itself after the refuse had been thrown away, probably for hygienic reasons. The different shades of ash (black, gray and white) are probably the result of varying combustion duration and oxidization levels during burning (Plan 3.5: Sections 11-11, 14-14, 15-15, 17-17). The lens-shaped area (L8121) visible in the center of the section (Plan 3.5: Section 11-11; Fig. 3.11) may represent the focal point of the fire. Different locus numbers were assigned to fills with different color or texture, but the finds in all the loci were similar (L8050, L8051, L8053, L8055, L8075, L8104,

42

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 3.9. The Eastern Cardo, W811-W812 at the bottom of Quarry 8170, looking southwest.

Fig. 3.10. The Roman refuse dump, looking south. Note the layers of earth fill abutting W811-W812.

Fig. 3.11. The Roman refuse dump, looking north. Note the burnt fills sealed beneath the pavement of Street 8020.

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43

L8107, L8113, L8122, L8124, L8126, L8130, L8136, L8150; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Groups 2f, 2g). The dump yielded a large number of finds dating from 75 to 125 CE (RosenthalHeginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Groups 2b–2g). Similar earthen fills were also found to the west of W811-W812 (L8059, L8139, L8173, L8174, L8176, L8182; RosenthalHeginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 4c), where they were sealed under a flagstone of the Cardo (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 10-10). Two possibilities can be proposed regarding the relationship between the Eastern Cardo, W811-W812 and the Roman dump on both sides of the wall: W811-W812 was built from the outset as a retaining wall in order to stabilize the earth fills on which the street was founded, and is therefore related to the street’s infrastructure; or alternatively, the wall was built before the street’s construction for a different purpose, and when the street was built, it was adapted to serve as a foundation for the eastern stylobate. The former possibility is more likely, for the following reasons: 1. Wall 811-W812 was built inside a quarry that was in use until only a short time before the wall was constructed. In this area, the elevation of the bedrock is lower than that of the planned street and in the absence of earlier structures capable of supporting the earthen fill, the level had to raised artificially to support the foundations of the street. Wall 811-W812 provided a solution to this constructional dilemma. 2. The correlation between the axis of the street’s eastern stylobate, W457, and that of W811-W812 was probably intentional rather than accidental. This wall was aligned precisely with the main axis of the colonnaded street, which is distinctly different from the main axes of earlier First and Second Temple-period buildings aligned to the slope of the hillside. Moreover, the beginning of orthogonal planning in this area, namely the construction of parallel and perpendicular streets whose axes correspond roughly to the cardinal points, is connected with the infrastructure work on the street; no signs have been found of any previous orthogonal construction. 3. No finds have been identified suggesting that W811-W812 existed at an earlier stage, before it was incorporated into the Cardo, such as an abutting floor or any related walls that might have formed part of a coherent structure. 4. The structures relating to the wall, such as Drainage Channels 8068 and 8178 (see below), are also associated with the Cardo and point to their contemporaneity. West of W811-W812, layers of burnt fill (L8174, L8182) in the area sealed by the Cardo paving stones, between W811-W812 and Channel 8178, abut both this channel on the west and Channel 8068 on the east, indicating that the two channels were in existence at the same time (Plan 3.5: Section 10-10). In addition, these fills (L8174, L8182) are similar to those found in the Roman refuse dump. The fills of stones, earth and ash in the Roman refuse dump east of W811-W812 were deposited to a total height of approximately 3.5 m above the base of the

44

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

quarry, and yielded an extremely rich variety of small finds, including potsherds (see WWPE II), military bread stamps and glass vessel fragments (see WWPE III).4 These finds provide a time frame for the refuse dump ranging from 70/75 to 125/130 CE. The most recent coin identified was minted during the rule of Domitian in 86/87 CE, providing a firm terminus post quem for the deposition. The pottery assemblages contained lamps and imported tableware of Eastern Terra Sigillata type, providing chronological anchor points for dates between the last third or quarter of the first century and the first quarter or third of the second century CE. The Drainage System A sophisticated drainage system was installed before the street was paved. The system included built and hewn drainage channels, both deep and shallow, with and without plaster, which ran along the length of the street and the porticos (Plan 3.2). In the northern part of the street, where it was constructed over earlier buildings and earthen fills, drainage channels were built-up and sometimes rested on the walls of earlier buildings, while in the street’s southern part, the drainage channels were carved into the bedrock foundation. The channels were usually covered with flat stone slabs found sealed at some depth below the street’s paving stones. One of them (Channel 8178, see below) was covered by a stone vault, which was also sealed under paving stones. These all indicate that the drainage system was installed and completed before the flagstones were laid. This urban drainage system continued to be used long after the Roman period; following the Byzantine period, some of the channels were blocked and fell into disuse. The main channel that ran along the street from north to south (L536; Plan 3.2) was used continuously from the time of the street’s construction until the end of the Ottoman period. In many places, the covering was breached by later openings that damaged the ancient paving, and additional channels and chutes leading into the main channels were added in the Late Islamic and Ottoman periods (Plan 3.5: Section 28-28; see chute sloping to Channel 536 under W84). In the 1930s, during the British Mandate, the drainage system was modernized along el-Wad Street and, in the process, a wide drainage pipeline was inserted into long sections of the ancient channel. After 1967, Israel replaced substantial sections of the Mandatory pipe and added new pipes. The drainage channels discovered along the course of the street and the porticos are described individually below. At various points along the main channel, the collapse of covering slabs blocked it with earth and stone rubble and the channel could only be partially excavated. Depending on their condition, other channels were excavated either partially or fully. A full reconstruction of the drainage system is, therefore, impossible.

In addition, radiocarbon dating of two lumps of charcoal and two seeds found in earthen fills sealed underneath the pavement of Street 8020 (Plan 3.5: Section 11-11) was carried out at the Weizmann Institute. The calibrated dates of the seeds are consistent with the date of the refuse dump (Boaretto, forthcoming). 4

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

Channel 536 Channel 536 was hewn into the bedrock (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 27-27, 28-28; Figs. 3.12, 3.13). The channel flowed along the center of the street from north to south; it was 0.8–1.0 m wide and 2.3 m deep. The bottom part of the channel (depth 1.3 m, width 0.8 m) was approximately 0.2 m narrower than the top (depth 1 m, width 1 m) and the stepped transition between the two parts may indicate that the channel was deepened at some point while it was still in use. The channel was covered with flat, 0.2 m thick stone slabs that remained sealed underneath the street’s paving stones. Channel 536 was installed when the foundations for paving the street were prepared and it served as the street’s main drainage channel until the Ottoman period. As noted above, the covering stones were breached in many places by later openings that damaged the ancient paving, and additional channels were added (Plan 3.5: Section 28-28). As a result of these disturbances, the paving stones of the Cardo above the channel subsided in many places. The channel was blocked with earth and stones and thus was only partially excavated.

45

Fig. 3.12. Channel 536 prior to excavation, looking north.

Fig. 3.13. Channel 536 prior to excavation, showing later breaches and Early Islamic wall directly above, looking south.

Channel 6216-6144 Channel 6144 was built in the northern part of the excavated section of the street (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 5-5–7-7; Fig. 3.14). This channel flowed from north to south, more or less continuing the same course as Channel 536, although the join between them was not excavated. The sides of the channel were made of medium-sized fieldstones roughly hewn on the inner side. The channel was 0.4–0.6 m wide, and shoddily built. It was roofed with large stone slabs, about 0.8–1.0 m below the Cardo paving. The western wall of the channel made use of Iron Age W624, which belonged to First Temple-period Building 6153. Upon dismantling Channel 6144, fragments of late Byzantine pottery (sixth to midseventh centuries) were recovered.5 The channel also yielded a first–second-century Roman

The finds from L6144 (B61000, B61278, B61294) were identified by Miriam Avissar and registered in the field.

5

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

provincial coin (Chapter 6: Cat. No. 37). Thus, the channel’s latest reconstruction was probably in the late Byzantine period, or later. An earlier channel (L6216) was found preserved to a height of one or two courses beneath Channel 6144. Channel 6216 was 0.4 m wide and preserved to a height of 0.4 m; it flowed in a general north–south direction. Inside the channel, a neat floor was identified of small, densely arranged fieldstones. It was not possible to determine the precise date when Channels 6216 and 6144 were built. The fact that they were on a more or less similar axis as Channel 536 suggests that they were planned and built together with the drainage system of the Cardo area, but this cannot be verified. Channel 8178 Channel 8178 was built west of W811-W812, in the northeastern part of the street (Plan 3.2; Sections 9-9, 10-10; Figs. 3.15, 3.16). The channel was excavated along a short, 4 m long segment from north to south. In the southern part of the segment, the channel veered in a southwesterly direction toward the center of the street. At this point, the channel had been damaged by a concrete sewage pipe and its southern continuation was not excavated. Channel 8178 was 0.75 m wide and over 0.6 m deep; it was not excavated to the bottom. The channel’s 0.4–0.5 m thick walls were built of orderly courses of medium-sized dressed stones. The channel had a 0.4 m thick vaulted roof made of small stones and it was sealed beneath the street’s Fig. 3.16. Channel 8178. Side of channel ► and roof, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.14. Channel 6144 and the bottom of Channel 6216, looking south.

Fig. 3.15. Channel 8178. Interior and vaulted roof, looking south.

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

47

paving stones. At one point, a wellfinished opening was inserted into the top of the vault, presumably for drainage. The opening was located under an intersection of three of the street’s stone paving slabs, one of which had been robbed at a later date (Fig. 3.17). Channel 8178 is very similar to the built-up channel found in previous excavations underneath the street’s paving stones, 50 m to the north of the Fig. 3.17. Opening in the vaulted roof of Channel 8178 beneath the flagstones of current excavations (Johns 1932:98, the Cardo (L8108), looking east. Fig. 1; see also Weksler-Bdolah 2011a: Figs. 16b–d). The channel excavated by Johns was incorporated in the center of the street, while Channel 8178 was built on the eastern side of the street. Johns (1932) attributed the drainage channel’s date to that of the street sealing it (the Eastern Cardo), while Hamilton (1932:109) believed that the channel predated the street and that its walls were raised to fit the Cardo’s level when paved. Channel 547 Only a very short section of Channel 547, 1.2 m long, was excavated (see Plan 3.2), but it was evident that it continued north under the street’s paving stones. The channel was 0.65 m deep, 0.45 m wide, and flowed from north to south on an axis more or less parallel to that of Channel 536, 1.7 m to its west. The channel was hewn in the bedrock, coated with gray plaster and covered with stone slabs beneath the Cardo’s paving slabs. Channel 8068 Channel 8068, 0.3 m wide and 0.55 m deep, was incorporated into the top of W811-W812. The channel’s course continued inside the upper western part of the wall for approximately 18 m from north to south, following a rather winding route (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 10-10, 11-11, 14-14, 16-16). In the southern part of W805, the channel emerged from the wall, turned southwest and continued south underneath the paving of the Cardo. The channel walls were built of small fieldstones and bonded with light-colored mortar. The interior of the channel was coated with a white lime-based plaster containing small grits. The channel was roofed with rectangular stone slabs, at 725.90 m (Fig. 3.18). A deliberately built manhole (L8054; 0.8 × 1.1 m, height 0.8 m) was constructed over the roof of the channel (Plan 3.5: Section 1616). Its upper opening was probably level with the surface of the eastern sidewalk of the Cardo, where the paving stones were later dismantled; a crushed-lime surface (L8056) is all that remains of the pavement. The winding course of Channel 8068 inside W811-W812 suggests that the channel was installed into the top course after the wall had already been built, although these could be stages of construction. A thin layer of plaster (L8184) covering the channel’s roof slabs and the channel’s western wall and the western face of W811-W812, which is called W810 at this spot (Plan 3.2), indicates their contemporaneity.

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

The channel can be dated on the basis of fills associated with W811-W812 (L8174, L8182; see above), which contained potsherds of the same type as those found in the Roman refuse dump layers, dating the installation of the channels to a period before 130 CE. The channel was sealed under its roofing stones and filled with fine soil devoid of any finds. Channel 491 Channel 491, which was hewn into the bedrock, was 12.6 m long, 0.4 m wide and 0.6–0.8 m deep (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 4-4; Figs. 3.7, 3.19, 3.20). It began at the foot of the cliff (W322) west of the Cardo and continued toward the east, traversing a shop (L502) and the western portico (L490). A number of narrow, shallow channels, probably the remains of quarrying activity, drained into Channel 491 from the north and south.

Fig. 3.19. Channel 491 and the entrance to Room 402, looking west.

Fig. 3.18. Channel 8068 after the removal of some of the covering slabs, looking south.

Fig. 3.20. Channel 491, looking east.

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

49

The inside of Channel 491 was coated with several layers of gray plaster, possibly attesting to a prolonged period of use. The roofing slabs had been robbed in antiquity, and the earthen fill with which it was blocked contained potsherds, glass vessels and coins. The latest potsherds and glass vessels date to the second half of the seventh century CE (Avissar 2019; Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming). Among the seven coins identified (Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 80, 99, 101, 106, 118, 128, 129), the most recent (No. 129) was minted between the end of the sixth and the beginning of the seventh centuries CE (578–610 CE). Channel 491 probably fell into disuse and was blocked up with earth when an Early Islamic-period building was constructed above the western half of the Cardo and the western portico. Channel 373 This channel, 8 m long, 0.35 m wide and 0.4 m deep, flowed from north to south along the western side of the Cardo and was partially preserved (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Section 28-28; Fig. 3.21). The channel began at the junction between Channel 491 and the street and from there continued south along the western side of the Cardo until it converged with another channel (L514, see below). For most of this course, a narrow stone shelf was left along the eastern curb of the western portico, apparently designed to meet the paving stones of the open sidewalk flanking the Cardo. Channel 373 had walls built of small fieldstones bonded with mortar and was covered with thin stone slabs. The channel’s earthen fill (L372) contained Early Islamic potsherds (Stratum VIII).

Fig. 3.21. Channel 373 and Fill 372, looking south.

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Channel 514 This channel, 4.5 m long, 0.4–0.6 m wide and over 1 m deep, flowed from west to east, from the end of Channel 373 toward the main Drainage Channel 536 (Plans 3.2; 3.5: Sections 4-4, 30-30). It began at the foot of the upright rock wall that separates the Cardo from the western portico, south of the southern end of Channel 373. At this point, the negative of a vertical drainpipe (0.2 m wide) was evident on the portico step, leading from the portico into the channel (Plan 3.5: Section 4-4). The northern wall of the channel was hewn into the bedrock, while the southern wall was built. The channel was not excavated to the bottom. The eastern part of the channel had been damaged in a later period, when a cistern was installed in Stratum VI. The channel was found without covering slabs and filled with earth (L319). The latest potsherds in this fill date to the Early Islamic period. The fill also contained potsherds and coins from the Roman period, which we have attributed to the time when the street and the channel were in use. Among the coins worth mentioning are four Roman provincial coins from the second–third centuries CE (Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 38–40, 42), and two fourth-century CE coins (Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 72, 86).

The Construction of the Eastern Cardo (Stratum XIIA) In this phase (Stratum XIIA), the street and sidewalks were paved and columns were erected alongside the latter, forming part of the porticos (Plan 3.3). The two streets branching off to the east toward the Temple Mount were also constructed: L8020 in the north and L4108 in the south. While the finds testify that Street 4108 and the staircases existed in the sixth century, it is assumed here that it was planned in the Roman period (see below), although no solid evidence has been found to support this supposition. The Cardo’s paving was well-preserved along the length of the street and in a number of segments along the western sidewalk. No remains of the original pavements were found in the eastern sidewalk, nor in the porticos. The paving of the eastern sidewalk was deliberately dismantled and replaced, at a later date, with a plaster floor. A mosaic floor of the sixth century CE survived in the eastern portico, and a few flagstones atop a cistern of the late Byzantine period survived in the western portico (see below).

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CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

L6205 L6206 L6222 L6223

L6204 L6209 L6210 L6211

L6213# L6220

L6213 L6224 L6221

L6051 L5181# L6110

W603

W600

L6170 L6028

L6037#

L310

L5272#

# L5338 L5347

E L5293 L5295

L5320

W322

L3070 L3110#

W321

W300

L8086 D

L5248 L5338 L3240 L5348

L3237

L5291#

L4300

L8101

L4213 L4192 L4253

L3241 L3220 L3238

L4221

L3097

L547

L490 L502 L374#-L477# L300 L502(S)

L4271

B

L4273 L720#

L476 A

L264

L4276

L662 L526

L525

L404

L4241 L4261

L4224

L373 L482

L4177 L4175

W424

L3242 L3226 L3225 L500

L491

L502(N) L402

L536

W457

W320

W322

C L3224

L3235

W45

L8090 L8091, L8092

L8068

L3063

W317

W301

L8047, L8048

2 W811-81

3 -W53

W398 L5318

F

L5298 L5299

L5321

L5311 L5316

W804

L5308.1#

W302

5 W32

4

30

W

9-

39

W

L3057

L5297

L8054

L8108#

L5308.2#

W566

07 W3

0

W31 W306 L5227

L8016# L8040 L8042 L8133, L8134, L8135

L8068

L8178

L5338 L5339

L3006

W601=W308

L8020#

L6081#

0 W63

L6071

L6144 L6216

W510

4 L6068 W61 L6070 L6199 L6014

L5338 L475

W90

L4272 L4252

L4265 W958

L4108# L4214

L709# L717

L724

L9546#

W999

L703 L710 L712

L9076 L9075

L9050

Stratum XIIB

Stratum XI

Stratum XIIA

Stratum X

Water Installations 0

10 m

Plan 3.3. The Eastern Cardo during the Roman and Byzantine periods (Strata XII–X).

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

The Colonnaded Street Street Paving and Infrastructure The Cardo’s paved street (carriageway) is 8 m wide (Plan 3.3). The segments of paving found along its length were given different locus numbers during the excavation according to the excavation area in which they were found (from north to south: L6037, L8108, L5272, L5291, L720, L9546). In this report, L8108 is used to refer to the entire length of the street’s paving. Along both sides of the street, 1.5 m wide sidewalks were built, so that the width of the street between the two porticos was 11 m (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 25-25, 29-29, 30-30; Figs. 3.1, 3.7, 3.22). The street and sidewalks were paved with large stone slabs (0.8–1.0 × 1.3–2.1 × 0.3–0.4 m) made from hard, cream-colored, local limestone (mizzi ḥilu). Some of the stones had a reddish hue uncharacteristic of this kind of stone (see Appendix 1). The street’s pavement stones were carefully placed diagonally to its main axis, while those of the sidewalks were laid parallel to the axis of the street. While most of the flagstones were in very good condition, others were worn, some with cracked surfaces, the difference apparently attributable to the composition of the stone and not as a result of different types of use. Some stones bear evidence of repairs that were carried out by inserting small stones between the original slabs. Parallel, shallow, narrow grooves visible on the surface of a number of the slabs were probably added after the paving stones had already been laid in place, possibly to prevent slipping. The absence of grooves left by cart wheels, such as those seen on the surface of colonnaded streets in other cities, is probably due to the highly durable type of limestone from which the carriageway was made. The uniform appearance of the pavement stones shows that they were cut expressly for the Cardo and no earlier stones were reused.

Fig. 3.22. The Eastern Cardo, paving of the street and the western sidewalk, looking north.

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The street’s pavement sealed beneath it the covering stones of drainage channels hewn and built in the preparatory building phase (Stratum XIIB), and therefore post-dates the channels. In the northern part of the excavated area, the flagstones were laid directly over the remains of earlier buildings, or over earthen fills deposited inside earlier quarries (see above, L5293, L5295, L5298, L5299, L5339, L5347; Plans 3.2, 3.3, Figs. 3.7, 3.8). In the southern part of the excavated area, the flagstones were laid on bedrock that had been specifically hewn and leveled for the construction of the street. The flagstones were embedded in a layer of clay mixed with stone chips and small fragments of pottery (L525, L526, L625, L3226, L3242), which leveled off the hewn bedrock foundation and fixed the flagstones in position (Plan 3.3; Figs. 3.23–3.25).

Fig. 3.23. The Eastern Cardo. Note the layer of infrastructure (L3242) beneath the pavement, looking northwest.

Fig. 3.24. The Eastern Cardo. Note the layer of infrastructure (L3242) beneath the pavement.

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Fig. 3.25. The Eastern Cardo. Note the smoothed bedrock foundation of the street, covered by the clay and stone infrastructure beneath the paving slabs, looking north.

Unroofed Sidewalks The remains of a sidewalk 0.30–0.75 m higher than the street were discovered in segments along its western side (L5338, L6081 [Segments A–F], L5308; Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 1313, 19-19, 23-23, 29-29, 30-30; Figs. 3.1, 3.22, 3.26). The total width of the sidewalk was approximately 1.5–1.7 m. The rise of the sidewalk above street level was in accordance with the portico’s level, and therefore not uniform. It measured 0.3 m high in the northern part of the excavated area (Plans 3.3: Segments D, E, F; 3.5: Section 19-19), where only a single step was required. However, in the south, the sidewalk was approximately 0.75 m above street elevation, and consisted of two steps (Plan 3.3: Segments A, B, C). The sidewalk was an integral part of the colonnaded street and also served to bridge the height difference between the street and the western portico. Its pavement stones were similar in form and size to those of the street and, as noted, were laid parallel to the course of the street. The marked similarity between the flagstones of the street and the sidewalk, as well as the infrastructure that continues beneath them in a single sequence (L525; Plan 3.3), attests that they were constructed at the same time. In a number of places, evidence was found of repairs to the sidewalk stones, apparently no later than the Byzantine period. For example, in the northern part of the street, the sidewalk was built of broken stone slabs, with smaller stones inserted between them (L5308; Plan 3.3). The sidewalk infrastructure here yielded Roman potsherds similar to those found in the Roman refuse dump discussed above, together with three body fragments of vessels from the Byzantine period; this would therefore appear to date the repairs (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 6). The three sidewalk stones in Segment B (length 0.5–1.1 m, width 0.8 m) were smaller than the street stones, and their surfaces were grooved to prevent slipping (Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.27). Their different appearance suggests that they also represent a later repair. Excavations were not carried out beneath these stones.

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Along the eastern portico, no sidewalk flagstones similar to those found in the western portico were exposed. However, they may be presumed to have existed because of the 1.5 m distance separating the easternmost flagstones of the street, which are laid diagonally, from Stylobate 457 on the southeastern side of the street (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 25-25). In the northeastern part of the street, the Cardo’s diagonal paving stones stretch as far as Channel 8068 (Plan 3.3). The sidewalk paving was probably laid over the top of Channel 8068, abutting Stylobate 804.

Fig. 3.26. Flagstone pavement of the street and Sidewalk 5338 (Segment D), looking west.

Fig. 3.27. Flagstones of Sidewalk 5338 (Segment B) during excavation, looking east. Note grooves on the surface of the stones.

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The Colonnades From the columns that once lined the street, only one base from the western row of columns remained, on which an inverted fragment of an original column shaft (L3235; length 2.0 m, diam. 0.6 m) had been placed at a later date (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 25-25; Figs. 3.28, 3.29). The base and column shaft were embedded in a later pilaster built in the Islamic period. The base was simple and roughly worked in pseudo-Tuscan style (see Chapter 4: Type A, Fig. 4.1:2). Three others of the same type (Fig. 4.1:1, 3, 4) and fragments of similar column shafts (Fig. 4.12:1–5) were found in secondary use in walls (W211, W84) of the Early Islamic building founded over the Cardo’s stones (Figs. 3.30, 3.31); another base of the same type, slightly larger in size (Fig. 4.1:5), was found in the earthen fill above the street. On the underside of one of the shaft fragments, a mason’s mark was carved in the form of the Greek letter Δ (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.12:3). Three additional bases from the street’s western colonnade, which were similar to those found here, were exposed in previous excavations along a section of this street approximately 250 m south of the Ottoman wall line (Ben-Dov 1985:228; Baruch and Reich 2003:147–151). It is impossible to determine the reason for the rough workmanship and unfinished ‘quarried state’ of the bases and column sections, as noted by Peleg-Barkat (Chapter 4). Moreover, no attempt was made at final dressing despite the fact that they lined the street for many years. This is in contrast with the magnificent workmanship of colonnades elsewhere in the Eastern Roman Empire.

Fig. 3.28. Western portico, looking southwest. In the center are a base and column shaft from the Cardo’s colonnade (Column 3235), incorporated in secondary use within an Islamic-period wall.

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Fig. 3.29. Western portico. Column 3235, looking southeast.

Fig. 3.30. Bases from the Cardo incorporated in secondary use within Islamic-period W84, looking east.

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Fig. 3.31. A Cardo column incorporated in secondary use within Islamic-period W211, looking south.

Two Corinthian capitals, which were also discovered in secondary use within one of the Early Islamic walls (W84), may have belonged to street columns, although the difference in diameter and height of the capitals suggests that they came from a building that stood next to the street rather than from street columns (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.14:2, 3). The carving of one of the capitals was either incomplete or modified at a later date. On the eastern side of the Cardo, at its intersection with Street 4108, which led from the Cardo to the east, an Attic-style, heart-shaped corner base (L4276; length 1.5 m, width 1.5 m, height 1.0 m) had been incorporated into the stylobate of W457 (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 29-29; Figs. 3.32, 3.33). The heart-shaped plinth probably belonged to a monumental gateway (propylaeum) at the entrance to an important building to the east of the Cardo, between the two streets leading eastward (L8020 and L4108). The style of the base and the diameter of the columns that could have been placed upon it conform to that of the street columns (see Chapter 4: Type B, Fig. 4.5). When the heart-shaped base was erected at the end of Stylobate 457, the 0.36 m high bottom plinth, on which the torus moldings stood, continued the line of the stylobate. On its southern side, the block at its base was higher than the staircase descending from the Cardo to Street 4108 (Plan 3.5: Section 30-30). The exact date when the heart-shaped base was erected is unknown; it was probably part of the original street, although this is not absolutely certain and it may have been a later addition. A water cistern installed north of the base damaged it and is clearly of a later date (L4068; Plan 3.5: Section 29-29). An Early Islamic-period floor built over the roof of the cistern indicates that the heart-shaped base predates that period. A mosaic floor in the eastern portico (L4177; Plan 3.3) and Staircase 9050 leading from the Cardo down to Street 4108 (Plan 3.3) are both sixth-century CE additions and coexisted with the heart-shaped base. However, as they are not directly connected to it, the base was probably erected before the sixth century. The style in which the base was worked and the way in which it was incorporated into the Cardo’s rock-hewn eastern stylobate are strong indications that it was probably built when the street was constructed or shortly thereafter.

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Peleg-Barkat has compared the Attic style of the heart-shaped base with the Roman base in front of the Damascus Gate and suggests attributing both to the second century CE (see Chapter 4). Another possible remnant from the presumed monumental gateway is a ‘pulvinated pedestal’-type base found nearby, although its exact provenance is not clear (see Chapter 4: Type D; Fig. 4.9). No additional columns were found on the eastern side of the street, probably because of the presumed monumental gateway leading eastward from the Cardo. It is therefore impossible to determine, at this stage, if there was also a row of pillars on the eastern side of

W424 L4300

L4276

L4271

L4108 L9050

Fig. 3.32. Street 4108 with hewn bedrock in the area of Portico 4300 in the background and Staircase 4271 between them. In foreground, Staircase 9050 descending from the Cardo. Base 4276 at the corner of the Cardo and the steps leading down to the street in the foreground, looking north.

Fig. 3.33. Base 4276, looking southeast.

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the street, although such an absence is unlikely. It is worth noting that on the Madaba map, where for artistic reasons only one colonnaded portico is shown, the portico is actually depicted on the eastern side of the street (see Chapter 7). The pseudo-Tuscan style of the columns, which are dated by parallels to the second– fourth centuries CE (see Chapter 4), is an uncommon feature of Roman colonnaded streets. At first glance, the bulky appearance and quarried state in which the columns were left imply that the work on the street porticos was incomplete. However, from the time of their placement, the columns and their bases remained standing in an unfinished state for centuries. This fact raises the possibility that, from the outset, their faces were rendered in stucco that has not been preserved. Stucco, which is a thick, lime-based plaster, was used in Roman times for coating and smoothing the faces of walls, vaults and columns in order to protect buildings and improve their appearance both inside and outside (Ling 1976:209). While no traces of stucco were found on the bases recovered from the site and no such treatment is known on similar open-air architectural elements, this does not rule out such a possibility, as the technique of stucco was well-known and widely used in the magnificent Herodian architecture of the Second Temple period, for example, in the Herodian houses in the Upper City of Jerusalem (Avigad 1983:99–103), Masada, and the temple at Ḥorbat Omrit (Nelson and Thole 2009). The general appearance of the street and its marked similarity to colonnaded streets in other cities, for example, Bet She’an–Scythopolis (Arubas, Foerster and Tsafrir 2008:1639–1641), raises the likelihood that the eastern colonnaded street in Jerusalem was originally flanked by a row of columns on each side. It is also possible, however, that the columns were erected along the street later than the time of its construction, but no later than the fourth century CE. The Western Portico The width of the western portico, including the colonnade that stood along its length, was 6.2 m, between the edge of the sidewalk in the east to the front of the shop cells in the west, or about 5 m, not including the colonnade (Plan 3.3).6 In the northern part of the excavated site, the western portico was founded on top of the walls of a First Temple-period building (W521, W524, W518) and on the earthen deposits (L5153) between them (Plan 3.2). Most of the portico’s original flooring was not preserved, apart from two stone slabs similar to the flagstones of the street, arranged parallel to the axis of the street (Plan 3.3): Flagstone 5181, in the north, overlaid the First Temple-period W605 (726.76 m) and Flagstone 5308.2 (727.08 m) was discovered approximately 9 m to its south. In the southern part of the excavated area, the foundations of the western portico were hewn into the bedrock for

It was difficult to measure the width of the portico to the west of the colonnade as only the base of one column remained in situ without a stylobate. In contrast, a line of quarrying (L5283, L5332, L5348, L490) clearly marks the western delineation of the sidewalk, at a lower elevation than the colonnade and the portico. The measurement between the edge of the sidewalk in the east and the front of the shop cells in the west is therefore more precise. 6

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a length of 34 m. The portico was higher than the street, on a slight north–south gradient (727.90–727.60 m in the northern part and 727.30 m in the southern part; Plan 3.5: Section 25-25). In carving out the natural bedrock for the portico, quarrying steps and channels were left, as were the negatives of square stone blocks that had been extracted. Three coins were recovered from narrow cracks in the rock, one of which was minted in the sixth century CE (L5348; 518–538 CE; see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 120). As the portico flooring was not preserved here, the coin was probably deposited at a later date. Two water cisterns were hewn in a later period in the area of the western portico, using the portico paving stones to construct ceilings (L300, L712). These will be described below (Strata XI–X). The Eastern Portico A 29 m long section of the eastern portico (L4300), which is roughly 100 Roman feet (29.60 m), was exposed between the two streets (L8020, L4108) perpendicular to the Cardo that led eastward (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 29-29). The eastern portico was 5 m wide and was flanked on the west and the east by hewn and built-up walls: the eastern stylobate wall (W804-W457) of the colonnaded street bordered the portico on the west (Plan 3.3) and a rock-hewn wall (W424) bordered it on the east. Most of the upper courses of Stylobate 804 had been robbed, but a 20 m long section of the 2.9 m wide and 2.5–3.0 m high foundation of the wall remained (W811-W812). The southern part, 11.5 m long, had been fashioned to form a prominent, 1.0–1.3 m wide, 0.4 m high rock ledge (W457; Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.34). On its eastern side, the portico was bordered by a 5.5 m long, 0.9 m wide and 1.4 m high rock-hewn wall (W424) with an entranceway (Fig. 3.35). This entrance may have been to a shop east of the colonnaded street, similar to the rock-hewn shops on the western side (see below). Indeed, it is exactly opposite a partially preserved shop entrance in W320

Fig. 3.34. In center, Stylobate 457. To right, the Cardo; to left, the eastern portico; looking south.

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Fig. 3.35. Wall 424 with an entrance in its center, looking east.

on the western side of the street (Plan 3.3). This symmetry in planning supports such an interpretation, although at a mere 0.9 m wide the entrance in W424 is narrower than its counterpart to the west, which is approximately 1.5 m wide (although Shop 502 in the west may have undergone changes that affected the width of the entrance; the entrance in W566 is closer to that in W424; Plan 3.3). Another possibility is to link the entrance in W424 with the monumental building presumed to have stood to the east of the street, from whose propylaeum the heart-shaped base may have been preserved (see above). The position of the entrance, some 21 m south of Street 8020 and some 7 m north of Street 4108, suggests that it may have been the southernmost of three entrances to the large building. It is worth noting the marked similarity between W424 and the foundation of the eastern wall of a monumental building found in previous excavations west of the Western Cardo, near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (today within the grounds of the Alexander Nevsky Russian Hospice and the neighboring Zalatimo bakery to its north), which is generally considered to have been part of the Roman temple complex that preceded Constantine’s Church (Vincent and Stève 1954: Pl. 25:2). In the northern part of the current excavations, the floor of the eastern portico was founded upon the Roman refuse dump (see above), and in the southern part it was founded on carved bedrock at 726.40 m. Its Roman-period flooring was not preserved. In the southern part of the excavated site, the eastern portico was intersected by Street 4108 (Plan 3.3). Three paved steps founded on carved bedrock (L4271) descended southward from the level of the eastern portico (L4300) to the street (L4108; Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.32). South of Street 4108, five rock-hewn steps (L9076; width 3.8 m, rise of each step approximately 0.3 m, depth approximately 0.2–0.4 m) led upward to the south, to a rockhewn level area (L9075) that was probably the southern continuation of the eastern portico (Plan 3.5: Section 37-37). The section of the portico south of Street 4108 was damaged at a later date and the walls bordering it to the west and the east were only partially preserved;

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it was bordered in the west by the hewn negative of a missing wall found in line with the eastern Stylobate 457, and in the east by a north–south rock-hewn wall (W999) in line with W424 (Plans 3.2, 3.3), which is preserved to a length of 2.7 m and has a width of 1.5 m. It is 0.9 m above the level area of L9075, and its northern corner was relatively high and carved like the entrance jamb of a wall that probably continued to the east. This presumed wall along Street 4108 was outside the limits of the excavation. Shops A row of rectangular cells, divided by rock walls, was hewn between the western portico and the high north–south cliff face (from north to south: L5297, L5311, L3070, L3097, L502, L703: Plan 3.3). The entrances to the cells faced east toward the Cardo’s western portico and had the general appearance of shops lining a street. Depressions and installations hewn in the walls and floors are also described here, although some may have been added in a later period when the cells were integrated into Islamic-period buildings (Stratum IX). North of and in line with this row of shops, a small square plaza (L6014) was built at a higher elevation above an earlier water cistern (L6170) that was incorporated into the layout of the street when new roofing for the water cistern was installed (Plan 3.3). Another row of cells was hewn in the northwestern part of the excavated site (L6220, L6028, L3006, L5227, L310), west of the plaza and at a higher elevation than the eastern row of shops (Plan 3.3). Unlike the shops described above, their openings did not face the portico, so their function is uncertain. Shops West of the Western Portico The row of rectangular rock-hewn shops with bedrock dividing walls was located south of and roughly 1.5 m below the level of Plaza 6014 (Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). Four of the shops had similar overall internal dimensions, 3.3–3.5 × 4.5–5.0 m (L5297, L5311, L3070, L3097; Fig. 3.2), and to their south was an area covering the size of about three shops combined (5.5 × 12.0 m) after the partition walls had been removed (L502; Plan 3.3). Shop 5297 Shop 5297 (3.3 × 4.0 m) was at an elevation of 728.10 m. The outer walls were carved in the bedrock: Wall 310 in the north (length 6.6 m, width 0.65 m, height7 4.1 m), W325 (length 6.6 m, width 0.65 m, height 0.75 m) in the rock terrace to the west, W302 in the south (length 6.6 m, width 0.65 m, height 4.1 m), and W566 in the east (length 6.6 m, width 0.65 m, height 2.2 m; Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 3-3, 13-13; Figs. 3.36–3.39). The eastern side of W325 was faced with building blocks, apparently to shore up the rock face and to block up older Installation 2050 (Plan 3.5: Section 2-2; see also Chapter 2: Plan 2.1: Section 2-2). Three openings were hewn in the shop walls. Two of them, in the east and in the south,

Note that the heights for walls shared by more than one room refer to the maximum preservation for that particular segment. 7

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were made when the shop was originally carved out and a third, in the north, was added at a later date and does not appear in Plan 3.3. The main entrance in the middle of the eastern W566 (Figs. 3.36, 3.37) was 1.4 m wide and the height of the preserved section was 1.9 m. The entrance was reached via two rock-hewn steps (width 1.37–1.47 m, depth 0.25 m and rise 0.2–0.3 m), leading from the western portico (Plan 3.5: Sections 3-3, 13-13). Hinge sockets (diam 0.13 m) and bolt sockets preserved on both sides of the entrance indicated that a double door had been mounted in the doorway. Another entrance in the eastern part of W302 (width 0.9 m, height 1.83 m) connected Shop 5297 with Shop 5311 to its south (Plan 3.5: Section 13-13; Fig. 3.38). The existance of a door between the shops was indicated by a square door-hinge socket in the top of the entrance, next to the eastern door jamb, and sockets for bolts in both jambs. In the northern wall of the cell, approximately 1.25 m above the height of the floor, a 0.8 m wide opening was hewn, corresponding to the level of Courtyard 6014 to the north of Shop 5297. This opening was poorly crafted and appeared as if it had been breached from Courtyard 6014 at a later date. The floor of the shop was pitted with a number of small, round and square hollows that appear to be installations (diam. 0.3–1.0 m; Figs. 3.37, 3.39). It is impossible to say when these were hewn, although they were probably added either while the shop was still being used or after it was integrated as a room in a later Stratum IX building. Along the shop’s northern and southern sides (W310 in the north, W302 in the south; Plan 3.5: Section 13-13), flat-based arched recesses were hewn about 2.1 m above the floor, probably to support a vaulted ceiling that was not preserved. The height of the walls above the arched recesses attests to a probable second floor above this vault. Pilasters built in the Early Islamic period in the four corners of the cell were founded on the bedrock walls, rendering the carved arched recesses obsolete. Thus, the original arched roofing had been destroyed by the ninth century CE and square pilasters were built instead to support the arch of a new roof constructed in the Early Islamic period.

Fig. 3.36. Wall 566 and entrance to Shop 5297, looking west.

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Fig. 3.37. Shop 5297 and W566. Islamic-period pilasters flank the hewn entrance, looking east.

Fig. 3.38. Shop 5297. Entrance to Shop 5311 incorporated in W302, looking south.

Fig. 3.39. Shop 5297. Wall 325, looking west. ► Note the hewn installations in the floor.

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Shop 5311 Shop 5311 (3.3–3.4 × 5.3–5.5 m) was hewn south of Shop 5297, at an elevation of 728.20 m (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 3-3, 19-19; Figs. 3.40, 3.41). It was enclosed by rock-hewn walls: Wall 302 in the north (length 5.3 m, width 0.7 m, height 4.2 m), W322 in the west (length 3.3 m, height 3.7 m) and W300 in the south (length 5.7 m, width 0.5–0.6 m, height 3.7 m). The original eastern roofing on the portico side was not preserved. A later wall, built in the late Islamic period along the same line as Shop 5311, made secondary use of an impressive lintel that was inverted, and this may have been the original lintel of the shop’s doorway (Plan 3.5: Section 2-2; Fig. 3.41). A smaller opening incorporated in the northern wall led into Shop 5297 to its north (see above). The floor of Shop 5311 was approximately 0.4 m higher than the floor of the portico to its east (Plan 3.5: Section 19-19). Various features were hewn into the bedrock floor of the shop: a long channel with a settling pit in its center (L5316; diam. 1.1 m) ran west to east along the center of the shop, and to the north, square shallow impressions (0.3 × 0.4 m, 0.4 × 0.4 m, 0.6 × 0.6 m) and rounded troughs (diam. 0.4 m) were hewn, all 0.2–0.5 m deep. Apart from these, in the northern and southern parts of the shop, clusters of small round or square cupmarks (diam. and depth less than 0.1 m) were hewn; in the southeastern corner of the shop, below the level of the rock floor, a later plastered water cistern was hewn (L3063; length 2.1 m, width 0.8 m). A shaft for drawing water was incorporated into the shop floor and was found sealed with stones. Another opening had been broken into the eastern wall of the cistern from inside the portico. The cistern was not excavated and not recorded. The hewn features cannot be dated with any precision, but as in Shop 5297, they were probably added either while the shop was being used or after it was incorporated as a room in a later Islamic-period building (Stratum IX).

Fig. 3.40. Shop 5311 (center) and Shop 3070 (left), looking west.

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In the northern and southern walls of Shop 5311, approximately 1.4–1.5 m above the floor, about six elliptical sockets were hewn, three on each wall. They measure 0.10–0.11 × 0.25–0.30 m, depth 0.07 m, with pierced horizontal bands of rock in the middle (see Fig. 3.43). In the shop’s western wall, approximately 3.6 m the floor, a row of small rectangular sockets (0.10 × 0.15 m, depth 0.1 m) was hewn that may have served as mortises for anchoring narrow wooden beams perhaps for installations (Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). During the Late Islamic period, additional sockets were hewn in the walls of the shop, about 1.4 m and 3.6 m above the floor, to anchor cross vaults in the Islamic-period building (e.g., W302; see Section 19-19). The hewn sockets were similar to those hewn in the neighboring shop to the south, where the vaulted ceiling of the lower floor was preserved in its entirety (see below, L3070).

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Fig. 3.41. Opening in a late Islamic-period building at the location of the entrance to Romanperiod Shop 5311, looking west. The door jamb and lintel stones are in secondary use.

Shop 3070 Shop 3070 (3.3–3.5 × 5.0 m) lay south of Shop 5311, although its floor was about 1 m lower, at an elevation of 727.00–727.50 m (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 21-21, 23-23; Fig. 3.43). A cross vault built above it during the late Islamic period was preserved in its entirety. The shop was enclosed by W300 in the north (length 5.7 m, width 0.5–0.6 m, height 4.2 m; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2), W322 in the west (length 3.2 m, height 8.0 m; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2), W301 in the south (length 4.3 m, width 0.9 m, height 5.0 m) and W321 in the east (preserved length 1.2 m, width 0.9 m, height 0.5 m; Plan 3.5: Section 3-3), the last of which was only partially preserved in a low original section in its northern part. The shop’s original entrance was incorporated in the center of this wall, where the northern door jamb was preserved. Wall 321 was breached in the late Islamic period and the northern part was arched and incorporated in the roof vault of the new building (Plan 3.5: Section 3-3, L3070, W321). Two openings were hewn in the southern wall (W301) connecting Shop 3070 with Shop 3097 (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 23-23). The bottom of the western opening (width 1.1 m, height 1.5 m) was hewn approximately 1 m east of the shop’s southwestern corner and was about 0.5 m above the shop floor; it was probably a later addition. Its jambs and lintel are straight. A narrow, elongated socket, possibly used to hold a bolt (0.15 × 0.27 m), was carved across the upper part of the eastern jamb, approximately 0.4 m below the top.

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Fig. 3.43. Shop 3070. Elliptical socket hewn in northern W300, looking north.

◄ Fig. 3.42. Shop 3070 with a Late Islamic-period vault built over it, looking west.

The eastern opening was about 0.8 m west of the shop’s southeastern corner (maximum width 0.85 m, height 1.7 m). The opening was incorporated into the late Islamic construction and appeared to have either been repaired or first installed during this phase. Its door jambs were built of dressed stones (to reinforce the rock) and its ceiling was arched. The bedrock floor of Shop 3070 was only partially excavated because of structures decorated with unusual, Late Islamic-period paintings that were preserved intact inside the shop and not removed (Cytryn-Silverman, forthcoming). The floor (727.50 m) sloped slightly to the east. Carved depressions in its center were probably installations. Numerous depressions in the shop walls include a row of roughly rectangular sockets (max. dimensions 0.1 × 0.2, depth 0.1 m) in the northern wall (W300), approximately 0.9 m above the shop floor. Above these, about 1.75 m and 2.2 m above the floor, were rows and clusters of similar hewn sockets. In total, 16–20 sockets were evident along the wall; their function could not be established definitively, but they were probably used to anchor wooden beams. Traces of soot were found inside one of the sockets, and it appears to have been used to house a lamp (Plan 3.5: Sections 21-21, 23-23). In the center of the shop’s northern wall (W300), about 2.75 m above the floor, a carved arch protruded from the wall, its lower part preserved (width 0.75 m). It was impossible to determine if the arch belonged to the original construction of Shop 3070 or to a later stage in its existence, but it was earlier than the cross-vaulted ceiling built over the shop. It should be noted that there was no matching socket or protrusion on the opposite wall.

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The western wall of the shop (W322) was very worn. A channel ran along the center of the wall from north to south, probably a natural fissure. A number of square sockets were carved in the southern wall of the shop (W301): three in the upper part of the wall, about 2.0–2.5 m above the floor, and a row of small rectangular sockets (length 0.1–0.2 m) about 1 m above the shop floor. The latter were similar to those carved in the northern wall and may all have been used to anchor beams. A channel containing charcoal lumps and traces of plaster was hewn along the southern wall of the shop, 1.5 m above the floor between the corner and the western entrance in the southern wall (Plan 3.5: Section 23-23). Shop 3097 Shop 3097 (3.6 × 4.5 m) was located south of Shop 3070 at roughly the same elevation, 727.30 m (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 3-3, 25-25). The shop was enclosed by rock-hewn walls: W301 in the north (length 5.7 m, width 0.8 m, height 5.6 m), W322 in the west (length 3.7 m, height 7.6 m), W45 in the south (length 5.5 m, width 0.7 m, height 3.8 m), and W317 in the east (length 4.8 m, width 0.7–0.9 m, height 2.5 m). The original entrance to the shop (width 2.0 m, preserved height 1.5 m) was via W317 (Figs. 3.44, 3.45). It was evident that the entrance had undergone alterations before eventually being completely blocked up by a plaster-coated debesh wall in the Islamic period. The original entrance probably had straight door jambs and it was capped with a relieving arch formed of seven square stones; six were found in situ and the negative of a seventh was visible at its northern end (Plan 3.5: Section 3-3). A chancel post was incorporated in secondary use in the western face of the eastern wall (W317) in the building course above the arch, attesting to subsequent repairs (Plan 3.5: Section 22-22). At a later stage, the opening was widened and deepened in the north, so that the northern jamb acquired a slightly concave form. Two additional openings were located in the northern wall leading to Shop 3070 (see above). The shop’s rock floor and western wall had been damaged in the Late Islamic period, when a water channel (L3148) was carved from east to west along the entire length of the shop, leading to a plastered cistern (L3096; Plan 3.5: Sections 2-2, 25-25). The shop’s eastern entrance was Fig. 3.44. Wall 317, the inner side of the entrance to Shop 3097, looking east. probably blocked up at this stage.

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Various carved features were visible on the rock walls of Shop 3097, in particular rows of square sockets that probably served to anchor wooden ceiling beams, or various installations, which are impossible to date with certainty. Three parallel rows of square sockets were hewn in the shop’s western wall, at about 2.2 m, 4.4 m and 7.0 m respectively above the shop floor (Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). The sockets in the two lower rows were approximately 0.1 × 0.1 m and those in the upper row were about 0.2 × 0.2 m.

Fig. 3.45. Wall 317, outside the entrance to Shop 3097, looking west.

Shop 502 This rectangular area south of W45 is equivalent in size to three combined shops (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 3-3, 28-28). The internal dimensions are 5.0 × 12.5 m and the surface is at elevation 727.30–727.60 m. The area was delineated in the north by W45, whose worn surface at some point had been repaired with ashlars; in the west by W322 (length 12 m, height 10 m), the lower part of which contained entrances to two square rooms that were hewn out like caves (L402, L404); in the south by W90 that, while probably built in the Late Islamic period, follows the line of an earlier wall; and, in the east, by the original rock wall (W320; length 1.5 m, width 1.0 m, height c. 3.0 m) that was partially preserved in the north of the cell (Plan 3.3), to the south of which a late Islamic period arch (W82) was preserved in its entirety (Figs. 3.2, 3.7). Rock-hewn gutters and vertical grooves preserved in W322 divided the face of the rock into three sections of equal width (L502N, L502, L502S; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). They reinforce the notion that this area was originally planned as three separate shops identical in shape and size to those to the north, and that the partition walls between them were removed at some later stage (Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.5). In the Late Islamic period, three cross vaults were built inside, emphasizing the fact that the area had been previously divided into three adjacent cells. Nevertheless, it is impossible to determine conclusively whether the space was originally divided into three separate shops that were subsequently combined or whether it was planned as a single large space from the outset. In light of the decision to preserve later overlying structures, this space was only partially excavated. Drainage Channel 491 was hewn in its northern part, flowing from west to east (see above). To its south, the face of the rock was crisscrossed with narrow grooved channels probably left by rock-quarrying work, which were subsequently used for drainage. Small roofing stones were found above one of the channels; the other channels were not covered. Wall 322 was hewn vertically to a maximum height of 10–11 m in its southern section, decreasing in height toward the north. Signs of hewing and building were visible on its face and it is clear that its present appearance is the result of human agency. Rows of short, parallel

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diagonal lines had been left by the sharp tool used to hew the rock. In some places, the lines in adjacent rows faced in opposite directions, forming a herringbone pattern, and in others they had been worked in the same direction. Hewn sockets are visible on the rock face, some of which had been associated with structures leaning against the cliff face after it had been quarried, and some with a drainage system. They attest to the existence of two floors in the buildings leaning against the rock wall at different periods. No exact date could be given to the various remains, but it was possible to distinguish between the earlier and later ones. In the lower part of the cliff face associated with the ground floors of the shops, three small rooms were hewn out, one for each presumed shop—L402, L404 and L264 (Plan 3.3). Room 402 was rectangular (3.00 × 3.95 m, max. height 3.2 m; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). The entrance passage from L502N into L402 (height 2.85 m, width 1.2 m, thickness 0.6 m) was set in the latter’s southeastern side and was the same height as the interior, possibly an enlargement of the original entrance (Figs. 3.19, 3.46). It was poorly worked in comparison with L404 to its south (see below). Bolt sockets were carved in the northern door jamb of the entrance, indicating that it once held a door. The room was found filled with earth containing numerous Mamluk-period potsherds; it is unknown when it was hewn. Room 404 was square in plan (3.0 × 3.3 m, height 2.0 m; Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 28-28; Figs. 3.47–3.49). Access was through an entrance (1.0 × 1.0, 0.9 m thick) from Room 502S. The walls of the room were smoothed and showed traces of stone dressing in long, curved strokes made by a single-pointed tool. The stone dressing was meticulous and the entrance was formed with care; it could be fastened shut from the outside, as was evident from the hinge hole and bolt socket preserved on the eastern side of the opening. Neither the date when the room was hewn nor its purpose was evident. Its appearance and the Late Islamic-period building surrounding it that preserved its entrance indicate that it may have been hewn before that period. No earth or finds were recovered from the room. Niche 264 was rectangular in plan (1.0 × 1.9 m, depth 0.55–0.70 m) and hewn into the face of W322, about 0.75 m above the bedrock floor in the southern part of Room 502S (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 29-29, 30-30). It was divided into two sections with the northern one slightly narrower and shallower than the southern. Straight horizontal grooves that look as if they had housed shelves, were hewn in the walls of the northern and southern niches: three grooves in the northern wall, with a Fig. 3.46. The entranceway from Shop 502N distance of 0.3 m between each, and two to Room 402. Note the hewn gutter (L482) in the rock face of W322, looking west. grooves in the southern wall with a distance

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of approximately 0.45 m between them. Two round sockets carved on the southern door jamb may have been part of a mechanism for securing the door(?). Goods of some sort were probably stored on these presumed shelves. The northern part of the niche was put out of

Fig. 3.47. The rock-hewn entrance to Room 404. To right, pilaster of arch; in foreground, reinforcement of late Islamic-period opening, view to the west.

Fig. 3.49. Room 404, looking northwest.

◄ Fig. 3.48. Room 404, looking northeast.

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use by the Late Islamic-period building and its construction can therefore be attributed to an earlier date. In the central part of W322, about 6.8 m above the rock floor and the entrance to Room 404, a narrow elongated socket (L150) was hewn from north to south (0.4 × 3.6 m; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). Its base was flat and its top curved in a half-arch. One building block was preserved in the socket. The socket was probably used to anchor an arched vault on the ground floor. Above it, in line with the cliff face, the remains of a built wall (W19) were preserved on the upper floor containing an entrance dating from an unknown period. In the top southern part of W322, approximately 9.8 m above the bedrock floor, a row of nine roughly square sockets for anchoring beams was carved (L155; 0.15 × 0.20 × 0.20 m; Plan 3.5: Section 2-2). The sockets were about 0.2 m apart and probably served as mortises for roofing beams leaning against the cliff face. Shop 703 Shop 703 (4.5 × 11.0 m), south of L502, was twice as long as the other shops and most of it was covered with a rock ceiling (Plans 3.2, 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 32-32). On its northeastern side, it was apparently separated from Shop 502 by a wall whose outline is preserved by an Islamic-period wall (W90; Plan 3.3). In the east was a rock-hewn step, probably indicating the original threshold of the shop entrance (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 2-2, 3-3). Shop 703 was filled with earthen fill and only partially excavated. Plaza 6014 and the Northwestern Row of Cells Plaza 6014 Plaza 6014 (5.0 × 7.5 m) was located north of the row of shops to the west of the street at 729.60 m (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 2-2). It was bordered by W614 in the north, W630 in the west, W310 in the south and W510 in the east. An Attic column base (L6110, Chapter 4: Fig. 4.7:1) is set on a deep foundation, east of the corner of W614 and W510. It was impossible to determine whether this base was in situ and supported a column or was incorporated, in secondary use, inside a retaining wall that strengthened the corner of the plaza. The plaza was the same width as the two adjacent cells to its west (L3006, L6028). It was higher than the portico to its east and also higher than the rock-hewn shops to its north and south. The surface was paved with thick square flagstones up to 1 sq m in size and 0.3 m thick, which were laid parallel to the course of the street. As previously noted, these stones also served as roofing for an earlier Second Temple-period water cistern that was integrated into the Roman street (see Chapter 2: Cistern 6170). Some of the courtyard paving slabs had been broken and repaired with small stones. North and west of Plaza 6014, a row of cells (L6220, L6028, L3006, L5227, L310) was hewn in the bedrock higher upslope (Plan 3.3). While this northwestern row of cells was built to correspond to the shops existing to its east, their function and date—whether they were built at the same time or added at a later date, and whether they functioned as shops— cannot be determined. To construct Cells 5227 and 310, earlier structures (i.e., Installation 2050 in Cell 5227, Miqveh 2022 in Cell 310) had to be dismantled. In addition, access to the plaza from these cells could not be determined during the excavation.

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Cell 6220 Cell 6220 (length 3.0 m, min. width 0.8 m; 726.40 m) at the northern boundary of the excavation was only partly excavated in its southern part (Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.50). It was enclosed by upright rock terraces above which W600 was built in the west and W603 in the south. The cell’s floor was rock hewn and leveled. In the Byzantine period, the cell was paved with flagstones (L6213) at a height of 1.0–1.2 m above the bedrock floor at 727.59 m. Cell 6028 Cell 6028 (3.3 × 5.0 m; 729.47 m) was hewn south of Cell 6220 and west of Plaza 6014 (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 1-1, 2-2, 6-6; Fig. 3.51). It was delineated by walls built on rock terraces, W603 in the north and W600 in the west, and rock-hewn W601 in the south (length 5.0 m, width 0.9 m; height 2.5 m). On its eastern side, it opened onto

Fig. 3.50. Cell 6220, southern part. To right, Floor 6213, looking west.

Fig. 3.51. Cell 6028, looking west.

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Plaza 6014. Shallow, narrow channels flowing from west to east and containing traces of plaster were hewn into the floor: Channel 6068 along W603 in the north (length 5.3 m, width 0.4 m, depth 0.2 m) and Channel 6071 along W601 in the south (length 5.0 m, width 0.2 m, depth 0.11 m); both led to Cistern 6170. The two channels entered the excavation site from the north; W600 was constructed over them at a later date, incorporating Channel 6071 within a space covered with a relieving arch built into the lower part of the wall. Between these two channels, another channel (L6070; length 2.3 m, width 0.1 m, depth 0.2 m) flowed from north to south in the eastern part of Cell 6028. Once the channels had fallen into disuse, they were blocked up with earth containing Early Islamic potsherds.8 Cell 3006 Cell 3006 (1.8–2.4 × 3.6 m; 729.53 m) was smaller than the other cells and its western wall was hewn diagonal to the axis of the Cardo (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 1-1, 8-8 12-12; Fig. 3.52). It was enclosed by rock-hewn walls to the north (W601; length 2.8 m, width 0.9 m, height 2.7 m) and south (W306; length 2.5 m, width 1.0 m), a vertical rock terrace to the west (W307; length 3.5 m, height 4.7 m) and a built wall to the east (W630; length 2.3 m, width 0.4 m, height 0.6 m), which separated it from Courtyard 6014 to its east. The shop’s entrance was 0.7 m wide and built in the middle of its eastern wall. The bedrock floor of the cell was leveled to about the same elevation as Plaza 6014.

Fig. 3.52. Cell 3006. Rock wall containing sockets for anchoring beams. In the corner of the cell, an Islamic-period pilaster, looking west. In 2017 (A-8053), the blocking of the relieving arch above Channel 6071 (in W600) was dismantled and an angled volute fragment of a Corinthian capital was found (see Chapter 4, n. 4). 8

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Cell 5227 Cell 5227 (3.0 × 4.0 m; 730.80 m) was hewn to the south of Cell 3006 and west of Cell 5297 (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Section 13-13). It was higher than both its neighbors, and its purpose is unclear. It was enclosed in the north by W306, which separated it from Cell 3006 (preserved length 3.0 m, height 3.0 m), in the west by rock-hewn W399 and in the south by rock-hewn W398, which was the continuation of W302 and 2.8 m above the floor of the cell. In W399, a socket (L3057) was carved diagonal relative to the walls of the cell; this may have been the termination of an earlier installation (possibly a water channel) that was removed when Cell 5227 was hewn. At the eastern edge of Cell 5227, the lower part of Stratum XIII Installation 2050 was dismantled when the cell was constructed. Cell 310 Cell 310 (3.0 x 4.0 m; 730.80 m), excavated in 2017, is almost 3 m higher than Cell 5227 to the north. Its date could not be determined, but as it destroyed the northern side of Ritual Bath 2022, it was hewn later than the Second Temple period. Street 8020 To the east of the Cardo, in the northeastern part of the excavation (Plan. 3.3), an area of approximately 3.6 × 4.3 m (L8020), which extended beyond the boundaries of the excavation, was paved with rectangular limestone flagstones similar to those of the Cardo. Several of its stones had been robbed in antiquity. At an elevation of 726.90–727.00 m, it was about 0.4 m higher than the Cardo (Plan 3.5: Sections 10-10, 11-11). It was not possible to determine with absolute certainty if this paved area was a street leading in an easterly direction from the Cardo, owing to the small area excavated and the damage caused to many of its stones in later periods. It may have been a paved courtyard; however, a row of curbstones arranged along its southern boundary and mosaic flooring in the eastern portico (from the sixth century CE) abutting the pavement at an elevation 0.3 m lower (see below) indicate a direct relationship between L8020 and the eastern portico. Three flagstones, arranged side-by-side perpendicular to the Cardo, bordered L8020 on its western side, along the eastern stylobate of the street, some 1.5 m from the edge of the Cardo’s paving stones. The sidewalk paving stones that probably connected the Cardo with L8020 were robbed in antiquity. Thus, the link between L8020 and the colonnaded street is conjectural. The street was paved with local limestone (mizzi ḥilu) slabs ranging in size from 0.8 × 1.2 m (large slabs) to 0.6 × 0.8 m (small slabs), both with a thickness of 0.4–0.5 m. The stones were arranged in the direction of the street. A row of four curbstones arranged in an east– west alignment accentuated the southern edge of the pavement. In the west, the pavement presumably abutted the missing paving stones of the eastern sidewalk of the Cardo. The pavement clearly sealed Stratum XIIB W812 and the earth and ash fills of the Roman refuse dump (Quarry 8170; Plan 3.5: Sections 11-11, 18-18). Based on this stratigraphic relationship and on the marked similarity with the Cardo pavement, it would appear to have been built at the same time and therefore belongs to Stratum XIIA.

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Furthermore, the existence here until 1967 of a street on a similar axis, at a higher elevation, is additional support for the identification of L8020 as a street and not a courtyard. The street, which is named ‘Ḥarat al-Magharibé’ on a late nineteenth-century map drawn by Warren (1884: Pl. 5), was perpendicular to el-Wad Street and branched off it to the east. It would seem that, like many streets in the Old City of Jerusalem, it preserved the course of an ancient street. Thus, despite the reservations above, L8020 will be referred to here as a street. Street 4108 East of the Cardo, in the southeastern part of the excavation, a section of a street or courtyard (L4108) was paved with square flagstones at 725.50–725.60 m, 0.4–0.5 m lower than the Cardo (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 30-30, 35-35, 37-37; see Fig. 3.32). The street was 8 m wide, of which a 3 m long area was excavated. Four wide steps (L9050) led down to this paved area from the Cardo.9 Staircase 9050 is considered part of this street; it is 8.7 m wide, narrowing to 7.4 m on its eastern side. Wide staircases (L4271, L9076) descended to L4108 from the north and the south respectively, connecting it with the eastern portico (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 36-36, 37-37; Fig. 3.32). As with Street 8020, it cannot be determined whether L4108 represents a paved courtyard or, as is more likely, a wide street leading off the Cardo to the east. While a coin and potsherds from the sixth century CE recovered from the foundation of L4108 (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 103; Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 6) provide evidence of the street’s existence during the sixth century, post 534 CE (Stratum X), we nevertheless assume that an earlier route was built here at the same time as the Eastern Cardo or slightly afterward, corresponding with Stratum XII or XI. This suggestion relies on the fact that the earthen fill of the infrastructure below the flagstones of L4108 (L4185, L4260, L4273, L4274; Plan 3.2) contained potsherds of the Roman period (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 3). Moreover, several flagstones of L9050 and L4108 are similar in shape and thickness to the flagstones of Street 8020 (Plan 3.5: Section 11-11), Courtyard 6014 (Section 8-8) and the Cardo itself (Sections 13-13, 23-23, 28-28) and may be residuals of the original pavement that was built here. Furthermore, the heart-shaped pedestal of the column at the corner of the Cardo and L4108 suggests that there was a large Roman-period building constructed here, bordered by three streets: the Cardo to the west, Street 8020 to the north and Street 4108 to the south. The center of the street was accentuated by large 1.1 × 1.6 m stone slabs laid lengthwise, on both sides of which smaller paving stones were laid across the width of the street (their size varying between 1.1–1.5 m in length and 0.6–0.9 m in width). Most of the paving stones were thin and smaller than those of the Cardo. The corners of some were broken, and were probably in secondary use. Beneath the paving stones that were removed was a layer of small fieldstones and a dark blackish mortar (L4214, L4252), containing finds from the sixth century CE (Plan 3.3). As noted above, among the paving stones were a few thick flagstones

In the Early Islamic period, an upper, fifth step was added to the top of this staircase.

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similar to the Roman-period flagstones. Below these thick, Roman-like slabs were earthen fills deposited in the Roman period inside earlier quarries (L4273), without any intervening infrastructure (Plan 3.3; see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 3). Each step of Staircase 9050 was approximately 0.20–0.25 m high. The tread of the top step was 0.9 m deep and the other three steps were about 0.5 m deep (Plan 3.3). Many of the stones used to build the staircase appear to have been incorporated in secondary use, based on their broken corners and repairs made with smaller stones. The northern end of the top step was about 0.4 m from the heart-shaped base. This unexplained gap, which was filled in with a thick layer of plaster, suggests that the base and the staircase were not built at the same time. The northern edge of the third step from the west included a stone larger than those adjoining it, carved with parallel grooves similar to those on some of the flagstones in the colonnaded street. The stone steps were held in place by a foundation of earth, small stones, mortar and charcoal (L4265). Broken stones and repairs were also visible in Staircase 4271, which connected the northern side of L4108 with the eastern portico (L4300) or, more precisely, with the sixthcentury mosaic floor (L4177) preserved in the eastern portico. A layer of small stones and dark-blackish mortar (L4272), similar to that found beneath the pavement of L4108, was also found beneath Staircase 4271. The hewn foundation was the main preserved feature of Staircase 9076, found south of L4108 (Plan 3.3). It is therefore probable that in their present form, Street 4108 and the staircases leading to it were built or repaired in the sixth century, at the earliest. At this stage, it cannot be established whether the thick flagstones incorporated in L4108 were found in situ and attest to its original construction in the Roman period, or whether they were incorporated in the Byzantine paving in secondary use.

The Cardo in the Late Roman Period (Stratum XI) The street continued to be used in its original form, apparently with no significant changes. One new structure that can be attributed to this stratum is a water cistern (L300), installed in the southern section of the western portico. The Western Portico—Water Cistern 300 Cistern 300 was rectangular in plan (4.0 × 6.0 m, depth 5.0 m; Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 3-3, 29-29, 30-30; Figs. 3.53–3.55). Its eastern and western borders match the width of the western portico exactly, strongly suggesting that the cistern was carved out to conform to the width of the portico. The sides of the cistern were hewn as vertical walls in the bedrock and both they and the floor were coated with red plaster (from a later use) containing grits and small Islamic-period potsherds. By gradually raising the level of the shaft used for drawing water, Cistern 300 remained in use until the twentieth century. The cistern’s roof (L374) was made of flat stone slabs (average dimensions: 0.5 × 1.0, 0.3 m thick) laid on a series of five relieving arches from west to east, one beside the other (Plan 3.5: Section 29-29; Fig. 3.54). The arches are comparatively shallow. Restoration of the cistern’s roof in 2016 (by the IAA restoration unit) revealed a small, decorated, rectangular panel with attached

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Fig. 3.53. Cistern 300. Stone arch, looking south.

Fig. 3.54. Cistern 300. Stone roofing arches, looking south.

Fig. 3.55. Cistern 300. Water-drawing shaft, looking north.

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plaster that was reused in the ceiling of the cistern (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.21). The arches were made of purpose-built stones exhibiting traces of repair. Rectangular sockets were cut to anchor the arches in the upper part of the cistern’s eastern and western sides. The four northern arches were 0.6–0.7 m thick, while the southern arch was thinner (0.5 m wide). The maximum height of the arches, from beginning of span to apex, was approximately 0.9 m. A different, curved arch was built against the southern hewn wall of the cistern, spanning two hewn corner buttresses in the southwest and southeast (Fig. 3.53; Plan 3.5: Section 29-29). Its apex is slightly lower than the top of the cistern (thickness 0.9 m, diam. 3.0 m). A rectangular shaft (0.8 × 1.3 m, depth as cistern) protruded north from the middle of the northern wall of the cistern (Fig. 3.55). Rectangular sockets were hewn in its western and eastern sides to form rungs for climbing up and down. The shaft was roofed with stone slabs. The cistern’s covering stones were reinforced with gray mortar that yielded one third-century CE coin and three fourth-century CE coins (see Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 45, 74, 76, 85). Fragments of a glass vessel dated to the third–fourth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming) were recovered inside a narrow water channel that led to the cistern after its construction (L475–L476). These finds provide a terminus post quem for the installation of the cistern in the fourth century CE. The roof of the water cistern was sealed beneath a floor of mosaic tesserae and marble slabs (L313) from the Early Islamic period (ninth– tenth centuries CE).

The Cardo in the Byzantine Period (Stratum X) Flagstone Paving 6213 North of Plaza 6014 and W614, which bordered the plaza to the north, a floor of square paving slabs of local limestone (L6213) was partially preserved at 727.60 m (Plan 3.3). The slabs were arranged parallel to the axis of the Cardo and their general appearance was similar to Pavement 709 above Cistern 712 (see below). Pavement 6213 continued in a westerly direction. The latest find recovered while dismantling it dated to the Byzantine period (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 6, the northwestern cells—L6210, L6213, L6220, L6221). The Eastern Portico—Mosaic Flooring At this stage, the eastern portico of the colonnaded street was paved with a white mosaic floor with diamond and flower motifs—L8016 in the north and L4177, L4213 and L4224 in the south, all loci at 726.50 m (Plan 3.3; Figs. 3.56–3.59). The average size of the mosaic tesserae was c. 1.0 × 1.1 × 1.0 cm. A small section of the floor was preserved in the northern part of the portico and larger sections were preserved in its southern part. The mosaic tesserae were set in a shallow layer of white plaster (L8040, 8086, 8092 in the north, L4241 in the south) laid on an infrastructure of densely packed pebbles (Figs. 3.57–3.59). The pebbles were bonded together with gray mortar mixed with charcoal (L8042 in the north, L4253 in the south) and contained a Byzantine-period coin deposit of 51 coins, minted at the latest

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Fig. 3.56. The eastern portico. Mosaic Floor 4224, looking south.

Fig. 3.57. The eastern portico. Floor 4224 with its pebble bedding (L4253), looking northwest.

Fig. 3.58. The eastern portico. Pebble bedding of mosaic Floor 8040/8016, abutting flagstones of Street 8020 (on right), looking west.

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SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 3.59. The eastern portico. Floor 4224 and its bedding (L4253) abutting W424, looking northeast.

in the reign of Justinian the Great (see Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 148–155). In its northern part, the mosaic floor abutted the paving stones of Street 8020, which was about 0.2 m higher (Plan 3.3; Fig. 3.58), and in the west it abutted the street’s eastern stylobate: in the northwest it abutted a negative impression left by W804, whose stones had been robbed, and in the southwest it abutted W457. In the east, the mosaic floor abutted W424 (Fig. 3.59). The Western Portico—Water Cistern 712 and Stone Paving Slabs South of Stratum XI Cistern 300, another cistern (L712) was discovered, whose southern continuation was beyond the limits of the excavation (Plans 3.3; 3.5: Sections 3-3, 33-33; Fig. 3.60). This cistern continued in use until the twentieth century and was found empty, apart from modern refuse on its bottom; it was documented but not excavated. Its walls were coated in red plaster with grits and small potsherds dating from the latest phase of its use, probably in the twentieth century. Concrete had been poured into the empty cistern through the southern opening in its roof when building and development work was carried out in 2007 on the ‘Aish Ha-Torah complex, which borders the current excavation site. Cistern 712 had main eastern and western sections that were separated by an arched recess running from north to south. An arch was embedded in the southern wall of the eastern part. Above the ceiling of Cistern 712, a pavement (L709) of thin limestone slabs was arranged parallel to the axis of the Cardo at 726.40 m (Plan 3.3). The slabs measured 0.50 × 1.00 × 0.15 m. Pavement 709 abutted a rock-hewn step to its west, which served as a threshold for the entrance to Shop 703 (Fig. 3.61). On the upper face of one of the slabs above the central part of the cistern a cross-shaped socket was hewn (arms 0.20 × 0.25 m) whose purpose was unclear. Both parts of Cistern 712 appeared to have been built later than the street. They probably also postdate Cistern 300 to the north, but this cannot be established with absolute certainty. From the infrastructure (L717) between the ceiling arch of Cistern 712 and the

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

83

flooring laid over it (L709), a fragment of a Byzantine Fine Ware pot was recovered, dating from the sixth–eighth centuries CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom, pers. comm., not drawn because of its small size). The find suggests that Cistern 712 was installed in the sixth– eighth centuries CE at the earliest. It may have incorporated underground installations hewn out at an earlier date for an unknown purpose.

Fig. 3.60. Cistern 712, looking southeast.

Fig. 3.61. Pavement 709 overlying roof of Cistern 712. Scale is on pavement, in front of the threshold to Shop 703, looking west.

84

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Street 4108 The present pavement of Street 4108 and the staircases leading down to it (L9050, L4271) were probably laid at this stage. This renovation is indicated by the infrastructure of gray mortar, charcoal lumps and small stones, such as L4214, found beneath the paving stones of Street 4108; L4265 beneath the paving stones of Staircase 9050 descending to the west; and L4272 under Staircase 4271 from the north (Plan 3.3). In the south, only the rockhewn infrastructure of the staircase was preserved, without the step’s paving. Fragments of vessels and a Vandal coin (534–549 CE) recovered from the infrastructure date the paving to no earlier than 534 CE (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 103). The steps of Staircase 9050 leading down from the Cardo to Street 4108 (Plan 3.3) were paved with limestone slabs (0.4–1.0 × 0.5 × 0.2 m), some of which were broken, indicating that they were probably employed in secondary use. As noted above, the lack of a match between the top step of the staircase and the southern side of the heart-shaped base suggests that it postdated the column. West of the top step of Staircase 9050, another step was added in the Islamic period at roughly 726.60–726.70 m. The stones of this step provided roofing for Drainage Channel 472, flowing north to south along the street’s eastern stylobate.

The Demise of the Cardo in the Early Islamic Period (Stratum IX) The end of the Cardo’s existence in its original monumental form was associated with the construction of a large residential building in the western half of the street and to its west. This building stretched as far as the rock face in the west (W322; Plan 3.3). The Early Islamic building reduced the width of the street to a mere 5.5 m (Plan 3.4). The sidewalk that is presumed to have existed along the eastern portico of the Roman street was dismantled and replaced with a plaster floor (L604) that abutted the original paving stones in the west and the hewn stylobate in the east. The western row of pillars was dismantled. Some of the pillars may have been reused along the northern and eastern sides of the building’s courtyard. This stage has been dated by finds from the drainage channels that were rendered obsolete and filled with earth when the Early Islamic building was constructed over them. Seven coins were recovered from the earthen fill blocking up Channel 491 (see above), the latest of which was minted at the end of the sixth–beginning of the seventh centuries (578– 610 CE; see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 129). The fragments of glass vessels from the channel have been dated to the late Byzantine period, sixth–seventh centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming), and the pottery assemblage to between the mid-sixth century and the end of the seventh century—most probably from the second half of the seventh century (L491; Avissar 2019). Channel 5248 (Plan 3.3, Fig. 3.7), on the border of the western portico and the street, had been blocked up with earth and was partially excavated. The broken flagstones of the street, which lay diagonally in a southeasterly direction from the point where the channel went underneath the street’s paving and up to the presumed course of the main drainage Channel 536, suggest that this channel was installed or repaired along its entire length after the street had been paved, and that the stone paving was raised in order to install

85

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

the channel. Channel 5248 yielded pottery vessels from the second half of the seventh century CE (Avissar 2019: Chapter 7, L5248). The Early Islamic building yielded sections of flooring that also date from the second half of the seventh century CE, suggesting that the building was probably built at this time (L5260, L5275; Avissar 2019). The narrowing of colonnaded streets has been documented in many cities and discussed extensively (see Tsafrir and Foerster 1994:107; Kennedy 2006:11–12 and

Street

Street Building

Courtyard

Street

Stratum IX 0

10

m

Plan 3.4. Stratum IX remains (Early Islamic period).

86

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

references). During the Byzantine period—although usually not before the fifth or sixth century—colonnaded streets were narrowed when shops or private buildings were built on either side of them, over the site of the covered porticos and over the street itself between the colonnades. This transformation often involved the building of partition walls between the columns of the street, which were left in situ, or removing columns entirely for reuse in other buildings. In time, the wide, straight, colonnaded streets of the Roman period became narrow and winding. Researchers have often interpreted this development as a sign of urban decay. Following this line of interpretation, the narrowing of streets to make way for unplanned building on public spaces resulted from a weakening of central government and a failure to enforce municipal regulations. However, the narrowing of streets may also be interpreted as reflecting cultural changes and the adaptation to changing urban needs. The wide streets built in the Roman period occupied important tracts of land in the center of cities. Since carts (or donkeys) were the main mode of transportation in the East from the Byzantine period onward, narrower streets were quite sufficient, enabling this land to be freed for other uses. In this case, evidence of crowded building may actually reflect urban prosperity. In Jerusalem, the Western Wall Plaza excavations revealed that the Eastern Cardo was only reduced in width during the second half of the seventh century CE, after the Islamic conquest of Jerusalem; this reduction is probably related somehow to the attitude of the new regime toward urban road systems and urban needs. The late date when the street was narrowed (compared with colonnaded streets in other cities) indirectly indicates the importance of the eastern colonnaded street as part of the urban infrastructure during the Byzantine period. It would seem that in Jerusalem, the constant movement of Christian pilgrims along this major municipal artery helped preserve and retain the original form of the street. After it was narrowed, the street was not repaved and although its original level rose some 4 m between the Early Islamic period and the twentieth century, for centuries it was surfaced with tamped earth. The Madaba map, which is generally accepted as depicting Byzantine Jerusalem in the second half of the sixth century CE, shows the northern gate of the city, as well as its eastern and western gates, with a single main opening. This may reflect the artist’s decision to depict the city’s gates in the north, east and west in a uniform and schematic way. However, if the Madaba map is a faithful representation and the side openings of the northern city gate were already blocked up in the Byzantine period, as suggested by M. Magen following his excavations (1994) beneath the city gate (Magen 1994), it is possible that parts of the street, and subsequently the gate, may already have been reduced in width before this time.

CHAPTER 3: THE EASTERN CARDO IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

87

Dating the Eastern Cardo: From Beginning to End Infrastructure and Construction (Stratum XII) Two main stages are associated with the construction of the Eastern Cardo and the streets leading off it to the east. The initial stage (Stratum XIIB; Plan 3.2) comprised extensive infrastructure work to prepare the area for constructing the streets. During this work, the area was cleared of earlier buildings remains, installations and quarries were deliberately filled, the bedrock was hewn and lowered, and a drainage system was installed. In the second stage (Stratum XIIA; Plan 3.3), the streets were paved and porticos erected along the Cardo. Stratum XIIB Remains of infrastructure work along the course of the Cardo, and especially the fills of the Roman refuse dump deposited in the old quarry (L8170), provided a large number of finds to date it. The refuse dump contained a wealth of pottery vessels dating to the period between 75 and 125 CE (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 2). The fills also contained three military bread stamps dating to 70–100 CE, or slightly later (Di Segni and Weksler-Bdolah 2012; Di Segni, forthcoming), glass vessels from 75–125 CE (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming), and the latest identified coin minted under Domitian in 86/87 CE (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 33).10 The finds date the refuse deposits in Quarry 8170 and the construction of W811-W812 to the end of the first century–first quarter of the second century CE, at the latest. Stratum XIIA The date of Stratum XIIA is based on finds sealed beneath the flagstone paving of the colonnaded street and Street 8020 leading off from it. The most important finds were those originating in the layer of infrastructure laid on the hewn bedrock in the excavated area to stabilize the flagstones (L525, L526, L662, L3225, L3242; Plan 3.3). A glass bowl fragment recovered from the infrastructure layer belongs to a type common in assemblages dating to 70–135 CE (Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming: L525). Together with the fragment, two earlier Second Temple-period coins were also recovered (Chapter 6: Cat. Nos. 21, 25), as well as small potsherds, the latest of which belong to local types that began to appear in the first century CE or the beginning of the second century CE, but also continued to appear after this time (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Group 4a).11 The date when the street was paved is also indicated by the earthen deposits blocking up the ancient quarries sealed beneath the Cardo’s flagstones (L5293, L5295, L5298, L5299). The pottery assemblage from these fills dates to 75–125 CE (RosenthalHeginbottom 2019: Chapter 3, Groups 4b, 4c). As mentioned above, a very important find

These dates are also consistent with the radiocarbon dating (see n. 4).

10

In addition, radiocarbon dating from the sealed infrastructure produced calibrated dates in the first and second centuries CE (see n. 4). 11

88

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

from these fills consisted of a worn coin from the reign of Hadrian, minted in Antioch, with no exact date of minting (Chapter 6: Cat. No. 35). The finds, particularly the Hadrianic coin, date the construction of the Eastern Cardo to no earlier than 117 CE. However, the finds also attest to prolonged preparatory work prior to the construction of the street itself. The current finds therefore allow a cautious proposal that the preparatory infrastructure work, marking the start of the planning and actual construction of Aelia Capitolina, began early in the reign of Hadrian, before the city was declared a Roman colony around 130 CE, as accepted by most researchers. A less likely possibility that cannot be ruled out is that the work was started during the reign of Hadrian’s predecessor, Trajan. The Cardo’s Demise (Stratum IX) The colonnaded street probably ceased to exist in its original form in the second half of the seventh century CE, during the Umayyad period, when a large building was constructed to the west of the street and over its western half, and the street was narrowed to about 5.5 m across (see Plan 3.4). The sidewalk that probably existed along the eastern portico was dismantled and replaced with a plaster floor. The street’s western colonnade was dismantled and some of the columns may have been reused to build the northern and eastern sides of the building’s courtyard.

Stratigraphic Sections

90

4

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

2

3

5 7 6

1

5

18

10 10

6

9 7

8

9

11 12

14 14

15

37

13

8

11

15

16 16

12

1

19

17

17

18

13

21 24

19

24 23 21 20

22

20

23

25 26 22

25

27

27

26

28

29 30 31

28 32

31

35

38

33

29 30

38 32

36

34 35 4

36 3

34 2

37

33

0

4m

Plan 3.5. Key to stratigraphic sections.

723.00

725.00

727.00

729.00

731.00

733.00

735.00

737.00

739.00

741.00

725.00

727.00

729.00

731.00

W700

W18

L703

L116

W310 W307 L3006

1-1

W308 W603

L264 L422

W322

L155

L6028

W600

L6220

L404

#L6213

L436

L402

L156

W45

L482

L151 L150 L152 W19

2-2

L3097

L3096

W301

L3070

W300

L5311

L310

L5297

W325

L5227 L6014#

L6170

# L6213 L6220

L6028

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

91

721.00

723.00

725.00

727.00

729.00

731.00

733.00

735.00

737.00

739.00

L712

L717

#L709

W90

L300

L502 L491 W45

3-3

W320 L3097

W317

W321

L3070

W300

L5348

W302

W310 W566

W510

92

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

721.00

723.00

725.00

727.00

729.00

#L8108

L720

L720

L514

L5338A

5-5

L6144

L5338B

W624

L491

L5338C

L3235

4-4

L5248

L5338D

L5293 L5295

L5298 L5299

L5272

L5338F L5338E L6081

L5181

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

93

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

W600

L6028 L6070

W614

W510

6-6

L6110 L5181

L6144

#L8108

94 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

721.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

#L8108

L6144

#L6037

7-7

W605

W518

W521

W310

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

95

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

#L6037

8-8

L6170

#L6014

W630 L3006

W307

96 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

725.00

726.00

727.00

725.50

726.50

9-9

L8178

#L8108

L8178

#L8108

L8174

10-10

L8068

L8185

W812

#L8020

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

97

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

#L8108

L8068

W812

W804

L8155

L8152

L8145

L8137

L8104

11-11

#L8042

L8170

L8125

L8121

#L8020

L8154

L8156

L8125

L8124

L8110

L8046

98 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

737.00

738.00

12-12

L5000

W310 L3006

W306

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

99

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

L8178

#L8108 #L5272=#L8108

#L5308

13-13

#L5348

L5297

W302

L2050

L5227

W398

100 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

#L8108

L8068

L8054

W811

W804

L8132

14-14

L8122

L8053

#L8042

L8170

L8162

L8148

L8156

L8123

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

101

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

L8162

L8123

L8107

L8055

15-15

L8148

L8132

L8122

L8053

W811

102 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

721.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

L8158

L8068

#L8108

L8140

L8167

17-17

L8170

W811

L8165

L8144

16-16

L8154

L8123 L8132

W804

L8170

W467

W811

L8054

L8148

L8107

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

103

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

L5311

W302

W811

18-18

L8170

W812

19-19

L5336

#L8020

#L5338E #L5291

104 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

W322

L3070

20-20

L2022

L5348

L5248

21-21

#L5291

#L8108

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

105

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

W301

#L5291

22-22

W317

L5338D

W320

23-23

W317

W301

W322

106 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

#L8108

725.00

726.00

727.00

W457

728.00 W400

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

737.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

L8068

L536

#L8108

L472

24-24

W805

B35187 #L3160

25-25

L3235

#L8090

L5348

L3236

B5961 L3097

W45

L3096

W322

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

107

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

726.00

727.00

W457

W547

L536

#L720

L4253

26-26

L4177

L5338B

#L720=L8108

W457

L373 28-28

#L720

L300

724.00

725.00

726.00

728.00

W424

727.00

729.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

L536

#L720

L502

27-27

L547

L404

L457

108 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

721.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

W424

L4253

L4224

L4276 #L720

29-29

L5338B

L374

L300

L502

L264

W322

109

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

737.00

738.00

L264

L466

W322

L321 L374

L300 L372 L514

L5338A

30-30

L518

#L720 L9050

L4276

#L4108

L4271

110 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

L4276

#L720=L8108

31-31

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

111

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

731.00

732.00

733.00

734.00

735.00

736.00

737.00

738.00

739.00

L703

L116

#L709

32-32

#L720

L9050 #L4108

112

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

722.00

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

L712

34-34

L712

33-33

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

113

725.50

726.00

727.00

728.00

729.00

730.00

#L4108

L9050

35-35

#L720

114 SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

723.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

724.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

725.00

726.00

727.00

728.00

L4108#

W999

L9588

38-38

36-36

L9076

W958

L9050

L4253

37-37

L4271

#L4108

L9076

CHAPTER 3: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS

115

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 4

Architectural Decoration of the Eastern Cardo Orit Peleg-Barkat

Dozens of fragments from decorative architectural elements made of limestone, marble and granite were found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, most of them among the debris that originated in structures adjacent to the Eastern Cardo or in secondary use as construction material incorporated into walls of various periods. Nevertheless, some pieces were found in situ in their original position as part of the two colonnades that once flanked the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem, whose impressive remains were exposed at the site. This chapter analyzes the architectural decoration of the Eastern Cardo based on these fragments, which derive primarily from column bases and shafts; there is no certainty regarding the capitals crowning the columns and the entablature. At the outset, it should be noted that the crude style and execution of the bases and columns stand in sharp contrast to the high quality of the street paving and to the extensive rock-cutting and massive substructure works that were executed prior to the paving of the street. They also stand in contrast to the embellished colonnades of the main thoroughfares in other Roman cities in the region, such as Scythopolis and Gerasa. Decorative architectural elements of the Early Roman period (dated prior to 70 CE) found at the site are discussed in an appendix at the end of the chapter.1

The Late Roman and Byzantine Periods Column Bases Type A. Four column bases made of hard limestone (mizzi ḥilu; see Appendix 1) and relating to one type (Type A1) were found throughout the excavation site (Fig. 4.1:1–4). One was found in situ along the line of the western colonnade (Fig. 4.2; see Chapter 3). The others were incorporated in secondary use into W84 and a pier dating from the Early to the Late Islamic periods (Fig. 4.3). The Type A1 bases all share a very simple design that includes two moldings: a 22–28 cm high plinth and a single blocked-out torus, 14–20 cm high. The blocked-out torus was left rough with a rounded profile of a quarter-circle. Above the torus is a 16–18 cm high plain section, the bottommost part of the column shaft. The apophyge is not represented. The upper diameter of the bases is 66–72 cm. The blocked-out state of the bases explains the relatively large differences in the upper diameter (up to 6 cm).

A discussion of Byzantine-period ecclesiastical furniture from the Western Wall Plaza excavations

1

will appear in WWPE III (Habas, forthcoming).

118

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

1

2

3

4

0

5

Fig. 4.1. Types A1 and A2 blocked-out pseudo-Tuscan column bases, mizzi ḥilu limestone. No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

Description

1

3235

35186

Type A1

2

W84

5957

Type A1

3

W84

5956

Type A1

4

3236

35187

Type A1

5

5243

51789

Type A2

1

m

CHAPTER 4: ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE EASTERN CARDO

Fig. 4.2. A blocked-out pseudo-Tuscan column base with a column shaft section erected upside down, found in situ along the line of the western colonnade, looking south (see Fig. 4.1:1).

Fig. 4.3. Early Islamic W84 with column bases and shafts incorporated into its construction in secondary use, looking south (see Fig. 4.1:2, 3).

119

120

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

Another, similar column base defined as Type A2 was a surface find. It is larger and has an upper diameter of 82 cm (Fig. 4.1:5). It has a 14 cm high plinth and a 20 cm high angular blocked-out torus, which differs from the rounded torus of Type A1. Three similar column bases (with a similar diameter of 83–87 cm) were found in situ southwest of the Dung Gate along the line of the Eastern Cardo (Ben-Dov 1982:227–230), a few tens of meters south of the Western Wall Plaza excavation area. Ben-Dov suggested a Byzantineperiod date for the paving of the Cardo and the column bases along its western walkway. The Cardo bases differ from the type commonly used in Roman and Byzantine buildings in the eastern provinces, namely the eastern Attic base, which bears two tori separated by a scotia and two fillets. Those from the Cardo are reminiscent of a much simpler column base of the Tuscan order that bears a single torus above a plinth, known in research as ‘pseudo-Tuscan’. The Tuscan order is a native Roman order, whose invention is attributed by Vitruvius to the Etruscans. Vitruvius, in his treatise on architecture dated to the beginning of the last third of the first century BCE, discusses the Tuscan order only briefly (de Architectura, IV, 7) and treats it as a poor relation of the Greek Classical orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian). He patronizes the temples built in this order, referring to them as ‘straggly’, and claims that already in his time the Tuscan column was more often made of wood than stone. Nevertheless, the Tuscan order was not neglected and was actually preferred by the Roman architects over the Greek Doric order in some types of monuments, especially for honorific columns, such as the ones of Emperors Trajan and Marcus Aurelius in Rome, and in amphitheaters. It appears, for example, in the amphitheaters at Pola, Verona, Arles, Nîmes, Pozzuoli, Capua, Salone and Italica, and apparently also on the lower story of the Colosseum in Rome. Its common use in amphitheaters may be a deliberate attempt to emphasize the ‘Italic’ origin of the amphitheater versus the temple and the theater, which had come from the Greeks (Rykwert 1996:351–352, 366). In addition, the Tuscan column may have carried nationalistic or military overtones, which were seen to be appropriate given the origins of gladiatorial combat (Onians 1990:272; Wilson Jones 2003:110). The Tuscan order is not often found in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The pseudo-Tuscan bases, or single-torus bases, which sometimes bear a resemblance to the Tuscan base, might be simplified local versions of the Attic base. These bases often bear columns with Ionic or Corinthian capitals, although examples of Tuscan capitals also exist, mainly in synagogues in the Upper Galilee. In our region, pseudo-Tuscan examples appear rarely in the Early Roman period, as at Gamla in the synagogue and several other embellished edifices dated to the end of the first century BCE or the first century CE, where bases with a single torus and an apophyge were found lacking a plinth (Peleg-Barkat 2010:163, Fig. 5.2:4−6). Column bases with a single torus are more common in structures dated from the third century CE onward. At the synagogue of Gush Ḥalav, whose first construction phase is dated to the mid-third century CE, eight pedestals carved in one piece together with the column bases were found. All the bases have a somewhat angular torus below an apophyge, though some differ in diameter and profile. The seven capitals found at the site were variants of Tuscan, Doric and Ionic capitals (Belkin 1990:100–103, Figs. 35, 36). Similar bases adorned the third-century CE synagogues at Khirbat Wadi Ḥamam

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(Leibner 2019:102, Fig. 3.4:1, 2) and Deir ‘Aziz. At the latter, the bases were also carved of one block together with the pedestals, but, in contrast to Gush Ḥalav, they lack the upper apophyge. The synagogue at Deir ‘Aziz is dated to the sixth century CE, but its decoration was apparently taken from an earlier building (Ma‘oz and Ben David 2008:1691–1692). Several interesting parallels (Fig. 4.4) can be seen today along the northern part of the cardo of Tel Afeq (Antipatris), although their original context is unclear. They probably originated in the Late Roman mansion east of this cardo, as the excavators did not suggest the existence of colonnades along its course. The mansion dates from the time of Herod and was enlarged in the second and third centuries CE (Kochavi 1989:100–116). The bases from Afeq share the high plinth and single rounded torus of the column bases from the Western Wall Plaza excavations and have a very short section from the column shaft. Furthermore, the execution is rather coarse, also reminiscent of the bases under discussion. Column bases with a single torus are found in other parts of the Roman world as well, for example, in the Roman tetrakionion at Anjar (ancient Chalcis) in Lebanon (MacDonald 1986: frontispiece), and in the forum area of Dougga, Tunisia (MacDonald 1986: Fig. 199). Column bases with a single, angular, blocked-out torus, similar to Type A2, were also uncommon. Bases with an angular torus were found in the peristyle courtyard of a dwelling dated to the fourth century CE, south of the Temple Mount (Mazar 2007:102–111, Figs. 13.2, 13.3). It should be noted, however, that the building had an earlier phase of construction during the second to third centuries CE. Other examples exist in the central basilica of Apollonia, the port city of Cyrene in modern Libya (Polidori et al. 1999:231). Another feature of the Type A bases from the Eastern Cardo that deserves attention is their proportionally high plinths. Column bases carved with plinths appear in Judea no earlier than King Herod’s reign (37–4 BCE), presumably owing to Roman influence. The use of plinths was common outside Judea from the Hellenistic period, but it was only

Fig. 4.4. Blocked-out pseudo-Tuscan column base at Afeq-Antipatris (photographer, O. Peleg-Barkat).

122

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

under Augustus that it became an integral part of column bases throughout the empire. The incorporation of the plinth made it easier to achieve the desirable proportion of 5:6 between the height of the shaft and that of the column together with its base and capital (Wilson Jones 2003:152). The plinth of the original Tuscan order was round, but later became square and its height equaled that of the torus and apophyge above it, while the plinth of the Attic base is square and its height equals a third of the entire height of the base (Rykwert 1996:352). It is possible that the proportionally high plinth of the Type A bases is due to the fact that the bases were placed directly on the carved bedrock and not above a stylobate, as can be deduced from the base found in situ to the west of the Cardo (Fig. 4.2). Therefore, they were partially hidden by the paving of the sidewalk. Yet, still, there are examples of high plinths used above stylobates along main thoroughfares in the region, for example in the Decumanus Maximus at Bosra (Butler 1914: Fig. 208) and at Palmyra (Segal 1995: Fig. 51). To summarize, single-torus column bases were not common outside of Italy in the Roman and Byzantine periods. Examples in Palestine date mostly from the second to fourth centuries CE. Type B. Another column base found in situ is the heart-shaped Attic base of a square pier with two attached half columns (Fig. 4.5). The base stands on the line of the stylobate of the eastern colonnade, south of the point where the stylobate is cut by a small Abbasid water reservoir (Fig. 4.6; see Chapter 3: Figs. 3.32, 3.33, at the intersection where Street 4108, dated to the Byzantine period (sixth century CE), descends eastward from the Cardo. The column base itself is dated, based on stratigraphic considerations, to no later than the sixth century CE. As with Type A1 bases, the upper diameter of the attached half-column bases is 68 cm, but its profile is somewhat different: it has a 36 cm high plinth, and two angular blocked-out tori: the bottom one 18 cm high, the upper one 12 cm high. Between the blocked-out tori is a plain section, 10 cm in height, representing a blocked-out scotia or trochilos of the Attic base. The form of the Attic base had developed in Greece during the fifth century BCE and continued in use throughout the Hellenistic period. During the Roman period, it was very common in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, while in the western part of the empire a somewhat different variant was used with a more projecting upper torus (Shoe 1965:301; Shoe-Meritt 1969:191–196). Heart-shaped columns normally stood at junctions of colonnades of peristyle courtyards or halls. This architectural component was introduced into the local architecture, apparently from Asia Minor or Alexandria, where it was common, during the reign of King Herod and subsequently became widespread (Peleg 2006:321; Peleg-Barkat 2007:140; Dell’Acqua 2013). The excavators suggest that the heart-shaped column base and the elevated plaza to its east are part of a gatehouse (propylaeum) leading into a larger structure erected on the eastern portico of the Cardo, which existed in the sixth century CE but was apparently built in an earlier period. This structure apparently created a hiatus in the sequence of columns in the eastern colonnade and a different type of decoration was set

123

1

2

CHAPTER 4: ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE EASTERN CARDO

0

2-2

2

1

1-1

1

m

Fig. 4.5. Blocked-out heart-shaped Attic column base, of mizzi hilu limestone, incorporated into Stylobate 457.

Fig. 4.6. In-situ heart-shaped Attic column base, looking southeast.

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ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

up along its facade that was probably situated a few meters east of the Cardo colonnade. A pier with two attached columns once stood above the heart-shaped base. The attached column facing east implies that perhaps more columns stood to the east of the pier, flanking a small court in front of the propylaeum’s facade. Marking or emphasizing entrances into important public buildings along colonnaded streets with a different type of column was a well-attested practice in Roman cities (MacDonald 1986:44; Segal 1995: Fig. 36). Despite the fact that this base is a blocked-out Attic rather than a pseudo-Tuscan base, its dimensions, blocked-out form and high plinth all point to the fact that it belongs to the same phase of construction as Types A1 and A2. It should also be noted that Types A and B, as well as the corresponding group of column shafts (see below), were all carved in whitish limestone. This choice is in contrast to other architectural elements found at the site that were carved in other types of stones. An interesting parallel for the blocked-out shape of this heart-shaped Attic base may be found at the eastern gateway of the Northern Gate of Aelia Capitolina below the Damascus Gate in Jerusalem. There, above the eastern pedestal is an Attic base with its apophyge still in a blocked-out state, carved in a very similar fashion to the blocked-out tori of the example from the Western Wall Plaza excavations (Wightman 1989: Fig. 12, Pl. 175). The fact that this detail of the column base was never finished is intriguing and indicates that the final carving of the architectural members took place on site. It should also be noted that, as with the column bases found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations, the column bases adorning the Northern Gate are also carved in one piece together with the bottommost section of the column shaft. This feature contrasts with most Roman column bases in our region that do not include a section of the shaft on top. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suggest a similar date in the second century CE for the column base under discussion (see Wightman 1989:40–43). Type C. Five Attic column bases were found at the excavation site (Figs. 4.7, 4.8). Most were found incorporated in secondary use into Byzantine or Islamic walls and pavements (Fig. 4.7), while one of the bases (Fig. 4.8) was noted on the surface in the vicinity of the police station that existed in the area prior to the commencement of the excavation; the base subsequently disappeared. In all five examples, the Attic base was carved as a separate unit that ends at the upper torus, with no part of the column shaft carved on top of it, in contrast to Types A and B. The bases all include a square plinth, whose height equals, more or less, half the height of the base itself. Nevertheless, the bases differ in the diameter of the bottom of the shaft: 42 cm (Fig. 4.7:3), 56 cm (Fig. 4.7:2) and 83 cm (Fig. 4.7:1);2 the type of stone (local limestone); and the profile (round or angular upper torus). Therefore, they seem to originate in several architectural units dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods erected in the vicinity of the Cardo. None of them can be attributed with any certainty to the decoration of the colonnades lining the Cardo.

For the other two bases, only rough estimates can be given: while the base that disappeared can be estimated based on photographs (c. 42 cm), that in Fig. 4.7:4 is too fragmentary to measure (c. 60 cm). 2

CHAPTER 4: ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE EASTERN CARDO

1

2

4

0

3

1

m

Fig. 4.7. Type C Attic column bases. No.

Locus

Basket

Stone

1

6110

61735

Grayish limestone

2

9044

91125

Grayish limestone

3

W559

52320

Limestone

4

W559

52319

Limestone

b

a

Fig. 4.8. A limestone Attic column base, originally noted near the police station.

125

126

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

Type D. One Attic column base (Fig. 4.9) was carved on the same block together with a pedestal and is designated as Type D. It was found during the late 1990s in a narrow trench dug along a wall of a medieval structure that had stood east of el-Wad Street before 1967. The wall was built directly on the eastern stylobate of the Roman Cardo. The trench reached the covering stones of Early Islamic drainage Channel 472, 0.3 m above the pavement of the Eastern Cardo. However, the precise findspot of the base is unknown. This base belonged to a column with a lower diameter of 60 cm. The plinth is 7 cm high, the lower torus is 5.5 cm high and the scotia together with its flanking fillets is 8 cm high. The upper torus, which is poorly preserved, is low (3.5 cm high) and angular. The pedestal is 50 cm high and 78 cm wide. The base moldings of the pedestal include a curved cyma recta profile (10 cm high) above a plinth (7.5 cm high). The dado is not straight, as is customary in Roman architecture, but has a projecting curved profile (23 cm high), typical of a local type of pedestals known in the research as ‘pulvinated pedestals’ (see below). Crowning the pedestal is an angular cyma (3.5 cm high) and a straight section (5 cm high). An engraved line separates the pedestal from the plinth of the base above it.

b

a

0

0.5 m

Fig. 4.9. A limestone pulvinated pedestal with an Attic column base, found during the late 1990s.

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Pedestals, which were used during the Classical period as bases for statues, began to be utilized as an elevated base for columns during the second half of the fourth century BCE (Wannagat 1995:15–93). They first appeared in the local architecture during the reign of King Herod (Peleg-Barkat 2007:138–140). Pulvinated pedestals were common in Roman Palestine from the second century CE onward and are found at numerous sites in Israel and Transjordan. The term was first coined by Sukenik, who exposed five such pedestals in his excavations at the Temple of Kore in Samaria, which is dated to the third century CE (Crowfoot, Kenyon and Sukenik 1942:62, Pl. LIX:3). Other examples are the pedestals from the Roman temple at Qedesh dated to the second century CE (Fischer, Ovadiah and Roll 1984: Fig. 5, Pl. 32:1), the scaenae frons pedestals of the theater at Bet She’an/Nysa-Scythopolis, dated to the end of the second century CE or the beginning of the third century CE (Mazor 2015:401−409; Figs. 9.17−9.21), and the pedestals of the synagogue at Umm el-‘Amed, dated to the late third or early fourth century CE (Levine 1982:1–12). The pedestals from the scaenae frons of the theater at Bet She’an are the only examples where the pulvinated dado was adorned with carved acanthus leaves. Pedestals of the same type appear also in later buildings from the sixth century CE: in the Atrium of the Synagogue Church at Jerash (Crowfoot and Hamilton 1929; Browning 1982: Fig. 130) and in the synagogue at Deir ‘Aziz (Ma‘oz and Ben David 2008:1691–1692), but in both cases they are spolia from earlier buildings. Other examples, whose dates are unclear, were found at Hesban, ‘Amman (Philadelphia), Kufier Abu Sarbut, Umm al-Hanafish, Sepphoris and Nazareth (de Sion 1955:167–170, Pls. 60, 61). In Jerusalem, several types of pulvinated pedestals were found on the grounds of the Convent of the Sisters of Zion, where remains of a gateway (‘Ecce Homo’) leading into a large paved plaza, identified by several scholars as the eastern forum of Aelia Capitolina, are preserved (Mazor 2007:119–120). Five different types were identified; the most similar to the pedestal from the Western Wall Plaza is Type II (de Sion 1955: Pl. 58). The pedestals were mistakenly dated to the time of Herod and attributed to the court of the Antonia Citadel by Sister Marie Aline de Sion (1955:164–170). Another pulvinated pedestal can be seen today in the archaeological park south of the western enclosure wall of the Temple Mount (Fig. 4.10). Its original context is unknown, but the single-torus column base that is carved on top of it implies that it probably should date from the second to the fourth centuries CE (see above, Type A). Pulvinated pedestals were often used in Roman and Early Byzantine monumental buildings in Palestine. Examples date mostly from the second to the fourth centuries CE. The pedestal found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations is well executed with a curved cyma profile both on its base and crowning. In this respect it differs from the pedestals of Samaria, Scythopolis and Umm el-‘Amed, with their simplified slanting Fig. 4.10. A limestone pulvinated moldings, and is more reminiscent of the early example pedestal with a pseudo-Tuscan column base, west of the southwestern from Qedesh. It should therefore be dated to the second corner of the Temple Mount (photographer, Vladimir Naikhin). century CE.

128

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

Type E. A small column base with a single torus was found incorporated into a wall or installation from the Early Islamic period that was built on the eastern stylobate (Fig. 4.11). It has a 4.5 cm high plinth, a 4.5 cm high torus and another 6.5 cm high plain section. Two slots were carved into its sides to hold some sort of a screen. The base relates to a column with a lower diameter of 36 cm and it seems to belong with a pseudo-Doric capital that was found a few meters to its south, whose lower diameter is 35 cm (see below). Both are carved in grayish limestone and have similar rough chiseling marks of a claw chisel applied in different directions. Similar chisel marks can be seen on the decorative architectural elements uncovered recently on the eastern slopes of the City of David that originate from a large peristyle building of the third century CE (Ben-Ami and Tchekhanovets 2009) and on pseudo-Doric capitals from a third–fourth-centuries CE building west of the Western Wall (Mazar 1999:55c–56). Both buildings went out of use by the end of the fourth century CE.

0

1

m

Fig. 4.11. A small, pseudoTuscan base of grayish limestone, incorporated into W457 (B42231).

Column Shafts Six sections of column shafts made of meleke limestone with a diameter of 58–64 cm were exposed at the site (Fig. 4.12) and seem to match the column bases of Type A1 described above. While the upper diameters of these bases are somewhat larger (66–72 cm), it should be remembered that the bases were left in an unfinished state, and therefore their final intended diameter would have been smaller. Moreover, the preserved shaft sections originate mostly from the upper part of the columns that were, according to Greek and Roman style, smaller than their lower part (Vitruvius, de Architectura III, 3, 13). Three of the shaft sections are preserved to their original height (130–212 cm). One of them (Fig. 4.2) was exposed standing upside down on the above-mentioned in situ column base along the line of the western colonnade of the Cardo. Apparently, it was improperly re-erected in the Early Islamic period (eighth century CE), when a private house and a colonnaded court to its south were constructed on the western sidewalk and over half of the width of the Cardo itself. In a later period (thirteenth century CE), a pier was built to the south of the column base, supporting the column, as part of a larger complex that was built at that time. Four other sections were found incorporated into Early Islamic walls (W211, W84). The sixth column section was found on the floor of a Late Islamic–early Ottoman structure. It was re-cut and reused by the dwellers of this structure as a stone basin (Fig. 4.12:6). Despite its poor state of preservation, the matching diameter (64–65 cm) and the

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type of stone and chiseling, suggest that it belongs to the same group of column sections. Two shaft sections (Fig. 4.12:1, 2) have small square or rectangular recesses carved into their faces, perhaps to attach some architectural feature at a later stage of their use or, more probably, to facilitate the moving of the shafts to their new place as construction material in later walls. The column shafts seem to have originally consisted of two long drums or sections. This arrangement contrasts with earlier periods (i.e., in Judea during the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods), when the columns normally consisted of a number of smaller column drums (Peleg-Barkat 2007:141). The three complete shaft sections belong to the upper part of the shaft. Their diameter diminishes toward the top, where a 10 cm high projecting collar is carved. During the Roman period, it was customary to carve the column shafts at the quarry with their entasis, leaving the ends of the shafts rough as a protective collar to minimize damage during handling and transport. Normally, when the shafts reached their destination, the collars were reduced and carved with the required moldings, namely an apophyge at the bottom and an astragal at the top (Wilson Jones 2003:131). Therefore, as with the column bases, the column shafts were left in their quarried state but for some reason their carving was never finished. The diameter of the columns (c. 60 cm) corresponds with those of the Western Cardo of Aelia Capitolina (62 cm), as preserved today in the Russian Church of Alexander Nevsky and at the seventh station of the Via Dolorosa (Vincent and Abel 1914: Pl. VIII:1). This correspondence, combined with the fact that this is the largest homogenous group of column shafts found in the Western Wall Plaza excavation and their relationship both in diameter and unfinished state to the in-situ column base and its corresponding group, all lead to the conclusion that these column shafts originated in the colonnades that once flanked the Eastern Cardo. One of the broken shaft sections found incorporated into W84 has on its original end an engraved mason’s mark of the Greek letter Δ (Fig. 4.12:3). Such marks were probably carved in the quarry to facilitate the easy and accurate assemblage of architectural elements after they were delivered to the building site. This system was widely used from the beginning of the Classical period in Greece. Mason’s marks appear frequently in Early

Fig. 4.12 ► No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

1

3235

91125

2

W211

35187

3

W84

5958

4

W84

5955

5

W211

5961

6

229

391

Description

Incised Δ

Reused as a stone basin

1

2

3

0

4

5

6

Fig. 4.12. Column-shaft sections, meleke limestone.

0.5 m

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Roman Judea on architectural elements and building stones in Herodian palaces and other buildings of the period, mostly on column drums. The largest assemblage was found at Masada, where more than 70 column drums and column bases bear such marks, consisting chiefly of a Hebrew letter in Aramaic script and vertical or diagonal bars denoting numerals (Foerster 1995:80–99). Nevertheless, most of the mason’s marks at contemporary Jewish sites bear Greek letters alongside the numerals. Such marks were found, for example, in the First Palace and the Hippodrome at Jericho, Khirbet el-Murak, Qasr el-Yahud, and Ḥorbat ‘Eleq (Hirschfeld 2000: Fig. 225). At Archelais and in the Upper City of Jerusalem (Avigad 1983: Fig. 179), column drums bearing Latin numerals were found. As there is no clear geographical or chronological pattern for the distribution of the three different scripts used as mason’s marks, it is hard to reach significant conclusions regarding any specific identification of the masons. Mason’s marks are less common in later periods, when column shafts were either monolithic or built of two long sections, and standardization occurred in column dimensions due to the wide-ranging trade of blocked-out architectural elements. Therefore, the mason’s mark here might point either to a rather early date for the columns or, more probably, to the reuse of a large Early Roman column drum for the carving of the shaft section. A Herodian Attic base bearing a very similar mason’s mark with the Greek letter Δ was found at the foot of the southern enclosure wall of the Temple Mount (Peleg-Barkat 2007: Cat. No. 1002). Another example was found at Qumran (Chambon 2003: Fig. 16). Seven additional fragments of column shafts of various diameters (21.5–40.0 cm), made of a reddish limestone (mizzi aḥmar), limestone or gray granite (Fig. 4.13) were found ex situ in Byzantine or Early Islamic fills and walls, and therefore their exact date cannot be determined. Nevertheless, the type of stone might be instructive, as Tsafrir has suggested that substantial use of mizzi aḥmar around Jerusalem for columns and architectural decoration started only with the building of the Nea Church in the sixth century CE (Tsafrir 2005:26–30). If his suggestion is correct, then the mizzi aḥmar column shafts found at the site should probably be dated to the sixth century CE at the earliest.

Fig. 4.13 ► No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

Stone

1

W211

5960

Reddish limestone (mizzi aḥmar)

2

85

467

Reddish-yellow limestone (mizzi hilu)

3

5310

52327

Reddish limestone (mizzi aḥmar)

4

416

5959

Reddish limestone (mizzi aḥmar)

5

W523

51673

Reddish limestone (mizzi aḥmar)

6

W523

52412

Gray granite

7

9050

91180

Limestone

132

1

6

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

3

2

7

5

4

0

Fig. 4.13. Column-shaft sections.

0.5 m

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133

Capitals A Pseudo-Doric Capital. One pseudo-Doric capital (Fig. 4.14:1) was found in the southeastern part of the excavation area, reused in a pavement dated to the Early Islamic period. It seems to belong to the same architectural unit as the Type E column base (see above) and has a similar diameter (35 cm) to the upper part of the column shaft. The capital has a rounded echinus (11 cm high) with no annuli on the neck, and is topped by a simple abacus (6 cm high). Pseudo-Doric capitals were in common use since Classical architectural decoration was first introduced into Palestine in the third century BCE. While the Doric order was

0

1

2

0.5 m

3 0.5 m

0

Fig. 4.14. Column capitals, grayish limestone. No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

Description

1

9044

91124

Pseudo-Doric capital

2

W84

35156

Corinthian capital

3

3229

35157

Corinthian capital

134

ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

very popular during the Hellenistic period, it lost its dominance in the Roman period and was relegated to less important structures (Onians 1990:23; Webb 1996:6; Peleg-Barkat 2007:51–54, 156). This colonnette was probably no more than 2.5 m high and might have been used as a support for an opening or as part of a screen wall. Corinthian Capitals. Two almost-complete Corinthian capitals were found in the excavation, as well as two smaller fragments of an acanthus leaf and an angle volute (Figs. 4.14:2, 3; 4.15–4.17).3 The two capitals were incorporated in secondary use in Early Islamic W84, which was built on top of the Eastern Cardo’s paving. One of them (Fig. 4.14:2) was rehewn in the Early Islamic period to be used as part of a doorpost and therefore its decoration is less well preserved. The two capitals were carved from a grayish limestone and their acanthus leaves share a similar style. They seem, therefore, to originate from the same architectural context. Nevertheless, they differ in their dimensions: the capital that was reused in the Early Islamic period as a doorpost is larger (78 cm high. and min. diam. 61 cm) than the more complete example (61.5 cm high, diam. 40 cm). Theoretically, in terms of its size, the larger capital could have originally crowned one of the columns of the Cardo colonnades. However, due to its poor preservation, it is impossible to reconstruct its exact lower diameter. Moreover, the fact that the two almost-complete capitals are of the same type and style, but differ in scale, implies that they originate from a relatively complex architectural unit that combined at least two sets of columns of different sizes. The small acanthus leaf fragment might have belonged to a capital of the same type, while the angle volute was part of a different, smaller type of Corinthian capital. The two capitals seem to have had no astragal at their bottom. The acanthus leaves are carved with deep drilled channels and are relatively spaciously arranged. The caules are plain and small and the abacus is carved with two faciae, the upper being narrower than the one below. These features characterize Corinthian capitals in Roman Palestine during the second century CE, while during the third and fourth centuries CE the arrangement of the acanthus leaves gradually became denser and the shapes more geometric and schematic. The changes that occurred in the local Corinthian capital during the Roman period are best exemplified by the two Corinthian capitals that adorn the columned portal at the Ḥammat Gader bath complex. One of the capitals is dated to the original phase of construction in the second century CE, while the second was added in the fourth century CE as a replacement after the portal was damaged in an earthquake (Hirschfeld 1997:176–179, Figs. 7, 9). On the earlier capital, the acanthus leaves are spaciously arranged and the caules are indicated above them, while on the later capital the acanthus leaves are densely carved, touching one another to create triangles in the transition, and the caules are not indicated at all. Parallels

Another angle volute fragment from a Corinthian capital (L2075, B2017911; L 11.5 cm, H 18 cm, W 10.3 cm) of similar dimensions and style was found in October, 2017 during a small-scale excavation (A-8053/2017) that was conducted as part of the area’s development. The object was incorporated in secondary use in the blocking of a drainage channel (L6071) that passed through W600. 3

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for the capitals found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations are found in the basilica of Samaria, the Roman temple at Qedesh and at Bet She’an (Fischer 1990:56–63, Pls. 41:228; 42:230).

Fig. 4.15. An almost-complete Corinthian capital (see Fig. 4.14:3).

0

2

Fig. 4.16. An acanthus leaf fragment from a Corinthian capital of grayish limestone (L4127, B40452).

0

2

0

2

Fig. 4.17. Angle volute of a Corinthian capital of grayish limestone (L8156, B81245).

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ORIT PELEG-BARKAT

Cornices and Pier Decoration Type A. A simple molded decoration for a square pier (73 × 73 cm; Fig. 4.18:1) was found incorporated in secondary use as a covering slab for an Early Islamic drainage channel. It includes a plain abacus or plain section (10 cm high; 86 cm wide) above a cyma reversa molding (15 cm high). On its underside, a round protrusion (diam. 18 cm; 2 cm high) is carved, perhaps to facilitate its integration with the pier below. It is difficult to reconstruct the original location and function of the cyma reversa molding. Stucco cornices with a cyma reversa molding were often used as a projecting string course above the main zone of the wall in Roman houses decorated in the First Pompeian style. They also appear, in illusionistic paintings, in houses decorated in the Second Pompeian style. In Early Roman Judea they appear in stucco and stone in several places in Jerusalem, Herodium, Jericho and Masada (Peleg-Barkat 2007:151). Nevertheless, cyma reversa profiles were also utilized in the Roman period as impost capitals and as windowsill decoration, as can be seen for example on the western facade of the abovementioned ‘Ecce Homo’ arch (Vincent and Abel 1914: Fig. 7) and it seems most probable that the example under discussion was originally an impost capital supporting an arch. Type B. A simple cornice or corbel (Fig. 4.18:2) was incorporated in secondary use in an Early Islamic wall (W562). The cornice is 46 cm high, 81 cm long and 85 cm wide. It consists of a 6 cm fillet above a 21 cm high cavetto and a 19 cm high fascia or plain section. Similar simple cornices are known to have served as interior decoration that originally projected from the upper portion of the walls to support the roof. Simple beveled corbels appear already in Early Roman Judea; for example, in the synagogue and ‘basilica’ in Area S at Gamla, where several crude examples survived in situ (Syon and Yavor 2005:20; PelegBarkat 2010:169−170, Fig. 5.18). Later in the Roman period corbels tend to have a cyma recta profile, as can be seen, for example, at Hippos-Sussita. The excavators attributed these corbels to a Roman monumental building, probably a nymphaeum, located west of the forum (Segal, Mlynarczyk and Burdajewicz 2000: Fig. 12). The appearance of a cavetto instead of the cyma on the piece from the Western Wall Plaza excavations is a common simplification that finds its parallels in several Hellenistic and Roman monuments in Asia Minor and Italy (Foerster 1995:138). Type C. Two pieces of the same type of a rather simple sequence of moldings were found ex situ in the upper debris (Figs. 4.18:3; 4.19). The architectural member is 35 cm high and 22 cm wide; one of the fragments is 27 cm long and the other is 30 cm long. The moldings consist of a 4 cm high fillet above a 12.5 cm high cyma recta, an 11 cm high fascia and a 7.5 cm high cavetto. This sequence of moldings resembles, albeit with some differences, impost capitals like those adorning the eastern gateway of the Northern Gate of Aelia Capitolina below the Damascus Gate (Wightman 1989: Fig. 14) and crowning cornices, like one of the tetrakionion at Anjar, Lebanon (MacDonald 1986: frontispiece). Normally, a smaller cyma reversa replaces the bottom cavetto and an astragal and a fillet are carved below the cyma recta.

CHAPTER 4: ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION OF THE EASTERN CARDO

2

1

0

3

1

m

Fig. 4.18. Cornices, corbels and anta decoration, limestone. No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

Description

1

472

9177

Cyma reversa cornice (Type A)

2

W562

52460

Cavetto corbel (Type B)

3

724

7022, 7023

Cornice/anta capital(?) (Type C)

Fig. 4.19. Molded cornice(?), of limestone (see Fig. 4.18:3).

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Discussion Five column bases—four pseudo-Tuscan or single-torus column bases and one of the Attic type—and five column-shaft sections can be attributed with much certainty to the original colonnades that flanked the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem during the Roman period. The architectural members in this group share the same dimensions (diam. c. 60 cm), whitish limestone and an unfinished state. The simplicity of the design and the blocked-out state of the column bases found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations point perhaps to a lack of resources at the time when the colonnades were erected along the Cardo. Another possibility is that some historical event caused the interruption of the work on the decoration of the colonnades, and hence their unfinished state. The fact that the unfinished columns continued to stand along the Cardo throughout its long period of use and were never replaced or completed is intriguing. The possibility that the columns were covered with stucco to create a finished appearance does exist, but to my mind this possibility is rather unlikely; columns along main thoroughfares, in contrast to indoor columns, were exposed to the elements and abrasion caused by the large crowds of pedestrians, and thus they were not normally coated with plaster. Moreover, blocked-out architectural members that had their finishing details added in stucco had to first go through a phase of reduction to make their carved shape smaller than their intended finished state. However, the carved profiles of the column bases under discussion, as well as the collars on the column shafts, are larger than their intended state. In any case, even if eventually the columns and bases were covered with a thick coat of plaster, this was not the intention of their carvers. Since only blocked-out column bases and column drums were found, and we lack any evidence for the capitals and entablature above, it cannot be said whether they were Ionic or Corinthian. Furthermore, the data upon which we can base our stylistic analysis for dating is meager. Therefore, it is uncertain whether the colonnades were added to the paved street in a second phase sometime between the end of the second century CE and the fourth century CE, as parallels for the single-torus bases suggest, or were built in the same phase of construction as the paved street itself, which probably began early in the reign of Hadrian, according to the excavators (see Chapter 3). Nevertheless, there are several indicators, such as the secondary use of a Herodian column shaft and the lack of rough chiseling marks that characterize some of the architectural members of the later Roman period in Jerusalem, which support a relatively early date in the Roman period for the erection of the columns. The data for reconstructing the main characteristics of the Cardo colonnades are unfortunately very limited. In the southern section of the Eastern Cardo exposed by BenDov, the intercolumniation distance is rather wide—3.35 m. Thus, the ratio between the diameter of the columns and the intercolumniation is approximately 1:3.9. The ratio along the northern part of the Western Cardo of Aelia Capitolina, as calculated based on the two columns preserved today in the Russian church of Alexander Nevsky (Vincent and Abel 1914: Pl. VIII:1) is c. 1:3.6. If a similar ratio existed along the section of the Eastern Cardo exposed in the present excavation, then the intercolumniation distance should have been about 2.3–2.4 m.

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The heart-shaped base along the line of the eastern stylobate suggests that the sequence of columns was interrupted at this point to incorporate a different set of columns marking the facade of a monumental building east of the Cardo. It is not unlikely that the second-century CE pulvinated pedestal found nearby originated from this building, which further attests to its monumentality. Currently, we have no further indications for the character or function of this edifice. Other architectural members dated to the Roman and Byzantine period found at the site, mostly incorporated in secondary use into Islamic walls, are a reminder of the splendor of the decorated buildings that were part of this section of the city during these periods.

Appendix: Fragments of Architectural decoration from the Early Roman Period Several fragments of architectural decoration from the Early Roman period were found throughout the excavation, including an Attic column base, five fragments of a large Ionic capital, a fragment of a coffered ceiling and another decorated fragment, perhaps a doorframe. The column base was found in secondary use in a Roman wall, while the other fragments were found in debris that might have originated upslope, i.e., from the wealthy dwellings on the eastern slope of the Upper City of Jerusalem. Nevertheless, it is not improbable that some of them belong to nearby public buildings and dwellings west of the Temple Mount. Similar decorative architectural elements were found in both the Upper City and the vicinity of the Temple Mount. The Attic column base is rather small (diam. 33 cm) and therefore might have originated in a peristyle or some other decorated part of an affluent dwelling, while the coffered ceiling fragment and large Ionic capital more likely belong to a public building. An Attic Column Base One Attic column base was found incorporated in secondary use into a Roman wall east of the Cardo (W810) dated to the late first or early second century CE (Fig. 4.20:1). The base has no plinth. Its lower torus is 6.5 cm high, the scotia together with its flanking fillets is 6 cm high, the upper torus is 4.5 cm high and the crowning apophyge is 5.5 cm high. Above the apophyge is a short (9 cm) section of the column shaft. The upper diameter is 33 cm. Attic bases, characterized by two tori separated by a scotia or trochlius and two fillets, were the most common type in Judea during the Second Temple period. A characteristic of the Early Roman period is the lack of a plinth, as very few examples of column bases carved with plinths appear in Judea in the late Second Temple period (Peleg 2006:325–326; Peleg-Barkat 2007:140, Figs. 12–15, 18–22, 137–152, 311–326). An Ionic Capital Five fragments of an Ionic capital or several capitals of the same type were found in the excavation (Fig. 4.20:2). Four of the fragments relate to the abacus and the fifth is part of a volute. The abacus has a cavetto profile and is 10 cm high. Below the abacus is a 2.5 cm high fillet and a deep angular canalis (5.5 cm high). The spiral of the volute is made up of

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a narrow band with a curved face and the canalis between the curves of the spiral is also somewhat rounded. Although the fragments found in the Western Wall Plaza excavations bear very little stylistic information, their scale, the plastic design of the volute, the abacus profile

1

2

20 cm

0

3

0

10 cm

0

10 cm

4

Fig. 4.20. Early Roman-period limestone decorative architectural fragments. No.

Locus/Wall

Basket

Description

1

W810

81412

Attic base

2

724

7013/1–6

Ionic capital

3

724

7050

Ceiling decoration

4

6206

61442

Doorframe(?)

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141

and the polished surfaces are very reminiscent of a pair of Ionic capitals that were found in Area Q of Avigad’s excavations in the Upper City of Jerusalem (Avigad 1983:161– 165, Figs. 178–181; Reich 2003:273). These capitals, displaying high-quality carving and an elaborate decoration, belonged to 1 m diameter columns. One capital was found broken with its fragments incorporated in secondary use into later Byzantine walls, and a complete capital of the same type and size was found nearby. Unfortunately, it was found in a stratum that could not be stratigraphically defined, according to Avigad. Although the capitals cannot be dated by their archaeological context, there are several characteristics that suggest a Herodian date: instead of darts between the eggs, the echinus is decorated with buds or lily patterns. Similar decoration appears on an echinus fragment retrieved from below the southern wall of the Temple Mount during Mazar’s excavations (Peleg-Barkat 2007: Cat. No. 1036). It should be noted that fragments of Ionic capitals stratigraphically dated to the Hellenistic or Hasmonean period were also found in the Upper City of Jerusalem (Reich 2003:271–291, Pl. 7.8:1–7). These fragments belonged to somewhat larger capitals and comprised volutes only, a fact that points, in Reich’s opinion, to a deliberate mutilation of the capitals. Therefore, it cannot be ruled out that the Ionic capital fragments found in the current excavations date earlier than the time of Herod. Ceiling Decoration (Soffit) A fragment of a ceiling decoration panel (soffit) was found, 27 cm long, 23 cm wide and 21 cm thick (Fig. 4.20:3). Its face is carved with rectangular and triangular coffer frames with the same profile of a central fillet flanked by two undecorated cyma reversa moldings. Soffits of cornices, lintels and ceilings decorated with geometrical coffers in shapes of triangles, rectangles, octagons, hexagons, lozenges and circles were common in Herodian Jerusalem. In many cases the frame twists into a meander form. Inside the coffers are various geometrical and floral patterns, mainly rosettes. Examples of such soffits were found along the southern and western enclosure walls of the Temple Mount (Mazar 1975:28; Baruch and Reich 2001:89; Peleg-Barkat 2007:311–319, Cat. Nos. 1207–1471). The border decorations of the domes of the underground passageways of the Double Gate are also divided from the main zone of the decoration by a similar frame (Mazar 2002:52–54). Two other examples of soffits decorated with geometrical panels were found in Jerusalem: the first is the soffit of the lintel of the ‘Grape Clusters Tomb’ (Vincent 1899:300), and the second is a soffit of a cornice revealed in the Upper City (Avigad 1983: Fig. 184). Another, unpublished example of a soffit decorated with geometrical coffers is currently displayed in the Wohl Archaeological Museum of the Herodian Quarter in Jerusalem. A border comprised of fillet and cyma reversa molding on one side was customary for panel frames and appears on hard limestone sarcophagi found in the cemetery of Jerusalem of the first century CE (Foerster 1998: Pls. 120, 121:4, 122, 123:3, 4). It was also very common in Late Republican and Early Imperial Italy, for example, on the famous Ara Pacis (13–9 BCE), in the stucco ceiling of Room 15 in the House of Augustus on the Palatine in Rome (30–20 BCE; Carettoni 1983: Pl. Y1) and in first-century BCE to firstcentury CE pilasters from Pompeii (Mathea-Förtsch 1999: Pls. 57, 75:1–3).

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Varia One architectural element has two adjacent carved faces (Fig. 4.20:4): the front has a large torus (8 cm high) and what seem to be remnants of two small rectangular panels, while the other face is smooth with a slight concavity. The fact that the element is carved on two adjacent faces suggests that it might have been used as a doorframe. No exact parallels were found by the author. Another fragment is a massive panel with a decorated attached pilaster that was reused in the ceiling of Cistern 300 (Fig. 4.21).4 The pilaster projects 8 cm from the stone’s face and is 65.5 cm high. The panel to which the pilaster is attached is 49 cm long, 19 cm wide and 76.5 cm high. The base of the pilaster (6 cm high) is comprised of a scotia\ trochilus, on top of which are an astragal and a torus. A lower torus was not carved, or was possibly smoothed out when the panel was converted into a cover stone. It seems probable that this was originally a variant of an Attic column base, the most common type of base from the Hellenistic to the Byzantine periods in this region. The capital (13 cm high) is of the Ionic order. There is an astragal carved with a bead-and-reel pattern at the neck. The echinus on the facade is only partially preserved. It shows only one egg, between two palmettes, while the volutes are badly damaged and barely discernible. The balteus at the center of the pulvinus is marked by a string of beads and simple leaves, with a central rib decorating the pulvinus on both sides of the balteus. The abacus lacks its normal profile and might have also suffered from secondary chiseling when the stone was inserted into the cistern’s ceiling. The astragal with a bead-and-reel pattern is a common feature on the neck of Ionic capitals, already appearing on capitals from the Artemision in Ephesus, dated to the sixth century BCE (Wilson Jones 2014: Fig. 5.18d). A similar pattern appears on the necks of the Ionic pilasters adorning the so-called ‘Tomb of Absalom’ in the Qidron Valley (Avigad 1954: Fig. 57). Beads decorating the balteus of Ionic capitals are also common (e.g., Bingöl 1980: Nos. 166, 183, 184, 300); however, they normally frame a central motif such as a scale pattern. On the pilaster from the cistern, the minute size allowed only for a simplified and abbreviated version of such a decoration. The facade of the pilaster is decorated with a floral design with two central rosettes, the lower (4 × 6 cm) smaller than the upper (6 × 9 cm), and two pinnate leaves: the upper (L 11.25 cm) shorter than the lower (L 16 cm). A curling twig connects the larger rosette with the smaller one and the lower leaf. The relief is quite high, protruding c. 5 cm from the background, creating a strong play of light and shade in places where the artist used a drill to make deep grooves or depressions, e.g., at the ribs of the leaves or in the center of the rosettes. Although no exact parallel exists, such an engraving style is typical of the Roman period, and parallels are found in the medallions and scrolls that decorate friezes and other architectural members of public monuments in Roman Palestine dating to the second century CE (e.g., Ovadiah, Fischer and Roll 1993: Figs. 5, 10, 15; Turnheim and Ovadiah 1996: Figs. 3−7, 42−44).

This fragment was discovered in December 2016, during conservation work, and was later removed from the cistern and scanned with a 3D scanner by Avshalom Karasik. 4

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A-a

B-b

A

a

C-c C

B

b

c 0

20 cm

Fig. 4.21. A miniature limestone Ionic pilaster (reused in the ceiling of Cistern 300).

The original setting of this panel is unknown and its function is difficult to reconstruct. It may have served as a support for a two-legged bench-table, which had two solid legs, like bench supports, and was used as a display table. The outer edges of such supports were often carved with a winged creature whose body tapers down to a single claw foot. Simpler examples have foliage or geometric patterns instead of a winged creature, although the animal paw decoration is normally retained (Richter 1966:113, Figs. 573−575; Croom 2007:85−86; Andrianou 2009:52, Fig. 14). Supports fashioned as stone columns normally appear as single columns of the monopodium type (Croom 2007:80−84). It may be suggested that the piece here from Aelia Capitolina is a local version that combines characteristics of these two different types. Other possible interpretations of the panel include a decorated railing, or the decoration of the left side of a small aedicule or niche. Such niches adorn Baroque style decorated facades of temples, nymphea, gates, theater scaenae frons and other public buildings. Examples of niches bordered by pilasters are abundant in the southern Levant; however, they are usually crowned by either

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Corinthian capitals (e.g., in the Temple of Bacchus at Heliopolis and the Temple of Tyche at Is Sanamen in Syria; Segal 2013: Figs. 98, 164) or simple pseudo-Doric capitals (e.g., the Little Temple at Rabba in Jordan and Qalibe Temple at Shakka in Syria; Segal 2013: Figs. 182, 337). Pilasters decorated with floral designs also appear, albeit not frequently, on decorated facades or inner halls of temples in Roman Syria (Segal 2013: Fig. 260).

R eferences Andrianou D. 2009. The Furniture and Furnishings of Ancient Greek Houses and Tombs. Cambridge, N.Y. Avigad N. 1954. Ancient Monuments in the Kidron Valley. Jerusalem (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 144–146). Avigad N. 1983. Discovering Jerusalem. Jerusalem. Baruch Y. and Reich R. 2001. Second Temple Period Finds from New Excavations at the Ophel, South of the Temple Mount. Qadmoniot 122:88–92 (Hebrew). Belkin L. 1990. The Architectural Reconstruction of the Gush Ḥalav Synagogue. In E.M. Meyers, C.L. Meyers and J.F. Strange. Excavations at the Ancient Synagogue of Gush Ḥalav (Meiron Excavations Project V). Winona Lake. Pp. 99–122. Ben-Ami D. and Tchekhanovets Y. 2009. A Peristyle Building from the Roman Period in the City of David. In D. Amit, G.D. Stiebel and O. Peleg-Barkat eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region. Collected Papers 3. Jerusalem. Pp. 28–36. Ben-Dov M. 1982. The Dig at the Temple Mount. Jerusalem (Hebrew). Bingöl O. 1980. Das ionische Normalkapitell in hellenistischer und römischer Zeit in Kleinasien (Istanbuler Mitteilungen 20). Tübingen. Browning I. 1982. Jerash and the Decapolis. London. Butler H.C. 1914. Ancient Architecture in Syria A, 4: Southern Syria; Bosrā (Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1904–1905 and 1909 II). Leiden. Carettoni G. 1983. Das Haus des Augustus auf dem Palatin. Mainz. Chambon A. 2003. Catalogue des blocs d’architecture localisés ou erratiques. In J.-B. Humbert and J. Gunneweg eds. Khirbet Qumrân et ‘Aïn Feshkha II: Études d’anthropologie, de physique et de chimie (Novum testamentum et orbis antiquus. Series archaeologica 3). Fribourg–Göttingen. Pp. 445–465. Croom A.T. 2007. Roman Furniture. Stroud. Crowfoot J.W. and Hamilton R.W. 1929. The Discovery of a Synagogue at Jerash. PEF 61:211–219. Crowfoot J.W., Kenyon K.M. and Sukenik E.L. 1942. Samaria-Sebaste I: The Buildings at Samaria. London. Dell’Acqua A. 2013. The Use of the Heart-Shaped Pillar in the Ancient Architecture: Examples and Circulation. In L. Bombardieri, A. D’Agostino, G. Guarducci, V. Orsi and S. Valentini eds. SOMA 2012: Identity and Connectivity II (Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012) (BAR Int. S. 2581/II). Oxford. Pp. 1139−1150. Fischer M.L. 1990. Das korinthische Kapitell im Alten Israel in der hellenistischen und römischen Periode: Studien zur Geschichte der Baudekoration im Nahen Osten. Mainz am Rhein.

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Fischer M., Ovadiah A. and Roll I. 1984. The Roman Temple at Kedesh, Upper Galilee: A Preliminary Study. Tel Aviv 11:146–172. Foerster G. 1995. Masada V: The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963–1965; Final Reports. Art and Architecture. Jerusalem. Foerster G. 1998. Sarcophagus Production in Jerusalem from the Beginning of the Common Era up to 70 CE. In G. Koch ed. Akten des Symposiums “125 Jahre Sarkophag-Corpus,” Marburg 4–7 Oktober 1995 (Sarkophag-Studien 1). Mainz. Pp. 295–310. Habas L. Forthcoming. Byzantine Stone Architecture and Furniture. In WWPE III. Hirschfeld H. 1997. The Columned Portal. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 176–184. Hirschfeld Y. 2000. Architecture and Stratigraphy. In Y. Hirschfeld ed. Ramat Hanadiv Excavations: Final Report of the 1984–1998 Seasons. Jerusalem. Pp. 235–370. Kochavi M. 1989. Aphek-Antipatris: Five Thousand Years of History. Tel Aviv (Hebrew). Leibner U. 2019. The Architectural Decoration of the Synagogue. In U. Leibner. Khirbet Wadi Ḥamam: A Roman-Period Village and Synagogue in the Lower Galilee. Jerusalem. Pp. 143–199. Levine L.I. 1982. Excavations at the Synagogue of Horvat ‘Ammudim. IEJ 32:1–12. MacDonald W.L. 1986. The Architecture of the Roman Empire II: An Urban Appraisal (Yale Publications in the History of Art 35). New Haven–London. Ma‘oz Z.U. and Ben-David H. 2008. Deir ‘Aziz. NEAEHL 5:1691–1693. Mathea-Förtsch M. 1999. Römische Rankenpfeiler und -pilaster: Schmuckstützen mit vegetabilem Dekor, vornehmlich aus Italien und den westlichen Provinzen (Beiträge zur Erschliessung hellenistischer und kaiserzeitlicher Skulptur und Architektur 17). Mainz. Mazar B. 1975. The Archaeological Excavations near the Temple Mount. In Y. Yadin ed. Jerusalem Revealed: Archaeology of the Holy City, 1968–1974. Jerusalem. Pp. 25–40. Mazar E. 1999. The Camp of the Tenth Roman Legion at the Foot of the South-West Corner of the Temple Mount Enclosure Wall in Jerusalem. In A. Faust and E. Baruch eds. New Studies on Jerusalem 5 (Proceedings of the Fifth Conference, December 23rd 1999, Bar-Ilan University). Ramat Gan. Pp. 52–67 (Hebrew). Mazar E. 2002. The Complete Guide of the Temple Mount Excavations. Jerusalem. Mazar E. 2007. The Peristyle House. In E. Mazar. The Temple Mount Excavations in Jerusalem 1968–1978 Directed by Benjamin Mazar; Final Report III: The Byzantine Period (Qedem 46). Jerusalem. Pp. 99–112. Mazor G. 2007. Concerning the Urban Plan of Aelia Capitolina: Colonnaded Streets, Monumental Arches and City Gates. Eretz-Israel 28:116–124 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 13*). Mazor G. 2015. The Architectural Elements. In G. Mazor and W. Atrash. Bet She’an III/2: Nysa Scythopolis; The Southern and Severan Theaters. The Architecture (IAA Reports 58/2). Jerusalem. Pp. 371−611. Onians J. 1990. Bearers of Meaning: The Classical Orders in Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Princeton, N.J. Ovadiah A., Fischer M.L. and Roll I. 1993. The Architectural Decoration of the Roman Temple at Kedesh. In M. Heltzer, A. Segal and D. Kaufman eds. Studies in the Archaeology and History of Ancient Israel in Honour of Moshe Dothan. Haifa. Pp. 209−230 (Hebrew; English summary, Pp. 24*–25*).

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Peleg O. 2006. Herodian Architectural Decoration. In E. Netzer ed. The Architecture of Herod, the Great Builder (Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum 117). Tübingen. Pp. 320–338. Peleg-Barkat O. 2007. The Herodian Architectural Decoration in Light of the Finds from the Temple Mount Excavations. Ph.D. diss. The Hebrew University. Jerusalem (Hebrew). Peleg-Barkat O. 2010. Architectural Decoration. In D. Syon and Z. Yavor. Gamla II: The Architecture; The Shmaryah Gutman Excavations, 1976−1989 (IAA Reports 44). Jerusalem. Pp. 159–174. Polidori R., Di Vita A., Di Vita-Evrard G. and Bacchielli L. 1999. Libya: The Lost Cities of the Roman Empire. Cologne. Reich R. 2003. Stone Vessels, Weights and Architectural Fragments. In H. Geva ed. Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969–1982 II: The Finds from Areas A, W and X-2; Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 263–291. Richter G.M.A. 1966. The Furniture of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans. London. Rykwert J. 1996. The Dancing Column: On Order in Architecture. Cambridge, Mass. Segal A. 1995. Monumental Architecture in Roman Palestine and Provincia Arabia. Haifa (Hebrew). Segal A. 2013. Temples and Sanctuaries in the Roman East: Religious Architecture in Syria, Iudaea/ Palaestina and Provincia Arabia. Oxford. Segal A., Mlynarczyk J. and Burdajewicz M. 2000. Hippos (Sussita): First Season of Excavations, July 2000. Haifa. Shoe L.T. 1965. Etruscan and Republican Roman Mouldings (Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 28). Rome. Shoe-Meritt L.T. 1969. The Geographical Distribution of Greek and Roman Ionic Bases. Hesperia 38:186–204. Sion M.-A. de. 1955. La forteresse Antonia à Jérusalem et la question du Prétoire. Jerusalem. Syon D. and Yavor Z. 2005. Gamla 1997–2000. ‘Atiqot 50:37–71. Tsafrir Y. 2005. Procopius on the Nea Church, the Cardo, and ‘The Finger of Og’ in Jerusalem. Cathedra 115:5–30 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 237). Turnheim Y. and Ovadiah A. 1996. Miscellaneous Ornamented Architectural Elements in Roman Caesarea. In A. Raban and K.C. Holum eds. Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective after Two Millennia (Documenta et monumenta orientis antiqui 21). Leiden–New York–Cologne. Pp. 262–304. Vincent L.-H. 1899. Un hypogée juif. RB 8:297–304. Vincent L.-H. and Abel F.-M. 1914. Jérusalem: Recherches de topographie, d’archéologie et d’histoire II: Jérusalem nouvelle. Paris. Wannagat D. 1995. Säule und Kontext: Piedestale und Teilkannelierung in der griechischen Architektur. Munich. Webb P.A. 1996. Hellenistic Architectural Sculpture: Figural Motifs in Western Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. Madison, Wis. Wightman G.J. 1989. The Damascus Gate, Jerusalem: Excavations by C.-M. Bennett and J.B. Hennessy at the Damascus Gate, Jerusalem 1964–1966 (BAR Int. S. 519). Oxford. Wilson Jones M. 2003. Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven–London. Wilson Jones M. 2014. Origins of Classical Architecture: Temples, Orders and Gifts to the Gods in Ancient Greece. New Haven–London.

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 5

Board Games from the Eastern Cardo Michael Sebbane

Introduction Seven board games incised in stone were discovered in the Eastern Cardo excavations. Six were formed by incising and hammering: one on the Cardo’s paving stones (L720), two on the steps of Staircase 9050 leading to Street 4108, one on a paving stone of that street, and two on the covering stones of Drainage Channel 472 (Plan 5.1). Only one was incised Street

Carriageway

Portico Portico

7

L720

W84 Early Islamic Wall

4 L472

5

Staircase L9050

0

1

3

Street L4108

2

6

10

m

Plan 5.1. The location of incised board games in the area of the Eastern Cardo: (1–3) Achi board games––Fig. 5.3; (4) Nine Men’s Morris board game––Fig. 5.5; (5) Mulinello Quadrupio board game––Fig. 5.8; (6) Tabula/Alea board game––Figs. 5.9, 5.10; (7) 3 x 14 board game––Fig. 5.11.

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on a piece of limestone masonry and originally used as a private game board; it was later incorporated as a building stone in W84 in the Early Islamic period. Before describing the different types of games, the following four issues are important for dating purposes and for understanding the role of board games in daily life in Jerusalem’s streets during the Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. 1. The game boards were incised in one of the main public assembly areas in Jerusalem— the Eastern Cardo—to serve the passersby. 2. The games belong to two large families of board games: (a) Games of Position and (b) Race Games.1 3. The date of their incision, and the periods during which they were in use, are open to interpretation. The archaeological context places them in three chronological contexts: (a) from the Late Roman to the Early Islamic periods (the first half of the second century to the eighth–ninth centuries CE); (b) from the Byzantine to the Early Islamic periods (the fifth–sixth centuries to the eighth–ninth centuries CE); and (c) the Early Islamic period (the eighth–ninth centuries CE). 4. The style of the games, their location and their dates are not unique to the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem. Similar examples have been found elsewhere along Jerusalem’s Roman and Byzantine streets. Furthermore, one should stress that ‘public board games’ were a common feature in the urban landscape of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cities in Israel and elsewhere, in both the East and the West. The games are described according to the two principal families to which they belong, with emphasis on their archaeological context, and dating. This is followed by a discussion summarizing the characteristics of the games, their geographic distribution, and the way in which they were played.

The Typology, Description and Dating of the Games Games of Position This family is represented in the Eastern Cardo by five game boards. Three of the Achi type and one of the Nine Men’s Morris type belong to ‘three-in-a-row’ games, in which players move pieces on the board in order to create a sequence or row of three (Fig. 5.1:1–4; Bell and Cornelius 1988:5–11). A fifth game board, of the Mulinello Quadrupio type, belongs to a ‘five-in-a-row’ game, in which players move their pieces on the board in order to create a sequence or row of five (Fig. 5.1:6; Bell and Cornelius 1988:11–12).2

The world of board games includes many hundreds of types, which are divided into large families: Games of Position, Mancala Games, War Games, Race Games, Dice, Calculation and Other Games (Murray 1951; Bell 1979; Bell and Cornelius 1988). 1

I have refrained here from addressing the question of the origin, names and rules of these games. For discussions of these subjects, see Murray 1951; Bell 1979; Bell and Cornelius 1988; Sebbane 1999, 2000. It is, however, important to stress that the names used for these games (Achi, Three Men’s Morris, Nine Men’s Morris, 2

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2

3

4

5

6

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8

7

Fig. 5.1. Typology of Games of Position (1–7) and Games of Race (8): (1, 3) Three Men’s Morris; (2) Achi; (4) Nine Men’s Morris; (5) Twelve Men’s Morris; (6) Mulinello Quadrupio; (7) Circle/Octagon; (8) Tabula/Alea.

Achi Three game boards were incised on steps leading from the Cardo eastward to Street 4108 (Fig. 5.2; Plan 5.1:1–3):3 one game was incised on the third step (Fig. 5.3:a), one on the fourth step (Fig. 5.3:b), and another was incised on a flagstone of Street 4108 itself next to the fourth step (Fig. 5.3:c). The games are designed in the form of a square divided by four lines that cross in the middle—one down, one across and two diagonals—creating eight triangles (Fig. 5.1:2).4 They all measure about 12 × 12 cm and were probably incised with a metal chisel, based on the fact that the lines are not incised in a continuous line but are formed by adjacent dots. As the boards are similar in style and size and were found in

Twelve Men’s Morris, Mulinello Quadrupio) do not necessarily reflect their names in ancient times, but rather the names used today in the scholarly literature. The steps were numbered top to bottom from the level of the Eastern Cardo down to the southern street.

3

This form is called Type S.5 in Bell and Roueché’s typology (2007); some researchers identify it as Three Men’s Morris (Murray 1951:40–42; Bell 2007:98). 4

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Fig. 5.2. Staircase leading from the Eastern Cardo to Street 4108.

0

a

40

0

b

40

0

40

c

Fig. 5.3. Inscribed games of the Achi type on the staircase leading from the Eastern Cardo to Street 4108.

the same area, it may be suggested that they were made at the same time, possibly even by the same person or group of people. Their grouping around the steps created a focal point where those visiting the southern street could meet (see discussion). The dating of the Achi-type games, i.e., the period in which they were incised and used, is based on the dating of Street 4108 and the staircase leading to it. It is uncertain when the street’s foundations were laid (see Chapter 3), but it is highly probable that it was during the Late Roman period, together with the Eastern Cardo, as some of the paving stones are similar in style to the Cardo’s paving stones, and the fill beneath them dates no later than the Roman period. On the other hand, the pottery sealed beneath most of the paving stones dates to the fifth‒sixth centuries CE, indicating that the street in its current form and certainly the steps leading down to it were paved in the Byzantine period, not before the fifth‒sixth centuries CE, and continued to be used until the Early Islamic period, in the eighth‒ninth centuries CE (see Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019: Chapter 3). Thus, the games could be dated to this entire time period. Regarding the prevalence and geographic distribution of game boards of this type in Israel, it should be emphasized that no similar examples have yet been published from the region. On the other hand, Three Men’s Morris-type

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games in the form of a square divided into four squares by two lines, one horizontal and one vertical, similar to Fig. 5.1:1, have been found incised on the paving stones of the Western Cardo in Jerusalem, Area X-7, in the southern section of the street (Gutfeld 2012:86, Pl. 1.1:d, Photograph 1.88d) and at Ẓippori on the paving stones of its cardo and at the entrance to the theater.5 These Three Men’s Morris-type games reflect a basic version of ‘three-in-arow’ games (Bell and Cornelius 1988:6). Nine Men’s Morris Board Game This game board was incised on a carved limestone block incorporated in secondary use in W84 (Fig. 5.4, Plan 5.1:4). The rectangular stone, 20.5 × 28.0 cm, was meticulously dressed and smoothed, apart from one face that was damaged, rendering the board unusable. It was probably damaged before being incorporated as a building stone in W84, although it may also have been damaged at the time. The board is composed of three squares—small, medium and large—placed one inside the other and joined by four lines that cross through the center of their sides (Figs.

Fig. 5.4. Eastern Cardo, looking north. To left, W84; in center, the Cardo.

The game boards from Ẓippori are unpublished. Three boards were examined in situ by the author and measure 12 × 14, 16 × 18 and 26 × 26 cm. 5

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5.1:4; 5.5, 5.6).6 The game was incised using a sharp implement, probably an awl or metal chisel. It has clear, uninterrupted lines, although they are not uniform, ranging between 1.0 and 3.0 mm wide, and 0.5 and 1.0 mm deep. The board was poorly designed, the sides of the squares are not straight and the gaps between them differ in size. The small square measures 7 × 11 cm, the middle square 12 × 16 cm, and the large square 17 × 22 cm. The gaps between the small and medium-sized squares range between 1.5 and 3.5 cm, and the gaps between the middle and large squares range from 2.5 to 3.5 cm. The imprecise way in which the game board was made is in striking contrast with the careful preparation of the stone in general, and especially of the upper face on which the game was incised. On the other hand, the careful preparation of the upper face and the game’s clearly incised lines would have been

0

10

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Fig. 5.5. Nine Men’s Morris game from the Eastern Cardo (drawing, Mark Kunin).

a

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20

b

Fig. 5.6. Nine Men’s Morris game from the Eastern Cardo: (a) game; (b) obverse side.

6

Type SSS.1, after Bell and Roueché’s typology (2007).

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convenient for the players, as the game pieces would have remained securely on the board. It is worth mentioning that this game differs from the others exposed in the Eastern Cardo as it was portable, produced and intended for private use.7 It is not certain when the game was incised and used. The fact that the stone was incorporated into W84, which was part of a large private home built in Stratum IX that halved the original width of the Eastern Cardo, indicates that its manufacture and use predate the Early Islamic period (see Chapter 3: Plans 3.3, 3.4). Board games of the Nine Men’s Morris type, as well as the Twelve Men’s Morris type (an extended version of the former; Fig. 5.1:5),8 are widely known from archaeological assemblages dating from the Late Roman to the Crusader periods as both private and public games (Sebbane 1999; 2000). In the following parallel examples, I refer to game boards discovered in Jerusalem, at Ḥorbat ʻAqav and at Tiberias, which are most useful in illuminating the present find. An additional example of a Twelve Men’s Morris type was discovered at Ḥammat Gader, engraved on the same flagstone as a Mulinello Quadrupio game (see below). Jerusalem, the Lithostratos Pavement at the Sisters of Zion Convent. This game board of the Twelve Men’s Morris type is incised on one of the large Roman flagstones that probably originally formed part of the eastern forum of Aelia Capitolina (Geva 1993:764–765; Tsafrir 1999a:153–157 and references therein). The outlines of the squares are not straight and the gaps between them are not uniform. The small square measures 5 × 7 cm, the medium square 10.0 × 12.5 cm, and the large square 14 × 19 cm (de Sion 1955: Pl. 48:3). The monumental flagstone, which measures 1.0 × 1.1 m, is also incised with another board game of the Circle/Octagon type, comprising a circle 27.5 cm in diameter divided by four diagonal lines into eight triangular segments (Fig. 5.1:7),9 and with various other designs, including one shaped like a scorpion and one like the letter ‘B’ (de Sion 1955:126–127, Pls. 45:2; 47). The games and incised designs do not seem to have been made at the same time, but were added over time, although they relate to each other and do not obliterate any of the others. In my opinion, the large round board game in the center of the paving stone was incised first, after which the Twelve Men’s Morris type was incised next to it, and the other designs were added around them in subsequent years. The archaeological context dates the creation and use of these game boards to a time when the eastern forum was very much part of the life of the city: from the Late Roman period (first half of the second century CE), until the end of the Byzantine period (first half of the seventh century

This game board (IAA No. 2009-4) is stored in the National Treasures storerooms in Bet Shemesh.

7

In addition to the four lines across and down the center of the squares, the squares are also divided by two diagonal lines. 8

Another game board of the same type was incised on one of the large Roman paving stones found inside the Chapel of the Condemnation and another on a paving stone in the courtyard inside Damascus Gate (see n. 14). They also belong to the family of Games of Position and are essentially Blocking Games, in which the players aim to block the moves of their opponents (Bell and Cornelius 1988:12–13, 106–107; Type C.5, after Bell and Roueché’s typology, 2007). 9

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CE; Tsafrir 1999b:298). It should be noted that the considerable amount of wear on both the paving stone and the game boards incised on it indicate a prolonged period of use. Jerusalem, the Western Cardo. Four game boards of the Nine Men’s Morris type were incised on the paving stones of the Western Cardo, three in the southern section of the street visible today (Area X-7) and on the paving stones of the uncovered central part, together with a game board of the Three Men’s Morris type. The boards are close together and were probably made at the same time or not long one after the other, and as a group of games they would have been a focal point of interest for those passing along the street (Gutfeld 2012:86, Pl. 1.1:a, Photograph 1.88:a–c). The fourth game board is located about 20 m to their north in Area X-6 (Gutfeld 2012:81, Photograph 1.83).10 The archaeological context dates the creation and use of these game boards between the late Byzantine period (sixth century CE) and the Ayyubid period (first half of the thirteenth century CE), the entire period during which the Western Cardo was an important part of the daily life of the city (Gutfeld 2012:483–487, 496). Ḥorbat ʻAqav. A Nine Men’s Morris-type game board was found in the courtyard of a Byzantine villa dating to the fifth–seventh centuries CE. It was probably discarded in the courtyard when it was broken and rendered unusable. The game was incised on a carved limestone block, 30 × 30 cm, and was originally a portable private game board (Sebbane 2000:226–228).11 Tiberias. A Nine Men’s Morris-type game board was incorporated in secondary use as a building block in a massive wall that probably formed part of the Crusader defenses of Tiberias (Fig. 5.7; Dinur 1977).12 It was probably originally used as a private game board during the Crusader period or perhaps even earlier, during the late Byzantine or Early Islamic period.

0

20

Fig. 5.7. Nine Men’s Morris Game from Tiberias.

This board is incised on the paving stones at the junction depicted on the Madaba map.

10

This game board (IAA No. 98-3431) is stored in the National Treasures storerooms in Bet Shemesh.

11

This board game was briefly mentioned in the excavation report by the excavator (Dinur 1977). I thank Yosef Stepansky for drawing my attention to this discovery several years ago. He kindly photographed the game board on January 23, 1989 during the re-opening of the excavation site to lay an electrical cable. 12

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In light of the archaeological context of the Nine Men’s Morris-type board game from the Eastern Cardo, and given the archaeological comparanda, I am inclined to date it to the Byzantine period (fifth–seventh centuries CE). Were it to be attributed to the Late Roman period, its life span would have been longer than seems reasonable for a portable, private game board. Mulinello Quadrupio Board Game This board game is incised on one of the covering stones of an Early Islamic-period drainage channel (Fig. 5.8, Plan 5.1:5). This stone and the other covering stones that lay beside it served as the top step that was added in this period to the staircase leading from the southern part of the Eastern Cardo to Street 4108. The rectangular stone, 75 × 90 cm and 20 cm thick, was employed in secondary use, along with the covering stones beside it, to roof the channel. They are similar in style to the large stone slabs of the staircase and the Cardo’s flagstones, some of which fell into disuse at this time and were removed by stone robbers. The game board, which measures 14.0 × 22.5 cm, bears a 4 × 6 design comprising four rows consisting of six squares each. Some of the squares are divided into triangles by four diagonal lines. The game was incised using a sharp implement, probably an awl or metal chisel. The workmanship is slipshod and lacks precision, and the squares differ in size and range between 2.0 × 2.5 cm and 5.0 × 5.0 cm; in addition, the diagonals do not cross all the squares and in a number of cases they divide the squares into four triangles instead of the requisite two (as in Fig. 5.1:6). It seems that the person who incised the board did not bother to plan and execute the work properly and, as a result, the game was defective and probably never used. There are two possible dates for the game board’s creation: it may have been incised when the drainage channel was laid and used, namely during the Umayyad–Abbasid periods, or was originally incised—even if never used—during the Byzantine period and, when the Eastern Cardo was halved in width in the Umayyad period, the stone was among the other dismantled stones used to cover the drainage channel. By comparison with undamaged game boards of this type, the game can be identified as belonging to the 4 × 4 type—four rows with four squares each—and the 16 squares are divided by diagonals into 32 triangles (Fig. 5.1:6). Apart from this example, the corpus of this type includes four other items, three from Jerusalem and one from Ḥammat Gader, described below.

0

10

Fig. 5.8. Mulinello Quadrupio game from the Eastern Cardo.

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Jerusalem, Damascus Gate. Here, a 15.5 × 18.0 cm game board was engraved on a rectangular flagstone, 0.53 × 1.00 m, one of the large Roman paving stones forming part of the magnificent courtyard inside Jerusalem’s northern gate.13 The entrance building and the courtyard were in use from the founding of Aelia Capitolina in the mid-second century/ early third century CE, at least until the end of the Byzantine period, in the first half of the seventh century CE (Magen 1988; Geva 1993:761–762; Tsafrir 1999a:135–142, 1999b: 342–351 and references therein). The game board should be attributed to this period.14 Jerusalem, the Lithostratos Pavement at the Convent of the Sisters of Zion. The paving stones bear two game boards of this type: one is a board measuring 38 × 54 cm, incised on a rectangular stone, 0.95 × 1.35 m. The lines of the game are considerably worn and, in its present condition, it would no longer be possible to use it as a game board. Another game board, 26 × 30 cm, is incised on a rectangular stone measuring 60 × 95 cm (de Sion 1955: Pls. 45:C [Reseau II], 45:1 [Reseau I]; 46). The games date to between the Late Roman period (first half of the second century CE), and the end of the Byzantine period (first half of the seventh century CE; see discussion above). The Bathhouse at Ḥammat Gader. A game board measuring 20.5 × 22.5 cm was incised on a marble flagstone, 61 × 85 cm, in the Hall of the Inscriptions (Area E), which served as the central hall through which bathers would have reached the different sections of the bathhouse (Hirschfeld 1997:73–79, 148–152). The lines on the board are formed of dots, indicating that it was hammered out, probably using a metal chisel. On the same flagstone, another game of the Twelve Men’s Morris type was engraved. The lines of this game are continuous and precise and were incised with a sharp implement such as a metal awl. The small square measures 6.5 × 9.0 cm, the middle square 10 × 14 cm, and the large square 15.5 × 18.5 cm. The stone also bears an inscription reading Allah in Arabic. Based on the inscription, the games date to the Umayyad period, in the seventh–eighth centuries CE (Phase III; Amitai-Preiss 1997:272, 277, Fig. 5).15 On the other hand, it is not inconceivable that either one or both of the game boards had already been incised during the Byzantine period, in the fifth–seventh centuries CE (Phase II). The fact that the boards and the inscription were engraved differently only serves to strengthen the impression that they were created at different times. In my opinion, the Twelve Men’s Morris-type game in the center of the stone was engraved first, the Mulinello Quadrupio-

During reconstruction work carried out near the gate to make it more accessible to the public, the lines of the game were apparently painted over with red oil paint. Aside from the serious damage to the game board’s authentic condition, the paint prevents the original lines from being examined to determine how they were made, or to assess any signs of wear and erosion. 13

An additional game board was incised on another paving stone in this courtyard, comprising a circle 19 cm in diameter divided by 4 diagonals into 8 triangular segments (see Fig. 5.1:8). 14

This stone with two game boards (IAA No. 1981-1548) is stored in the National Treasures storerooms in Bet Shemesh. 15

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type board was added next to it at a later date, and finally the Arabic inscription was incised on the right-hand side of the stone. Race Games Two game boards belong to this family of games, one with a 2 × 12 division known from the Roman period by the name Tabula16 (‘Table’) or Alea (‘Dice’), and the other with a 3 × 14 division. They belong to the backgammon group of games, in which the players move game pieces on a board from a starting point to a finish. The rate of progress is determined by two–four sticks, knuckle bones or dice (Fig. 5.1:8; Bell and Cornelius 1988:53–58; Watkins 2007 and references therein).17 Board Game of the 2 x 12 Tabula/Alea Type The game is incised on a covering stone of the Early Islamic drainage channel dating to the seventh–ninth centuries CE (Fig. 5.9, Plan 5.1:6). The game board should also be dated to this period (see above). The stone is rectangular and measures 0.95 × 1.25 m; the game board measures 42 × 56 cm and has two rows of twelve lines each. The lines are not uniform in length, ranging from 12 to 19 cm, although the person who incised them on the board was careful to ensure that they were parallel, which is crucial for the game to be played correctly (Fig. 5.10). A similar game board, 35 × 65 cm, was discovered in the bathhouse at Ḥammat Gader, incised on one of the paving stones in the Hall of the Fountain (Area D), and should be dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (fifth–eighth centuries CE; Hirschfeld 1997:102–116, 135–140, 155–156). The board consists of two rows of twelve rectangles, separated in the middle by two large x’s (Amitai-Preiss 1997:277, Fig. 10). The Ḥammat Gader game is a classic example of the Tabula/Alea type of game board, in which the rows are separated along the center by incised rosettes, x’s, a line, or simply by a space (see Fig. 5.1:8).18

During the first century CE, Tabula/Alea became one of the most prevalent and documented games in the Roman Empire. For a discussion summarizing the game, its prevalence, names and rules in the Roman and Byzantine periods, see Watkins 2007 and references therein.

16

The backgammon group of games is the oldest and most common group of board games played in the ancient world; according to the archaeological evidence provided by game boards from different sites, such games are known to have been common in the region in the third millennium BCE (Sebbane 2001). The variety of known types is large, with boards divided into 2 × 10, 3 × 10, 4 × 10, 2 × 14, 3 × 12, 3 × 14, and the number of types continues to grow as research and documentation of board games increasingly develop. It is worth noting, incidentally, that apart from a limited number of games, such as the Egyptian game of Senet with a 3 × 10 division, common in the ancient Near East from the third millennium BCE until the end of the Roman period (Kendall 1978; Pusch 1979; Piccione 2007), or the game of Tabula/Alea with a 2 × 10 division (see n. 16), whose names and rules are documented in ancient sources because of their status and importance, we have no information whatsoever about the vast majority of the games, beyond the existence of the game boards themselves. 17

Type 2 Row 1, after Bell and Roueché’s typology (2007). It is important to note that the division was intended to help the players find their place on the board, although it has no significance for the course of the game, which can also be played on a board with no such division, such as the board from the Eastern Cardo. 18

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Fig. 5.9. Eastern Cardo. To left, covering stones of Early Islamic Channel 472, looking northeast.

0

0.5

m

Fig. 5.10. Tabula/Alea game from the Eastern Cardo (drawing, Mark Kunin).

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Board Game of the 3 × 14 Type The board is incised on one of the Eastern Cardo’s Roman paving stones (Fig. 5.11, Plan 5.1:7), which continued to be used as a paving stone during the Byzantine period. It should be dated from the first half of the second century to no later than the second half of the seventh century CE. The game board, 12.5 × 45.0 cm, was formed by hammering, apparently with a metal chisel. The board comprises three rows of fourteen squares each. The lines on the board are clear, although they are not straight and the squares are not of a uniform size, measuring between 2.5 × 3.0 cm and 3.5 × 4.0 cm. A similar game board was exposed in the bathhouse at Ḥammat Gader, incised on the top of the southernmost fountain of the western wing in the Hall of the Fountain, and can be dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (fifth–eighth centuries CE; see above). It comprises three rows of fourteen shallow, hammered-out depressions (Amitai-Preiss 1997:276–279, Fig. 9).19 It seems that it was not engraved on top of the fountain by chance; the board’s location, measurements and height—at 60 cm—meant that as well as being part of a fountain, the stone was also a convenient gaming table, like the other game boards engraved on the paving stones in the various halls.

0

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Fig. 5.11. Eastern Cardo, flagstone inscribed with a 3 × 14 game, looking north.

Amitai-Priess has identified it as a Mancala-type game related to the Egyptian game of Senet. In view of this combination of names, it is important to stress that the Hammat Gader board does not belong to the family of Mancala Games but to the family of Race Games, to which the game of Senet also belongs (see nn. 1, 17). However, it would be incorrect to identify this game with the Egyptian game of Senet, which by this time had disappeared from everyday life. 19

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Discussion and Conclusions Board games were among the earliest and most common games in the ancient world, and game boards, game pieces, casting sticks and bones, astragalus bones and dice have been found in all parts of the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean world. Despite the extensive research conducted and published on the subject, it is important to emphasize that we are dealing with a wide subject that covers thousands of years and includes many hundreds of different types of games, whose documentation and study are far from exhausted.20 The range of boards and game pieces reveals that people from every class of society used them—kings, noblemen and commoners. Alongside portable game boards made and intended for private use (Sebbane 2000:226–228, Fig. 1; 2001:220, Fig. 2), some of which are particularly fine (Woolley 1934: Pl. 95; Loud 1939:19–20, Pls. 47–53; Saleh and Sourouzian 1987:189; Becker 2007), many game boards were located in public meeting places for use by the general public, such as the city gate (Sebbane 2004), central plazas, squares and thoroughfares (Bell 2007), temples (Bell 2007), bathhouses (Amitai-Preiss 1997), wells and water cisterns (Ne’eman 1990:48–49, 36*), olive- and winepresses and flour mills (Safrai and Linn 1988:196, Fig. 27; Sebbane 2000:228–230, Fig. 3). Unlike the carefully crafted private game boards, the public boards were incised rather haphazardly on paving stones, steps, masonry stones and natural rock faces without much care to produce straight, accurate lines. However, from the moment they were incised they were used for long periods of time, often tens or even hundreds of years—as long as the streets, squares, public buildings and agricultural installations upon which they were made continued to be used. From the Roman period onward, public game boards were a permanent feature in the urban and rural landscape.21 In summary, on the basis of the above, it is clear that the finding of board games in Jerusalem’s Eastern Cardo excavations was to be expected, and it would have been surprising had it been otherwise. They join other board games discovered in the streets and plazas of Jerusalem that were used from the time of the founding of Aelia Capitolina up to the Early Islamic period. At this stage, the corpus from Jerusalem consists of 21 boards incised on the paving stones of the plaza inside the Damascus Gate, the eastern forum that

The earliest board games date to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period—the seventh millennium BCE (Sebbane 2001:213; Simpson 2007). 20

Careful and systematic documentation of urban remains (e.g., colonnaded streets, plazas, public buildings) and agricultural facilities (e.g., water cisterns, oil- and winepresses) will inevitably reveal a large number of board games. In this context, I see fit to refer to an initial survey conducted by Bell (2007) at a number of Greco-Roman sites in Greece, Cyprus, Anatolia and Egypt, which yielded dozens of board games that were detected, as had been anticipated, incised in streets, basilicas and temples. A striking example of the status of board games in daily urban life in antiquity, as well as the potential of detailed documentation of the boards incised on architectural remains, is provided by the hundreds of game boards—769 in number and in a variety of styles—recorded at Vijayanangara, the capital of the Vijayanangar Empire in southern India. Founded in the fourteenth century CE, the city commanded the whole of southern India at its zenith in the first half of the sixteenth century CE (Fritz and Gibson 2007). 21

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is today incorporated in the compound of the Convent of the Sisters of Zion, the Chapel of the Condemnation, the Western Cardo inside the Jewish Quarter, and the Eastern Cardo in the area of the Dung Gate and the Western Wall Plaza (Table 5.1). The following points emerge from this sample, based on their distribution and frequency: 1. The board games presented here are representative of those existing in Jerusalem from the Late Roman period onward. Systematic documentation of the remains of existing paving, together with other remains that have yet to be recovered from the streets of Jerusalem, will probably yield additional game boards. On the basis of the evidence from our region and elsewhere (see n. 21), the main streets, plazas, squares and key public buildings of Jerusalem probably contained hundreds of board games that were incised over the centuries. 2. The board games incised on the paving stones and steps of the Eastern Cardo and on other paving stones along the ancient streets of Jerusalem are characteristic of board games common in the region from the Roman period onward. Fourteen examples of Games of Position are notable for their frequency: ten from the ‘three-in-a-row’ group of games (one Three Men’s Morris, one Twelve Men’s Morris, five Nine Men’s Morris, and three Achi games), and four from the ‘five-in-a-row’ game group (the Mulinello Quadrupio type). However, games of the Mancala type are conspicuously absent despite the fact that they were common elsewhere in the region from the Byzantine period onward (Sebbane 2000:228–230). A single board of this type, divided into 2 × 5, is engraved on one of the Roman paving stones of the Lithostratos pavement, in the Convent of the Sisters of Zion (de Sion 1955:128, Pl. 45: a). 3. As well as the public game boards, portable private game boards were also used. It is important to emphasize that the currently available archaeological evidence from the Roman period onward from the region and elsewhere is very limited, and any finely finished game boards and pieces that would have been used by the upper classes are completely absent.22 To this group, I attribute the Nine Men’s Morris-type game boards from the Eastern Cardo and Ḥorbat ʻAqav, as well as the three boards from Naḥal Ḥaggit (Seligman 2010:206–208, Fig. 7.13).

The great interest of the upper classes in board games is demonstrated by the historical record, according to which the Emperor Claudius was ‘addicted’ to the game of Tabula/Alea, published a book on the subject, and took his personal game board with him on all his journeys. The board would probably have been a magnificent piece (Watkins 2007:238). 22

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Table 5.1. Board Games Discovered in Jerusalem Provenance

Type

Size/Diameter (cm)

Date

Damascus Gate

Mulinello Quadrupio

15.5 × 18.0

Late Roman–Byzantine

Damascus Gate

Circle/Octagon

19

Late Roman–Byzantine

Sisters of Zion Convent Lithostrotos pavement

Twelve Men’s Morris

14 × 19

Late Roman–Byzantine

Sisters of Zion Convent—Lithostrotos pavement

Mulinello Quadrupio

38 × 54

Late Roman–Byzantine

Sisters of Zion Convent—Lithostrotos pavement

Mulinello Quadrupio

26 × 30

Late Roman–Byzantine

Sisters of Zion Convent—Lithostrotos pavement

Circle/Octagon

27.5

Late Roman–Byzantine

Sisters of Zion Convent—Lithostrotos pavement

Mancala—2 × 5

8.5 × 22

Late Roman–Byzantine

Chapel of the Condemnation

Circle/Octagon

29

Late Roman–Byzantine

Western Cardo

Three Men’s Morris

8×8

Late Byzantine–Ayyubid

Western Cardo

Nine Men’s Morris

14 × 18

Late Byzantine–Ayyubid

Western Cardo

Nine Men’s Morris

7×7

Late Byzantine–Ayyubid

Western Cardo

Nine Men’s Morris

10 × 10

Late Byzantine–Ayyubid

Western Cardo

Nine Men’s Morris

18 × 21

Late Byzantine–Ayyubid

Eastern Cardo—Dung Gate

3 × 5(?)

40 × 42

Late Roman–Byzantine

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Achi

12 × 12

Byzantine–Early Islamic

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Achi

12 × 12

Byzantine–Early Islamic

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Achi

12 × 12

Byzantine–Early Islamic

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Nine Men’s Morris

22 × 17

Byzantine

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Mulinello Quadrupio

14.0 × 22.5

Byzantine–Early Islamic

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

Tabulae/Alea—2 × 12

42 × 56

Byzantine–Early Islamic

Eastern Cardo—Western Wall Plaza

3 × 14

12.5 × 45.0

Late Roman–Byzantine

CHAPTER 5: BOARD GAMES FROM THE EASTERN CARDO

163

R eferences Amitai-Preiss N. 1997. Arabic Inscriptions, Graffiti and Games. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hamat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 267–278. Becker A. 2007. The Royal Game of Ur. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 11–15. Bell R.C. 1979. Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations. New York. Bell R.C. 2007. Notes on Pavement Games of Greece and Rome. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 98–99. Bell R. C. and Cornelius M. 1988. Board Games Round the World: A Resource Book for Mathematical Investigations. Cambridge, England. Bell R.C. and Roueché C.M. 2007. Graeco-Roman Pavement Signs and Game Boards: A British Museum Working Typology. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 106– 109. Dinur E. 1977. Tiberias. HA 61–62:9. Fritz J.M. and Gibson D. 2007. Game Boards at Vijayanagara: A Preliminary Report. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 110–115. Geva H. 1993. Jerusalem: The Roman Period. NEAEHL 2:758–766. Gutfeld O. 2012. Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969–1982 V: The Cardo (Area X) and the Nea Church (Areas D and T); Final Report. Jerusalem. Hirschfeld Y. 1997. Description of the Architectural Remains. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hamat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 54–162. Kendall T. 1978. Passing through the Netherworld: The Meaning and Play of Senet, an Ancient Egyptian Funerary Game. Belmont. Loud G. 1939. The Megiddo Ivories (OIP LII). Chicago. Magen M. 1988. Recovering Roman Jerusalem—The Entryway beneath Damascus Gate. BAR 14:48–56. Murray H.J.R. 1951. A History of Board Games Other than Chess. Oxford. Ne’eman Y. 1990. Map of Maʻanit (54) (Archaeological Survey of Israel). Jerusalem. Piccione P.A. 2007. The Egyptian Game of Senet and the Migration of the Soul. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 54–63. Pusch E.B. 1979. Das Senet-Brettspiel im alten Ägypten 1: Das inschriftliche und archäologische Material (Münchner ägyptologische Studien 38). Munich. Rosenthal-Heginbottom R. 2019. Catalogue of Roman Pottery. In WWPE II.

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Safrai Z. and Linn M. 1988. Excavations and Surveys in the Mishmar Ha-‘Emeq Area. In B. Mazar ed. Geva: Archaeological Discoveries at Tell Abu-Shusha, Mishmar Ha-‘Emeq. Jerusalem. Pp. 167–214 (Hebrew). Saleh M. and Sourouzian H. 1987. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo: Official Catalogue. Mainz. Sebbane M. 1999. Board Games: A Crusader Pastime. In S. Rozenberg ed. Knights of the Holy Land: The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (Israel Museum Catalogue 422). Jerusalem. Pp. 286–291. Sebbane M. 2000. Two Game Boards. In Y. Hirschfeld. Ramat Hanadiv Excavations: Final Report of the 1984–1998 Seasons. Jerusalem. Pp. 226–231. Sebbane M. 2001. Board Games from Canaan in the Early and Intermediate Bronze Ages and the Origin of the Egyptian Senet Game. Tel Aviv 28:213–230. Sebbane M. 2004. An Incised Senet Board Game. In D. Ussishkin. The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994) II (Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series 22). Tel Aviv. Pp. 690–694. Seligman J. 2010. Naḥal Ḥaggit: A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel (IAA Reports 43). Jerusalem. Simpson St.J. 2007. Homo Ludens: The Earliest Board Games in the Near East. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 5–10. Sion M.-A. de. 1955. La forteresse Antonia à Jérusalem et la question du Prétoire. Jerusalem. Tsafrir Y. 1999a. The Topography and Archaeology of Aelia Capitolina. In Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai eds. The History of Jerusalem: The Roman and Byzantine Periods (70–638 CE). Jerusalem. Pp. 115–166 (Hebrew). Tsafrir Y. 1999b. The Topography and Archaeology of Jerusalem in the Byzantine Period. In Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai eds. The History of Jerusalem: The Roman and Byzantine Periods (70–638 CE). Jerusalem. Pp. 281–351 (Hebrew). Watkins M.J. 2007. A Brief History of Backgammon and the Design of the Board. In I.L. Finkel ed. Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London. Pp. 238–241. Woolley C.L. 1934. The Royal Cemetery (Ur Excavations 2). London.

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 6

Coins of the Hellenistic to Byzantine Periods Gabriela Bijovsky

During the excavations at the Western Wall Plaza, 2420 coins were discovered.1 The coins reflect a chronological sequence from the Hellenistic period to the end of the seventh century CE. Some of them were deposited during the Eastern Cardo’s use and others, which were discovered in fills and intrusive material, most likely derive from the Upper City and the Tyropoeon Valley. The Islamic and medieval coins constitute the bulk of these finds and will be published separately by R. Kool. The following presentation comprises 155 Hellenistic- to Byzantine-period coins that were identifiable after cleaning (Tables 6.1–6.3; Catalogue).2 The high disproportion between excavated and legible coins is a result of the character of the coinage—most of them are very badly preserved. Among the finds is a small hoard of 51 minimi, dated to the time of Justinian I, which was discovered in the bedding laid for a mosaic floor (L4253; Nos. 148–155). Most of the numismatic evidence comprises standard Late Roman and Byzantine coins that date from the fourth to the seventh centuries CE (Table 6.2). In contrast, coins of the Second Temple and Roman periods are few and very poorly preserved (Table 6.1). Thus, the number of diagnostic coins that could provide any chronological indication for the dating of the Eastern Cardo’s construction or use is very low. Nevertheless, these specific coins may be well integrated into the general picture provided by the stratigraphy and other categories of material culture found during the excavation.

Second Temple Period (Hellenistic and Early Roman) Coins No building remains were ascribed to this phase with the exception of a few installations (see Chapter 2): a segment of the Low-Level Aqueduct that carried water from Solomon’s Pools toward the Temple Mount, two small miqvehs, a cistern, two plastered installations and the remains two quarries. Thirty-two coins were recovered, most of them dated from the first century BCE to the first century CE. The assemblage is typical of this period and all the coins were minted in Jerusalem. Many were recovered from much later contexts, such as the two

An illegible minima dated to the end of the fourth–beginning of the fifth centuries CE (IAA No. 120657) and a sixth-century Byzantine pentanummia (IAA No. 120655), which were discovered during the cleaning of the Cardo by the IAA Conservation Department in November 2009, are not included in this presentation. 1

The coins were treated at the IAA laboratories under the supervision of Lena Kuppershmidt and were photographed by Clara Amit, also of the IAA. These coins were selected according to their stratigraphical importance (surface coins were excluded), state of preservation and budget limitations. 2

166

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Ptolemaic coins (Nos. 1, 2) and a coin of Agrippa I (No. 15), which were found together with Mamluk and Ottoman material (Nos. 2 and 15 belong to a hoard of 33 Mamluk coins). Eleven Hasmonean prutot were discovered, of which nine belong to Alexander Janneus (Nos. 4–12), most of them of the ‘anchor/star’ type dated toward the end of his reign. These coins continued to circulate during the first century CE at least until year 70 CE (e.g., No. 6 from L5332—fill in a quarry under the Cardo—which was found together with a coin of a Roman Governor who ruled during the reign of Nero, dated to 58/59 CE; Nos. 9, 10 from L8104 and L8148—fill of the Roman refuse dump) or even later (Bijovsky 2007:67). There is always the possibility that they are residual. Four coins of the Roman Governors (Nos. 20–23) and five prutot of Agrippa I, dated to 41/42 CE (Nos. 15–19) reflect a sequence covering the whole period until the days of the First Jewish Revolt. Eight prutot of the revolt were discovered (Nos. 24–31), six from the second year, 67/68 CE and two others from the third year, 68/69 CE. Two of them, Coin Nos. 25 and 29, were discovered within the sealed fill under a flagstone of the Eastern Cardo (L8174). The other six coins are residual finds.

Roman Provincial and Roman Imperial Coins (70 CE–End of Third Century CE) The whole width of the Eastern Cardo, including its sidewalks and the row of shops along its western side, were unearthed to a length of 46 m (see Chapter 3). A large quantity of the Roman finds originated in a deep fill of soil mixed with ashes that accumulated above bedrock in the northeastern part of the excavated area, on both sides of a wide, massive supporting wall (W811–W812). That fill (i.e., ‘the Roman refuse dump’) yielded a rich assemblage of finds dated from 70 to 130 CE. Analysis of the nature of the finds has led to the conclusion that they reflect activities of the Tenth(?) Roman Legion in Jerusalem (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019). Two Second Temple-period coins are related to this phase (Nos. 29, 32). The latest coin discovered in this context is a coin of Domitian, which was minted in Neapolis and dates to 86/87 CE (No. 33).3 This coin provides a terminus post quem for the filling of the Roman dump. The function of the retaining wall and the adjacent fill remains uncertain. It is unclear whether these elements were built as preparation and leveling of the soil before the paving of the Cardo or whether the wall was constructed independently, at an earlier phase, and reused as a foundation for the eastern stylobate of the Cardo at a later time. The complete absence in Stratum XII of coins bearing countermarks of the Tenth Legion is surprising. These stamps, which were generally struck over worn Neronian and Flavian coins from Caesarea, Samaria-Sebaste and Neapolis, are quite common at sites possessing strata dating from the period between the two Jewish revolts, especially in those where Roman military presence is attested, e.g., Shu‘fat (Giv‘at Shaul; Bijovsky 2007) and

Four additional, but illegible coins were discovered in the same locus (L8144). Two can be roughly identified as Roman Provincial based on their size and fabric (Reg. Nos. 712258, 712259). 3

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

167

Binyene Ha-Umma (Bijovsky 2005:211–212). In addition, none of the numerous roof tiles recovered in the current excavation bear a stamp of the Tenth Legion. The significance of this absence is unclear, but it should be taken into consideration when trying to understand the identity of the people responsible for the accumulation of this cultural material. The latest find discovered beneath the Cardo’s paving stones is a coin of Hadrian minted in Antioch (No. 35; L5295). Although its findspot was somewhat disturbed by the act of removing the paving stone, the excavators concluded that the fill under the paving was undisturbed; moreover, the dating of the coin is consistent with the results of the pottery analysis. Therefore, according to the numismatic evidence, the date for the construction of the Cardo should be placed no earlier than the beginning of Hadrian’s rule. A second coin of Hadrian minted in Petra was found in a mixed fill of one of the northwestern shops (No. 34; L6051, Stratum X) together with a coin from Caesarea, whose emperor could not be identified with certainty (No. 40). A coin of Antoninus Pius from the local mint of Aelia Capitolina was uncovered in a fill at the southeastern corner of a shop (No. 36, L5340; Stratum VIII). Unfortunately, only these three coins out of a group of eleven Roman Provincial coins could be properly identified. A second coin minted in Aelia Capitolina of a type roughly dated to the third century CE (No. 39, L514; Strata XII–XI) is worthy of mention. This example and a number of other Roman Provincial coins whose identification is uncertain, were discovered in one of the channels of the Cardo drainage

Table 6.1. Hellenistic and Roman Coins Type

Cat. No.

No. of Coins

Ptolemaic (285–246 BCE)

1–2

2

Seleucid—Antiochus III (223–187 BCE)

3

1

Alexander Jannaeus (103–80/79 BCE)

4–12

9

Hasmonean, unidentifiable

13, 14

2

Agrippa I, Jerusalem (41/42 CE)

15–19

5

Roman Governors in Judea (6–59 CE)

20–23

4

Jewish War Year 2 (67/68 CE)

24–29

6

Jewish War Year 3 (68/69 CE)

30, 31

2

Illegible Jewish coin (up to 70 CE)

32

1

Domitian, Neapolis (86/87 CE)

33

1

Hadrian, Petra (117–138 CE)

34

1

Hadrian, Antioch (117–138 CE)

35

1

Antoninus Pius, Aelia Capitolina (138–161 CE)

36

1

Autonomous, Caesarea, minima (1st–2nd c. CE)

37

1

Roman Provincial (2nd c. CE)

38

1

Roman Provincial, Aelia Capitolina (first half of 3rd c. CE)

39

1

Roman Provincial, Caesarea, (c. 240–260 CE)

40

1

Roman Provincial (3rd c. CE)

41–43

3

Gallienus (256–268 CE)

44

1

Probus (276–282 CE)

45

1

Constantine I (313–318 CE)

46–48

3

168

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

system (Nos. 38, 41).4 All of these coins are related to the Eastern Cardo’s period of use during the second and third centuries CE. A few Roman Imperial coins from the second half of the third century until the beginning of the fourth century include two antoniniani of Gallienus and Probus (Nos. 44, 45) and three coins of Constantine I of standard types dated to 313–318 CE (Nos. 46–48).

Late Roman Coins (324–491 CE) Coins of the fourth century CE are the most numerous group represented in this assemblage, a frequency that is typical for most multi-period sites in Israel. The chronological span of these coins covers the period from 324 to 395 CE (Nos. 49–66), but only one (No. 59) comes from a contemporary context. These types are common and require no further discussion: PROVIDENTIAE AVGG camp-gate, emperor on quadriga; GLORIA EXERCITVS, FEL TEMP REPARATIO Virtus spearing horseman; GLORIA ROMANORVM 8; CONCORDIA AVGGG figure seated on throne; VOTA types; and SALVS REIPVBLICAE. In addition, there are 19 illegible coins attributed to the fourth century CE (Nos. 67–86) and two imitation issues roughly dating to 395–455 (Nos. 90, 91). Three coins represent the first quarter of the fifth century CE; two of them are small bronzes of the common types CONCORDIA AVGGG cross and GLORIA ROMANORVM three emperors (Nos. 87, 88, respectively). The third coin is an exceptional find: a very well-preserved gold solidus of Pulcheria, struck by her younger brother Theodosius II in Constantinople and dated to 420–421 CE (No. 89). This very rare coin type is the only one that has been found in an archaeological excavation in Israel.5 The coin belongs to the new type of solidus depicting a Victory supporting a long, jeweled cross, which became virtually the exclusive type in use during the second half of the fifth century CE. The obverse bust depicts her with a Manus Dei holding a crown above her head. Pulcheria’s gold coins usually exhibit a star on the reverse and as this element is missing from our solidus, the coin can be attributed to the issue struck in her name by Theodosius II in 420–421 CE (LRC:138; 152–154; Class 2 No. 437; compare with No. 438). Unfortunately, the coin was discovered in a much later context at the site. Another seven minimi are generally attributed to the period from the midfifth to the mid-sixth centuries CE according to their size and fabric (Nos. 92–98).

These coins come from L514 and L3l9, which produced 18 and 6 coins respectively, most of which were completely corroded and therefore unidentifiable. Some of these coins can nevertheless be identified as Roman Provincial based on size and fabric. 4

Solidi of Pulcheria were once considered to be great rarities; they have now become more common in the antiquities market, but very few exist in as good a condition as the one found in this excavation (http://www. coinarchives.com/a/lotviewer.php?LotID=259321&AucID=382&Lot=176). 5

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169

Byzantine Coins and Arab -Byzantine Imitations (491–696/697 CE) Both the sixth and seventh centuries CE are well represented by a sequence of coins dating from Anastasius I (491–518 CE) to Constantine IV (668–681 CE). The former is represented by three coins (Nos. 99–101), two of which are small module folles dated to 498–507 CE, one bearing two circular punchmarks (No. 100). A rare coin of Justin I (No. 102) is a decanummium from Constantinople depicting the image of the standing emperor on the obverse instead of the usual bust. This type has been previously attributed to Justin II, but based on weight standard and stylistic similarities, Hahn and Morrisson prefer to date it to Justin I (MIBE 1:34–35). Justinian I is represented by two coins of the undated series (a follis, No. 106 and a half-follis, No. 107). Three Vandalic Anonymous nummi of the palm-tree type, minted in Carthage, are attributed to the years 534–549 CE (Nos. 103–105). These tiny coins are commonly found in other excavations in Jerusalem (Bijovsky 1998:101) and constitute an integral part of the local currency during the first half of the sixth century CE. Two other palm-tree Vandalic nummi appear in the small deposit of 51 minimi found in the bedding of a mosaic floor preserved in the eastern sidewalk (L4253; Nos. 151, 152). This was a well-known practice, wherein groups of coins were deliberately buried for good luck or votive reasons when a building was erected or repaired. Since these foundation deposits were not intended to be recovered, they comprise low denominations or coins no longer in circulation (Aitchison 1988:275, 277). Most of the coins in this hoard are poorly preserved and only eight of them could be identified with any degree of certainty. Apart from the aforementioned palmtree nummi, there is a third Vandalic Anonymous coin (No. 153) depicting a ‘rho-cross’ ($) and dated to the same period, and three imperial nummi of Justinian I minted in Carthage of the a and ½ types (Nos. 148–150). These coins date the hoard to c. 550 CE. A single pentanummium seems to be a local imitation (No. 108). This assumption is based on the light weight of the coin (1.10 g, well below the official standard; DOC 1:50– 51, Nos. 36, 37, Justin I) and the depiction on the obverse of a small bust within a circle and no inscription. Official coins on this type were struck between 522 and 537 CE, but imitations could be issued later as well. The second half of the sixth century is represented by two coins of Tiberius II with illegible dates (Nos. 109, 110) and a much worn follis of Maurice possibly struck in Antioch (No. 111). From the seventh century are a number of Imperial coins and a selection of ArabByzantine imitations. A follis of Phocas struck in Nicomedia, dated to 604–609 CE, is the earliest in this group (No. 112). It is followed by two almost illegible folles of Heraclius of uncertain types (Nos. 113, 114). Two folles of Constans II belong to the category dated between 643 and 647 CE (Nos. 115, 116). A final follis is of Constantine IV, minted in Syracuse and dated to 668–674 CE (No. 117). Coins of this type are rare in excavations in Israel, and only three other specimens have been discovered, two in Jerusalem in B. Mazar’s Southern Wall excavations (IAA No. 44707), and one each at ‘En Ya’el (IAA No. 68406) and Mesilot (IAA No. 81855). It should be noted that during the first two decades after the Arab conquest in 640 CE, there was still a steady influx of Byzantine coins into the region (Heidemann 1998:97–98; Goodwin 2004; Foss 2008:19–20). However, while

170

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

coins of Constans II still circulated in significant numbers, the occurrence of coins of his successors, Constantine IV and Justinian II, diminished drastically. Another seventeen pieces comprise worn Byzantine coins of the sixth–seventh centuries CE of different denominations, which could not be identified with any certainty (folles: Nos. 118–127; half-folles: Nos. 128, 129; dodecanummia: Nos. 130, 131, and three coin fragments of unclear denomination). The last group described here are ten ArabByzantine coins imitating the common type of Emperor Constans II standing and a cursive m, struck between 641 and 648 CE (Nos. 138–147). As stated above, the Byzantine copper-coin supply diminished drastically c. 660 CE, when a peace treaty signed between the Byzantines and Caliph Mu‘awiya marked the beginning of Umayyad rule in Syria. The vacuum created by the lack of Byzantine coinage was gradually filled by local Arab-Byzantine imitations, which became the main copper currency in Syria and Palestine until the end of the seventh century CE. These imitations are all anonymous and undated. As the dating of this series is still being discussed, the date of c. 647–670 CE recently suggested by Pottier, Schulze and Schulze (2008), and also adopted by Foss (2008:25–26), is used here.6 Coin No. 147, which was stamped by a round countermark bearing the monogram C (Goodwin 2005:46, No. A9), is also noteworthy. This Byzantine-style monogram dates from the early years of Arab rule and most probably represents the name and title of an official. It is known on a number of coins of Constans II and Arab-Byzantine imitations, most of them of Israeli provenance (Goodwin 2005:43). The same countermark was most recently published on a similar coin from Nabratein, in the Upper Galilee (IAA 80468; Bijovsky 2009:380, No. 91).

This series is also known as Pseudo-Byzantine (SICA 1:74, 77–81; Type E) and Imitative coinage (Foss 2008:25–29). 6

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

Table 6.2. Late Roman and Byzantine Coins Type

Cat. No.

No. of Coins

Constantine I (324–326 CE)

49

1

Camp gate (324–330 CE)

52

1

Victory on prow (330–335 CE)

53

1

Constantine II Gloria Exercitus (335–337 CE)

51

1

Gloria Exercitus (335–341 CE)

54, 55

2

Constantine I (deified) (337–341 CE)

50

1

Constantius II Fel Temp Reparatio (351–361 CE)

56–58

3

Gloria Romanorum 8 (364–375 CE)

59

1

Valentinian II (378–383 CE)

60

1

Vota types (378–383 CE)

61, 62

2

Salus Reipublicae (383–395 CE)

63–66

4

Fourth c.—uncertain

67–86

20

Cross (404–406 CE)

87

1

Gloria Romanorum 21 (403–408 CE)

88

1

Pulcheria, solidus (420/421 CE)

89

1

Imitations (395–455 CE)

90, 91

2

Monogram (450–550 CE)

92–94

3

Uncertain (mid-5th to mid-6th c. CE)

95–98

4

Vandalic autonomous—palm tree (first half of 6th c. CE)

103–105

3

Anastasius I, K (498–507 CE)

99, 100

2

Anastasius I, M (512–518 CE)

101

1

Justin I, I (518–527 CE)

102

1

Justinian I, M, K (527–538 CE)

106, 107

2

Pentanummium imitation? (522–537 CE)

108

1

Tiberius II, m, XX (578–582 CE)

109, 110

2

Maurice, m (582–602 CE)

111

1

Phocas, XXXX (604–609 CE)

112

1

Heraclius, M (610–641 CE)

113, 114

2

Constans II, m (643–647 CE)

115, 116

2

Constantine IV, Sicily (668–674 CE)

117

1

Byzantine, uncertain, M (512–538 CE)

118–120

3

Byzantine, M (after 538 CE)

121

1

Byzantine, uncertain, M, m (6th–7th c. CE)

122–127

6

Byzantine, uncertain, K, XX (6th–7th c. CE)

128, 129

2

Byzantine, I+B, Alexandria (6th c. CE)

130, 131

2

Byzantine, uncertain denomination, (6th–7th c. CE)

132–134

3

Constans II/Arab-Byzantine (c. 640–660 CE)

135–137

3

Arab-Byzantine (c. 647–670 CE)

138–147

13

Foundation deposit of minimi, dated to Justinian I

148–155

51 (eight identifiable)

171

172

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Table 6.3. List of Coins According to Loci Locus 257

Basket

Description/Date

Cat. No.

2394

Constantius II, 351–354 CE

56

2423

Constantius II, 351–361 CE

57

2461

4th c. CE

70

284

2935

Pulcheria, solidus, 420–421

89*

287

3325

4th c. CE

69

288

3465

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

7

3601

4th c. CE

71

3598

4th c. CE

84

3539

Constans II, 644–647

116

3706

Roman Provincial, 3rd c. CE

41

3957

4th c. CE

72

3912

4th c. CE

86

3890

Ptolemy II, 285–246 BCE

1

4450

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

8

3929

4th c. CE

73

3928

c. 450–550 CE

94

4570

Probus, 276–282 CE

45

4578

4th c. CE

85

4687

4th c. CE

74

4685

4th c. CE

76

4795

4th c. CE

80

4814

Anastasius I, 498–507 CE

99

4815

Anastasius I, 512–518 CE

101*

4799

Justinian I, 527–537 CE

106

4838

512–537 CE

118

4845

6th c. CE

128

4922

578–610 CE

129

4918

Tiberius II, 578–582 CE

109

4969

Roman Provincial, 2nd c. CE

38

4956

Roman Provincial, 3rd c. CE

39

311

319

362

374 477

491

502 514

4952

Roman Provincial, 3rd c. CE

42

516

5049

4th c. CE

78

541

5187

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

141

550

6000

6th c. CE

133

5471

4th c. CE

81

567

5466

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

147*

575

5374

Constantine IV, 668–674 CE

117*

580

5416

c. 450–550 CE

92

581

5491

Agrippa I, 41/42 CE

19

583

5490

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

146

586

31238

4th c. CE

75

601

5671

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

27

5590

7th c. CE

123

5588

6th c. CE?

132

5605

7th c. CE

124

606 614

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

Table 6.3. (cont.) Locus

Basket

Description/Date

Cat. No.

619

5683

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

104

703

5921

Roman Governors under Augustus, 10/11 CE

20*

5946

Agrippa I, 41/42 CE

16

5945

Arab-Byzantine, c. 640–670 CE

145

3046

30318

Byzantine, after 538 CE

121

3056

30341

First Jewish Revolt, 68/69 CE

30

3064

30320

4th c. CE

68

3070

30337

4th c. CE

77

3097

31255

518–610 CE

130

3107

30633

Justin I, 518–527 CE

102

3108

30636

4th c. CE

83

30657

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

26

30693

335–341 CE

54

30664

378–383 CE

60

30662

395–455 CE

90

30691

395–455 CE

91*

30692

518–610 CE

131

30294

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

140

31197

Constantine I, 313–318 CE

47

35106

Constantine I, 313–318 CE

48

3172

31261

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

5

3200

35016

324–330 CE

52

35140

Roman Governors under Nero, 58/59 CE

21

720

3110

3126 3160

3225

35138

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

25

4042

40068

Constantine I, 324–326 CE

49

4091

40367

Heraclius? 610–641 CE

113

4101

41510

Constantius II, 351–361 CE

58

40473

Constans II, 643/644 CE

115*

40459

512–537 CE

119

41548

Alexander Jannaeus, 103–80/79 BCE

4*

4126 4140

41658

383–395 CE

65

4148

41585

Antiochus III, 223–187 BCE

3

4214

41861

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

103*

Justinian I, 534–539 CE

148*

Justinian I, 548–565 CE

149*

Justinian I, 548–565 CE

150

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

151

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

152

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

153

4th–5th c. CE

154

c. 450–550 CE

155

50377

4th c. CE

82

50850

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

11

50857

Constans II/ Arab-Byzantine, c. 640–660 CE

135

50457

Justinian I, 527–537 CE

107

4253 Hoard

5061 5072 5083

173

174

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Table 6.3. (cont.) Locus

Basket

Description/Date

Cat. No.

5093

50944

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

24

5107

50959

335–341 CE

55

5139

5135

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

139

5148

51183

330–335 CE

53

5153

52309

Roman Governors under Nero, 58/59 CE

23

5156

51182

7th c. CE

125

5188

51322

383–395 CE

66

5214

51682

7th c. CE

127

51699

378–383 CE

61

51702

4th c. CE

79

5236

51720

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

12

5250

51835

7th c. CE

126

5251

51828

378–383 CE

62

5268

52093

6th – 7th c. CE

122

5271

51954

c. 450–550 CE

97

5280

51976

6th c. CE?

134

5281

51990

c. 450–550 CE

98

5283

52098

Agrippa I, 41/42 CE

18

5294

52186

Constans II/ Arab-Byzantine, c. 640–660 CE

136

5295

52185

Hadrian, 117–138 CE

35*

52345

c. 450–550 CE

93

52341

Vandalic Anonymous, 534–549 CE

105

52359

4th c. CE

67

52360

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

144

52354

Constantine I, 317–318 CE

46*

52409

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

6

52415

Roman Governors under Nero, 58/59 CE

22

5340

52436

Antoninus Pius, 138–161 CE

36*

5348

52450

518–538 CE

120

60067

Tiberius, 578–582 CE

110*

60071

Constans II/ Arab-Byzantine, c. 640–660 CE

137

60198

Maurice, 582–602 CE

111

60530

Hadrian, 117–138 CE

34*

60532

Roman Provincial, 3rd c. CE

40

60500

c. 450–550 CE

95

6112

60779

Hasmonean

13

6125

60897

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

138

6130

60960

383–395 CE

63

6144

61007

Roman Provincial, 1st – 2nd c. CE

37

6213

61698

383–395 CE

64

8008

80046

Hasmonean

14

8024

80059

Gallienus, 267 CE

44*

8030

80138

404–406 CE

87

8033

80157

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

142*

8034

80159

Anastasius I, 498–507 CE

100

5224

5316 5320 5321 5332

6003 6036 6051

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

Table 6.3. (cont.) Locus

Basket

Description/Date

Cat. No.

8047

80174

c. 450–550 CE

96

80215

Constantine I, 337–341 CE

50*

80216

Arab-Byzantine, c. 647–670 CE

143

80335

First Jewish Revolt, 68/69 CE

31*

80336

403–408 CE

88

8067

80332

Roman Provincial, 3rd c. CE

43

8103

81119

Phocas, 604–609

112

8104

80558

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

9

8107

80594

Agrippa I, 41/42 CE

17

8111

80493

522–537 CE

108*

8134

80798

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

28

8144

81249

Domitian, 86/87 CE

33

8148

71252

Alexander Jannaeus, 80/79–76 BCE

10

8152

71255

Jewish uncertain, up to 70 CE

32

8174

81307

First Jewish Revolt, 67/68 CE

29*

51661

Ptolemaic

2

51750

Agrippa I, 41/42 CE

15

W614

61711

Constantine II, 335–337 CE

51

W802

80137

Heraclius? c. 640 CE?

114

W804

80578

364–375 CE

59

8057 8060

W506

See Fig. 6.1

*

175

176

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

4

20

29

31

34

35

36

44

50

46

89

91

103

101

108

0

2

Fig. 6.1. Coins.

177

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

110

115

117

142

147

148

0

149 0

Fig. 6.1 (cont.).

2

2

Locus

362

W506

4148

4140

3172

5332

288

362

Cat. No.

1

2

3

4*

5

6

7

8

4450

3465

52409

31261

41548

41585

51661

3890

Basket

0.71

0.72

0.72

0.73

1.38

1.76

6.02

29.24

Weight (g)

13

10

10 ´ 13

10 ´ 12

15

11

18 ´ 26

33

Diam. (mm)



á

Axis

Blundered inscription; anchor

[ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ] Anchor

Same

Same

Same

[ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ANTIOXΟΥ] Apollo stg. l. holding bow and arrow

SELEUCID Antiochus III (223–187 BCE)

Illegible

Uncertain

[ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΠΤΟΛΕΜΑΙΟΥ] Eagle stg. l. on thunderbolt

Same

Same

Same

Blundered inscription; star within diadem

]‫[יהונתן המלך‬ Star within diadem

HASMONEAN Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BCE)—Prutah

Head of Apollo r.

Head of Zeus r.

Reverse PTOLEMAIC Ptolemy II (285–246 BCE)

Head of Zeus Ammon r., laureate

Obverse

Same

Same

Same

80/79–76 BCE

103– 80/79 BCE

Date (CE)

Same

Same

Same

Same

Jerusalem

Antioch

Alexandria

Mint

Same

Same

112126

10741

119677

112794

TJC:120, Group L6–17 Same

119204

119208

119439

107402

IAA No.

TJC:119, Group K

SNG Israel 1:86, No. 573

Half a coin; part of a Mamluk coin hoard

SNG Ptol.: Pl. VI, No. 154

Reference and Notes

All the coins are bronze, unless otherwise indicated. The coins are arranged chronologically, according to coin types. Those bearing an asterisk appear in Fig. 6.1.

Catalogue

178 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

8104

8148

5072

5236

6112

8008

W506

720

8107

5283

581

703

3225

Cat. No.

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20*

21

35140

5921

5491

52098

80594

5946

51750

80046

60779

51720

50850

71252

80558

Basket

2.15

1.83

2.12

1.14

2.12

2.21

2.82

1.34

1.86

0.30

0.48

0.48

0.62

Weight (g)

17

15

17

18

17

15 ´ 17

18

12 ´ 14

15

9 ´ 11

9 ´ 11

10 ´ 12

13

Diam. (mm)

ã

á

á

á

á

Axis

Within wreath: NEPωNOC

KAICAPOC Ear of corn

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

L–$ Three ears of corn stemming from two leaves

HERODIANS Agrippa I—Prutah

Same

Double cornucopia; a pomegranate between horns

LE KAICAPOC Palm branch

Under Nero—Prutah

Palm tree flanked by date: L–MA

ROMAN GOVERNORS IN JUDEA Under Augustus—Prutah

ΑΓΡΙΠΑ [ΒΑCΙΛΕ]ωC Canopy

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Reverse

Uncertain—Prutah Illegible inscription within wreath

Same

Same

Same

Same

Obverse

Year 5 = 58/59

Year 41 = 10/11

Same

Same

Same

Same

Year 6 = 41/42

Same

Same

Same

Same

Date (CE)

Jerusalem

Jerusalem

Same

Same

Same

Same

Jerusalem

Same

Jerusalem

Same

Same

Same

Same

Mint

TJC:260, No. 345

TJC:256, No. 315

Same

Same

112793

120006

112773

119406

119604

120008

TJC:231, No. 120 Same

119466

120021

120016

119368

119231

119680

119603

IAA No.

TJC:231, No. 120; part of a Mamluk coin hoard

Same

Same

Same

Same

Reference and Notes

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

179

Locus

5332

5153

5093

3225

3110

601

8134

8174

3056

8060

8152

8144

6051

Cat. No.

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29*

30

31*

32

33

34*

60530

81249

71255

80335

30341

81307

80798

5671

30657

35138

50944

52309

52415

Basket

11.78

11.17

2.30

2.56

2.10

1.94

2.06

1.80

2.14

2.48

2.96

1.58

1.59

Weight (g)

26

25

17

16

15

16

15

17

16

17

16 ´ 18

15

15

Diam. (mm)

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

â

Axis

Same

Same

Reverse

ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤWΡ ΚΑΙCΑΡ ΤΡΑΙΑΝΟC ΑΔΡΙΑΝΟC CΕΒΑCΤΟC Bust laureate r.

ΠΕΤΡΑ ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΙC Tyche seated on rock to l.

Hadrian (117–138 CE)

Inscription within wreath: ΦΛΑΟΥ / ΝΕΑΠΟΛΙ/ΣΑΜΑΡΕ/ LΕΙ

ROMAN PROVINCIAL Domitian (81–96 CE)

Illegible

Uncertain Jewish Coin—Prutah

Same

‫חרות ציון‬ Vine leaf

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

‫חרות ציון‬ Vine leaf

FIRST JEWISH REVOLT Prutah

[ΑΥΤΟΚ ΔΟΜΙΤΙΑΝΟΣ ΚΑΙΣΑΡ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΟΣ] Bust laureate r.

Illegible

Same

‫שנת שלוש‬ Amphora with lid

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

‫שנת שתים‬ Amphora

Same

Same

Obverse

Year 15 = 86/87

Up to 70

Same

Year 3 = 68/69

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Year 2 = 67/68

Same

Same

Date (CE)

Petra

Neapolis Shechem

Jerusalem

Same

Jerusalem

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Jerusalem

Same

Same

Mint

Spijkerman 1978: 220, Nos. 2–4

Rosenberger 1977:5, No. 2

Identification based on fabric

112796

119679

119681

120029

112792

TJC:242, No. 204 Same

120034

120033

112791

119668

112795

119236

120036

119678

IAA No.

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

TJC:241, No. 196

Same

Same

Reference and Notes

180 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

5295

5340

6144

514

514

6051

319

514

8067

8024

Cat. No.

35*

36*

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44*

80059

80332

4952

3706

60532

4956

4969

61007

52436

52185

Basket

3.48

7.52

2.62

5.92

5.30

13.64

9.58

0.36

7.78

1.13

Weight (g)

20 ´ 22

20 ´ 22

22

20

17

30

27

10

22

10

Diam. (mm)

â

â

á

å

á

Axis

COL AE–LIA CAP Dionysos stg. facing, to l. panther

IOVI CONSERVAT Jupiter stg. l., holding globe and scepter; in exergue: PXV

ROMAN IMPERIAL Gallienus (256–268 CE)—Antoninianus

Same

Same

Illegible

Bust of Tyche r.

Tyche stg. l. holding head of emperor

Illegible

Uncertain

Palm tree

Autonomous (Uncertain)—Minima

GALLIENVS AVG Bust radiate r.

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Bust laureate r.

Bust laureate r.

Within wreath: SC

Reverse

Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE) [IMP ANTONI NO AVGGPP] Bust laureate r.

Illegible

Obverse

267

Same

Same

Same

Same

First half 3rd c.

2nd c.

1st–2nd c.

Date (CE)

Asia

Caesarea

Aelia Capitolina

Caesarea

Aelia Capitolina

Antioch

Mint

RIC V/I:185, No. 608

Cf. Kadman 1957:122, Nos. 125, 126

Cf. Meshorer 1989: 100, No. 122, or 116, No. 179

Cf. Hamburger 1955:126, Nos. 24–31

Meshorer 1989:74, No. 24

Cf. Butcher 2004: 359, No. 246

Reference and Notes

120022

120031

112748

107391

112797

112150

112151

120019

120014

119410

IAA No.

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

181

Locus

374

5321

3160

3160

4042

8057

W614

3200

5148

3110

5107

Cat. No.

45

46*

47

48

49

50*

51

52

53

54

55

50959

30693

51183

35016

61711

80215

40068

35106

31197

52354

4570

Basket

1.44

1.42

1.60

2.29

1.19

1.22

2.67

2.36

2.28

2.61

1.20

Weight (g)

13 ´ 15

14

16 ´ 18

19

17 ´ 15

16

19

20

19 ´ 22

20 ´ 22

20

Diam. (mm)

á

á

ã

á

á

á

â

â

ã

â

â

Axis

Bust l. of Constantinople

[---] Head r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

GLORI[A EXERCI]TVS Two soldiers stg. facing, between them a standard; mintmark illegible

Same, but mintmark illegible

Same, but in exergue: CONSA

Victory stg. l. on prow; mintmark illegible

[---] Camp gate; mintmark illegible

Uncertain

IVL CONSTANTINVS NOB C Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

[---] Head r., laureate

Emperor stg. r. on quadriga; in exergue: SMANB

PROVIDENTIAE AVGG Camp gate; in exergue: PLG

Same

SOLI INVI CTO COMITI Sol stg. facing, raising hand and holding globe; mintmark illegible

IOVI CONS SERVATORI Jupiter stg. l., holding Victory on globe and scepter. To l. eagle with wreath in peak; in exergue: ●TS●Γ●

LATE ROMAN Constantine II (317–340 CE)

DV CONSTANTINVS PP AVG Bust veiled r.

CON[---]VS [ Bust laureate r.

]O[ Figure stg. Constantine I (307–337 CE)

CONSTANTINVS AVG Bust laureate r.

Same

Same

Reverse Probus (276–282 CE)—Antoninianus

IMP CONSTANTINVS PF AVG Bust laureate r.

]PROBV[S… Bust radiate r.

Obverse

Same

335–341

330–335

324–330

335–337

337–341

324–326

Same

313–318

317–318

Date (CE)

Antioch

Lugdunum

Thessalonica

Mint

120027

LRBC 1:31, No. 1374

119671

Cf. LRBC 1:24, No. 1024

119258

119283

Cf. LRBC 1:24, No. 1023

Same

119174

Cf. LRBC 1:30, Nos. 1333 and 1337

120037

119182

Cf. LRBC 1:7, No. 169

Cf. LRBC 1:31, No. 1364

119178

112804

Cf. RIC VI:389, No. 332 Same

120013

112125

IAA No.

RIC VII:501, No. 19

Half a coin

Reference and Notes

182 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

257

257

4101

W804

3110

5224

5251

6130

Cat. No.

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

60960

51828

51699

30664

80578

41510

2423

2394

Basket

1.02

1.48

0.71

2.28

1.42

1.59

1.94

3.41

Weight (g)

13

12

12

19

15

16 ´ 18

15

20

Diam. (mm)

â

â

â

á

á

á

á

á

Axis

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

DN VAL[ENTINIANVS PF AVG] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

[GLORIA ROMANORVM] Emperor advancing r., holding standard and dragging captive; mintmark illegible

SALVS REI PVBLICAE Victory advancing l., dragging captive, holding trophy; in l. field, rho-cross; in exergue: SMK?

Same

Vota inscription (illegible) within wreath; mintmark illegible

Uncertain

CONCORDIA AVGGG Figure seated facing, holding globe and scepter; in exergue: CONSA

Valentinian II (375–392 CE)

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

FEL TEMP REPARATIO Virtus spearing fallen horseman; mintmark illegible

FEL TEM[P REPARATIO] Virtus spearing fallen horseman; mintmark illegible

Uncertain

DN CONSTAN TIVS PF AVG Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped Same

Reverse Constantius II (337–361 CE)

DN CONSTAN TIVS PF AVG Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped; in l. field: Δ

Obverse

383–395

Same

378–383

378–383

364–375

Same

351–361

351–354

Date (CE)

Cyzicus?

Constantinople

Mint

119376 120018

Cf. LRBC 2:98, Nos. 2568–2570

119364

119666

120035

Same

Cf. LRBC 2:101, Nos. 2729–2735

Cf. LRBC 2:101, Nos. 2696, 2697

Cf. LRBC 2:100, Nos. 2653, 2654

119191

109149

Cf. LRBC 2:100, No. 2632 Same

109138

IAA No.

Cf. LRBC 2:100, No. 2627

Reference and Notes

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

183

Locus

6213

4140

5188

5320

3064

287

257

311

319

362

477

586

477

3070

516

5224

491

567

5061

3108

311

374

Cat. No.

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

4578

3598

30636

50377

5471

4795

51702

5049

30337

4685

31238

4687

3929

3957

3601

2461

3325

30320

52359

51322

41658

61698

Basket

1.40

1.04

0.77

1.13

1.30

1.31

1.65

2.47

1.78

0.52

0.53

0.68

0.50

1.68

1.68

1.15

1.02

0.50

0.76

0.89

1.00

0.45

Weight (g)

15

13

12 ´ 14

16 ´ 18

14

19

16 ´ 19

13 ´ 15

14 ´ 16

13

14

14

7

12

15

13

12

11

10 ´ 12

13

13

10 ´ 12

Diam. (mm)

â

á

â

Axis

Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

DN CON[ Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

Same

Same

Obverse

Two figures stg.

Figure stg.

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Illegible

Same

Same

Same, but mint mark illegible

Reverse

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

4th c.

Same

Same

Same

Date (CE)

Mint

Half a coin

Same

112127

107375

119664

119226

112757

112139

119365

112749

112802

112128

112787

112129

107409

107394

107375

107281

107333

112801

120011

119311

119205

120020

Cf. LRBC 2:102, Nos. 2768–2771 Same

IAA No.

Reference and Notes

184 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

319

8030

8060

284

3110

3110

580

5316

362

6051

8047

5271

5281

Cat. No.

86

87

88

89*

90

91*

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

51990

51954

80174

60500

3928

52345

5416

30691

30662

2935

80336

80138

3912

Basket

0.18

0.37

0.46

0.58

0.10

0.15

0.17

0.97

0.88

4.35

1.80

0.28

1.07

Weight (g)

8

8

8

8

6

7

9

11

10

23

12 ´ 15

10

11

Diam. (mm)

ä

â

â

â

â

Axis

[---] O IOS [ Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

[---] PF AVG Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

Same

Same

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Same

Same

VOT XX MVLT XXXΘ Victory stg. l. holding long cross; in exergue: CONOB

Same

Same

Same

Illegible

Same

Same

Illegible monogram

[---] COI I Victory l. holding wreath

Cross

Uncertain—Minima

AEL PVLCH ERIA AVG Bust r., draped, above her hand holding crown

Illegible

GLOR[IA ROMANORVM] Three emperors stg. facing; mintmark illegible

CONCORDIA AVGGG Cross; in exergue: ANT?

Inscription within wreath?

Reverse

Pulcheria (414–453)—Gold Solidus

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped; in l. field star

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

[---] Bust r., pearl-diademed, cuirassed and draped

Obverse

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

450–550

Same

395–455

420–421

403–408

404–406

Same

Date (CE)

Constantinople

Antioch

Mint

Imitative issue

Type uncertain; imitative issue

119403

119387

120026

112815

107408

120010

112789

119669

119665

124367

120030

Cf. LRBC 2:102, Nos. 2801–2804

Very rare; LRC: Pl. 17, No. 437

120023

107392

IAA No.

Cf. LRBC 2:102, Nos. 2806–2808

Reference and Notes

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

185

Locus

491

8034

491

3107

4214

619

5316

491

5083

Cat. No.

99

100

101*

102

103*

104

105

106

107

50457

4799

52341

5683

41861

30633

4815

80159

4814

Basket

8.01

16.47

0.52

0.65

0.28

3.93

13.40

3.04

3.01

Weight (g)

23 ´ 25

31

8

9

7

21

32

20

20

Diam. (mm)

á

á

á

â

á

Axis

exergue: [CO]N

I flanked by stars, above cross; in

DN IVSTINIANVS PP AVC Bust r., diademed, draped and cuirassed

and below, stars; in r. field: Δ

K in l. field, long cross; above

Half Follis

CON

M details obscure; in exergue:

Justinian I (527–565)—Follis

Same

Same

Vandalic Anonymous—Nummus

[DN IVS]TINI[ANVS PP AVC] Bust r., diademed, draped and cuirassed

Same

below B; in exergue: C]O[N

M above cross; in r. field, star;

Justin I (518–527)—Decanummium DN IVSTINVS PP AVC Emperor stg. facing, holding globe and scepter

Illegible

Same, but bearing two punchmarks: circles

K in l. field, long cross

Follis (Large Module) DN ANAST[A]SIVS PP AVC Bust r., draped and cuirassed

Illegible

[DN ANASTASIVS PP AVC] Bust r., draped and cuirassed

Same

Reverse

BYZANTINE Anastasius I (491–518)—Half Follis (Small Module)

Obverse

527–537

527–537

Same

Same

534–549

512–518

498–507

498–507

Date (CE)

Same

Constantinople

Same

Same

Carthage

Constantinople

Constantinople

Same

Constantinople

Mint

MIBE 1:128, No. 90

MIBE 1:126, No. 83

Same

Same

BMCV:26, No. 68

Very rare; MIBE 1:98, No. 22

MIBE 1:87, No. 27

Same

MIBE 1:87, No. 31

Reference and Notes

119234

112141

120009

112799

112805

119663

112143

120025

112142

IAA No.

186 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

8111

502

6003

6036

8103

4091

W802

4126

Cat. No.

108*

109

110*

111

112

113

114

115*

40473

80137

40367

81119

60198

60067

4918

80493

Basket

2.80

1.10

4.96

11.54

11.15

7.24

10.81

1.10

Weight (g)

20 ´ 25

14 ´ 16

20 ´ 29

30

28

24

28

10 ´ 12

Diam. (mm)

å

â

å

â

â

â

á

Axis

NIKOB

XX above, cross; in exergue:

exergue: C[ON]

m to l.: ANNO; date illegible; in

Illegible

below: Є; in exergue: CON

M to l.: ANNO; date illegible;

Imperial figure stg. facing, holding globe with cross and long cross

m to r.: NEO; in exergue: III

Constans II (640–668)—Follis

Three figures stg. facing?

[---] One or two figures stg. facing?

Heraclius (610–641)—Follis

illegible; in exergue: NIK[OB]

XXXX above: ANNO; date

Phocas (602–610)—Follis

m details obscure

Maurice (582–602)—Follis

dm FOCA PER AV£ Bust facing, holding scepter with bird and globe

[---] Bust facing

½ to l. a; to r. ‰

Tiberius II (578–582)—Follis [---] Bust facing, with crown, in consular dress; holding mappa [---] Bust facing

Reverse Uncertain—Pentanummium

Bust r., draped and cuirassed

Obverse

643/644

c. 640?

604–609

522–537

Date (CE)

Constantinople

Constantinople

Constantinople

Nicomedia

Antioch?

Nicomedia

Constantinople

Constantinople?

Mint

Cf. DOC 2/2:446, No. 62

Type uncertain

Half a coin; type uncertain

Cf. DOC 2/1:177, No. 56

DOC 1:280, No. 33

Cf. DOC 1:271, No. 13a

Imitation?

Reference and Notes

119200

120038

119188

119673

119428

119424

112147

120032

IAA No.

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

187

Locus

311

575

491

4126

5348

3046

5268

606

614

5156

5250

5214

Cat. No.

116

117*

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

51682

51835

51182

5605

5590

52093

30318

52450

40459

4838

5374

3539

Basket

2.16

2.98

2.06

1.58

2.48

3.87

12.21

10.08

14.53

7.06

1.90

3.49

Weight (g)

17 ´ 26

19

19 ´ 25

17

15 ´ 22

21

33

25 ´ 28

34

32

17 ´ 24

17

Diam. (mm)

á

á

â

â

â

â

Axis

Same

Illegible

Same

Same

m above, cross; details obscure Same

Same

Same

7th c.

6th–7th c.

Same

Same

M details obscure

exergue: CON

M to l: ANNO; below: A; in

date: ]³[ ; in exergue: CON

M to l: ANNO; above, cross; to

After 538

518–538

M to l., star; above, cross; to r., cross; below: Γ

Same

512–537

M above, cross; to r.: star

[C]O[N]

M details obscure; in exergue:

Uncertain—Follis

Γ; in exergue: [SCL]

M above, monogram Ă; below: 668–674

644–647

m to l.: ANA; above, cross; in exergue: II[C]

Date (CE)

Reverse

Constantine IV (668–681)—Follis

[---] Bust facing. Round countermark?

[---] Bust facing?

Same

Same

Illegible

[---] Bust r.

[---]AVC Bust r.

[---]AVPP Bust r.

[---] Bust facing

Same

Obverse

Same

Constantinople

Constantinople

Syracuse

Same

Mint

Cut irregularly

1/4 cut from larger follis

Corroded

Very worn

Cut irregularly

Cf. MIBE 1:87, No. 27

Half a coin

Cf. DOC 2/2:554, No. 60

Cf. DOC 2/2:447, No. 64

Reference and Notes

119360

119375

119292

112817

112816

119385

112800

120015

119199

112144

112788

107360

IAA No.

188 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

Locus

491

491

3097

3110

606

550

5280

5072

5294

6003

6125

5139

Cat. No.

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

5135

60897

60071

52186

50857

51976

6000

5588

30692

31255

4922

4845

Basket

2.97

3.49

1.66

1.83

3.26

3.36

3.53

1.48

0.87

2.38

3.62

3.92

Weight (g)

16 ´ 19

17 ´ 25

15 ´ 20

17

19 ´ 22

20 ´ 22

19

13 ´ 22

16

13

24

20

Diam. (mm)



â

å

â

Axis

Same

m above, cross; details obscure

Same

m details obscure

Same

c. 647– 670

Same

c. 640– 660

Same

Same

6th–7th c.?

Same

Illegible

r.: Λ

m to l.: AN; above, cross; to

Arab-Byzantine Imitations—Follis Imperial figure stg. facing, holding globe with cross and long cross

Illegible

Imperial figure stg. facing, holding globe with cross and long cross

Bust facing

Same

Same

Same

Illegible

Uncertain

Same

I+B in exergue: ΑΛΕΞ 518–610

578–610

XX to l: ANNO; details obscure Uncertain—Dodecanummia

6th c.

Date (CE)

K to l: ANNO; details obscure

Uncertain—Half Follis

Reverse

Constans II or Arab-Byzantine—Follis or Imitation

Illegible

Bust r. or facing?

[---] Bust facing

Same

[---] Bust r.

Bust facing

Illegible

Obverse

Same

Alexandria

Mint

Same

Cf. SICA 1: Group E; cut from larger follis

Fragment

Half a coin

Same

Same

The value mark is uncertain

Reference and Notes

119265

120017

119411

119427

119227

119395

119662

112827

119670

112839

112146

112145

IAA No.

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

189

Locus

3126

541

8033

8057

5320

720

583

567

Cat. No.

140

141

142*

143

144

145

146*

147*

5466

5490

5945

52360

80216

80157

5187

30294

Basket

3.46

1.02

1.70

2.12

2.23

2.55

2.56

2.80

Weight (g)

19

19

14 ´ 18

18 ´ 20

18 ´ 20

17 ´ 20

17 ´ 22

19 ´ 24

Diam. (mm)

å

â



â

â

â



Axis

Same, to l.: inversed Є

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Obverse

Same

Same Same Same Same Same

m to l.: IaI; in exergue: CIO m details obscure m to l.: NO?; above, cross m details obscure m above, cross; to r.: ΦΑ m details obscure. Round

C

Same

m to l.: Λ

countermark:

Same

Date (CE)

Same

Reverse

Mint

Cf. SICA 1: Group E; Goodwin 2005:46, No. A9 (countermark)

Cut from larger follis

Small fragment

Same

112760

112790

120007

120012

120028

120024

Cf. SICA 1: Group E; cut polygonally Cf. SICA 1: Group E

119658

112803

IAA No.

Same

1/2 cut from larger follis

Reference and Notes

190 GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

0.32

0.65

0.23

0.73

0.25

0.49

148*

149*

150

151

152

153

0.93

0.47

154

155



Weight (gm)

Cat. No.

9

10

7

8

8

7

8

9

Diam. (mm)

Axis

Illegible

Bust r.

Illegible

Same

Same

Illegible

Same

Same

Reverse

$

Illegible monogram

Illegible

c. 450– 550

4th–5th c.

Same

Uncertain—Minimi

Same

534–549

Same

548–565

534–539

Date (CE)

Same

Vandalic Anonymous—Nummus

Same

a ½

BYZANTINE Justinian I (527–565 CE)—Nummus

Obvverse

Catalogue: Hoard L4253 (Foundation Deposit)

Same

Same

Carthage

Same

Same

Carthage

Mint

112812

112810

112811

Identification by fabric and size

112808 BMCV:36, No. 158

112813 Same

BMCV:26, No. 68

112806

112807

DOC 1:170, No. 311 Same

112809

IAA No.

DOC 1:170, No. 309

Reference and Notes

CHAPTER 6: COINS OF THE HELLENISTIC TO BYZANTINE PERIODS

191

192

GABRIELA BIJOVSKY

R eferences Aitchison N.B. 1988. Roman Wealth, Native Ritual: Coin Hoards within and beyond Roman Britain. WA 20:270–284. Bijovsky G. 1998. The Gush Ḥalav Hoard Reconsidered. ‘Atiqot 35:77–106. Bijovsky G. 2005. The Coins. In B. Arubas and H. Goldfus eds. Excavations on the Site of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Binyanei Ha’uma): A Settlement of the Late First to Second Temple Period, the Tenth Legion’s Kilnworks, and a Byzantine Monastic Complex; The Pottery and Other Small Finds (JRA Suppl. S. 60). Portsmouth, R.I. Pp. 211–224. Bijovsky G. 2007. The Coin Finds from the Shu‘afat (Giv‘at Shaul) Excavations. Preliminary Report. In J. Patrich and D. Amit eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region. Collected Papers 1. Jerusalem. Pp. 65–72 (Hebrew). Bijovsky G. 2009. Numismatic Report. In E.M. Meyers and C.L. Meyers. Excavations at Ancient Nabratein: Synagogue and Environs (Meiron Excavations Project 6). Winona Lake. Pp. 374– 395. BMCV: W.W. Wroth. Catalogue of the Coins of the Vandals, Ostrogoths and Lombards and the Empires of Thessalonica, Nicaea and Trebizond in the British Museum. London 1911. Butcher K. 2004. Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC–AD 253 (Royal Numismatic Society Special Publication 34). London. DOC 1: A.R. Bellinger. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection 1: Anastasius I to Maurice (491–602). Washington, D.C. 1966. DOC 2/1: P. Grierson. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection 2/1: Phocas and Heraclius (602–641). Washington, D.C. 1968. DOC 2/2: P. Grierson. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection 2/2: Heraclius Constantine to Theodosius III (641–717). Washington, D.C. 1968. Foss C. 2008. Arab-Byzantine Coins: An Introduction, with a Catalogue of the Dumbarton Oaks Collection (Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Collection Publications 12). Washington, D.C. Goodwin T. 2004. The Arab-Byzantine Coinage of Jund Filastin—A Potential Historical Source. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 28:1–12. Goodwin T. 2005. Countermarks from after the Arab Conquest. In W. Schulze and T. Goodwin. Countermarking in Seventh Century Syria (Supplement to Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter 183). Croydon. Pp. 23–56. Hamburger H. 1955. Minute Coins from Caesarea. ‘Atiqot 1 (ES):115–138. Heidemann S. 1998. The Merger of Two Currency Zones in Early Islam. The Byzantine and Sasanian Impact on the Circulation in Former Byzantine Syria and Northern Mesopotamia. Iran 36:95–112. Kadman L. 1957. The Coins of Caesarea Maritima (Corpus Nummorum Palaestinensium II). Jerusalem. LRBC 1: P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent. The Bronze Coinage of the House of Constantine, A.D. 324–46. In Late Roman Bronze Coinage A.D. 324–498. London 1965. Pp. 4–40.

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193

LRBC 2: R.A.G. Carson and J.P.C. Kent. Bronze Roman Imperial Coinage of the Later Empire, A.D. 346–498. In Late Roman Bronze Coinage A.D. 324–498. London 1965. Pp. 41–114. LRC: P. Grierson and M. Mays 1992. Catalogue of Late Roman Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and the Whittemore Collection: From Arcadius and Honorius to the Accession of Anastasius. Washington, D.C. Meshorer Y. 1989. The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina (Israel Museum Catalogue 301). Jerusalem. MIBE 1: W. Hahn. Money of the Incipient Byzantine Empire (Anastasius I–Justinian I, 491–565) (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte der Universität Wien 6). Vienna 2000. Pottier H., Schulze I. and Schulze W. 2008. Pseudo-Byzantine Coinage in Syria under Arab Rule (638–c. 670): Classification and Dating. Revue Belge de Numismatique 154:87–155. RIC V/I: P.H. Webb. The Roman Imperial Coinage V, I. London 1927. RIC VI: C.H.V. Sutherland. The Roman Imperial Coinage VI: From Diocletian’s Reform (A.D. 294) to the Death of Maximinus (A.D. 313). London 1967. RIC VII: P.M. Bruun. The Roman Imperial Coinage VII: Constantine and Licinius A.D. 313–337. London 1966. Rosenthal-Heginbottom R. 2019. Catalogue of Roman Pottery. In WWPE II. Rosenberger M. 1977. City-Coins of Palestine (The Rosenberger Israel Collection) III: Hippos– Sussita, Neapolis, Nicopolis, Nysa–Scythopolis, Caesarea–Panias, Pelusium, Raphia, Sebaste, Sepphoris–Diocaesarea, Tiberias. Jerusalem. SICA 1: S. Album and T. Goodwin. Sylloge of Islamic Coins in the Ashmolean 1: The Pre-Reform Coinage of the Early Islamic Period. Oxford 2002. SNG Israel 1: A. Houghton and A. Spaer. Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum; Israel I: The Arnold Spaer Collection of Seleucid Coins. London 1998. SNG Ptol.: A. Kromann and O. Mørkholm. Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum: Denmark. Egypt: The Ptolemies. Copenhagen 1977. Spijkerman A. 1978. The Coins of the Decapolis and Provincia Arabia (SBF Collectio Maior 25). Jerusalem. TJC: Y. Meshorer. A Treasury of Jewish Coins from the Persian Period to Bar Kochba. Jerusalem– Nyack, N.Y. 2001.

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Chapter 7

The Cardo in Urban Context Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah

The impressive and excellently preserved remains of the Eastern Cardo enable a discussion of a number of subjects associated with Jerusalem’s urban plan in the Roman period, after 70 CE.

Roman City Planning Roman city planning, which redesigned the urban layout along an orthogonal plan consisting of straight streets whose axes were parallel or perpendicular to each other, is well evident from the findings of excavations in Jerusalem. From the evidence that has emerged from the Western Wall Plaza excavations, it is clear that there was a significant deviation between the alignment of quarries and buildings constructed in this area during the First and Second Temple periods (Strata XV–XIII) and the later alignment of the Eastern Cardo and the streets leading off it (Stratum XII see Chapter 3: Plan 3.2). The earlier quarries and buildings conformed to the slope of the western hill, resulting in a southeast–northwest orientation, whereas the Cardo was constructed along a straight axis with no allowances for the local topography.

The Design of the Eastern Colonnaded Street (the Eastern Cardo) The Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem is clearly shown in the city’s depiction on the Madaba map (Fig. 7.1). The street begins at the present-day Damascus Gate in the north and continues southward to somewhere close to the Dung Gate. In excavations conducted from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present day, several sections of the street’s pavement have been discovered along the entire length of Ha-Gāy (el-Wad) Street, which preserves the course of the ancient street (see Chapter 1: Plan 1.4). Most of the sections were exposed in limited excavations conducted as part of infrastructure work on the drainage system. In the present excavations at the Western Wall Plaza, the Eastern Cardo was uncovered across its entire width, including the porticos and shops, in a section about 45 m long. The carriageway at the center of the street was 8 m wide, and together with the 1.5 m wide open sidewalks on each side, it measured approximately 11 m between two flanking colonnades. A sophisticated drainage system was revealed beneath the street’s paving stones. Porticos 6.0–6.5 m wide were constructed along both sides and a row of shops was hewn in the cliff face beyond the western portico. The overall width of the street and the porticos reached 24 m.

196

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Fig. 7.1. Jerusalem on the Madaba map (Vincent and Abel 1914: Pl. xxx).

The design of the eastern colonnaded street exhibits an impressive level of symmetry and precision––the broad, straight street running parallel to the Western Wall of the Temple Mount, the symmetrical lay-out of the porticos, the uniform appearance of the row of shops, and the two parallel streets branching perpendicularly off the Cardo in an easterly direction––all reflect its role as an important main artery in the new city. The Eastern Cardo resembles Jerusalem’s Western Cardo, whose overall width was about 12 m, and together with the porticos that flanked it, it too reached 24 m (Avigad 1980:213–229; Gutfeld 2007:71–73; 2012).1 In width and design, the Eastern Cardo also invites comparison with other wide and impressive streets of the Eastern Roman Empire. Such streets ranged between 11 and 13 m in width and, together with their porticos, reached an overall width of 20–25 m, examples of which include Valley Street in Bet She’anScythopolis (Tsafrir and Foerster 1994:99), the cardo in Jerash (Kraeling 1938:127–128, Pl. 24), the decumanus in Ḥammat Gader (Hirschfeld 1987: Pl. 14a), the decumanus in Gadara (Weber 1989), the colonnaded street with shops in Sebastia (Crowfoot, Kenyon and Sukenik 1942:50–52, 67–68, Fig. 32), the decumanus in Aleppo (Sauvaget 1949), and the cardo and decumanus in Philippopolis (Segal 1988:83–87) and Palmyra (Michalowski 1970:16–22; for additional cities, see summaries in Broshi 1977:234–235; MacDonald 1986:41–44; Segal 1997:5–53, table on pp. 48–49).

Only the southern section of the Western Cardo has been excavated, and it is dated to the Byzantine period (sixth century CE). The northern section, along Khan ez-Zeit/Bet Ḥabad St., was documented in the 1940s (Johns 1948). 1

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The diagonally placed paving stones of the Eastern Cardo and the raised, open sidewalks along the carriageway can also be compared to colonnaded streets in other Roman cities, where the pavements were usually laid in a diagonal or herringbone pattern and flanked by narrow sidewalks that separated them from their raised porticos (e.g., Palladius Street in Bet She‘an, see Arubas, Foerster and Tsafrir 2008:1639; the decumanus at Ẓippori, see Weiss 2002:23*). Effects of light and shade created by the steps and the columns played an important part in the architecture of the Roman city in general, and the appearance of the streets––relatively sunken in comparison with the higher porticos––resembled water channels linking the gates of the city with key monuments (MacDonald 1986:44). In Jerusalem, ancient streets with thick, diagonally laid paving stones similar to those of the Eastern Cardo have been discovered in the northern section of the Western Cardo (Khan ez-Zeit/Bet Ḥabad St.; Johns 1948:94; Weksler-Bdolah 2011a: Figs. 52–55)2 and in the Via Dolorosa, west of the Ecce Homo Arch, identified as the northern decumanus of Aelia Capitolina (Kisilevitz and Greenwald 2012:139). The similarity in style suggests that they were built at the same time and in a uniform method (see Chapter 1: Plan 1.4). Elsewhere in Jerusalem, other streets attributed to the Roman period were paved with stones laid perpendicular or parallel to the course of the street, rather than diagonally, as in the Street of the Chain, identified as the southern decumanus of Aelia Capitolina, and in Christian Street (Gutfeld 2007 and see references therein). Streets 8020 and 4108, which led eastward from the Cardo, were similarly paved. Based on these examples, it appears that the two main colonnaded streets, the Eastern and Western Cardos, as well as the northern decumanus, differed from the other streets in their style of paving in addition to being colonnaded. It is not possible at this stage to determine whether there was a chronological reason for this difference or whether it reflects the importance of the main thoroughfares compared with other streets. The Cardo’s builders carved out almost all the new elements that furnished the street without reusing earlier architectural materials from the Second Temple period. This choice is particularly remarkable considering the time in which the street was paved—after the destruction of 70 CE, when the ruined city, with the Temple Mount at its center, could have provided a rich source for such building materials. Interestingly, a few architectural elements were incorporated as spolia in the core of W811-W812, for example the Attic base (Chapter 4: Fig. 4.20:1) and a single stone threshold. No Herodian stones whatsoever were used as street furnishings. Another phenomenon that stands out along the section of the street that was exposed in the Western Wall Plaza is the lack of the usual ‘finishing’ that was customary in every Roman construction project. From the moment the street was erected, almost no further effort was made to refine its appearance––the paving stones and columns were smoothed

This statement is based on an examination of photographs in the IAA archives, The British Mandate files, 1947, Jerusalem, Muslim Quarter A2, Vol. 101, Photograph 38812, 38842, inter alia). 2

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with minimum effort and the bases remained roughly worked––unusual when compared with other colonnaded streets in the Eastern Empire. It cannot be determined conclusively why the street’s architectural elements were not finely finished. Possibly, the stonecutters and masons lacked the professional expertise, although this seems a rather weak argument, as the overall monumental appearance of the street testifies to a high level of building skills. It is more likely that the lack of fine finishing attests to the speed with which the street was paved. Whereas the infrastructure for the street’s construction was meticulously carried out and, together with infrastructure works throughout the Roman city to redesign the city plan, is estimated to have taken a considerable time, it seems that the paving and the columns themselves were hastily executed, without ‘wasting time’ on finer details. This impression is also supported by the fact that the bedrock infrastructure of the western portico was not leveled and the quarrying here may not have been completed. While the absence of any of the original paving of the porticos or shops may be the result of their having been dismantled, it may be that the paving was not even completed in the first place. It is therefore cautiously suggested that some kind of event ‘interfered’ with the completion of the street as planned. This event may have been Hadrian’s visit to Judea in 130 CE, during which he announced the establishment of the Roman colony Aelia Capitolina at Jerusalem. Another possibility is that the street’s construction was interrupted by the Bar Kokhba Revolt (generally accepted as having broken out in 132 CE), diverting the army from its civilian tasks.

The Urban and Civilian Nature of the Street and the City Limits The Eastern Cardo ran for approximately 1 km, between the northern and southern city gates of Aelia Capitolina. The section of the street currently exposed is the only one of the Eastern Cardo’s known sections in which the entire width of the street has been revealed, including the porticos and the row of shops along the western side of the street. The monumental appearance of the street, as well as the shops, indicate the civilian nature of the Cardo in this part of the city. A gatehouse (propylaeum) leading into a larger structure further to the east was enclosed between the two parallel streets on the eastern side of the Cardo. The evidence indicates that from its inception, the Eastern Cardo served as a main thoroughfare and economic hub of the Roman city. These facts have significant implications for understanding the extent of the city of Aelia Capitolina and its urban layout. If the eastern colonnaded street indeed extended between the city’s northern and southern gates, and these gates were located at the presentday Damascus Gate in the north and near the Dung Gate in the south, then this would substantiate a previous proposal that the city boundaries of Aelia Capitolina were roughly similar to those of today’s Old City (see Plan 7.1; Tsafrir 1999a:135–142 and see references therein). The identification of the southeastern gate of Aelia Capitolina as the gate at the southern end of the eastern colonnaded street on the Madaba map, namely in the region of today’s Dung Gate, was suggested in the past by Avi-Yonah (1954) and Tsafrir (1999a:142) and is commonly accepted. Moreover, it is not improbable that a fragment of an early third-

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century monumental Latin inscription (202–205 CE) dedicated to the Emperor Septimus Severus and his family, which was incorporated in secondary use in the floor of one of the Umayyad palaces south of the Temple Mount (CIIP 1.2, 719), may attest to the existence of a Roman-period city gate that has not yet been discovered in this area (Avi-Yonah 1969; Cotton and Eck 1997, 2009; Isaac 1999:173–174; Stiebel 1999:83–87; Mazor 2004:118– 119; 2007:120–121).

The Role of the Temple Mount in the Roman Urban Layout Historical records of the Temple Mount during the Roman period do not provide a clear, consistent picture of the role of this monumental complex in the life of the city. Some researchers have assumed that the Temple Mount was a central site in the city, on which the Capitoline Temple of Aelia Capitolina, or another cult center, was located (e.g., Geva 1993:758; Tsafrir 2009; Newman 2014; Weksler-Bdolah 2015). Another suggestion identifies it as part of the military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion in Jerusalem (Mazar 2011), whereas others believe that the site was abandoned and not considered an integral part of the city (Eliav 2003, 2005). In this author’s opinion, the Roman system of streets in the southeastern part of the city indicates a direct link between the city and the Temple Mount, which survived as a massive architectural complex after the destruction of 70 CE. The routes of the Eastern Cardo and of the streets leading off it in an easterly direction clearly relate to the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. Furthermore, excavations at the Great Causeway have shown that this causeway was first built in the Roman period after 70 CE to provide direct access to the Temple Mount (see Chapter 1: Plan 1.2; Onn and Weksler-Bdolah 2017). It is clear that the Roman city planners identified the Temple Mount as a focal point and planned the urban layout accordingly.

The Date of the Eastern Cardo and Its Implication for the Founding of Aelia Capitolina The finds from the current excavations can contribute to the on-going discussion on the dating of the foundation of Aelia Capitolina. A Hadrianic coin is the latest find retrieved from beneath the level of the Cardo’s paving stones (see Chapter 6: Cat. No. 35), which dates the paving of the Eastern Cardo (Stratum XIIA) no earlier than the reign of Hadrian (117/118–137/138 CE). In addition, the latest of the other finds sealed beneath the street’s paving date to the first quarter or first third of the second century CE (see WWPE II, III). The lack of any finds manufactured after 130 CE, as far as can be determined, enable us to deduce that in all probability the street was paved no later than Hadrian’s reign. The paving was preceded by extensive infrastructure work that was clearly executed according to a pre-planned urban layout. The date of the infrastructure work, in the first quarter of the second century, is based on a rich assemblage of finds from the large refuse dump sealed beneath the course of the street, which we interpret as having been deposited in situ during the infrastructure work itself (see Chapters 1, 3). The latest finds among the

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pottery and glass assemblages—which comprise the bulk of the material from the dump–– date to the first quarter of the second century (see, respectively, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2019; Gorin-Rosen, forthcoming). Thus, we propose that the infrastructure work also dates to the reign of Hadrian, probably between 120 and 130 CE. The importance of these finds is the implication that by this date, which seemingly preceded the visit of Hadrian to Jerusalem in 129/130 CE, the initial planning of the new city had apparently been completed and construction of the Eastern Cardo may have even begun.

S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

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Sion O. and Rapuano Y. 2014. A Pool from the Period of Aelia Capitolina in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem. In H. Geva. Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Conducted by Nahman Avigad 1969–1982 VI: Areas J, N, Z and Other Studies; Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 414–426. Stiebel G.D. 1999. The Whereabouts of the Xth Legion and the Boundaries of Aelia Capitolina. In A. Faust and E. Baruch eds. New Studies on Jerusalem (Proceedings of the Fifth Conference, December 22rd 1999, Bar-Ilan University). Ramat Gan. Pp. 68–103 (Hebrew). Stiebel G.D. Forthcoming. Objects. In WWPE III. Stinespring W.F. 1967. Wilson’s Arch and Masonic Hall, Summer 1966. BA 30:27–31. Tsafrir Y. 1975. Zion—The South-Western Hill of Jerusalem and Its Place in the Urban Development of the City in the Byzantine Period. Ph.D. diss. The Hebrew University. Jerusalem (Hebrew; English summary, pp. I–XI). Tsafrir Y. 1999a. The Topography and Archaeology of Aelia Capitolina. In Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai eds. The History of Jerusalem: The Roman and Byzantine Periods (70–638 CE). Jerusalem. Pp. 115–166 (Hebrew). Tsafrir Y. 1999b. The Topography and Archaeology of Jerusalem in the Byzantine Period. In Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai eds. The History of Jerusalem, the Roman and Byzantine Periods (70–638 CE). Jerusalem. Pp. 281–351 (Hebrew). Tsafrir Y. 2009. 70–638: The Temple-less Mountain. In O. Grabar and B.Z. Kedar eds. Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade. Jerusalem–Austin. Pp. 73–99. Tsafrir Y. and Foerster G. 1994. From Scythopolis to Baysān—Changing Concepts of Urbanism. In G.R.D. King and A. Cameron eds. The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II: Land Use and Settlement Patterns (Papers of the Second Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam) (Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 1). Princeton, N.J. Pp. 95–115. Vainstub D. 2012. Inscriptions and Incised Potsherds from the Western Wall Plaza Excavations, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 72:1–12 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 87*–88*). Vincent L.H. and Abel F.M. 1914. Jérusalem; Recherches de topographie, d’archéologie et d’histoire II/I–II: Jérusalem nouvelle; Aelia Capitolina, le Saint-Sépulchre et le Mont des Oliviers. Paris. Vincent L.H. and Stève A.M. 1954. Jerusalem de l’Ancien Testament. Paris. Vogüé de M. 1864. Le Temple de Jérusalem: Monographie du Haram ech-Cherif. Paris. Warren C. 1876. Underground Jerusalem. London. Warren C. 1884. Plans, Elevations, Sections &c. Shewing the Results of the Excavations at Jerusalem, 1867–1870. Executed for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. London. Warren C. and Conder C.R. 1884. The Survey of Western Palestine: Jerusalem. London. Weber T. 1989. Umm Qeis—Gadara. In D. Homes-Fridericq and J.B. Hennesy eds. Archaeology of Jordan—Field Reports II/2 (Akkadica Supplementum VIII). Leuven. Pp. 597–611. Weiss Z. 2002. Ẓippori—2001. HA–ESI 114:23*–24*. Weksler-Bdolah S. 2009. The Relations between the Eastern Cardo of Jerusalem and the 10th Roman Legion, in Light of the Western Wall Plaza Excavations. In D. Amit, G.D. Stiebel and O. PelegBarkat eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region. Collected Papers 3. Jerusalem. Pp. 19–27 (Hebrew).

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Weksler-Bdolah S. 2011a. The Main Streets in Southeastern Jerusalem in the Roman Period and Their Role in the Development of Aelia Capitolina in the Second to Fourth Centuries CE, Focusing on the Excavations along the Eastern Colonnaded Street and the ‘Wilson Bridge’ (‘Great Causeway’). Ph.D. diss. The Hebrew University. Jerusalem (Hebrew; English summary, pp. V–XXIII). Weksler-Bdolah S. 2011b. The Route of the Second Temple Period’s ‘Lower Aqueduct’ and Where It Entered the Temple Mount. Cathedra 140:19–46 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 201). Weksler-Bdolah S. 2014. The Foundation of Aelia Capitolina in Light of New Excavations along the Eastern Cardo. IEJ 64:38–62. Weksler-Bdolah S. 2015. The Role of the Temple Mount in the Layout of Aelia Capitolina: The Capitolium after All. Eretz-Israel 31:126–137 (Hebrew; English summary, Pp. 186*–187*). Weksler-Bdolah S., Greenhut Z., Onn A., Kisilevitz S. and Ouahnouna B. 2008. An Impressive Architectural Complex from the First Temple Period in the Western Wall Plaza. In D. Amit and G.D. Stiebel eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region. Collected Papers 2. Jerusalem. Pp. 35–43 (Hebrew). Weksler-Bdolah S., Kisilevitz S. and Onn A. 2015. Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza. HA–ESI 127 (June 22). http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=18755&mag_id=122 (accessed January 23, 2018). Weksler-Bdolah S. and Onn A. 2010. Remains of the Roman Eastern Cardo in the Western Wall Plaza. Qadmoniot 140: 123–132 (Hebrew). Weksler-Bdolah S. and Onn A. 2017. Colonnaded Streets in Aelia Capitolina—New Evidence from the Eastern Cardo. In G. Avni and G.D. Stiebel eds. Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City (JRA Suppl. S. 105). Portsmouth, R.I. Pp. 10–22. Weksler-Bdolah S., Onn A., Kisilevitz S. and Ouahnouna B. 2012. Layers of Ancient Jerusalem. BAR 38/1:36–47, 69–71. Weksler-Bdolah S., Onn A., Ouahnouna B. and Avissar M. 2007. The Eastern Cardo of Roman Jerusalem and Its Later Phases in Light of the Excavations in the Western Wall Plaza. In J. Patrich and D. Amit eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region. Collected Papers 1. Jerusalem. Pp. 75–84 (Hebrew). Weksler-Bdolah S., Onn A., Ouahnouna B. and Kisilevitz S. 2009. Jerusalem, the Western Wall Plaza Excavations, 2005–2009: Preliminary Report. HA-ESI 121 (September 20). http://www. hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.asp?id=1219&mag_id=115 (accessed January 23, 2018). Weksler-Bdolah S., Onn A. and Rosenthal-Heginbottom R. 2009. The Eastern Cardo and the Wilson Bridge in Light of New Excavations in Jerusalem—The Remains from the Second Temple Period and from Aelia Capitolina. In L. Di Segni, Y. Hirschfeld, J. Patrich and R. Talgam eds. Man near a Roman Arch: Studies Presented to Prof. Yoram Tsafrir. Jerusalem. Pp. 135–159 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 228*–229*). Weksler-Bdolah S. and Rosenthal-Heginbottom R. 2014. Two Aspects of the Transformation of Jerusalem into the Roman Colony of Aelia Capitolina. In G.C. Bottini, L.D. Chrupcała and J. Patrich eds. Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni. Milan. Pp. 43–61. Wilson C.W. 1865. Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem. London. Wilson C.W. 1880. The Masonry of the Haram Wall. PEQ 13:9–65.

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Appendix 1

Bedrock Geology and Building Stones in the Western Wall Plaza Excavations and the Jerusalem Area Dan Gill1 Topographic Setting of the Excavation Site The earliest accurate topographic maps of the Old City of Jerusalem were prepared by the European explorers of the Holy Land and Jerusalem in the second half of the nineteenth century. At that time, some 150 years ago, the Old City was only sparsely built-up and a larger part of the surface area was exposed than it is today. Consequently, much more of the natural topography could be accurately mapped. These explorers employed then stateof-the-art surveying methods and instruments, including a triangulation-based system, theodolites, altimeters and astronomical positioning. While the maps prepared by them are very accurate, they do not portray the original topography of the solid bedrock. The pristine topography had been modified by millennia of infilling with soil and refuse, and by artificial modifications of the ground surface for defensive moats, stone quarrying, water supply (e.g., hewn reservoirs) and building purposes. The topographic mapping of Jerusalem in the nineteenth century has been reviewed by Shatner (1951:178–179) and Ben-Arieh (1977:14–18). Excellent detailed and largescale topographic maps of Jerusalem, including the Old City, were prepared by Wilson (1865) and Warren (1884). Later, based primarily on these cartographic surveys, other noteworthy maps were compiled by Kümmel (1904), Vincent (1912) and Vincent and Stève (1954–1956). In the present author’s opinion, the nineteenth-century maps are still the best reflection of the original bedrock topography of the Old City of Jerusalem. Wilson presented two maps: a 1:2,500 scale map of the municipal area with a contour interval of 10 feet (3.3 m) and a 1:10,000 scale map of Jerusalem and its environs. Warren (1884) prepared a 1:5000 scale map with 10 foot (3.3 m) contour intervals. In addition, he prepared a number of east–west topographic profiles across the Old City, in which he showed both the ground surface and his estimate of the profile of the bedrock below the unconsolidated soil and refuse fill, based in part on information obtained from survey shafts he dug in order to map the level of the solid bedrock. The location of the current excavation, as plotted on Warren’s map, is on the lower part of the northeastern slope of Mount Zion (known as the ‘Western Hill’ and the ‘Upper City’ of the Second Temple period), close to the confluence of the Transversal Valley

Geological Survey of Israel (retired). This chapter was submitted in May 2010 and revised after review on August 15, 2013. I thank Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah for her kind and fruitful cooperation, and Ezra Marcus for his thorough editing of the manuscript. Unless otherwise stated, all the photographs were taken by the author. 1

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(Hebrew, Naḥal Ha-Ẓolev or Naḥal Ha-‘Arev) that bounds the Western Hill on the north, and the Tyropoeon Valley that bounds it on the east (Fig. App. 1.1). The recent Western Wall Plaza excavations revealed that the Meleke Member underlying the site was quarried already during the First Temple period (see Chapters 2, 3; Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2009). The exact original elevation of the bedrock at the excavation site is relevant to the question regarding which rock unit was originally exposed in this area when quarrying began. However, this question cannot be resolved conclusively. Warren presents two topographic profiles that transect the area: Section C–D, which passes across the excavation site, and Section A–B, which passes to its south (Fig. App. 1.2; Warren 1884: Pls. 5, 10). In these profiles, Warren drew his estimate of the elevation of the underlying solid bedrock below the unconsolidated cover and soil. The bedrock escarpment, in which the Meleke Member is exposed, appears in Section A–B at the southeastern edge of the Jewish Quarter (between the Porat Yosef and Esh Hatorah Rabbinical Seminaries). In contrast, Section C–D shows a moderate slope. Needless to say, Warren could not have known what lay underground in this area, which was only recently revealed by the present excavation. However, if his reconstruction of the uninterrupted original topography is correct, depicting the conditions prior to human intervention, it can be surmised that prior to quarrying operations, the slope was covered by the Mizzi Ḥilu Member and that the Meleke was not exposed.

Geological Setting of the Excavation Site The City of Jerusalem, including the Old City and the modern part, is located at the center of the Shomron (Samaria)-Yehuda (Judea) anticlinorial mountain range that forms the structural and topographic backbone of the country. The city is situated on a low topographic saddle that bridges the gap between the Ein Qiniya Anticline, a local structure at the southern extension of the larger Ramallah Anticline, to the city’s north, and the Tsurif Anticline, a local structure at the northern end of the larger Hebron Anticline, to the city’s south (Rofe and Raffety 1963; Flexer 1968, 1972; Rot 1972; Shaliv 1980: Fig. 4; Fleischer and Gafsou 2000, 2005: Appendix C, Plate IV). The structural axes of these anticlines trend in a northnortheast to south-southwest direction. The plunge of the axis of the former tips off about 8 km to the west of the tip of the plunge of the latter, with the City of Jerusalem occupying the structural low between them that is also lower topographically than the adjacent mountains. The Old City of Jerusalem, which is the principal subject of this review, is situated east of the main water divide of the country, on the eastern flank of this structural saddle. In a more generalized reference, it is situated on the eastern flank of the Ramallah Anticline. It is underlain by strata that dip gently, at 10–15°, mostly to the southeast but also locally to the northeast and east. Thus, progressing eastward the stratigraphic column climbs upward from older to younger strata. The bedrock in the mountainous region and in the Jerusalem area consists, for the most part, of various kinds of carbonate rocks (limestone, dolomite, chalk and marl) belonging to several rock formations of the Judea Group, of Albian (Lower Cretaceous) to Turonian (Upper Cretaceous) age. The stratigraphy, lithology and sedimentary geology

Excavation Site

Western Wall Plaza

Eastern Cardo Tanners Dung Gate Gate

0

200 m

Fig. App. 1.1. Location of the excavation area plotted on Warren’s (1884) 1:5,000 scale topographic map of the Old City of Jerusalem.

0

20 m

Fig. App. 1.2. Warren's 1884 east–west topographic profiles. The upper profile passes across the excavation site. The lower profile passes to its south, crossing the small meleke escarpment.

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of the rock sequence in question has been documented in a number of studies (e.g., Blanckenhorn 1905; Picard 1938a, 1956; Avnimelech 1951a, 1951b, 1968; Arkin, Braun and Starinsky 1965; Gill 1996). As the Old City is very densely built-up, there are few places where bedrock is exposed. Consequently, a detailed geological map that covers the entire Old City of Jerusalem has yet to be prepared. Nevertheless, there are enough natural and man-made surfaces and, particularly, underground exposures of genuine bedrock that enable a reconstruction of the spatial distribution of the rock units. The natural exposures of the rock column are found along drainage channels and in natural caves. Man-made exposures are found in various facilities, including water cisterns and reservoirs, defensive moats, underground habitations, burial caves and ancient stone quarries. In this regard, it is important to note that quite a number of the mid-nineteenth- and early twentieth-century European explorers of Jerusalem were able to observe areas that were later covered by houses, thus providing a valuable written record of the geological observations that they were able to make. In this respect, the observations, maps, reports and topographic and geologic cross-sections presented by Pierotti (1864), de Vogüé (1864), Wilson (1865), Conder (1881), Warren (1884) and Smith (1907) are especially noteworthy and helpful. The report on underground cisterns in the Temple Mount compound presents important information about the bedrock geology of this part of the Old City, which is quite close to the excavation site (Gibson and Jacobson 1996).

Lithostratigraphic Subdivision Bedrock

and

Nomenclature

of the

Underlying

The Old City of Jerusalem is underlain by the Bina Formation, the topmost formation of the Judea Group, which is of Turonian age (93.5 to 89.3 million years BP). The type section for this formation was originally defined by Shadmon (1959) near the village of Ba‘ana in the Bet Hakerem Valley in northern Israel. It was later amended by Arkin, Braun and Starinsky (1965), who proposed a modified type section for the Bet Shemesh and Jerusalem areas. Their type section was measured in Naḥal Dolev, near the former city. However, a different subdivision and nomenclature for this formation is employed in the City of Jerusalem and its immediate vicinity. Here, the Bina Formation has been consistently divided into three members, from bottom to top: Mizzi Aḥmar, Meleke and Mizzi Ḥilu (Fig. App. 1.3). These members are stratigraphically correlated and equivalent, respectively, to the Weradim, Shivta and Neẓer Formations, the rock unit names employed in the geological mapping of the Judean Desert and the Northern Negev. The member names derive from Arabic names coined by stone masons for the three distinct types of building stone encountered in the Jerusalem area. These three rock types, found in distinct stratigraphically superimposed rock units within the Bina Formation, have very distinctive lithologies and a very characteristic appearance in the landscape. Thus, their division is well-suited for lithostratigraphic classification and mapping purposes, and is used here following Fraas (1867) and Blanckenhorn (1905). However, as the lithology within the field units is not entirely uniform, the double meaning of the names, as both a rock type and a lithostratigraphic entity, is a source of some confusion.

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Meleke stone was used in the past for palatial complexes and monumental burial tombs; hence, modern Arab masons named this rock malaki (Arabic, royal). Its mispronunciation by European explorers as meleki and, eventually, as meleke, became the common articulation of the term and part of the local geological nomenclature. Blanckenhorn (1905:87–92) describes meleke stone as follows (translation of the German text by the author): “The Meleke (malaki), meaning the ‘royal’, plays a major role in old Jerusalem. It underlies a large part of the city, but today is covered by buildings. It was the most sought-after building material throughout history as well as a preferred host for the hewing of burial tombs. As a result of this feature, it deserves the name Graberfels (i.e., tomb-rock). It is a soft, granular white marble, and can be easily worked in all directions. When exposed to the air it becomes harder but preserves its white color fairly well. It appears in massive layers, 8–10 m thick, often forming vertical cliffs and therefore suitable for the hewing of burial tombs.”

Fig. App. 1.3. Representative columnar section of the Bina Formation in the Jerusalem area. The exposure at the Western Wall Plaza archaeological excavation encompasses the upper 15 m of the Meleke Member and the lowermost 3 m of the Mizzi Ḥilu Member (modified from Lewy 2006).

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Canaan (1933:11) states that “Malaki (the royal stone) is a favorite stone for dressing and building. It is of two sorts: the Malaki Abiad (i.e., White Malaki) and the Malaki Sultani (i.e., Magnificent Malaki). ‘Solomon’s Quarries’ (i.e., Zedekiah’s Cave) and the Ramallah district supply Jerusalem with this stone. When [the Malaki Abiad is—D.G.] newly quarried it is soft; through exposure to the air it noticeably hardens. (Most of the rock-cut tombs are excavated in this rock. The exposed part of the rock which is harder than the rest is called Hadjar Samsi [Ein Karim]). It becomes yellowish in time. This hardness does not withstand the effect of weather and it is liable to flake and crumble”. Canaan does not describe the second variety, Malaki Sultani. It is described by Blake (1935:97) as a “medium hard amorphous limestone.” Presumably, in this context, ‘sultani’ stands for ‘fit for the sultan’, meaning a high-quality (magnificent?) building stone. The two above-mentioned varieties are, in effect, end members of the family of meleke rock types that differ only in their degree of crystallization, cementation and, consequently, in their hardness. The adjective meleke eventually became a common catchall term for a hard, crystalline limestone suitable for building stone, without a specific stratigraphic affinity, all across the country. Thus, Blake (1935), writing about building stones, describes meleke rock in various stratigraphic levels from different parts of the country. Picard (1938a, 1938b, 1956) recognizes two meleke units of Upper Cenomanian and Turonian age in the Jerusalem area. The latter, the one within the Bina Formation, he named ‘main meleke.’ Picard’s term is adopted here for the upper part of the member (Fig. App. 1.3). The use of the term meleke was aptly summarized by Bentor (1960:70): “The term Meleke (Arabic: Royal), originally a stone masons’ term, was introduced into the geological literature by Fraas (1867) to denote a stratigraphic horizon of late Cenomanian or Turonian age. The term has since been used repeatedly to denote various stratigraphic horizons; thus Picard (1938a) called his horizon 12c near the base of the Upper Cenomanian in the Jerusalem area “Meleke of the Upper Cenomanian.” This term is now generally used to denote a white, coarse grained, granular to spathic limestone. These rocks represent partly recrystallized rudist limestone, partly re-crystallized reef breccia, or simply coarse grained diagenetic limestone. This rock type, which is readily dolomitized, appears in all parts of the country at various stratigraphic horizons, and particularly in strata of late Cenomanian and Turonian age.”

The Bedrock at the Excavation Site The Meleke Member The sheer wall of meleke rock exposed at the excavation site, 15 m high (at elevation c. 722.0–737.0 m), is one of the highest in Jerusalem. The wall is divided into two tiers that were formed in different periods: the lower part, about 5 m high, was created when the area was first used for a stone quarry in the later part of the Iron Age, no later than the seventh century BCE (see Chapter 2; Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007, 2008, 2009). The western limit of the quarry transects the excavation area in a diagonal zigzag path, from its northwestern corner toward the southeast, to about the middle of its eastern edge (Plan App. 1.1). The

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abandoned quarry is visible at the deepest spot of the excavation, in its northeastern corner (Fig. App. 1.4). The higher tier is 10 m high. It was formed during the construction of the Roman Eastern Cardo in the second century CE (see Chapter 3; Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007) when the surface area was leveled to pave the way for the Eastern Cardo of the city. Small-diameter borehole cores taken at the site in the process of constructing safety rails provide excellent representative samples of the genuine bedrock, which consists of the white meleke type (see below). The outer gray color of the wall is the result of prolonged

Quarries Meleke Stone Quarry Iron II Stratum XII Cardo Pavement (Roman and Byzantine) 0

10 m

Plan App. 1.1. Eastern Cardo plan (modified from Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007: Fig. 2).

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weathering. The wall appears as a single solid massive bed without any continuous horizontal discontinuities. The condition of the bedrock varies considerably across the face of the artificial wall. Some small parts are smooth and solid without visible porosity, joints or weathering of any kind (Fig. App. 1.5). However, the majority of the exposed rock surface is in poor shape. The original high porosity is evident and the quality of the rock has deteriorated due to karstic weathering to the point where it looks as if it is about to crumble (Fig. App. 1.6). Karstic activity has indeed weathered the bedrock significantly, as is evinced by a small cave present in the northwestern edge of the lower tier (Fig. App. 1.7). Rain and ground water percolating down from the ground surface into the porous meleke carried with them traces of dissolved iron oxide, washed out from the terra rossa soil, which stained the rock a rusty color.

Fig. App. 1.4. The white meleke stone quarry at the excavation site.

Fig. App. 1.5. The upper 5 to 6 m of the white meleke wall at the excavation site consists of solid bedrock showing no signs of karst or other weathering. The white layer at top is the overlying Mizzi Ḥilu Member.

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217

Fig. App. 1.6. The prevalent weathered state of the meleke bedrock at the excavation site showing abundant cavities due to karstic dissolution.

Fig. App. 1.7. Small karstic cave in the lower tier of the meleke wall. Surface water passing through terra rossa soils containing dissolved iron percolates into the bedrock through karstic conduits, staining it with a rust-colored precipitate.

The Mizzi Ḥilu Member The contrast between the Mizzi Ḥilu Member and the upper 15 m of the Meleke Member is quite distinct and the contact line is slightly irregular (Fig. App. 1.8). This unevenness is most probably due to late karstic erosion that created a cavernous opening at the top of the meleke, causing already lithified layers of the overlying mizzi ḥilu to collapse into it. The beds dip to the southeast and a thicker section of mizzi ḥilu is exposed nearby at the foundation of the Aish Ha-Torah rabbinical seminary (Fig. App. 1.9). This outcrop portrays well the variable mode of stratification within the lower part of the Mizzi Ḥilu Member and the rather poor quality of the rock for building purposes. The beds are tightly merged together; they do not extend laterally for any appreciable distance and are fractured. Clearly, this was not the bedrock from which flagstone slabs could be extracted.

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Fig. App. 1.8. The contact between the mizzi ḥilu (the white upper layer) and the meleke (the gray lower layer) at the excavation site. The contact is slightly irregular due to the collapse of lithified mizzi ḥilu beds into small cavernous cavities in the top of the meleke.

Fig. App. 1.9. Outcrop of mizzi ḥilu bedrock near the excavation site in the foundation of Aish Ha-Torah Rabbinical Seminary.

Geological attributes of the Meleke and Mizzi Ḥilu Members The exposed bedrock at the excavation site comprises the upper two thirds of the Meleke Member and some 3 m of the base of the Mizzi Ḥilu Member (Fig. App. 1.3). The lithic properties and field attributes of these two members are described below.

APPENDIX 1: BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND BUILDING STONES

219

Lithology and Petrography Meleke Meleke is a biogenic skeletal limestone that underwent several diagenetic alterations. Freshly cut samples of the meleke abiad type, as its name implies, are stark white (Fig. App. 1.10). The uniform bright white color of the bedrock is particularly striking in the fresh faces of ancient stone quarries that have become exposed recently due to building development projects (Fig. App. 1.11). White meleke is quite soft in situ and has a powdery texture. It is friable and tends to crumble into white powder when scrubbed. It is hygroscopic and it disintegrates when immersed in water. In these respects, it behaves like a soft chalk. The microscopic texture and makeup of the rock is revealed by thin-section examination with a petrographic microscope. In common petrographic terminology, the white meleke is a ‘biomicrite’. The main components of the rock are a matrix of fine, microscopic, carbonate mud (micrite) and mollusk (gastropods and pelecypods) fossil fragments (Fig. App. 1.12). The original matrix consisted of very fine-grained and dense lime-mud, parts of which have re-crystallized into a dense mosaic of anhedral (non-idiomorphic) calcite crystals, mostly less than 10 microns in size. Fossil fragments comprise up to 30% of the rock. The skeletal grains, poorly sorted and angular, range in size from 0.1 to 1.0 mm. They are glued into the rock fabric by both the enclosing mud and the re-crystallized matrix. The fossil assemblage includes several species of rudists and other bivalves, and some corals (Blanckenhorn 1905:90; Picard 1938a). Rudists are cone-shaped mollusks whose pointed edge is planted in the bottom mud. The fossil assemblage is indicative of the vicinity of a reef environment. The skeletal grains are often enclosed by a thin micritic envelope and their interior is replaced by a mosaic of fine calcite crystals (sparite). The sparry skeletal fragments glitter brightly upon exposure to sunlight. The sparite mosaic is more prone to dissolution by circulating ground water than the fine micritic matrix. The dissolution of the interior of the skeletal grains created abundant vugular porosity in the white meleke rock, which can be observed in hand specimens as well. Laboratory analyses of specimens of the white meleke exposed in the City of David measured porosities of 20–30% and permeabilities of 30–320 millidarcies (Gill 1996:8).

a

b Fig. App. 1.10. Hand specimens of white meleke (meleke abiad)—the rock type typical of the Meleke Member in Jerusalem: (a) cores of white meleke bedrock from the floor of the Cardo’s sidewalk at the excavation site; (b) a sample of white meleke from the Second Temple-period quarry at 77 Shmuel Ha-Navi Street.

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In the harder variety, the meleke sultani, the matrix consists of both micritic mud and microcrystalline calcite crystals (Fig. App. 1.13). In petrographic terms, it is a ‘biosparite’. The origin of the sparry cement can be due to two processes: it can be precipitated directly during the deposition of the carbonate sediment, or alternatively, together with the former, it can be formed by re-crystallization of the carbonate mud. The primary muddy sediment and fossil remains consist originally of the carbonate minerals aragonite and high-magnesium calcite. These minerals are not stable in the depositional and diagenetic realm and tend to

a

b Fig. App. 1.11. The bright white color and the thick massive bedding of the white meleke bedrock as revealed by recent building development projects in the area of two ancient stone quarries in Jerusalem: (a) the excavations of the foundations for the Menachem Begin Heritage Center in Ketef Hinnom, at the foot of St. Andrew’s Church (the original state of the ancient quarry appears in Fig. App. 1.28); (b) the excavations of the foundations for a school in the ancient stone quarry at Ramat Shelomo (the undisturbed state of the ancient quarry appears in Fig. App. 1.30).

APPENDIX 1: BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND BUILDING STONES

Fig. App. 1.12. Micro-texture of a white meleke sample from the excavation site. The dark brown material is carbonate mud (micrite). The light brown crystals are infillings of skeletal fragments by micronsize calcite crystals. The white irregular spots are pores formed by the dissolution of fossil fragments. In petrographic terms the rock is a mud-supported biomicrite. The dark ovoid globules are carborundum grains, the abrasive compound used in the process of thin section preparation. They are not part of the rock. The width of the photomicrographs is 0.4 mm.

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Fig. App. 1.13. Micro-texture of a hard meleke sample from the excavation site. Closely packed, dense, compact, well-cemented microcrystalline calcite matrix. Large fossil fragments were replaced by a calcite mosaic. In petrographic terms, the rock is a crystalline matrix-supported biosparite.

be replaced by the more stable low-magnesium calcite (see discussion and references in Schneidermann 1970). The degree of replacement of the original mud and the effectiveness of the cementation of the newly formed crystals determine the consistency and strength of the rock, its hardness, its resistance to weathering, and its overall appearance in the field. Where the re-crystallization is more pervasive, the matrix consists of a mosaic of closely interlocking minute crystals and the rock acquires a firmer and harder consistency. This is the case with the harder variety of the Meleke Member. It should be noted that all the intermediate gradations between a softer biomicrite and a harder biosparite exist within the Meleke Member, and that some varieties of the intermediate types also yield useful building stones. The distribution of the different kinds of meleke types within the Meleke Member is random and the gradations are gradual and frequent. However, the white meleke tends to be concentrated in some well-defined beds (see below). Mizzi Ḥilu Mizzi ḥilu is a buff and khaki-colored, hard, fine-crystalline biogenic limestone with abundant remains of benthic foraminifera (mostly Miliolidae). Some layers are stained with scattered faint reddish coloration. The Arabic word mizzi denotes a hard stone and ḥilu (also spelled ḥelu) means ‘sweet’, presumably referring to its eye-pleasing appearance and often decorative role in buildings, or to the fact that it is easy to quarry and work with. It is very fine grained, with a dense, compact and homogeneous sub-lithographic texture, with a conchoidal to subconchoidal fracture (Fig. App. 1.14:a). The homogeneous texture is often interrupted by stylolites (Fig. App. 1.14:b). The rock consists of 30–50% fine foraminifera tests cemented by a partly micritic and partly sparitic matrix (Fig. App. 1.15). Typically, sparry calcite fills up the body chambers of foraminifera. This rock type bestowed its name

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a

b Fig. App. 1.14. Mizzi ḥilu hard lithographic limestone samples from flagstones in the pavement of the Eastern Cardo: (a) typical mizzi ḥilu lithographic limestone consisting of dense, buff colored, hard lithographic limestone; (b) mizzi ḥilu lithographic limestone. The yellow striations at center are traces of stylolites.

a

b Fig. App. 1.15. Micro-textures of a mizzi ḥilu sample from the pavement of the Eastern Cardo: (a) abundant foraminifers (circular objects) in a partly micritic (dark brown upper part) and partly sparitic matrix (light brown crystals in the center and lower part); microcrystalline calcite fills the chambers of foraminifer shells; (b) abundant foraminifers in a partly micritic (dark brown) and partly sparitic matrix (light brown crystals).

on this member and it is the one for which it is best known. It occurs in the upper half of the member. The member also contains a coarser grained facies with abundant gastropods and pelecypods. Geotechnical and Petrophysical Properties Data on the geotechnical properties of the rocks in question are provided by Israeli (1977), whose study contains a large number of commonly examined geotechnical engineering parameters, measured in the field and in the laboratory on an adequate number of representative samples. For this review, it is sufficient to refer only to the rock-strength measure and the porosity and permeability data. The rock’s crushing-strength parameter expresses the maximal stress that a rock can withstand before it ruptures due to a uniaxial (one dimensional) compressive force. The units of measurement are kilograms per square centimeter (kg/sq cm). This parameter is a good substitute for rock hardness, which is not a well-defined and directly measurable physical property. Rock hardness, in turn, is relevant

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to the eventual practical utility of the rock. Porosity and permeability data determine the hydrological properties of the rock as they relate to its response to karst processes and physical, biological and chemical weathering. Strength data for the meleke samples were found to range from 440 to 1000 kg/sq cm. Evidently, the low values pertain to the soft meleke abiad type, which is half as strong as the harder meleke sultani type. Strength data for mizzi ḥilu samples ranged from 545 to 1555 kg/sq cm. Blake (1935:109) reports a value of 1068 kg/sq cm for hard mizzi ḥilu. The low values must arise from atypical samples that are not hard enough to be called mizzi. The harder mizzi ḥilu type is found to be one and a half times harder than the hard meleke. For reference and proper perspective, it is noteworthy that the crushing strength of the hardest igneous and volcanic rocks, like granites, gabbros and basalts, are in the range of 3500–4500 kg/sq cm (Dietrich et al. 1982: Sheet 58.2). The porosity and permeability results for the meleke were, respectively, in the range of 0.39–10.26% and 0.01–3.71 milidarcies. For the mizzi ḥilu, the ranges were 0.75–3.45% and 0.05–0.10 millidarcies, respectively. As noted earlier, much higher values, namely porosities of 20 to 30 percent and permeabilities of 30 to 320 millidarcies, were measured in samples of white meleke exposed in the City of David. Late Alterations—Case Hardening, Chemical and Biological Weathering and Karst Effects Late alterations refer to the modifications that affect rock after its lithification has been completed. In terms of scope and spatial extent of influence, a distinction has to be made between small-scale local alterations and large-scale regional ones. Small-scale alterations pertain to the modifications that affect the surface of the rock when it is exposed. They are superficial and of minute dimensions. Case hardening and chemical and biological weathering are of this category. In contrast, large-scale karst effects can affect the entire volume of rock formations, underground as well as aboveground in the landscape. Case Hardening Meleke abiad possesses a very peculiar and unique attribute. As stated above, underground it is a rather soft rock. However, upon exposure to the atmosphere its outer surface becomes hardened. This case hardening is a result of a certain chemical process. The rock possesses a very high porosity and permeability, and in situ, the buried rock has a high water saturation. The pore water contains dissolved calcium bicarbonate and, upon exposure to the air, the interstitial water solution migrates by capillary forces to the outer surface of the rock. At the surface, some of the water evaporates, resulting in the deposition of calcium carbonate and the formation of a thin, light brown, relatively hard crystalline crust or patina. Multiple repetitions of this process lead to the deposition of a hard, crystalline, superficial crust that can reach a thickness of several millimeters. This repetition is enhanced by the perennially alternating conditions of wetting during the rainy seasons and drying during the subsequent dry seasons. This crust is harder than the interior of the host rock and to some extent it serves to protect the rock surface from

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environmental weathering. While the rate of this process is unknown, it is evidently extremely rapid in geological terms. On white meleke rock faces in Jerusalem that are known to have been exposed between 2000 and 2500 years, a 1 cm thick crust indicates a growth rate of about 0.5 cm/millennium. Inter alia, owing to this attribute, the meleke became such a popular source for building stone. It is interesting to note that a similar phenomenon is also known from a Turonian formation, near Beer in southern England (Lewy 2006). The bedrock, which is known as ‘Beer Stone’, consists of a soft, friable, bioclastic limestone. It has been hewn from an underground quarry since Roman times. According to Jarvis and Tocher (1987:51), in situ the rock is rather wet and soft but it hardens when dried to form a well-indurated limestone. Beer Stone ashlars were used as building stones for cathedrals and monumental buildings in England and Western Europe. Its original soft consistency facilitated its use for sculptured ornamental architectural components. Chemical Weathering Limestones and carbonate rocks, in general, are composed primarily of the mineral calcite, which is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcite is susceptible to dissolution by acid solutions. Moisture, rain and groundwater that absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and from organic matter in the soil form a carbonic acid solution (H2CO3) which, although rather weak, can nevertheless dissolve calcite. The acid solutions corrode the exposed surfaces of limestone formations by dissolving the carbonate skeletal grains and the intergranular cementing material. The pitted surface facilitates the colonization of the exposed rock surface by microorganisms that enhance the weathering, as discussed below. Biological Weathering Biological weathering is induced by blue-green algae (cynobacteria) and rock-penetrating (endolithic) lichens and fungi that colonize exposed bedrock formations. Danin (1983) investigated the weathering process induced by cynobacteria in limestone walls and ancient monolithic tombs in limestone formations in Jerusalem, whose age of construction is known. Among other sites, his samples included meleke bedrock in Jerusalem. The weathering or corrosion of the rocks is caused by colonies of cynobacteria that adhere to the rock face (epilithic coating) and eventually penetrate into the rock (endolithic penetration). The adhering colonies, while thriving, encrust the rock with a thin greenish patina (Fig. App. 1.16). Upon decay, the color of the patina changes to gray (Fig. App. 1.17). Danin studied the patina that developed on the Tomb of Pharaoh’s Daughter and the Tomb of Zecharia, both located in the Qidron Valley in eastern Jerusalem. These tombs were hewn in a meleke escarpment and they date, respectively, to the First and Second Temple periods, c. 2600 and 2000 years ago. The entire surface of the rock in both tombs is pitted as a result of biological habitation to a depth of 15 mm in the Tomb of Zecharia and 14 mm in the Tomb of the Pharaoh’s Daughter. These observations indicate an average penetration rate of 1 mm in 200 years. Progressive pitting leads to a ‘spongy’ structure that, in turn, enhances the penetration of dissolving chemical solutions deeper into the rock.

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Fig. App. 1.17. Coating of the meleke bedrock by a gray patina of decayed biota. The rust stains are formed by surface water that drains terra rossa soils and percolates into the bedrock through karstic conduits.

◄ Fig. App. 1.16. Growth of lichen on exposed faces of meleke bedrock at Ketef Hinnom.

Karst Effects Karstic landforms and subterranean carbonate dissolution have widespread spatial effects that affect entire carbonate rock sequences in the subsurface and above ground. In addition to the requisite carbonate terrain, a karstic dissolution network hinges on the existence of steep hydraulic gradients that enhance groundwater flow, which is necessary in order to drive and spread the chemical dissolution fluids and remove the dissolution products. The sedimentary cover in Israel, since the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, consists for the most part of carbonate rock sequences with a cumulative thickness of thousands of meters. As far as the karstic chemical dissolution process is concerned, it is basically identical to the process described above under ‘chemical weathering’. In karstic processes, the formation of carbonic acid is enhanced by the carbon dioxide that the groundwater absorbs from decayed organic matter in soils. The third requirement, namely an adequate hydrodynamic groundwater drive, has also been prevalent during several periods in the geological history of the country. A drop of the regional drainage base level causes a drop of the regional water table, thereby imposing steeper hydraulic gradients and exposing previously water-saturated sections in the phreatic zone to more potent dissolution in the under-saturated vadose zone, in which the circulating groundwater is not yet saturated with the dissolved ions and which is, therefore, more vulnerable and prone to carbonate dissolution. Large, progressive, stepwise vertical drops of the regional drainage base level on either side of the water divide, the Mediterranean (and its predecessors) in the west and the Jordan River–Dead Sea–‘Arava Rift Valley in the east, occurred several times in the geological history of Israel. Thus, the carbonate formations in Israel, and the Judea Group in particular, were affected by karst-forming processes during

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at least three periods: Late Turonian (90 million years BP), Late Miocene (6.5 million years BP), and Pliocene to Pleistocene (5.0 to 0.01 million years BP). Karst formation during the last period was enhanced by a higher rainfall during the pluvial interludes of the Pleistocene (Horowitz 1979). The evolution of the network of hollowed-out underground galleries and conduits, and its ultimate intricate labyrinthine configuration, was eventually determined by the complex relations between aquifers, aquicludes, faults, fractures, bedding planes and the locations and levels of local water outlets and springs along valleys and streams. The prevalence of intensive ‘karstification’ processes in Israel is manifested primarily by the abundance of large caves all across the country and by the thick sections of loss of circulation zones encountered in deep drillings, caused by large hollowed-out cavernous systems in the subsurface. In the Bina Formation in Jerusalem, karst processes left several forms of large- and small-scale dissolution features, the main ones of which are reviewed below. Vadose zone and water table caves (to be distinguished from phreatic caves, which are not discussed here; see Frumkin 1991) are formed whenever groundwater that circulates relatively freely in porous layers encounters an impermeable layer that prevents its continued downward flow toward the water table or the regional drainage base level. In such situations, the water is forced to continue its flow along the impervious boundary and, in the process, it enhances the dissolution and scouring along the bottom of the overlying pervious layer. This situation is repeated in the Bina Formation at several stratigraphic levels. In the Mizzi Ḥilu Member, ‘karstification’ occurs within the member’s succession, creating small cavernous openings along certain beds. This situation can be seen at the central bus station of East Jerusalem on Sultan Suleiman Street (Fig. App. 1.18). A photograph of the same site in the mid-nineteenth century offers a wider and clearer view of the contact between the Mizzi Ḥilu and Meleke Members and a cave in the latter (Fig.

Fig. App. 1.18. The mizzi ḥilu beds at the central bus station of East Jerusalem on Sultan Suleiman Street. This site is known as ‘Jeremiah’s Grotto’ (Hebrew: Ḥaẓar Hamatara), ‘Gordon’s Calvary’ (‘Golgotha’) and the ‘Hill of the Skull’. Small caves are present within the mizzi ḥilu sequence. The disturbed strata at right are the result of a collapse of the thin mizzi ḥilu beds into a karst cave in the underlying meleke.

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App. 1.19). The disturbed strata in the middle of the picture are brecciated, thin mizzi ḥilu beds that collapsed into the cave in the underlying meleke. Caves developed also at the bottom of the member in places where the top of the underlying Meleke Member is more resistant to water percolation. This situation can be seen along the right (south) bank of the Ben Hinnom Valley. It is well developed near its confluence with the Qidron Valley, close to the St. Onuphrius Monastery in Akeldama (Arabic, Hakl-ed-Damm). It is also found both within the Meleke Member (Fig. App. 1.20) and its bottom part, above its interface with the underlying impervious hard dolomite of the Mizzi Aḥmar Member. Small caves are abundant all along the left (east) bank of the Qidron Valley and in the Silwan village (Figs. App. 1.21, 1.22). In fact, many of the famous monumental burial tombs in this area are enlargements of natural caves (Fig. App. 1.21). It can also be seen in the City of David, in the underground tunnel that leads to the Warren Shaft, which is in itself a natural karstic ‘dome pit’ (or sinkhole) within the Mizzi Aḥmar Member (see Gill and Shiloh 1982; Gill 1991, 1996, 2011, 2012, 2014; Gill and Burg 2013). Likewise, caves at this contact zone are also found on the eastern slope of the City

Fig. App. 1.19. The Hill of the Skull in a photograph taken in the mid-nineteenth century. The contact between the Meleke and the Mizzi Ḥilu Members is seen in the right half of the picture. A cave is present near the top of the meleke. The disturbed strata in the middle of the picture are brecciated, thin mizzi ḥilu beds that collapsed into the cave in the underlying meleke.

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Fig. App. 1.20. The meleke cliff and the overlying mizzi ḥilu along the southern bank of the Ben Hinnom Valley. A small cave was formed at the interface between the two units and small cavernous openings along a bed boundary within the meleke.

Fig. App. 1.21. A karstic cave in the meleke cliff in the Qidron Valley next to the Tombs of Absalom, Yehoshafat, Bene Hezir and Zecharia, which are hewn into the cliff.

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Fig. App. 1.22. A view of some of the 70 small tombs that are hewn in the Meleke cliff in the Silwan village, some of which were dug into preexisting karstic caves.

of David, above the Giḥon Spring, inside what is known as ‘the spring house’ (Hebrew, Bet Ha-Ma‘ayan). It should also be mentioned that the Giḥon Spring is a typical karstic pulsating spring (see Gill 1996; Benami Amiel et al. 2007). There are numerous additional karst features in the Bina Formation and the Judea Group in the Jerusalem area whose description is beyond the scope of this report (see Arkin 1980; Frumkin 1981; Gill 1996). Smaller-scale, karst-generated vugular porosity is common throughout most of the Meleke Member. However, it is conspicuously absent in most of the ancient, white meleke stone quarries and this is the reason that those quarries were utilized. The appearance of these features at the excavation site is discussed below.

Field Distribution and Appearance The distribution of the Bina Formation in Jerusalem and its environs is shown in Sneh and Avni’s (2013) 1:50,000 scale geological map. More detailed maps that display the distributions of members include Blanckenhorn’s (1905) excellent 1:10,000 scale geological map, which was reproduced in a smaller scale by Vincent (1912: Pl. 14), Picard (1956), Israeli’s (1977) 1:12,500 scale map and Gill’s (1996) 1:12,500 scale geological map of the Mount Zion, Ben Hinnom Valley and City of David areas. Blanckenhorn’s map is particularly noteworthy because it was prepared in 1905, before a large part of the city area had yet to be built up.

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The Meleke Member The Meleke Member is bounded by the Mizzi Aḥmar Member from below and the Mizzi Ḥilu Member from above. Its thickness in Jerusalem varies from 25 to 40 m. It is divisible into two parts. The ‘lower meleke’ is not always present. The thickness of the ‘main meleke’ varies from 10 to 24 m. It occurs as thick, massively bedded strata without conspicuous internal stratification, commonly up to 3 to 5 m thick, forming high ledges and vertical cliffs that are prominent in the landscape. In natural outcrops, it is usually 10–15 m thick. Its contacts with the mizzi aḥmar and mizzi ḥilu beds are conformable. However, in some places the contact with the mizzi ḥilu is irregular, due to later post-depositional collapse of the already lithified layers of the mizzi ḥilu into karstic cavernous openings at the top of the meleke. This situation can be seen in the Tombs of the Kings, and in the Ofel at the foot of the monumental staircase that leads to the Ḥulda Gates. In these locations disturbed blocks of mizzi ḥilu beds are wedged into an irregular surface at the top of the meleke. In the cliff of Jeremiah’s Grotto, as the overlying beds of the mizzi ḥilu collapsed downward into a cave in the meleke, they became crushed into smaller brecciated rock fragments (Figs. App. 1.18, 1.19). The most prominent natural exposures of the Meleke Member occur along the Ben Hinnom and Qidron Valleys that surround Jerusalem on the south and the east. A 10 m thick cliff of the white meleke type stretches all along the right bank of the Ben Hinnom Valley, from Ketef Hinnom to its confluence with the Qidron. The cliff is formed mostly by two internally undifferentiated, 5 m thick massive beds (Fig. App. 1.20). In the left bank of the Qidron Valley, the meleke cliff extends continuously all the way from the Sheikh Jarraḥ suburb downstream to the Silwan Valley and beyond. Here, hewn in this cliff, are the famous Second Temple-period sepulchral monuments (Fig. App. 1.21): the Tombs of Absalom, Bene Hezir, Zecharia and Yehoshafat (Avigad 1954, 1956), as well as some 70 small burial tombs dating to the First Temple period found in the Silwan village (Fig. App. 1.22; Avigad 1954; Ussishkin 1993). Additional outcrops occur in Wadi Joz, the City of David and in the greater Sanhedria neighborhoods, particularly along Shmu’el ha-Navi Street and, notably, around the Tombs of the Sanhedrin. The latter were all hewn in ancient meleke quarries. Local outcrops of meleke bedrock are occasionally exposed in new archaeological digs, such as the excavations of E. Mazar in the City of David (Mazar 2006) and of the Eudokia City Wall in Mount Zion (Zelinger 2007, 2008). Some of the most impressive exposures of meleke, which provide an uninterrupted view of the full thickness of the unit, are found in several places where the special attributes of this bedrock were exploited and utilized in antiquity for four principal purposes: quarrying building stones, digging moats, excavating water reservoirs and cisterns, and constructing burial tombs. These uses are reviewed below. The Mizzi Ḥilu Member In the type section of the Bina Formation, measured near the town of Bet Shemesh, the thickness of the Mizzi Ḥilu Member is about 100 m (Fig. App. 1.3). However, in the Jerusalem area its thickness varies between 40 and about 60 m. Its thicker sections are found to the east and south

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of the Old City, on the Mount Scopus–Mount of Olives ridge and in the Abu Tor suburb, where it is still covered by the overlying Menuḥa Formation of Senonian age. Only relatively thin remnants of its lower part, which survived erosion, are present within the city itself. The Mizzi Ḥilu Member is a well-bedded unit. Bed thicknesses vary between 0.2–0.3 m and 1–2 m. Characteristically, beds tend to maintain a uniform thickness for long lateral distances. This feature, along with their hardness, facilitated their use for masonry and flagstones. The best outcrops inside the city are along Sultan Suleiman Street, east of the Damascus Gate, where it forms the foundation of the northern course of the Ottoman city wall (Fig. App. 1.23) and opposite it, at the ‘Hill of the Skull’ in East Jerusalem (Fig. App. 1.18). One of the thickest sections, some 15–20 m high, is found all along the Hasmonean water conduit that runs from the Struthion Pools in the Convent of the Sisters of Zion to the Temple Mount. Another prominent artificial scarp is present at the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, below the Umariyya School. It was formed as beds had to be removed in order to level the top of the Temple Mount. In fact, mizzi ḥilu bedrock covers the entire surface of the Temple Mount. The Foundation Stone (Hebrew, Even Hashtiya; Arabic, as-Sakhra) in the shrine of the Dome of the Rock and the cave that underlies it is one of its outcrops (Wilson 1865:34; Gibson and Jacobson 1996:283–289). Well-exposed sections are found in the Ofel, adjacent to the southern wall of the Herodian Temple Mount platform. The monumental staircase that leads to the Double and Triple Ḥulda Gates in the southern wall

Fig. App. 1.23. The northern city wall of Jerusalem along Sultan Suleiman Street is built on top of beds of the Mizzi Ḥilu Member. Note the even, regular stratification of the unit and the uniform thickness and undisturbed lateral continuity of the beds.

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was built on this unit. Additional outcrops are found all along the southern Turkish city wall, between the Zion and Dung Gates. Another tiny outcrop worth mentioning because of its religious and historic significance, is Calvary (Golgotha, the hill of crucifixion) inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Utilization of the Bedrock in Jerusalem in Antiquity The suitability of natural rock for practical use depends on the specific function it is expected to serve, its innate properties and on logistical and cost-benefit considerations. For retaining and freestanding walls, for pavements and for decorative architectural elements these considerations will, in general, include: 1. Crushing strength—the ability to withstand masonry and ceiling loads. 2. Hardness—the ability to withstand abrasion. This property is a major consideration for use in paving roads, streets, steps, staircases, floors and sills. 3. Workability—the ability to achieve the desired dimensions, quality of finish and polish, and uniform dressing from the material. 4. Appearance—the esthetic beauty, essential for ornamental and decorative architectural elements. 5. Durability—the ability to withstand weathering and maintain its essential characteristics over time. 6. Availability—the proximity, ease of extraction, logistical convenience, particularly in antiquity when the transportation of heavy loads was a major limitation. The Meleke Member Meleke is widespread inside the city limits and in its immediate surroundings. This stone is present in large quantities above ground and in practically unlimited quantities in the shallow underground. It is soft enough to be quarried, hewn and dressed with relative ease and appears in thick, massive and vertically uninterrupted beds, enabling large building stones to be cut from it. Thus, meleke was eminently suitable to serve several uses simultaneously: the rock itself for building stones and the hollowed-out space left after its quarrying for water reservoirs and burial tombs, especially monumental ones. Furthermore, the need to dig defensive moats had its side benefit in providing yet another source of meleke building stones. Meleke was simply the best and most plentiful resource available. That it could be easily obtained was paramount, particularly when considering the vast quantities of stone that were required throughout the ages for such monumental building projects as the entire Temple Mount compound (see Ritmeyer and Ritmeyer 1989; Warszawski and Peretz 1991, 1992), and multiple generations of city walls, churches, palaces and other public buildings, to mention just the main ones. Thus, from a logistic and cost-benefit stand point, it was an obvious choice. From a material quality stand point, the meleke is basically a good, or at least, adequate building stone; this characterization is certainly true for the hard meleke type. All along the retaining walls of the Temple Mount, particularly in the eastern part of the

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southern wall, the southern part of the western wall and in the Western Wall Tunnel, one encounters meleke slabs and ashlars that appear as new as when they were first laid (Figs. App. 1.24–1.26). In Herodian building projects, most of the meleke ashlars, except for the badly flawed ones, bear the characteristic Herodian stone-dressing design of ashlars framed by a narrow strip of recessed margins (a style referred to as ‘drafted margins’ or ‘marginal dressing’). Regarding the softer varieties, the case hardening process evidently enhanced their suitability and durability. The fact that today, after 2000 years of environmental weathering and erosion, many meleke ashlars have weathered considerably (Fig. App. 1.27), is simply not a valid measure for assessing their initial suitability (see data in Wilson 1865; Perath 2007). The meleke is indeed badly weathered in several hewn burial tombs, but this condition is primarily a result of the original karstic damage. To avoid these defects, the quarries for building stones were opened where karst effect and fissures and joints were minimal. The density and spacing between joints and fissures prescribed the sizes of the solid intact blocks that could be obtained. It should be added that often incipient fissures are invisible and become wider and noticeable only after the block has been extracted from its bed. Altogether, the availability of flawless blocks was limited and the builders had to make do with less-than-perfect ones, as is also evident from the use of damaged mizzi ḥilu blocks (see below). Another key consideration in this regard was the quality of the quarry itself. The Judean Mountains, along with the rest of the country, experienced several phases of tectonic folding and faulting. These events left their mark on, among other things, regional systems of fissures and joints that created vertical cracks and fractures of various magnitudes in the rocks. As far as stone-quarrying is concerned, the spacing and density of these cracks and fissures, together with the uninterrupted vertical thickness of the hewn horizon, determined the sizes of building stones that could be obtained at each quarry. Three wellFig. App. 1.24. Enormous meleke (first three courses) and preserved ancient quarries that have mizzi ḥilu ashlars (second and third blocks in the third course and fourth and fifth courses) in the southern wall, at the been uncovered in recent years provide southwestern corner of the retaining walls of the Temple Mount platform. Both types bear the characteristic Herodian stone useful information on this issue. dressing. The meleke blocks are of exceptional quality and in a well-preserved state. The dimensions of the large stone in While excavating the foundations the second course of the southern wall are 1.2 × 1.7 × 8.5 m. for the new Menachem Begin Heritage At approximately 2.5 tons per cubic meter, this stone weights Center at Ketef Hinnom, an ancient about 43.4 tons. The mizzi ḥilu blocks show signs of weathering along stylolite partings and vertical cracks. The flagstones paving the alley and the staircases are mizzi ḥilu slabs. quarry of soft, white meleke stone was

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Fig. App. 1.25. Well-preserved meleke ashlars in the eastern section of the southern wall of the Temple Mount. Many blocks suffer from the development of cracks (the irregular grooves) in the thin case hardening layer that coats the rock. The top leftmost and rightmost blocks show signs of weathering as the case hardening layer flakes away.

Fig. App. 1.26. Well-preserved meleke ashlars in the underside masonry of the Wilson Arch vault, which was protected from weathering agents.

Fig. App. 1.27. A large (1.85 × 2.45 m) white meleke ashlar, flanked by two huge weathered mizzi ḥilu blocks, at the base of the southern wall of the Temple Mount. The weathering of the meleke building stones begins with the exfoliation of the thin (4–5 mm thick) case hardened layer, which tends to crack, disintegrate and peel off, thereby exposing the inner body of the soft white meleke to further erosion by chemical and biological weathering agents.

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uncovered (Fig. App. 1.28). The dimension of the building stones extracted from this quarry were rather small, up to 0.5 × 0.5 × 1.5 m (h × w × l). The escarpment created after the foundation was leveled revealed the bright white color of the freshly cut meleke stone (Fig. App. 1.11: a). In the quarry uncovered in 2009 on Shemu’el Ha-Navi Street, the stone sizes were less limited by natural vertical and horizontal discontinuities, and much larger blocks could be extracted (Fig. App. 1.29). The walls of the Temple Mount compound contain very large flawless meleke blocks, many measuring 5 and 6 m long, 1.2 m high and 4.0 m wide (deep). Several spectacularly larger ones, 7.1 m and 8.5 long, are present in the lower courses of the southwestern corner of the compound (Fig. App. 1.24). The two largest ones in Fig. App. 1.28. The ancient meleke the ‘master course’ seen in the Western Wall stone quarry at Ketef Hinnom. Tunnel measure 3.5 × 4.0 × 12.6 m and 3.5 × 4.0 × 13.6 m, and with an average specific gravity of 2.6 kg/cu m, weigh some 500 tons. Likewise, in the southwestern corner of the enclosing walls, the meleke blocks are of exceptional quality and in a well-preserved state. The dimensions of the large stone in the second exposed course of the southern wall are 1.2 × 1.7 × 8.5 m. The dimensions of the stone above it in the third course of the western wall are 1.2 × 2.1 × 7.2 m. The source of these immense stones has puzzled researchers, as none of the known quarries could have supplied such stones. Among the speculated natural sources were the nearby Antonia moat or the northern moat outside the present-day northern city wall, but this supposition could not be substantiated. This enigma was recently solved, at least in part, with the discovery in 2007 of an ancient meleke quarry in the Ramat Shelomo suburb, in the northern outskirts of the city, near Shu‘fat (Yaffe and Nesher 2007; Zilberbord and Sasson 2009). The site is located about 4 km north of the Temple Mount and, thus far, is the only known area where thick meleke beds are substantially free of horizontal and vertical discontinuities for several meters, thus enabling the extraction of very large and defect-free slabs. In the abandoned quarry, continuous benches that extend for 6 to 10 m are indicative of the sizes of blocks that were extracted (Fig. App. 1.30). As mentioned above, in addition to supplying building stones, the meleke bedrock was exploited for excavating water collection and storage facilities (cisterns and reservoirs) and, most extensively, for hewing burial tombs, especially monumental ones. A condensed list of the most prominent sites where the utilization of the meleke bedrock for these functions can be seen is presented elsewhere (Gill 1996:10). Practically all of these were also used for supplying building stones.

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Fig. App. 1.29. Ancient meleke stone quarry in Shemu’el Ha-Navi Street.

Fig. App. 1.30. A Second Temple-period meleke stone quarry in the Ramat Shelomo suburb from which enormous blocks were extracted for the retaining walls of the Temple Mount platform.

Avnimelech (1968) coined the aphorism “Jerusalem of Turonian” to underscore the importance of Turonian formations to the urban geography of the City of Jerusalem. In view of the singular role of the meleke bedrock in this context, particularly with reference to its use in antiquity, this statement can very appropriately be paraphrased to read “Jerusalem of Meleke.” Indeed, it is difficult to overemphasize the unique importance of this resource to the urban landscape and the overall historical development of the Old City. The Mizzi Ḥilu Member The principal use of the mizzi ḥilu rocks was to produce building stones and flagstones. As in the case of the meleke bedrock, a convenient way to learn about the use of the mizzi ḥilu stones is with reference to their utilization in the Herodian, Roman, Byzantine and Early Islamic building projects in Jerusalem.

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237

In the retaining walls of the Temple Mount there are three kinds of mizzi ḥilu building stones: a. Very large slabs, from 4 to 8 m long and 1.0 to 1.2 m high, commonly in an excellent state of preservation, with a smooth flat surface and marginal dressing. The better blocks are marked with delicately curling stylolites that impart a nice appearance to the masonry (Fig. App. 1.24). In terms of the total wall area built of mizzi ḥilu stones, this type is the most important. b. Very long and thick, crude natural blocks extracted from the bedrock and placed ‘as is’ in the masonry, without any attempt to improve their unsightly appearance. The blocks consist of several amalgamated beds that had already weathered differentially in their natural setting. They have a very irregular facade with alternating horizontal ‘ridges’ and ‘grooves’ and large vertical cracks. These huge blocks were used to provide a firm foundation for the high wall that was built above them. Several of these, measuring 1.8 to 2.0 m high and 4.0 to 6.6 m long, are found in the first exposed course of the southern retaining wall of the Temple Mount platform, at the top of the staircase leading to the Ḥulda Gates (Fig. App. 1.31). c. Blocks of medium (1–4 m long) to small (less than a meter) sizes with varying degrees of crudeness. Like the very large slabs, the crudeness relates to differential weathering that was created before the rocks were quarried, which is expressed by alternating thin horizontal striations of ‘ridges’ and ‘grooves’. These blocks are very common in the Temple Mount walls. Evidently, many visually flawed stones had to be used in large projects where the insistence on only highest quality stones had to be compromised. Often, small mizzi ḥilu stones have been placed in the masonry edge-wise, with the natural beddings perpendicular to the ground (Fig. App. 1.32). These were used as space fillers, with complete disregard for the unsightly appearance of the result. Perath (2007) found that about half of the building stones in the Wailing Wall are of meleke and the other half of mizzi ḥilu. Based on a cursory inspection it appears that, in terms

Fig. App. 1.31. One of several enormous (1.8 × 3.6 m) and very roughly cut mizzi ḥilu building stones in the first course of the southern retaining wall of the Temple Mount platform, at the top of the staircase leading to the Ḥulda Gates. All of these stones are ‘flawed’ by a very irregular surface, deep horizontal partings and vertical cracks.

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Fig. App. 1.32. Meleke and mizzi ḥilu ashlars in the Western Wall. The white stones with the thin horizontal and vertical grooves are weathered mizzi ḥilu blocks, some of which were placed in the masonry in an edge-wise setting, with the bedding perpendicular to the ground. They do not bear the typical Herodian marginal dressing. Weathering is pronounced along bedding partings, stylolites and joints. The rest are meleke stones, slightly flawed by different densities of cracks, and cavities.

of volume, this proportion is apparently maintained throughout the entire circumference of the Temple Mount walls. Meleke and mizzi ḥilu building stones dismantled from ruined buildings of previous regimes were extensively used in subsequent construction. The majority of the building stones in the remains of the Umayyad buildings in the Ofel Archaeological Park are reused mizzi ḥilu stones (Fig. App. 1.33). The best recognized presence of the mizzi ḥilu in the urban landscape of ancient Jerusalem is its use as flagstones. By virtue of its hardness and the presence of thin, 0.2–0.3 m thick beds of uniform thickness, it was well suited for cutting perfect paving slabs. The flagstones were used to cover floors, sidewalks and streets. The best examples of this usage are found in the streets of the Herodian, Roman and Byzantine cities. The mizzi ḥilu flagstones were used to pave stairways in stepped streets in which an even height (thickness) of the steps’ rises was important for both convenient pedestrian travel and visual esthetics. The most meticulous cases of this use are found in the Herodian architecture surrounding the Temple Mount. In the monumental stairway that leads to the Ḥulda Gates of the Temple Mount, both the substrate and its paving slabs are of mizzi ḥilu. Other exceptionally fine examples can be seen in the stepped streets that lead from the Siloam Pool to the Temple Mount (Fig. App. 1.34) and the Herodian street that runs along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount (Fig. App. 1.35). The lithographic limestone of this member can be polished to obtain smooth blocks that closely resemble marble. Such blocks were used for decorative architectural components, including columns (Fig. App. 1.36:a) and home utensils, like mortars (Fig. App. 1.36:b). Mizzi ḥilu beds were also used for hewing small graves. According to Kloner and Zissu (2007), 60 Second Temple-period graves were dug into them. However, unlike the monumental ones in the meleke bedrock, these were mostly small, simple, family tombs.

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239

Fig. App. 1.33. Walls of the Umayyad government buildings in the Ofel Archaeological Park. The large white blocks in the right and center background are of mizzi ḥilu, probably a reuse of Herodian building stones.

Fig. App. 1.34. Large mizzi ḥilu flagstones in the pavement of the Herodian stepped street that leads from the Siloam Pool to the Temple Mount.

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Fig. App. 1.35. Mizzi ḥilu flagstones in the pavement of the Second Temple-period (postHerodian) street that runs along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount.

a

b Fig. App. 1.36. The use of mizzi ḥilu lithographic limestone for columns and small utensils: (a) fine, smoothly polished columns scattered in the Davidson Archaeological Center Park (the bedrock in the view consists of mizzi ḥilu); (b) mortar.

Utilization of the Bedrock at the Excavation Site The Meleke Member In order to pave the way for the construction of the Eastern Cardo of the Roman city, it was necessary to level a wide strip of ground surface along the foot of the eastern slope of the Western Hill. This major thoroughfare consisted of an 11 m wide street enclosed on each side by a 6 m wide colonnaded sidewalk lined, at least on the west side, by 6 m deep shops. Thus, altogether, the total width of the strip of land that had to be leveled was at least c. 30 m (Plan App. 1.2; see Chapter 3: Plan 3.1; Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007, 2009). This large

241

APPENDIX 1: BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND BUILDING STONES

W804

L6170

Street L8020

Western

Eastern P

Portico

ortico / P

ropylaeu

m

alk Side w

Carriageway

W457 W424

L300 Street

L4108

L712

Strata XII–X Water Installations 0

10

m

Plan App. 1.2. Detailed plan of the Roman and Byzantine Eastern Cardo. The walls and partitions shown in gray were literally sculpted in the natural bedrock (see Chapter 3: Plan 3.1).

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earth-clearing and bedrock-hewing operation created the upper step of the meleke wall, a 10 m high cliff that extends in a north–south direction all along the excavation and beyond. Hollow spaces created by previous ancient stone quarrying had to be filled at this stage to create a solid foundation for the Cardo. Thus, the Cardo’s street and eastern components were constructed in part on a firm foundation of meleke bedrock and in the northern half on unconsolidated soft fill material. As this fill material compacted over time, the substrate of the street sank, causing the pavement and a segment of a wall to tilt eastward (Fig. App. 1.37). The deformation is limited to a small area and it is unlikely that it was caused by an earthquake. The skillful exploitation of the meleke bedrock at the site is most impressive. Whenever possible, all the infrastructural components of the architectural plan of the Cardo complex were literally sculptured in situ out of the meleke bedrock and masonry construction was kept to a minimum. Thus, the side and front walls of shops and their entrance steps, as well as the stepped layout for the foundation of the sidewalks and the street, are all hewn in the rock (Figs. App. 1.38, 1.39). In some shops, an extra chamber was hewn at the back into the solid bedrock (see Chapter 3: Plan 3.3). Meleke was also used to prepare monolithic columns. The column in Fig. App. 1.40 demonstrates the severity of the weathering that was created by late karstic dissolution. As seen in Fig. App. 1.39, it affected the bedrock throughout the site. To remedy the deteriorated appearance of the rock, the walls were treated with several layers of plaster (Fig. App. 1.41). Another common usage of the bedrock was for constructing water cisterns, which also had to be plastered to prevent leakage (Fig. App. 1.42).

Fig. App. 1.37. An Early Islamic-period wall (right) resting on the Eastern Cardo. The flagstones and the wall are inclined to the east due to substrate instability in the northeastern part of the Cardo, which was founded on unconsolidated fill material of the Iron Age or later stone-quarry fills (see Chapters 2, 3).

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243

Fig. App. 1.38. General view of the Eastern Cardo, looking southwest. The shop chambers along the meleke wall and the foundation of the portico in front of them were carved out of the meleke bedrock. The portico and the street were paved with mizzi ḥilu flagstones.

Fig. App. 1.39. Detail of a shop’s front wall hewn out of the natural meleke bedrock.

Fig. App. 1.40. Badly weathered monolithic column made of white meleke; its smooth base was sculptured in mizzi ḥilu stone.

244

Fig. App. 1.41. The weathered bare faces of meleke walls were coated with plaster to improve their appearance.

DAN GILL

Fig. App. 1.42. Water cisterns hewn in the porous meleke bedrock had to be plastered to prevent water loss.

The Mizzi Ḥilu Member Like practically everywhere in Herodian to Byzantine Jerusalem, large slabs of mizzi ḥilu limestone were used to pave the street and porticos of the Eastern Cardo as well (Fig. App. 1.38). The hand samples of mizzi ḥilu and their thin sections (Figs. App. 1.14, 1.15) were taken from one of the flagstones at the site. The rectangular flagstones are 1.3–1.8 m long, 0.8–1.0 m wide and about 0.3 m thick (Weksler-Bdolah et al. 2007). In the Cardo’s street, the slabs were laid down diagonally to the street’s direction (Figs. App. 1.37, 1.38; see Chapter 3), whereas in the porticos their long edges were parallel the street (Fig. App. 1.43). Some flagstones have an unusual reddish color, which is not common to mizzi ḥilu stones (Fig. App. 1.44). Smoothly polished blocks of the lithographic limestone were used for columns (Figs. App. 1.36:a; 1.45). This lithographic limestone is not found at the site; it is present in the upper part of the member and had to be brought from nearby.

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245

Fig. App. 1.43. Mizzi hilu flagstones in the portico of the Eastern Cardo.

Fig. App. 1.44. Reddish-colored mizzi hilu flagstone in the Eastern Cardo pavement.

Fig. App. 1.45. A smoothly polished column made of mizzi hilu lithographic limestone.

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S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, 2019, Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I (IAA Reports 63)

Appendix 2

List of Loci and Walls

LOCI Locus

Description

Stratum

Upper

Lower

Spolia item (column incorporated in a wall)

III

729.65

728.50

A3

100

Topsoil fill

I

736.00

734.00

A

102

Floor

II

733.35

116

Aqueduct

XIII

738.50

737.50

A

Plans 2.1, 3.2: southwest

150

Rock-cut elongated socket

XII–?

735.10

735.55

A

Section 2-2

155

Rock-cut sockets for anchoring beams

XII–?

736.90

737.10

A

Section 2-2

229

Fill on floor

IV

728.75

728.40

A2

244

Fill

I

730.00

728.60

A

245

Flagstone floor

III–II

728.44

255

Plaster Floor

II

730.10

728.74

A

257

Fill

II

728.26

727.30

A

264

Niche

XII

729.20

728.26

A

284

Fill

II–I

728.20

727.68

A

287

Fill

VI–IV

728.20

727.70

A

288

Fill

IV

728.98

728.57

A

298

Collapse

III

725.15

728.03

A

300

Water cistern

XI

726.60

721.30

A

Plan 3.3: south; Sections 3-3, 29-29, 30-30

310

Hewn cell

XII–X

732.60

732.10

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3; Section 1-1

311

Fill

VI–V

729.90

728.90

A

318

Hewn installation

X–IV (?)

732.10

319

Fill in Drainage Channel 514

XII–XI

727.60

725.70

A

361

Subterranean room

VI

727.12

726.90

A

362

Rock-hewn channel

XI

727.06

726.98

A

363

Subterranean room

VI

727.25

727.18

A

371 (=373)

Channel

XII

726.40

726.25

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west

372

Fill in channel

VIII

726.47

726.32

A

Plan 3.2: Cardo, western sidewalk; Section 30-30

373

Channel

XII

726.47

726.17

A

Plan 3.2: Cardo, western sidewalk

374

Flagstones covering Cistern 300 (= L477)

XI

726.95

726.60

A

Plan 3.3: south

85

Elevation (m)

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

A

A

Bakery hall

Plan 3.3: southwest; Sections 2-2, 30-30

B Plan 3.2: south; Section 4-4 Plan 3.3: south

252 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

402

Rock-hewn room

XII–IV

729.65

727.57

A

Plan 3.3: west; Section 2-2

404

Rock-hewn room

XII–IV

731.30

728.00

A

Plan 3.3: west; Sections 2-2, 28-28

416

Fill under floor

VI

727.85

726.90

A

443

Fill in Drainage Channel 514

XII–XI

727.68

727.33

A

466

Plaster floor

VI

727.49

727.30

A

468

Cardo’s open sidewalk (=5338B)

XII

728.10

727.70

A

472

Drainage channel

VIII

S: 726.69 N:726.92

S:726.04 N:726.59

A

475

Drainage channel

XI

727.00

726.85

A

Plan 3.3: south

476

Drainage channel

XI

727.00

726.85

A

Plan 3.3: south

477

Cistern cover (= L374)

XI

726.95

726.60

A

Plan 3.3: south

482

Vertical rock-hewn gutter

XII

733.60

727.60

A

Plan 3.3; Section 2-2

490

Rock-hewn surface

XII

727.30

727.04

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west

491

Rock-hewn drainage channel

XII–X

727.60

727.30

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southwest; Sections 3-3, 4-4

500

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.30

726.12

A

Plan 3.3: center

502

Rock-hewn surface

XII

727.70

727.47

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west; Section 2-2

514

Drainage channel

XII–XI

725.61

724.50

A

Plan 3.2: south; Sections 4-4, 30-30

516

Fill

IX

727.30

726.50

A

518

Vaulted installation

VI

727.75

723.30

A

525

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.38

726.18

A

Plan 3.3: center

526

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.40

725.98

A

Plan 3.3: center

536

Central drainage channel

XII

726.00

723.80

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: center

541

Fill

IX

726.50

726.45

A

545

Fill

VIII

726.82

726.59

A

547

Rock-hewn drainage channel

XII

726.09

725.81

A

550

Fill

IX–VIII

726.70

726.57

A

567

Floor

VIII

727.33

726.21

A

575

Fill

II

727.46

727.24

A

580

Floor

VI

726.37

726.09

A

581

Fill

VI

727.27

726/82

A

583

Fill

IX–VIII

727.01

726.00

A

586

Fill

IX

726.58

726.40

A

606

Fill

IX

726.57

726.13

A

610

Living surface

IX

726.67

726.13

A

611

Fill

IX

726.67

726.57

A

Plan 3.2: south

Plan 3.3: south

Plans 3.2, 3.3: east

Plan 3.3: Cardo, western sidewalk

253

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

614

Fill

IX

726.40

726.25

A

619

Rock-hewn channel

XII–IX

726.36

726.30

A

Plan 3.3: Cardo, eastern edge

658

Severance channel

XII

726.39

725.77

A

Plan 3.2: east

662

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.99

725.83

A

Plan 3.3: center

703

Rock-hewn cell and fill

XII

731.15

~726.75

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southwest

709

Flagstone pavement (above vaulted roof of Cistern 712)

X

726.52

726.34

A

Plan 3.3: south

710

Channel (above vaulted roof of Cistern 712)

X

726.40

726.32

A

Plan 3.3: south

712

Water cistern

X

726.32

~722.00

A

Plan 3.3: south; Sections 3-3, 33-33, 34-34

717

Infrastructure of Pavement 709

X

726.34

726.26

A

Plan 3.3: south; Section 3-3

720

Section of the Cardo flagstone pavement

XII

726.23

725.89

A

Plan 3.3: south

724

Channel (above Cistern 712)

X

726.34

726.18

A

Plan 3.3: south

2000

Room and fill

VI–III

736.00

735.00

C

2013

Mosaic floor

VI

736.53

735.41

C

2021

Plaster floor

VI

735.44

735.33

C

2022

Jewish ritual bath (miqveh)

XIII

735.47

733.35

C

Plan 3.2: west; Section 20-20

2050

Jewish ritual bath (miqveh)

XIII

C

Plans 1.1, 2.1, 3.2: west; Section 13-13

2075

Blockage of a channel in W600

VIII

730.50

729.70

E

3006

Rock-hewn room

XII–X

729.90

729.53

B

3046

Floor

III–II

727.95

727.87

B

3056

Fill

VI–III

729.50

728.58

B

3057

Possible part of hewn installation

XIII– XII?

736.00

734.00

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

3063

Water cistern

XI–IX?

B

Plan 3.3: western shops, entrance to Shop 5311

3064

Floor

III

727.84

727.46

B

3070

Rock-hewn cell

XII

727.56

727.44

B

3075

Fill

III

728.75

728.15

B

3096

Installation

V

729.00

724.95

B

3097

Rock-hewn cell

XII

~731.50

~727.50

B

3107

Floor

IV

727.48

727.41

B

3108

Fill

IV

727.40

726.87

B

3110

Floor

X

727.43

727.32

B

3172

Fill

IX

726.44

726.33

B

3200

Vault

VI

729.02

727.95

B

3220

Bedrock

XII

726.22

-

B

Plan 3.3: northwest

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west; Sections 2-2, 21-21

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west; Section 25-25

Plan 3.3: west

Plan 3.3: center

254 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

3224

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.54

726.46

B

Plan 3.3: center

3225

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.46

726.28

B

Plan 3.3: center

3226

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.54

726.23

B

Plan 3.3: center

3237

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.40

725.74

B

Plan 3.3: center

3238

Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.40

726.17

B

Plan 3.3: center

3240

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.68

726.39

B

Plan 3.3: center

3241

Unsealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.36

726.26

B

Plan 3.3: center

3242

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.37

726.02

B

Plan 3.3: center

3500

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.37

726.19

B

3510

Sealed Cardo infrastructure

XII

726.36

726.22

B

4005

Water cistern

III

729.80

726.85

D

4014

Floor

III

728.89

728.67

D

4042

Fill

VII

728.08

726.04

D

4072

Fill

III

728.89

727.41

D

4091

Floor

VI

728.44

728.22

D

4101

Floor

VI

728.56

728.35

D

4108

Flagstone pavement of a street

X, IX, VIII

725.56

725.12

D

Plan 3.3: southeast, southern street; Sections 30-30, 32-32, 35-35, 37-37

4126

Rock-hewn channel

XII

726.16

726.04

A

Plan 3.2: south

4140

Fill

VI

728.28

727.38

D

4148

Floor

IX

726.96

726.65

D

4162

Floor

X

726.79

4177

Mosaic floor

X

726.60

726.50

D

4183

Fill

IX

726.75

726.34

D

4185

Fill in quarry

XII

725.24

724.24

D

Plan 3.2: southeast (see WWPE II)

4192

Mosaic infrastructure (white plaster layer)

X

726.58

726.44

D

Plan 3.3: east

4213

Mosaic floor

X

726.60

D

Plan 3.3: east

4214

Sealed infrastructure

X

725.33

724.95

D

Plan 3.3: southeast, southern street

4221

Mosaic infrastructure (white plaster layer)

X

726.51

726.57

D

Plan 3.3: east

4224

Mosaic floor

X

726.50

-

D

Plan 3.3: east

4241

Mosaic plaster infrastructure

X

726.41

726.54

D

Plan 3.3: east

4252

Unsealed infrastructure

X

725.15

725.04

D

Plan 3.3: east, southern street

4253

Mosaic pebble infrastructure

X

726.49

726.29

D

Plan 3.3: east

D Plan 3.3: east

255

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

4260

Fill in quarry under L4252

X

725.04

524.85

D

Plan 3.2: southeast (see WWPE II)

4261

Infrastructure for mosaic

X

726.36

726.30

D

Plan 3.3: east

4265

Infrastructure fill of Staircase Steps 9050

X

725.82

725.77

D

Plan 3.3: southeast

4271

Stone steps

X

726.25

725.18

D

Plan 3.3: southeast; Section 37-37

4272

Step infrastructure

X

725.84

725.76

D

Plan 3.3: southeast

4273

Sealed infrastructure

XII

725.15

724.87

D

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southeast

4274

Sealed fill in quarry

XII

725.12

724.24

D

Plan 3.2: southeast

4276

Heart-shaped plinth or column base

XII

727.38

726.29

D

Plan 3.3: southeast; Sections 29-29, 30-30

4300

Rock-hewn surface that serves as part of the foundation of the eastern portico

XII

726.40

-

D

Plans 3.2, 3.3: east

5000

Rock-hewn surface

XII

729.62

729.27

E

Plan 3.2: northwest

5002

Fill

III

730.62

730.28

E

5036

Floor makeup

VI

729.28

728.55

E

5061

Fill

III

728.96

728.40

E

5072

Plaster floor

III

727.74

727.48

E

5083

Fill

IX

728.22

727.73

E

5093

Flagstone pavement

VI

728.49

728.28

E

5107

Fill

VI

727.68

726.98

E

5133

Stone layer

XII

726.91

726.54

E

Plan 3.2: north

5137

Fill (mainly Iron Age)

XII

727.13

726.5

E

Plan 3.2: north (see WWPE II)

5139

Fill

VI

728.64

728.24

E

5143

Fill (mainly Iron Age) (= L6096)

XII

727.21

726.58

E

5148

Fill

VI

728.30

727.50

E

5153

Fill (containing mainly Iron Age material)

XII

726.49

724.77

E

5156

Fill

VI–III

728.30

727.41

E

5172

Stone layer

XII

726.68

726.36

E

Plan 3.2: center

5181

Flagstone of western portico

XII

726.77

726.45

E

Plan 3.3: north; Section 6-6

5187

Fill

VI

728.32

727.7

E

5188

Drainage channel

VIII

727.91W 727.02E

726.47W 726.42E

E

5211

Fill

XIV

726.56

724.34

E (=F)

5214

Stone surface

VIII

727.49

726.89

E

5224

Fill

VI–III

730.25

728.43

E

5227

Rock-hewn room

XII–X

733.50

730.75

E

5236

Installation

VI–V

728.55

727.96

E

5246

Fill

IX

727.04

726.86

E

5248

Drainage channel

XII–X

727.18

726.43

E

Plan 3.2: north (see WWPE II) Plan 3.2: north

Plan 3.3: northwest; Section 13-13

Plan 3.3: west

256 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

5250

Fill above Cardo

IX

726.69

726.62

E

5251

Fill above rock

VI

727.41

726.18

E

5268

Fill above Cardo

VIII

726.78

726.38

E

5271

Stone blockage in an entranceway

VI–III

728.81

728.51

E

5272

Section of the Cardo flagstone pavement

XII

726.73

726.28

E

5275

Plaster floor

IX

727.02

726.82

E

5280

Fill

VI–II

730.40

728.73

E

5281

Fill

VIII

727.25

726.89

E

5283

Fill in quarry, and bedrock below the fill

XII

727.57

727.02

E

Plan 3.2: north

5291

Section of the Cardo flagstone pavement

XII

726.50

-

E

Plan 3.3: center

5292

Fill in quarry under step (= L5293, L5295)

XII

726.56

726.19

E

Plan 3.2: north

5293

Fill in quarry (= L5292, L5295)

XII

726.55

725.85

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north

5294

Fill

VI–III

728.73

728.36

E

5295

Fill in quarry (= L5292, L5293)

XII

726.07

724.02

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north

5297

Rock-hewn cell

XII

728.34

727.61

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north; Section 2-2

5298

Fill in quarry

XII

726.73

726.37

E

Plan 3.2: north

5299

Fill in quarry

XII

726.37

725.56

E

Plan 3.2: north

5308

Western sidewalk

XII

727.06

726.43

E

Plan 3.3: north; Section 13-13

5310

Fill above Cardo

VIII

726.93

726.34

E

5311

Rock-hewn cell

XII–IX

728.66

727.89

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north; Sections 2-2, 19-19

5316

Hewn installation

XII–X

728.24

727.07

E

Plan 3.3: north

5318

Fill in installation

XII–X

728.15

728.00

E

Plan 3.3: northwest

5320

Hewn installation

X–IX

728.20

727.78

E

Plan 3.3: western shops

5321

Hewn installation

X–IX

728.13

727.82

E

Plan 3.3: western shops

5326

Fill

XII

726.66

726.40

E

Plan 3.2: north

5332

Fill in quarry, under step, and bedrock below the fill

XII

726.43

725.37

E

Plan 3.2: north

5333

Intentional fill of plastered installation

XII

727.20

726.22

E

Plan 3.2: north

5336

Lower part of plastered installation

XIII

727.81

726.09

E

Plan 3.2: north; Section 19-19

5338

Western sidewalk, between Cardo and western portico, including Segments A–F

XII

726.98

626.06

E

Plan 3.3: north; Sections 4-4, 19-19, 23-23, 28-28–30-30

5339

Sealed fill of quarry, under Cardo’s step

XII

726.78

725.58

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north

5340

Stone-built pilaster

VIII

729.59

728.22

E

5342

Stone-built pilaster

VIII

730.26

728.26

E

Plan 3.3: north

257

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

5343

Stone-built pilaster

VIII

729.39

728.29

E

5345

Stone-built pilaster

VIII

730.45

728.25

E

5347

Sealed fill of quarry, under Cardo’s step

XII

726.66

725.55

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north

5348

Rock-hewn surface

XII

727.53

-

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west

6003

Fill

VIII –VI

732.80

730.97

F

6011

Fill

XIV– XII

726.59

725.68

F

Plan 3.2: north

6014

Flagstones above Cistern 6170

XII

729.70

729.40

F

Plan 3.3: north; Sections 2-2, 8-8

6028

Rock-hewn surface of room and fill inside room

XII, VIII

729.73

728.93

F

Plans 3.2: northwest; 3.3

6036

Fill

VIII

726.87

726.66

F

6037

Cardo flagstone pavement

XII

726.76

726.35

F

Plan 3.3: north; Sections 4-4, 8-8

6039

Stone fill

XII

726.54

726.42

F

Plan 3.2: north (see WWPE II)

6046

Fill

XIV–XII

725.91

726.18

F

Plan 3.2, north

6051

Fill

X

727.80

727.30

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6056

Fill

VIII

728.48

727.33

F

6057

Stone pavement

VIII

729.99

729.45

F

6060

Stone pavement

VIII

729.59

729.24

F

6068

Rock-hewn channel

XII–X

729.39

728.94

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6070

Rock-hewn channel

XII–X

729.43

729.29

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6071

Rock-hewn channel

XII–X

729.47

729.15

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6073

Fill

XII

726.02

726.42

F

Plan 3.2: north

6080

Fill

IX

726.70

726.33

F

6081

Flagstone of western sidewalk

XII

727.16

726.85

F

Plan 3.3: north

6092

Fill

XII

726.00

725.84

F

Plan 3.2: north

6093

Fill

XII

726.15

726.30

F

Plan 3.2: north

6095

Fill

XII

726.19

726.51

F

Plan 3.2: north

6096

Fill (=5143)

XII

726.12

727.18

F

Plan 3.2: north

6097

Fill

XII

726.19

725.48

F

Plan 3.2: north

6110

Pillar base

X

727.34

726.44

F

Plan 3.3: north; Section 6-6

6112

Fill

IX

727.27

726.58

F

6125

Fill

IX

725.87

725.45

F

6130

Fill

XIV

727.72

725.60

F

6144

Drainage channel

XI–X

725.61

724.68

F

6153

Packed-earth floor

XIV

724.70

724.28

F

6170

Water cistern

XIII– XI

729.59

723.40

F

Plan 3.2: northwest

6199

Drainage channel

XII

728.60

728.80

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6202

Fill

XV

726.74

728.60

F

6204

Fill

X

727.50

727.36

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6205

Packed-earth floor

X

727.72

727.48

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6206

Fill

X

727.48

726.96

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

Plans 3.2: north; 3.3: north

258 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

6209

Crushed chalk layer

X

727.50

727.46

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6210

Fill

X

727.46

727.16

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6211

Crushed limestone fill

X

727.43

727.10

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6212

Foundation trench

X

727.40

726.78

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6213

Stone floor

X

727.59

727.44

F

Plan 3.3: northwest; Section 2-2

6216

Drainage channel

XIV

724.82

723.22

F

Plan 3.2: north

6220

Fill above rock inside cell

XII, X

727.48

726.36

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6221

Foundation trench?

X

727.09

726.61

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6222

Foundation trench?

X

726.93

726.40

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6223

Floor infrastructure

X

727.44

724.24

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

6224

Fill under floor

X

727.44

727.24

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

8007

Drainage channel (northern part of L472)

VIII

827.26

826.42

H

8008

Floor makeup

VIII

727.08

727.03

H

8014

Channel

VIII

726.52

726.19

H

8016

Mosaic

X

726.91

726.82

H

8018

Disturbed fill

I (Modern)

726.76

726

H

8020

Flagstone pavement (northern street or courtyard)

XII–IX, VIIIA

726.93 N 726.67 S

726.79 N 726.25 S

H

8021

Installation

VIII

726.12

725.43

H

8024

Floor

VIII

727.71

727.55

H

8027

Fill

VIII

726.97

726.72

H

8030

Fill

IX

726.39

726.08

H

8033

Fill

VIII

727.47

726.84

H

8034

Fill

VIII

726.83

726.09

H

8036

Fill

VIII

726.88

726.25

H

8038

Floor

VIII

725.95

725.60

H

8040

Mosaic plaster infrastructure

X

726.79

726.62

H

Plan 3.3: northeast

8042

Mosaic pebble infrastructure

X

726.75

726.40

H

Plan 3.3: northeast; Sections 11-11, 14-14

8046

Fill

IX–VIII

726.96

726.06

H

8047

Fill under mosaic

X

726.64

726.49

H

Plan 3.3

8048

Fill under mosaic

X

726.53

726.39

H

Plan 3.3 (see WWPE II)

8049

Disturbed fill

I (Modern)

726.09

725.47

H

8050

Burnt fill (black)

XII

726.39

726.13

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11; (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8051

Burnt fill (gray)

XII

726.36

726.20

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8053

Burnt fill (yellowish)

XII

726.41

725.88

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Sections 14-14, 15-15 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

Plan 3.3: northeast

Plan 3.3: northeast; Sections 10-10, 11-11

259

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

8054

Manhole

XII

726.68

725.65

H

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northeast; Section 16-16

8055

Burnt fill (black)

XII

726.16

725.82

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Section 15-15; (WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8056

Crushed lime surface

XII

726.61

726.58

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

8057

Fill

IX–VIII

726.32

724.28

H

8059

Fill

XII

726.39

725.82

H

8060

Fill above Roman drainage channel

IX

726.61

725.90

H

8061

Disturbed fill

I (Modern)

726.18

725.43

H

8063

Disturbed fill

VIII

725.55

725.09

H

8065

Disturbed fill

1 (Modern)

727.47

726.27

H

8066

Fill

IX

726.20

726.03

H

8067

Cardo stone infrastructure?

XII

726.41

725.85

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

8068

Drainage channel

XII

725.90

725.16

H

Plans 3.2, 3.3; Sections 10-10, 11-11, 15-15, 16-16

8069

Installation

VIII

726.74

726.67

H

8075

Burnt laminar fill

XII

725.61

724.96

H

8077

Fill

VIII

726.53

726.31

H

8081

Fill

IX

726.43

726.19

H

8086

Mosaic plaster infrastructure

X

726.43

726.12

H

Plan 3.3: east

8090

Mosaic pebble infrastructure

X

726.61

726.51

H

Plan 3.3: east

8091

Fill under mosaic

X

726.51

726.44

H

Plan 3.3: east (see WWPE II)

8092

Crushed lime layer

X

726.49

726.41

H

Plan 3.3: east

8093

Burnt fill (laminar)

XII

726.41

726.25

H

Plan 3.2: east (see WWPE II)

8095

Fill

VIII

726.33

726.10

H

8100

Disturbed fill inside uncovered drain

IX

725.79

725.33

H

8101

Fill

XII

725.95

725.64

H

8103

Pilaster

VIII

726.38

724.73

H

8104

Burnt fill (black)

XII

726.18

725.16

H

8106

Fill

VIII

726.16

725.82

H

8107

Burnt fill (black) above surface (L8123)

XII

726.15

724.56

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (WWPE II: Table 3.1)

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (WWPE II: Table 3.1)

Plan 3.2: east Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (WWPE II: Table 3.1) Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Sections: 15-15, 16-16; (WWPE II: Table 3.1)

260 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

8108

Flagstones of the Eastern Cardo (employed as a general locus for its many sections of pavement)

XII

726.58

726.28

H

Plan 3.3: north; Sections 9-9–11-11, 16-16, 21-21

8109

Fill

XII

726.60

726.02

H

Plan 3.3: northeast

8110

Fill

VIII

725.94

725.16

H

Section 11-11

8111

Post-Byzantine drainage channel

?

726.15

725.91

H

8112

Disturbed fill

I (Modern)

725.54

724.44

H

8113

Burnt fill above surface

XII

725.68

724.28

H

8114

Pilaster

VIII

725.33

723.51

H

8115

Fill under ground surface at time of construction

XII

725.06

724.49

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8119

Burnt fill abutting W812

XII

726.30

726.05

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8121

Burnt fill above ground surface at time of construction

XII

725.45

724.85

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8122

Burnt fill

XII

725.42

724.51

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Sections 14-14, 15-15 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8123

Ground surface at time of construction

XII

725.01

724.34

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Sections 14-14, 15-15, 16-16 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8124

Burnt fill

XII

725.27

725.17

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8125

Ground surface at time of construction

XII

725.04

724.52

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8126

Burnt fill (black)

XII

725.43

725.17

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8127

Burnt fill (laminar)

XII

725.79

725.40

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8128

Burnt fill (laminar)

XII

726.08

725.40

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8129

Fill in quarry

XIII–XII

726.26

725.92

H

Plan 3.2: east

8130

Burnt fill above living surface

XII

724.91

724.58

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8131

Fill under ground surface at time of construction

XII

724.69

724.26

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8132

Foundation trench

XII

724.69

722.59

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Sections 14-14, 15-15, 16-16 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8133

Fill under mosaic

X

726.65

726.53

H

Plan 3.3: northeast

8134

Fill under mosaic

X

726.50

726.24

H

Plan 3.3: northeast

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

261

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

8135

Fill under mosaic

X

726.54

726.27

H

Plan 3.3: northeast (see WWPE II)

8136

Burnt fill

XII

726.52

726.05

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8137

Burnt fill

XII

726.50

724.38

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8138

Burnt fill

XII

725.77

724.13

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8139

Burnt fill

XII

724.70

724.54

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8140

Ground surface at time of construction

XII

724.71

723.99

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Section 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8141

Disturbed fill

IX–VIII

726.57

726.11

H

8144

Burnt layered fill (laminar)

XII

725.08

722.64

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Section 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8145

Burnt fill

XII

725.14

724.26

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8146

Fill under ground surface at time of construction

XII

724.54

723.95

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8147

Fill

XII

724.98

724.65

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8148

Fill in quarry

XII

724.49

722.99

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; 3.3; Sections 14-14–16-16 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8149

Intrusion in Roman dump

VIII–VI

725.12

723.71

H

Northeastern edge of excavation

8150

Burnt fill (black) above ground surface at time of construction

XII

724.99

724.64

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8151

Leveled layer above stone installation

XII

724.94

724.64

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8152

Fill

XII

723.90

723.35

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump, 3.3; Sections 11-11, 16-16 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8153

Burnt fill (laminar)

XII

723.90

723.31

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8154

Foundation trench

XII

723.72

723.08

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump, 3.3; Sections 11-11, 16-16 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8155

Fill under ground surface at time of construction

XII

724.82

723.61

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 11-11 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8156

Stone installation in quarry

XII

724.59

723.96

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; Sections 11-11, 14-14 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8157

Foundation trench

XII

724.25

723.83

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

262 Locus

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

8158

Stone fill

XII

723.39

722.90

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8159

Brown fill directly on rock in quarry

XII

724.19

723.36

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8160

Stone fill

XII

724.01

722.96

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8162

Brown fill directly on rock in quarry

XII

723.13

722.60

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Sections 14-14, 15-15 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8164

Foundation trench

XII

723.13

722.69

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8165

Burnt fill (laminar)

XII

722.64

722.47

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump Section 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8166

Foundation trench

XII

724.34

723.68

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8167

Fill in quarry

XII

722.34

721.84

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8170

Quarry

XIII

723.50

721.82

H

Plans 1.1, 2.1, 3.2: Roman dump; Sections 11-11, 14-14, 17-17 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8171

Fill under flagstone

XII

727.01

726.72

H

Northeastern street

8172

Fill under flagstone

XII

727.01

726.12

H

Plan 3.2: northeast (see WWPE II)

8173

Fill

XII

726.35

725.93

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8174

Burnt fill under Cardo (yellowish)

XII

726.52

725.97

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump; Section 10-10 (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8176

Fill

XII

725.84

725.68

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8177

Fill under Cardo

XII

726.28

725.85

H

Plan 3.2: north (see WWPE II)

8178

Drainage channel

XII

726.58

724.95

H

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north; Sections 9-9, 10-10

8180

Channel (part of 8178)

XII

725.43

724.19

H

Plans 3.2, 3.3: north (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8182

Burnt fill under Cardo (burnt)

XII

725.81

725.07

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8183

Fill under flagstone

XII

726.67

725.86

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8184

Plaster and stone surface

XII

725.78

725.71

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

8185

Fill under flagstone

XII

726.70

725.96

H

Plans 3.2: Roman dump; Section 10-10 (see WWPE II)

8187

Fill in quarry

XII

723.51

722.25

H

Plan 3.2: Roman dump (see WWPE II: Table 3.1)

8188

Fill in quarry

XII

724.55

722.88

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

8189

Intrusion in Roman dump

XII

723.80

723.40

H

Plan 3.2: northeast (see WWPE II)

263

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Locus

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

8300

General designation of accumulation in northern section of Roman dump, seen in Section 11-11 (includes all loci sealed under L8020: 8104, 8121, 8125, 8137, 8145, 8152, 8154, 8155)

XII

726.00

723.50

H

Plan 3.2; Section 11-11

9050

Stone staircase

X

726.41

725.62

I

Plan 3.3: southeast

9053

Floor

III–II

728.28

9075

Rock-hewn surface

XII

726.93

726.76

I

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southeast

9076

Rock-hewn steps

XII

726.74

725.71

I

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southeast; Section 37-37

9546

Section of the Cardo flagstone pavement

XII

726.19

725.87

I

Plan 3.3: south

9547

Foundation of W951

IX-VI

727.22

725.89

I

9580

Fill in quarry, against W958, disturbed

XIII–X

724.67

723.77

I

Plan 3.3: south

9583

Fill sealed directly under Cardo pavement

XII

725.52

725.30

I

Plan 3.2: south

9584

Fill sealed under cardo pavement

XII

725.30

724.63

I

Plan 3.2: south

9585

Fill sealed under cardo pavement

XII

724.63

724.38

I

Plan 3.2: south

9588

Quarry

XV–XIII

724.79

723.89

I

Plan 3.2: south; Section 38-38

I

WALLS Walls

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

W18

Built wall in vertically hewn cliff

IX or later

734.50

732.20

A

Plan 3.2: south; Section 2-2

W19

Built wall in vertically hewn cliff

VIII or later

735.75

734.87

A

Section 2-2, center

W45

Wall

XII

733.17

727.20

A

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Sections 3-3, 25-25

W82

Arch

VI

731.33

727.38

A

W84

Wall

IX–VIII

728.16

726.50

A

W90

Wall

V

730.90

727.40

A

W100

Wall (=W200)

IX

728.05

726.49

A

W200

Wall

VI

736.19

733.35

C

W210

Wall

IX

726.44

726.09

A

W211

Wall

VIII

727.15

726.53

A

W300

Hewn rock wall

XII

732.07

728.39

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W301

Hewn rock wall

XII

731.17

728.19

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W302

Hewn rock wall

XII

732.30

728.28

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Section 19-19

264 Walls

SHLOMIT WEKSLER-BDOLAH

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

W304

Vertically hewn cliff (= W399)

XIII–X

736.00

734.00

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W306

Hewn rock wall

XII

734.00

729.54

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Section 12-12

W307

Hewn rock wall

XII

734.24

729.54

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W308

Hewn rock wall (= W601)

XII

732.20

729.47

F

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W310

Hewn rock wall

XII

732.39

728.28

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Sections 3-3, 12-12

W317

Hewn rock wall

XII

731.17

728.19

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W320

Hewn rock wall

XII

730.00

727.30

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west

W321

Hewn rock wall

XII

727.25

728.00

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W322

Vertically hewn cliff

XII

732.07

728.39

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: west

W325

Wall

XII

731.77

731.04

B

Plan 3.3: northwest; Section 2-2

W398

Hewn rock wall

XII–X

736.00

734.00

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W399

Hewn rock wall

XIII–X

736.00

734.00

B

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W400

Outer wall

VI

729.28

726.44

D

W401

Wall

IX–VI

727.77

727.29

D

W410

Wall

IX–XIII

727.28

726.53

D

W424

Hewn rock wall

XII

727.76

726.34

D

Plans 3.2, 3.3: east

W457

Hewn rock wall

XII

726.85

726.35

D

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northeast

W506

Reservoir wall

III

731.45

727.75

E

W508

Wall

VI

729.31

727.80

E

W510

Supporting wall

XII–X

728.57

726.79

E/F

Plan 3.3: northwest

W518

Stepped supporting wall

XIV

727.26

724.47

E/F

Plan 3.2

W521

Supporting wall

XIV

727.81

725.20

E/F

Plan 3.2

W523

Building wall (including W557, W559)

VIII

730.16

726.98

E

W524

Outer building wall

XIV

727.20

725.20

E/F

Plan 3.2

W533

Hewn rock wall (= W566)

XII

730.40

727.58

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Section 3-3 (as W566)

W546

Wall

IX

729.42

727.31

E

W557

Outer wall of building

VIII

729.65

727.49

E

W559

Outer wall of building

VIII

728.97

726.85

E

W562

Wall

IX–VIII

727.98

727.22

E

W566

Hewn rock wall (= W533)

XII

730.40

727.58

E

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest; Section 3-3

W600

Wall

XII–X

732.19

729.20

F

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W601

Hewn rock wall (= W308)

XII

732.20

729.47

F

Plans 3.2, 3.3: northwest

W603

Hewn wall

XII

730.22

728.88

F

Plan 3.2: northwest

W604

Partition wall

XIV

726.55

722.83

F

Plan 3.2

W605

Dividing wall

XIV

726.47

721.51

F

Plan 3.2

W610

Dividing wall

XIV

726.50

722.01

F

Plan 3.2

W611

Dividing wall

XIV

726.49

721.51

F

Plan 3.2

265

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF LOCI AND WALLS

Walls

Description

Stratum

Elevation (m) Upper

Lower

Area

Plan (Sections in Plan 3.5)

W613

Dividing wall

XIV

725.78

721.51

F

Plan 3.2

W614

Wall

XII–X

728.67

726.60

F

Plan 3.3: northwest

W616

Pilaster

X

728.67

726.44

F

Plan 3.2: northeast

W620

Outer building wall

XIV

726.60

722.01

F

Plan 3.2

W624

Dividing wall

XIV

726.38

723.73

F

Plan 3.2

W630

Facade wall of Shop 3006

XII–X

730.00

729.00

F

Plan 3.2: northeast

W700

Built facade of southern Cell 703

III

731.00

729.00

A

Section 2-2

W800

Wall

VIII

728.19

726.64

H

W802

Wall

VIII

727.21

726.64

H

Section 16-16

W804

Supporting wall

XII

726.62

723.65

H

Plan 3.3; Sections 11-11, 16-16

W805

Supporting wall

XII

726.51

725.57

H

Plan 3.3: northeast

W806

Supporting wall

XII

726.51

725.45

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

W810

Supporting wall

XII

726.68

725.81

H

Plan 3.2: northeast

W811

Supporting wall

XII

725.27

721.82

H

Plans 3.2, 3.3: southeast; Sections 15-15, 16-16, 17-17

W812

Supporting wall

XII

726.35

723.49

H

Plan 3.3: northeast; Sections 10-10, 11-11

W951

Wall

VI

728.49

727.36

I

W958

Supporting wall built into abandoned quarry

XIII or XII

725.62 (N) 724.46 (S)

723.64

I

Plan 3.2: south

W999

Hewn rock wall

XII

727.61

726.48

I

Plans 3.2: southeast; 3.3

IAA R eports

No. 1 G. Avni and Z. Greenhut, The Akeldama Tombs: Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1996, 129 pp. No. 2 E. Braun, Yiftah’el: Salvage and Rescue Excavations at a Prehistoric Village in Lower Galilee, Israel, 1997, 249 pp. No. 3 G. Edelstein, I. Milevski and S. Aurant, Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds: Excavations at Manahat, Jerusalem, 1987–1989, 1998, 149 pp. No. 4 C. Epstein, The Chalcolithic Culture of the Golan, 1998, 352 pp. + plans. Hardcover. No. 5 T. Schick, The Cave of the Warrior: A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert, 1998, 137 pp. No. 6 R. Cohen, Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev I: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I (Hebrew, English Summary), 1999, 396 pp. No. 7 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, Jericho: The Jewish Cemetery of the Second Temple Period, 1999, 202 pp. No. 8 Z. Gal and Y. Alexandre, Horbat Rosh Zayit: An Iron Age Storage Fort and Village, 2000, 247 pp. No. 9 U. Dahari, Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period: The Archaeological Remains, 2000, 250 pp. No. 10 Z. Yeivin, The Synagogue at Korazim: The 1962–1964, 1980–1987 Excavations (Hebrew, English Summary), 2000, 216 pp. No. 11 M. Hartal, The al-Subayba (Nimrod) Fortress: Towers 11 and 9, 2001, 129 pp. No. 12 R. Gonen, Excavations at Efrata: A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages, 2001, 153 pp. No. 13 E. Eisenberg, A. Gopher and R. Greenberg, Tel Te’o: A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Site in the Hula Valley, 2001, 227 pp. No. 14 R. Frankel, N. Getzov, M. Aviam and A. Degani, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee: Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, 2001, 175 pp. No. 15 M. Dayagi-Mendels, The Akhziv Cemeteries: The Ben-Dor Excavations, 1941–1944, 2002, 176 pp. No. 16 Y. Goren and P. Fabian, Kissufim Road: A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site, 2002, 97 pp. No. 17 A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report I: Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, 2003, 183 pp. No. 18 A. Golani, Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, 2003, 261 pp. No. 19 H. Khalaily and O. Marder, The Neolithic Site of Abu Ghosh: The 1995 Excavations, 2003, 146 pp. No. 20 R. Cohen and R. Cohen-Amin, Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands II: The Iron Age and Persian Period (Hebrew, English Summary), 2004, 258 pp. No. 21 D. Stacey, Exavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods, 2004, 259 pp. No. 22 Y. Hirschfeld, Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994, 2004, 234 pp.

No. 23 S. Ben-Arieh, Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim, 2004, 212 pp. No. 24 M. Dothan and D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod VI: The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), 2005, 320 pp. No. 25 M. Avissar, Tel Yoqne‘am: Excavations on the Acropolis, 2005, 142 pp. No. 26 M. Avissar and E.J. Stern, Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel, 2005, 187 pp. No. 27 E.C.M. van den Brink and Ram Gophna, Shoham (North), Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel, 2005, 214 pp. No. 28 N. Getzov, The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations, 1994–1995, 2006, 204 pp. No. 29 A.M. Berlin, Gamla I: The Pottery of the Second Temple Period, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2006, 181 pp. No. 30 R. Greenberg, E. Eisenberg, S. Paz and Y. Paz, Bet Yerah: The Early Bronze Age Mound I: Excavation Reports, 1933–1986, 2006, 500 pp. No. 31 E. Yannai, ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel, 2006, 308 pp. No. 32 T.J. Barako, Tel Mor: The Moshe Dothan Excavations, 1959–1960, 2007, 276 pp. No. 33 G. Mazor and A. Najjar, Bet She’an I: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Caesareum and the Odeum, 2007, 316 pp. No. 34 R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg, Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976–1982, 2007. In 2 parts. Part 1: Text, 410 pp.; Part 2: Plates, Plans and Sections, 332 pp. No. 35 A. Erlich and A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report II: Hellenistic Terracotta Figurines from the 1989–1996 Seasons, 2008, 208 pp. No. 36 G. Avni, U. Dahari and A. Kloner, The Necropolis of Bet Guvrin—Eleutheropolis, 2008, 238 pp. No. 37 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas I: The Roman to Early Islamic Periods: Excavations in Areas A, B, E, F, G and H, 2008, 196 pp. No. 38 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas II: Small Finds and Other Studies, 2008, 256 pp. No. 39 Z. Greenhut and A. De Groot, Salvage Excavations at Tel Moza: The Bronze and Iron Age Settlements and Later Occupations, 2009, 363 pp. No. 40 M. Hartal, Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the NorthernSuburbs, 2009, 212 pp. No. 41 N. Getzov, R. Lieberman-Wander, H. Smithline, and D. Syon, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations I: The Early Periods, 2009, 168 pp. No. 42 N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E.J. Stern, D. Syon, and A. Tatcher, Horbat ‘Uza, the 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods, 2009, 232 pp. No. 43 J. Seligman, Nahal Haggit: A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel, 2010, 277 pp. No. 44 D. Syon and Z. Yavor, Gamla II: The Architecture, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2010, 216 pp. No. 45 A. Kloner, E. Eshel, H.B. Korzakova and G. Finkielsztejn, Maresha Excavations Final Report III: Epigraphic Finds from the 1989–2000 Seasons, 2010, 247 pp. No. 46 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project:The Gazetteer, 2010, 360 pp. No. 47 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project:Landscape of Settlement: From the Paleolithic to the Ottoman Periods, 2011, 356 pp. No. 48 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash, Bet She’an II: Baysān: The Theater Pottery Workshop, 2011, 411 pp. No. 49 Y. Alexandre, Mary’s Well, Nazareth: The Late Hellenistic to the Ottoman Periods, 2012, 180 pp.

No. 50 D. Ben-Shlomo, The Azor Cemetery: Moshe Dothan’s Excavations, 1958 and 1960, 2012, 238 pp. No. 51/1 E.J. Stern, ‘Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 1: Text, 2012, 192 pp. No. 51/2 E.J. Stern, ‘Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 2: Plates, 2012, 172 pp. No. 52 D. Ben-Ami, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv‘ati Parking Lot) I, 2013, 396 pp. No. 53 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima Volume I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part I: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2013, 244 pp. No. 54 R. Greenberg, Bet Yerah, The Early Bronze Age Mound II: Urban Structure and Material Culture, 1933–1986 Excavations, 2014, 316 pp. No. 55 E. Yannai, Y. Nagar, Bet Dagan, Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries, 2004–2005 Excavations, 2014, 260 pp. No. 56 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 1, 2014, 260 pp. No. 57 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part 2: The Finds, 2015, 224 pp. No. 58/1 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 1: The Stratigraphy and Finds, 2015, 288 pp. No. 58/2 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 2: The Architecture, 2015, 382 pp. No. 59 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 2, 2016, 380 pp. No. 60. M. Hartal, D. Syon., E. Stern and A. Tatcher, ‘Akko II: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Early Periods, 2016, 242 pp. No. 61. R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Da‘adli, Bet Yerah III: Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Sinnabra, the 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, 2017, 230 pp. No. 62. G. Mazor, W. Atrash and G. Finkielsztejn, Bet She’an IV: Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis: The Amphora Stamps and Sealings from Tel Iztabba, 2018, 196 pp. No. 63. S. Weksler-Bdolah, A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2019, pp. 276. No. 64. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations II: The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo, 2019, 337 pp.