Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar: Ilocano-English, English-Ilocano 9780824850494

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Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar

PALI Language Texts Department of Linguistics University of Hawai'i Byron W. Bender General Editor

Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar Ilocano-English,

English-Ilocano

Carl Ralph Galvez Rubino

• University of Hawai'i Press

© 2000 University of Hawai'i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 10 09 08 07

7 6 5 4 3

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rubino, Carl R. Galvez. Ilocano dictionary and grammar : Ilocano-English, English-Ilocano / Carl Ralph Galvez Rubino. p. cm. — (PALI language texts. Philippines) ISBN-13: 978-0-8248-2088-6 (paper : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8248-2088-6 (paper : alk. paper) 1. Iloko language—Dictionaries—English. 2. English language—Dictionaries—Iloko. 3. Iloko language—Grammar. I. Series. PL5753 .R83 2000 499'.21—dc21

99-085745

University of Hawai'i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources.

Printed by Edwards Brothers Incorporated.

Cover art under copyright and may not be reproduced without the express written permission of the publisher. © Vicente Manansala

Dedicated with love to my family: Grace, my brothers, parents, and grandparents, Siaayatko nga iruknoy daytoy a pagitarusan kadagiti adingko, Paul, Alar.- and Earl kadagiti nagannak kaniak Ralph Daniel Rubino and Erlinda Galvez Rubino ken kadagiti nagannak kadakuada Florence Tomisek Konvalinka and Robert E. Konvalinka Josefa Mallare Galvez ken daydi Catalino Hidalgo Galvez

CONTENTS Acknowledgments Introduction A Note on the Orthography The Pre-Hispanic Syllabary Affix Cross-Reference List Phonology and Pronunciation 1. The Consonants 2. The Vowels 3. Consonant Gemination 4. Glottal Stop 5. Morphophonemics (Phonological Changes Due to Affixation) 6. Syllabification Grammar Outline 1. Pronouns 2. Nouns 3. Articles and Demonstratives 4. Adjectives 5. Numbers 6. Verbs 7. Adverbs and Particles 8. Existentials and Locatives 9. Conjunctions and Subordinators 10. Interrogatives 11. Negation 12. The Ligature (ng)a 13. Clause Combining Abbreviations Used in This Dictionary

ix xi xiii xv xvi xxiii xxiii xxvii xxxiv xxxv xxxvii xxxviii xli xli xlv Iii liv lvii lx lxxii lxxv lxxvi lxxvii lxxix lxxx lxxxi lxxxvii

Ilocano-English

1

English-Ilocano

649

Appendixes Grammatical Charts Maps Traditional Ilocano Songs

753 755 759 762

References

773

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS * PANAGYAMAN Special thanks are due to four people who have reviewed the first manuscript of my dictionary and have subsequently helped me with my linguistic research and travels in the Philippines every year since. They are Mrs. Josefa Mallare Galvez, Dra. Geraldine Galvez, Mrs. Maria Roldan, and Mrs. Elizabeth Tadina of San Fernando, La Union. I would also like to thank my parents, Florence Konvalinka, Carmen, Edwin, Benedict, and Carol Villanueva, Melissa Deleissegues, and Alex Gonzales for their support and encouragement in all my work. Thanks to the faculty and graduate students of the Department of Linguistics at the University of California-Santa Barbara for all the wonderful times and to the Linguistics faculty and graduate students of the Australian National University. I also greatly appreciate the efforts of the Sanglay Law Office in San Fernando, La Union, Galvez Clinic, Cristy Boija, DZNL radio, Liw Agbayani, APGSA Santa Barbara, and the Superior Court of Laoag for accommodating my research with such warm hospitality. Atty. Aurora Sanglay and Dr. Imelda Quilala graciously supplied me with Bannawag magazines for which I am most grateful. I must also express my deep gratitude to some Ilocano writers and pressmen for their gracious help with my inquiries: Roy V. Aragon, Dr. Godofredo Reyes, Ramon Pagatpatan, Prescillano Bermudez, Lorenzo Tabin, Elnora Manangan, Severino A. Pablo, Pelagio Alcantara, Ethelwaldo Madamba, D. Nicasio Asuncion, and Redentor Santos. They are, of course, not responsible for any shortcomings in the manuscript. In preparing this dictionary, I have read the works of hundreds of Ilocano writers from different regions in order to collect the sample of words in this present volume. I cannot thank them all personally, but I wish them continued success in propagating the beauty of the Ilocano language through literature. Maraming salamat to Kenneth Chang and Nick Kibre for their computer help. I am also very grateful to all the linguists who have commented on my work in linguistics, especially to my mentor Marianne Mithun, Laurie Reid, Nikolaus Himmelman, Andy and Medina Pawley, Wallace Chafe, Steven Fincke, Susanna Cumming, Sandra Thompson, Byron Bender, Bob Dixon, Sasha Aikhenvald, Geoff Haig, Alec Coupe, Agnes Kang, Tony Davis, Peter Fitzgerald, and to the Ilokano department in Hawai'i: Josie Paz Clausen and Precy Espiritu. I would like to thank Mrs. Hilda Manansala for allowing me to use the Market scene painting on the cover of this book. Maria Victoria Herrera was extremely helpful in contacting the members of the Philippine art community for me. In closing, I would like to give special thanks to my family in America and the Philippines (the Rubinos, Galvezes, Villanuevas, Konvalinkas, Carbonells, and Lita Aquino) and to Maria Gracia Tan Llenado for their untiring support and understanding of my work in lexicography and linguistics.

INTRODUCTION Ilocano is a Western Austronesian language spoken by about nine million people in Northern Luzon, Philippines. It is the most widely spoken Philippine Cordilleran language, and constitutes its own branch within the Cordilleran language family as indicated in the following genetic reconstruction by Lawrence Reid (1989:57):

CORDILLERAN LANGUAGES

Cordilleran

Key to Cordilleran Languages: AltN Northern Alta; AltS Southern Alta; Blw Balangaw; Bon Bontok; DgtC Casiguran Dumagat; DgtEC East Cagayan Dumagat; DgtP Palanan Dumagat; DgtU Umirey Dumagat; Gad Gaddang; Ibg Ibanag; Ibl Ibaloi; Ifg Ifugao; Ilk Iloko (Ilocano); lit Ilongot; Isg Isneg; Isi Isinay; Itg Itneg; Itw Itawis; Kla Kalinga; Kin Kallahan; Knk Kankanaey; Prn Paranan; Yog Yogad.

During early Spanish contact, the Ilocano-speaking areas were confined to the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Abra, and La Union, but the Ilocano people have populated many other areas in the Philippines and even predominate in many areas of the provinces of Pangasinan, Benguet, and Tarlac. There are also sizable communities in many other Philippine provinces and the islands of Mindoro and Mindanao. Because the original Ilocano region borders the mountainous interior of Luzon, where members of linguistic minority groups prevail, Ilocano has been used for centuries as the lingua franca of the region and in legal documents and

xii * Introduction proceedings of the various mountain peoples. Many of these ethnic groups still use Ilocano today to communicate among themselves, despite the fact that Tagalog has been declared the national language of the Philippines. Ilocanos are the most migratory of the Philippine ethnic groups. They have settled in many other parts of the world, forming sizeable communities in Brunei, Singapore, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and most urban centers in the United States, Canada, and western Europe. The largest concentrations of Ilocanos in the United States are in California, Alaska, and especially Hawai'i, where nearly one-fifth of the total population can claim Ilocano descent (Espiritu 1977; Foronda 1978). In Hawai'i, Ilocano has been taught in the schools in bilingual education programs as the medium of instruction and in universities as a foreign language.

THE DICTIONARY The present dictionary is a culmination of my research as a Ph.D. graduate student and lecturer in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Califomia-Santa Barbara and a senior research associate at the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology at the Australian National University. I began "collecting" Ilocano words, however, in the early eighties, reading the weekly Ilocano magazine, Bannawag, which was often brought home by visiting or migrating relatives. It was not until my college years at the University of California at Los Angeles that I was aware that an Ilocano dictionary had been published in 1956 by Morice Vanoverbergh, which served as a skeleton for the present dictionary. As any Ilocano can confirm, the Ilocano language is not spoken uniformly in the northern provinces of Luzon. Regional variations in intonation, grammar, and the lexicon have necessitated several trips to all the Ilocano speaking regions, which resulted in my meeting many esteemed Ilocano poets and writers and monolingual Ilocano speakers who served as consultants for regional and literary vocabulary. Members of the Philippine Information Society in San Fernando and Bangued, the Superior Court of Laoag, and DZNL radio in San Fernando graciously volunteered their time to aid me in this respect, providing much encouragement to complete this project. The Sanglay Law Office of San Fernando, La Union assisted me in many matters while I was outside the Philippines. The root-based format of the dictionary matches that of previously published dictionaries of languages of similar typologies. As the morphology (affix system) in Philippine languages is rather complex, compiling a nonroot-based dictionary might take the greater part of a lexicographer's life before a good portion of the important words in the language were documented. It is my belief that a root-based dictionary would be more beneficial to native Ilocanos, students of Ilocano, linguists, and anthropologists because it allows the users to see affixal permutations and better understand the essence of the complex morphological system. The grammatical affixes were put into the dictionary in the same section as lexical roots. This was done merely for convenience in word searching by the user who is not expected to determine the morpheme class before looking up each word. It may also be a useful method of arranging lexicons of languages with highly prefixing typologies such as Ilocano. Common Ilocano words or bases where the boundary between the root and affix has been phonetically fused may be found in the dictionary under independent entries to simplify dictionary searches. For instance, the word sumrek 'to enter' from the root serrek 'enter' may be found under both entries. Even native Ilocano speakers experience some difficulty determining the lexical roots in these cases. A short introduction to Ilocano grammar has been included to outline rudimentary aspects of Ilocano phonology, morphology, and syntax as an aid to natives and nonnatives alike. As the

Introduction * xiii short grammar is merely a brief synopsis of the system, it is broken down in terms of morphological classes, exemplifying paradigms that may aid users of the dictionary in their lexical searches or in constructing simple sentences. It is by no means to be taken as a thorough representation of the grammar of the language. Those interested in seeing the most thorough grammar of the language are encouraged to try to acquire a copy of my Ph.D. dissertation or Morice Vanoverbergh's 1955 Iloko grammar. Nonnative Ilocano speakers using this dictionary will find the Affix Cross-Reference List useful when looking up polymorphemic (derived and inflected) words. It lists the most common prefixes and all suffixes, infixes, reduplications, and enclitics, which are written in Ilocano orthography as joined to their roots. Since derivational morphology in Ilocano is extremely productive, not all derivations are given with each root. I have tried to include the most common derivational patterns with the most high-frequency roots for users who are not yet familiar with the morphological system of the language, and also to show that the resulting meanings of many derived items are not always semantically transparent. The introductory phonology section outlines the pronunciation of native words and also introduces the user to the basics of Ilocano phonology, including stress (vowel length), stress shift, morphophonemics, and syllabification. Stress is shown with each root, but not with the derived forms unless it is idiosyncratic. Tagalog equivalents are given for many of the entries, as are equivalents in many of the important languages of Northern Luzon for a large number of basic words to aid comparativists. As this is the first edition of a root-based dictionary written without financial support for adequate field editing or typing/research assistance, it fails to be as thorough as I would have desired. I welcome all comments, criticism, and suggestions, and encourage the users to contact me regarding the dictionary or any aspect of the Ilocano language they find interesting. It is my hope that the dictionary can be improved and expanded one day in the future from the comments of the users so as to be of greater value. I can be reached via electronic mail at [email protected] or through regular mail at the Department of Linguistics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA. Although the Ilocano language is spoken as a lingua franca of Northern Luzon and in large communities outside the Philippines, it has no official status in the Philippines. No particular body that I am aware of is presently working to modernize the language or create materials for its instruction in the Philippines. It is my fervent hope that such a committee will evolve to research the role of the Ilocano language in the twenty-first century and perhaps decide how the language can effectively deal with the changing world into the third millennium. If such a committee were to develop, I would be honored to be able to offer my time, research, and suggestions to help propel its worthy cause.

A Note on the Orthography In orthographic systems that have been used to write Ilocano since the 1600s, two systems have predominated. The older system is based on Spanish orthography and the newer system is the standardized alphabet accepted for the Tagalog language, as used in the weekly Ilocano magazine, Bannawag. The orthography is mostly phonemically based for the consonants, but not for the vowels. Among the five vowels (a, e, i, o, u) used in Ilocano writing, the letter e corresponds to two separate phonemes in the southern dialects, a mid front vowel, and a high back unrounded vowel. The orthographic symbols o and u originally represented one phoneme with alternative pronunciations in specific environments (o word-finally). Due to the large number of foreign loans in the language and high degree of bilingualism, however, these letters now represent two contrastive vowel sounds, e.g. oso 'bear' vs. uso 'use, in fashion'.

xiv * Introduction The older Spanish system vs. the modern system Although perhaps the majority of Ilocanos continue to use the older Spanish spelling system, I choose to abide by the conventions accepted in most modem publications and the Bannawag magazine. Here, I briefly outline the two systems: Vowels are the same in both: a, e, i, o, u\ where e represents two distinct sounds in the southern dialects (see Phonology). Consonantal representation varies as follows. Differences between the systems are highlighted in boldface. The starred consonants in the second (Spanish orthography) column are used only in loanwords:

Ilocano sound [IPA]

Spanish orthography

P

P*f b 'Hy

t d k kk ge, gi

t d qu ck gue, gui s *z ce, ci ch di + vowel *j

Standardized orthography P P b b t d k k kk

ny + vowel ng [r)] w

ge,gi 1 *11 r *rr m n n ng, ng o, u, w

ge, gi s s se, si ts, ti + vowel di + vowel, dy h he, hi 1 li + vowel r r m n ni + vowel ng w

y

y

y

Modern Ilocano spelling asero tukak

Gloss steel frog

se, si ch [tjl j[d3l h he, hi ly + vowel [lj]

Examples of words: Old Spanish spelling acero tucac

Introduction * xv dackel achara fiesta ginebra daguiti trabajo taller ñgata vaca zapatos pizarra

dakkel atsara piesta hinebra dagiti trabaho talier ngata baka sapatos pisara

big pickles party, fiesta gin plural article work car repair shop perhaps cow shoes chalkboard

The idiosyncrasies of the older Spanish-based system are eliminated in the modern system as follows: The letters c and g used in the older Spanish spelling system no longer represent two sounds. In the old system, c and g before a front vowel (;', e) represented [s] and [h] respectively. In other environments, they represented [k] and [g], respectively: Old Spanish spelling gelatina ginebra hacendero

Modern Ilocano spelling helatina hinebra asendero

Gloss gelatin gin estate owner

The velar stops [k] and [g] before front vowels used to be represented in Spanish orthography as 'qu and 'gu , respectively. They are now represented without the V . Old Spanish spelling daguiti manggued naganaquen baquet

Modern Ilocano spelling dagiti mangged naganaken baket

Gloss plural article worker gave birth already old lady

The Pre-Hispanic Syllabary Before the arrival of the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, the Ilocanos employed a syllabary resembling the Vedic scripts of India used in various other languages found throughout the Philippines and Indonesia. It is similar to the scripts used by the Tagalogs and Pangasinenses, although unlike these, the Ilocano script was innovated to designate coda consonants. In the Tagalog script, readers were expected to supply the coda consonants from the context, as only consonants in initial syllable position were written, with a diacritic representing the appropriate vowel. Although this script is no longer in use in modern Ilocano, I show it below, taken from the Ilocano Doctrina Cristiana of 1621.

xvi * Introduction

The Ilocano Syllabary

3

ir tz a

m

O

&

ba

be — "bi

e —i

o—u

Q

Q

bo — bu

b

—

k u

k

t? d o

ia

ke — Id

tZ

t f 5 k o

&

tx d a

d e

ft

—

d a

d

ga

ge

—

¿ 0

g i

—

#

g u

£

nge — n£o — n | u n£ la T lo ->-• In 1 ma me — mi mo — irni

le — li t T O m

T

na

/j\

ne — ni

10

po — pu v

j

sa

vp p

se — si

to — tu.

y? t

to ya

D

no — nu

to ha

Q

he — hi

V i

d

V

a

pa

co

i

.

Vr>

pe — pi

ho — hu r

s

ve — vi

VO ye — yi

is*

n

so — su va

d i

J > 1

n£a /f\

—

f

ta

,

te — ti

9

2

vo — vu

yo — yu

h

v

Op

y

Affix Cross-Reference List Successful word searching in a root-based dictionary of a morphologically complex language such as Ilocano requires the ability to separate the root m o r p h e m e from the affixes. Native speakers of Ilocano and trained linguists are usually able to do this quite easily in most cases, but

Introduction * xvii

for students o f the language, this cross-reference list may prove most helpful. T h e affixes alphabetized below are separated by category: prefixes, infixes, suffixes, and enclitics (which are written in Ilocano orthography as suffixes). Users of the dictionary must also keep in mind that many o f these affixes may be used with root reduplication of various types:

Reduplication Patterns 1 in Ilocano kumraad manalbaang kanalpaak lumtucg

creak fire (sound of gun) slapping sound burst, explode

la/laki a d d i

boys girls younger siblings

CV-

agaarab [?aga?arab] aginrfadalus nwnuang

cattle rustler pretend to be clean water buffalo (plural)

cvc-

agad-adal [?agad?adal] nagsangsangit

studies (continuative) was crying stones only these

-V- [-?V-]

-c-

b a b b a x

b a t b a t o

dagdagitoy CVC(C)(V)V-

agrap/wtapliak

splash repeatedly/intermittently rocking chair pat repeatedly startle repeatedly

b u t t u a b u t t u a g

tap/tapiken b u g k a b u g k ' d w a n

CVCVN-

ayan-ayat

face to mutual mutual mutual

s a k a s a k a

barefoot

r u p a n r u p a

paiempateg g u r a n g g u r a

Full root

barehanded covered in dust drenched in blood light up various locations go around in circles tear to shreds

i m a i m a t a p o k t

face caring hatred love, lover

apok

d a r a d a r a

j//awsilawan a g r i k u s h k o s

p/sangpisangen

F o r grammatical explanations and examples o f the use o f these affixes, please refer to the dictionary. Prefixes marked with an asterisk maintain the initial glottal stop (or in rapid speech, a syllable break) when affixed to underlyingly vowel-initial words, e.g. ag- [?ag-] + uni [?u:ni] 'to sound' >

a g i i n i

a l l a w a g i

[si.nan.?al.la.wa:.gi].

1

[?a.gu:.ni]; but

s i n a n *

[sinan-] +

a l l a w a g i

[?allawa:gi] 'fake carpenter' >

s i n a n -

O n s e t c o n s o n a n t s m a y b e c o m p l e x o r an u n d e r l y i n g glottal stop [ ? ] . M o s t I l o c a n o reduplicants are p r e f i x e s , e x c e p t

-V- used with r o o t s o f o n o m a t o p o e t i c origin and - C - a n i m a t e pluralization.

xviii * Introduction PREFIXES agagaagat*agiagin*agipaagkaagkaiagkaraagkaraiagkaraipaagkinnaagmaraagpaagpagin*agpaiagpaipaagpakaagpinnaagpinnaiagpinnaipaagsiagsinagsinanagtagiagtagipagagtagipagiagtagipagipaagtagipagpaagtagipagpaiagtagipagpaipaakimakin*akingapagapagkaapagpaariarigarimarin*aringbisedediiimimpaininy-

ipaipamiipin*kakaikakakanikakapikapin*karakinakumarakonkunsimamagsimaimaikamaipamakamakaimakaipamakapamakapagmakapagin*makapagpamakapagpaimakapagpaipamakapagtagimakapagtagipagmakapagtagipagimakapagtagipagipamakapagtagipagpamakapagtagipagpaimakapagtagipagpaipamakapaimakapaipamakapaminmakapaNmakimakikamakin*makipamakipagmakipagimakipagin*makipagpamakipagpaimakipagpaipamakipai-

makipaipamakipaNmamamamagmamaimamaipamamakamamakimamaNmamangmamimaminmamimpin*mamramammagmammaimammaipamammakamammakimammaNmammangmammangimanmaNmanamanagmanagsinanmanagtagiman amainan amagmanamaimanamaipamanamakimanamaNmanamangmanamangimanamangipamanaNmanangmanangimanangpamanangpagmanangpaimanangpaipamanangpakamanangpakimanangpaNmanangpangmanangpangimannaka-

Introduction * xix mannakimangmangimangipamangpamangpagmangpaimangpaipamangpakamangpakimangpangmangpangimapamapagmapagpamapaimapakimapaNmapangmapangimapangipamaramaran*marimasimasin*maynanagnaginagin*nagipanagkanagkaranagkarainagkaraipanagkinnanagmaranagpanagpagin*nagpainagpaipanagpaNnagpinnanagpinnainagpinnaipanagsinan*nagtaginagtagipagnagtagipaginagtagipagipanagtagipagpa-

nagtagipagpaipanainaipanakanakainakapanakapagnakapaginakapagpanakapagpainakapagpaipanakapagtaginakapagtagipagnakapagtagipagipanakapagtagipagpanakapagtagipagpainakapagtagipagpaipanakapainakapaipanakapaminnakapaNnakaparanakasagnakataginakinakinnakipanakipagnakipagin*nakipagpanakipagpainakipagpaipanakipainakipaNnamanamagnamainamaipanamakanamakinamaNnamangnamanginamangipanaminaminnaNnangnangipanangpanangpagnangpai-

nangpaipanangpakanangpakinangpaNnangpangnangpanginangpangipanapanapagnapainapaipanapakanapakinapanginapangipanasinan*nipapagpagapagat*pagin*pagkapagpapaipaikapin*paipapaipipaipin*pakapakipakipagpampamapamagpamaipamaipapamakapamakipamaNpamangpamangipamangipapamipaminpammapammagpammaipapammakapammakipammaNpammang-

XX * Introduction pammangipammangipapanpaNpanagpanaginpanamapanamagpanamaipanamaipapanamakapanamakipanamaNpanamangpanamangipanamangipapanaNpanangpanangipanangipapanangpapanangpagpanangpaipanangpaipapanangpakapanangpakipanangpangpanangpangipanangpangipapannakapannakaipannakapapannakipannakipagpangpangipangipapangpa-

pangpagpangpaipangpaipapangpakapangpakipangpaNpangpangpangpangipangpangipaparapipimmipimmin*pin*pinagpinagin*pinaipinaipapinaikapipinaikapin*pinaipipinaipin*pinakapinakipinamapinamagpinamaipinamaipapinamakapinamakipinamaNpinamangpinamangipinamangipapinaNpinangpinangipinangipa-

SUFFIXES -ak -akon -akto -am -amon -amto -an

-ek -ekon -ekto -em -emon -emto -en

pinangpapinangpagpinangpaipinangpaipapinangpakapinangpakipinangpaNpinangpangpinangpangipinapipinapin*pininpinnakapinnakipumapumisagsaggasagpamisagpaminsangasangsangasangkasangsangkasisin*sinagsinamsinan*sinin*sumagtagitagtagitaritarintinagiy-

Introduction * xxi

INFIXES -C-V-an-im-imm-in-inn-um-uman-

ENCLITICS -ak -akon -akto -da -dan -danto -en -k -ka -kan -kanto -kami -kamin -kaminto -kayo

-kayon -kayonto -kayto -ko -kon -konto -m -mi -min -minto -mo -mon -monto -n -na

-nan -nanto -nsa -nto -sa -ta -tan -tanto -tayo -tayon -tayonto -tayto -to -ton

PHONOLOGY AND PRONUNCIATION Phonology refers to the sounds and sound systems of a language. This section outlines the pronunciation of the various sounds of Ilocano and then introduces the rules of stress, stress shift, reduplication, and syllabification.

1. The Consonants Ilocano has fifteen original phonemes (contrastive consonants), one loan consonant /h/, and two complex affricates as seen in the chart below: Labial Stops

P b

Dental t d

Alveolar

Palatal

Velar k

Glottal -[?]

g

Fricatives Affricates

s

Lateral Tap/trill Glides Nasals

1 r w m

Alveopalatal

(si + V / [ f ] ) (ts /ti + V/ [tJD (dy/di + V / [ d 3 ] )

(h)

y n

ng [nl

1.1 The stops Stops are produced by a complete closure in the oral cavity, followed by an immediate release of air. They are differentiated by place of articulation (the exact place in the mouth where the closure takes place) and voicing (whether or not the vocal chords vibrate during their articulation). Ilocano stops are contrastive for voicing and have four places of articulation: bilabial, dental, velar, and glottal. Voiceless stops in Ilocano are not articulated with aspiration (a puff of air). As syllable codas (final consonant of the syllable), they are usually unreleased and not articulated with full force.

Bilabial

stops

The bilabial stops are /p/ (voiceless) and /b/ (voiced). They are unaspirated. *Note: In the three columns below, the first column shows segments as they are spelled in Ilocano, and the second column reflects the pronunciation in simplified IPA. The IPA pronunciation reflects the dialect spoken in San Fernando, La Union, Philippines. In the northern dialects of Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur, the high back unrounded vowel [ui] is pronounced as a mid front vowel [e], apay napno panglaw bala

[?a:.pay] [nap.no] [pat], law] [ba:.la]

why full poor bullet

xxiv * Phonology

übet nababä

Dental

[?ü:.buit] [na.ba.bä]

buttocks short

stops

The dental stops are /t/ (voiceless) and /d/ (voiced). They are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the teeth. Like all stops in Ilocano, they are unaspirated and not released in final position. mata tastäsen tumäud tata

[ma.tä] [tas.tä:.suin] [tu.mä:.?od] [tä:.ta]

eye rip garments originate father

dfla adii diding agbeddabéd

[di:.la] [?a.dü] [di. dig] [?ag.biud.da.buid]

tongue many wall snuffle

Before the glide [y], /t/ and /dJ become [tj] and [¿3], respectively. See Palatalization, section 1.7. idiay diaket tiempo

[?i.d3ay] [d3a:.ket] [tjem.po]

there jacket time, weather

Velar stops The velar stops in Ilocano are /k/ (voiceless) and /g/ (voiced). They are never aspirated, and in final position are usually unreleased. The voiceless stop / k j often fricates to /k"/ between vowels, or is pronounced as a glottal stop [?] before consonants: käka Ilokänoka? ärak pukräy nagagét aggätang gumatél aragäag

Glottal

[ka:.k x a] [?i.lo.k x ä:.no.k*a] [?ä:.rak] [pu?.räy] [na.ga.giüt] [?ag.gä:.taq] [gu.ma.tml] [?a.ra.gä:.?ag]

elder sibling Are you Ilocano? wine, alcohol ripened squash industrious to shop, purchase to itch transparent

stop

The glottal stop /?/ is produced with a quick closure and release in the glottal area. Due to the constraints of human anatomy, it is always voiceless. Vowel-initial words in Ilocano have the glottal stop as their initial consonantal onset. For further discussion of the glottal stop, see section 4. apro agsay-a masig-atan nasam-it

[?ap.ro] [?ag.say.?a] [ma.sig.7a:.tan] [na.sam.?lt]

bile clear one's throat be dried up sweet

Phonology * xxv 1.2 The fricatives Ilocano has one native voiceless alveolar fricative [s], and a nonnative glottal fricative [h]. The voiceless alveolar fricative is pronounced like the s in soda. Like the stops, it may geminate: malas susay assawa suso

[ma:.las] [su:.say] [?as.sa:.wa] [su.so]

bad luck species of fish married couple snail

Before the glide [y] or its counterpart (vowel i followed by another vowel), the fricative /s/ palatalizes to [J]: siempre siak isyu

[fern.pre] [fak] [?i:.ju]

of course I issue

The glottal fricative [h] is not native to the Ilocano language and does not geminate. It often appears in borrowings from languages like Spanish, English, Chinese, or Tagalog. The only native word with a glottal fricative is haan 'no', a spoken variant of saan. haan ehe husi

[ha.?an] [?e:.he] [hu:.si]

no axle (f. Spanish) pineapple fabric (f. Chinese)

1.3 The affricates Although there are no contrastive affricate consonants in Docano, affricates do occur in the language as a result of palatalization in certain phonological environments or in foreign language borrowings. The voiced alveo-palatal afficate [d3], like the English j in juice, is represented in the orthography by dy or di + a vowel. mandiak dioga dyus dios

[man.d3ak] [d3o:.ga] [d3iis] [d30s]

I don't breast, slang juice (f. English) god (f. Spanish)

The voiceless alveo-palatal affricate [tj~], like the English ch in China is represented in the orthography by ts or ti + a vowel in borrowed words: tsokolate atsara itsura tianggi

[tjb.ko.la:.te] [?at.tja:.ra] [?it.tjo:.ra] [tjaij.gi]

chocolate (f. Spanish) pickles (f. Malay) figure (f. Spanish) store (f. Chinese)

In native words, the alveo-palatal affricate [tj~] results from the palatalization of t occurring before the glide y or its equivalent (vowel i followed by another vowel). tian agtiad

[tjan] [?ag.tjad]

stomach protrude the belly

xxvi * Phonology 1.4 The liquids Ilocano has two liquid consonants, M and IV. ftl is pronounced as a dental lateral in all environments. It does not have a velarized variant like the English '1' in syllable-final position. lalláki agílo nagádal

[lal.lá:.ki] [?a.gí:.lo] [na.gá:.dal]

boys wipe the anus studied

The consonant [r] is a dental tap pronounced like the Spanish r in araña. In careful speech, it is often trilled like the Spanish rr of perro. diário agrugárog naríri

[d3á:.ryo] [?ag.ru.gá:.rog] [na.rí:.ri]

newspaper grunt noisy; complaining

1.5 The glides Ilocano has two glides, /w/ and lyl. For their use in diphthongal codas, see section 2.1. The labio-velar glide /w/ is formed with rounded lips and some obstruction at the velar part of the mouth. agbariwengwéng waláwal nawadwád sílaw

[?ag.ba.ri.wuiq.wuíg] [wa.lá:.wal] [na.wad.wád] [sí:.law]

whirl dibble abundant, plentiful light

The palatal glide lyl is pronounced like the y in yes. It is the consonantal counterpart of the high front vowel i. laya nalaylay yo

[la.ya] [na.lay.lay] [yo]

ginger withered shark

1.6 The nasals Ilocano has three nasal consonants, differentiated by the place of articulation in which the oral airstream is blocked. The three nasals in Ilocano are /m/, /n/, and /ng/. The bilabial nasal /m/ is formed by closing the airstream at the lips. It is equivalent to the English m in mother. umáy amá medmedán káma

[?u.máy] [?a.má] [muid.mui.dán] [ká:.ma]

to come father loosen, slacken bed

The dental nasal [n] is formed by obstructing the airflow in the mouth with the tongue touching the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge slightly behind the upper teeth. It is equivalent to the Spanish n in no.

Phonology * xxvii ina

[?i.na]

nengneng

[nuirj.niug]

mother simpleton

intan

[?in.tan]

let's g o (dual)

T h e velar nasal [ng] is f o r m e d by obstructing the airflow in the mouth at the v e l u m . It is equivalent to the English ng in sing. T h e velar nasal m a y appear in syllable-initial position. ngata

[rja.ta]

singsing

[siq.sii]]

maybe

agmangisit

[?ag.ma.ql:.sit]

ring w e a r mourning clothes

1.7 Palatalization T h e obstruents /t/, /dJ, and /s/ all palatalize before the glide /y/ or its equivalent, i.e. the high v o w e l 111 f o l l o w e d b y another v o w e l . T h e dental stops /t/ and /d/ f o r m alveo-palatal affricates before the glide lyl, [tj] and [d3] respectively. buttiog

[but.tjog]

large abdomen

diak

[d3ak]

I don't

diammo

[d3am.mo]

don't know

idiay

[ii.djay]

there

dyip

[d3'ip]

jeep

T h e alveolar fricative /s/ f o r m s an alveo-palatal fricative [J] b e f o r e the glide [y] or its equivalent, i.e. the v o w e l i f o l l o w e d by another v o w e l . siak

[jak]

I

Asia

[?a:.Ja]

Asia

siuman

[ju:.man]

stepchild

2. The Vowels Ilocano has six contrastive v o w e l s (five in the northern dialect) represented in the orthography by f i v e letters /a, e, i, o, u/ based on the borrowed Spanish system. T h e use of a Spanish writing system to represent the v o w e l s is one o f the f e w instances o f n o n p h o n e m i c orthographic practice in the language, as s h o w n in the chart b e l o w .

Front High

i

Mid

e[E]

Low

Central

Back Unround Round e [ui]

u 0

a

xxviii * Phonology /a/. The low central vowel is the most common vowel in the language. Of all the vowels, this one is least subject to variation: basa alawagi atsara

[ba:.sa] [?a.la.wa:.gi] [?at.tja:.ra]

reading carpenter pickles

Id. The orthographic symbol 'e' in Ilocano constitutes two separate sounds in southern speech, and one sound in the northern dialects. In the northern dialects (Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur), it corresponds to a front, central lax vowel [e] similar to the e in pet. In the southern dialects, the letter 'e' represents two separate vowel sounds. In Spanish loanwords, it is equivalent to the northern pronunciation. In native words, however, it is pronounced as a high to high-mid, centralized back unrounded vowel [ui] that does not occur in word-final position. Spanish loanwords kalésa Presidènte késo éhe

[ka.lé:.sa] [pre.si.dén.te] [kér.so] [?é:.he]

horse-drawn carriage president cheese axle

[su.râ:.tuin] [tab.buid] [na.buig.buii)] [muit]

to write something stupid thick also

Native words suraten tabbéd nabengbéng met

/i/. The vowel 'i' is pronounced as a high front vowel, not quite as tense as the English ee in meet. In unstressed environments, it has a lax variant a little higher than the English [i] in 'pick'. itlog sangit lasi

[7it.log] [sa:.qit] [la.si]

egg cry dandruff

loi and lui. Historically, the vowels o and u did not meaningfully contrast. In the native syllabary, they were both represented by one character (or by a small dot underneath the syllabic character corresponding to their consonantal onset). After the arrival of the Spaniards and the incorporation of many Spanish loanwords in Ilocano vocabulary, native Ilocanos were able to distinguish these vowels and chose to do so in subsequent orthographic practice. The [o] vowel is a rounded upper mid vowel similar to the Spanish o in no, while the [u] vowel is a rounded high back vowel similar to the Spanish u in azul with a more lax interpretation in unstressed environments. Word-finally, lui is realized as [o], while in word-medial positions and stressed environments, as [u]. In Spanish loanwords, the Spanish pronunciation is retained for these vowels. lilo su rat agtutor nablo

[?u:.lo] [su:.rat] [?ag.tu:.tor] [nab.16]

head letter be patient sprained

Phonology * xxix An /o/ vs. /u/ distinction has arisen due to a few words of Spanish origin: bolo bulo

[bo:.lo] [bu:.lo]

machete (from Spanish) bamboo

2.1 Diphthongs The glides /w/ and /y/ may combine with certain vowels to form the following diphthongs: /aw/ lawlâw sflaw

[aw] [law.law] [si:, law]

surround, area around light

/iw/ kissiw riwriw

[iuw] [kis.siuw] [riuw.riuw]

epilepsy million

/ay/ arây unay matây

[ay] [?a.ray] [u:.nay] [ma.tây]

exclamation of pain very die

/ey/ (variant of /ay/) didiéy idiéy meysâ

[ey] [di.d3éy] [î.d3éy] [méy.sa]

that there one

/oy/, /uy/ salloy ditoy apiiy

[oy], [uy] [sal.lôy] [di.tôy] [îa.pôy]

weak, frail here fire

2.2 Stress and vowel length Stress may occur on the open penultimate or final syllable in Ilocano. It is contrastive, as it may contribute to a change of meaning in a few words. Stress assigned to an open syllable (syllable ending in a vowel) entails that the vowel is long: âsok asôk

[?a:.sok] [?a.suk]

my dog smoke

sika sikâ

[si:.ka] [si.kâ]

dysentery you (singular, familiar)

abut abut

[?a:.but] [?a.but]

reach; catch up with hole

padâya padayâ

[pa.da:.ya] [pa.da.yâ]

go to the east party

xxx * Phonology sapaen sapaen

[sa.pa:.?uin] [sa.pa.?uin]

to do early to spit out chewed betel leaf

basaan basaan

[ba.sa:.?an] [ba.sa.?an]

to read to someone to wet someone

Although stress is contrastive in Ilocano, the following patterns can be observed: Stress in Ilocano falls on the last syllable if the penultimate syllable is closed, i.e., if the last vowel is preceded by two consonants or a consonant followed by a glottal stop (written in Ilocano orthography when in word-medial position): basnöt takki kulbét kulagtit uksöb kaw-it lis-a sam-it al-alia

[bas.nöt] [tak.ki] [kul.biut] [ku.lag.tit] [?uk.sob] [kaw.îit] [lis.?â] [sam.îit] [?al.?al.yâ]

whip excrement tough, chewy (meat) jerking movement naked from the waist up hook nit, egg of a louse sweet ghost

Exceptions to this rule include stems in which the last vowel is preceded by ngk, or in words of foreign origin. lângka bibingka süngka

[lâq.ka] [bi.biq.ka] [sur|.ka]

jackfruit rice cake kind of native game

karâmba kuârto libro ökra

[ka.râm.ba] [kwâr.to] [lib.ro] [?ök.ra]

jar (from Spanish) room (from Spanish) book (from Spanish) okra vegetable (from Spanish)

Stress also falls on the last syllable if the last vowel is preceded by a consonant and glide (produced by the vowels i, u, or o): sadiâ isbuân aniâ al-aliâ bituén basiluâg

[sa.d3â] [îis.bwân] [?a.nyâ] [?al.îal.yâ] [bit.wuîn] [ba.sil.wâg]

renowned to urinate on what ghost star type of plant used for poison

Exceptions to this rule include borrowed words: arânia hopia mflia

[?a.rân.ya] [hop.ya] [mil.ya]

chandelier (from Spanish) Chinese bean cake (from Chinese) mile (from Spanish)

Phonology * xxxi

Orthographic double vowels [phonetically a?a, e?e, i?i, u?o] following two consonants usually take stress on the first vowel, with an intervening glottal stop. manabtuog arinaar manatbaag manabsuok rebbaas

[ma.nab.tu:.?og] [?a.rin.na:.?ar] [ma.nat.ba:.?ag] [ma.nab.su:.?ok] [ruib.ba:.?as]

thump moonlight slam; thump splash aftermath of flood

Words that include two identical CVC sequences separated by a vowel usually will carry the stress on the vowel separating them. arimasâmas arimukamok basibas bugâbog bukibok gusugos guyugoy ngurungor salisal supusop

[?a.ri.ma.sa:.mas] [?a.ri.mu.ka:.mok] [ba.si:.bas] [bu.ga:.bog] [bu.ki:.bok] [gu.su:.gos] [gu.yu:.goy] [qu.ru:.gor] [sa.li:.sal] [su.pu:.sop]

red skies at moonrise slight drizzle hurl a long object to be mixed sorts (rice) overturn; scatter scrub, rub hard suggestion, convincing cut throat contest, competition lengthen; join, add

Exceptions to this rule include: yakayak pidipid

[ya.ka.yak] [pi.di.pid]

sieve closely set together; joined

Words that do not fit into the above categories must be learned separately with regard to stress placement, as in the following set of words with an open penultimate syllable: bales sikap tikaw turéd buns pasét

[bâ:.luis] [si:.kap] [ti:.kaw] [tu.rxud] [bu.ris] [pa.suit]

revenge sly, cunning confuse courage diarrhea part

2.2.1 Secondary stress Aside from underlying stress assigned to polymorphemic enclitics and affixes (see section 2.2.4), there are a few different environments that attract secondary stress. a. Vowels preceding a geminate consonant receive inherent secondary stress (shown with the grave accent below): babbai pannakaturog kappo

[bab.ba:.?i] [pan.na.ka.tu:.rog] [kap.po]

girls ability to sleep clam

xxxii * Phonology mannaniw aggayyem dakkel keggang

[man.na:.niw] [?ag.gay.yuim] [dak.kuil] [ktiig.gang]

poet mutual friends big dried crust of a scab

b. When a reduplicated root results in an open syllable of CV structure, the vowel of the open reduplicated syllable is lengthened with inherent secondary stress: nakabàbain kikiâm agbibiâg dàdaiten

cf. naka- CV bain root word cf. ag- CV- biâg cf. CV- dâit -en

shameful kind of native sausage characters in a script things to be sewn

2.2.2 Stress shift Each root carries an underlying stress on the penult or final syllable. The placement of the stress may shift to the following syllable under the following conditions: a. For stems ending in a consonant or the vowel a, the stress shifts one syllable to the right with suffixation (the -en or -an suffixes). The stress does not shift one syllable to the right if the stressed vowel of the root is preceded by two different consonants, a consonant and a glide (vowel i, u, or o + another vowel), or a consonant followed by a glottal stop: Stress shift: kalawâen ragawân basâen in-inüten

cf. cf. cf. cf.

ka- lâwa + -en ragâw + -an basa + -en in-inut + -en

widen prune (trees) read something do intermittently

cf. cf. cf. cf. cf.

amiân + -an ka- insik + -an lat-óng + -an pulting + -en rabsüt + -en

north China town, China toilet hole cut, sever at stem snatch

No stress shift: amianan Kainsikan lat-óngan pultingen rabsüten

If the stressed vowel of the root is e, the stress shifts with suffixation, regardless of environment: kasingpetân kadak(ke)lan panggepén pangremân kapangtedân paglangdetân pespesén

cf. ka- singpét + -an cf. ka- dakkél + -an cf. panggép + -en cf. pangrém + -an cf. ka- pangtéd + -an cf. pag- langdét + -an cf. pespés + en

most virtuous biggest, largest aim, plan, intend pout at turn, opportunity scapegoat; accuse wrongly squeeze

Phonology * xxxiii If the stressed vowel of the root is preceded by a geminate consonant, stress shifts one syllable to the right with suffixation: ikkaten annaden ibbatan

cf. ikkat + -en cf. annad + -en cf. ibbat + -an

remove, take away beware of let go of, release

The only exceptions to the above rules occur with a few roots beginning with the vowel i: imbag 'good', itlog 'egg', and istay 'almost'. nagistayan pagitlogan iitlogan pagimbagan kaimbagan paimbagen

cf. nag- istay + -an cf. pag- itlog + -an cf. CV- itlog + -an cf. pag- imbag + -an cf. ka- imbag + -an cf. pa- imbag + -en

almost nest uterus of birds interest; benefit best make better, cure

b. For stems ending in a vowel other than a, the suffix will always bear the stress. punnuen kaasian talien sangkaaduan kikien lutuen

cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf.

punno + -en kaasi + -an tali + -en sangka- adu + -an kfki + -en luto + -en

fill have pity on twist into a rope majority tickle cook something

2.2.3 Regression of stress The stress may shift one syllable to the left under the following conditions: a. Certain kinship terms that refer to specific relatives (related to the speaker or addressee) such as ama 'father', ina 'mother', and apo 'grandparent' shift their stress one syllable to the left following the personal article ni or any of its variants {ken, kada, or da): ni ama ken ina da apo

cf. ni + ama cf. ken + ina cf. da + apo

father to mother grandma and grandpa

b. The infix -an- used for onomatopoetic purposes may change an ultimate stress to a penultimate stress provided that the stressed vowel of the derived word is preceded by a single consonant: rumanipak tumanaul lumanipak

cf. ripak + -umancf. taul + -umancf. lipak + -uman-

slam, break (plate) bark repeatedly slap repeatly

2.2.4 Stress in prefixes and enclitics Although prefixes and enclitics may not contribute to a stress change in stems, polysyllabic prefixes and enclitics may carry secondary underlying stress (indicated with the grave accent in the glosses):

xxxiv * Phonology paggatangantayo pag-gatang-an=tayo LOCATIVE-buy-NOMINALIZER= 1 p.INCLUSIVE 'the place where w e buy' pannakangiwattayo pannaka-ngiwat-tayo NOMINALIZER-mouth-lp.INCLUSIVE 'our spokesperson'

3. Consonant Gemination1 Consonant gemination in Ilocano occurs both in root words and as a result of productive derivational affixation. A l l Ilocano consonants may be geminated (except the glottal fricative). In many roots, consonants are underlyingly geminate. ittip

crust of rice that sticks to the bottom of the pot

pittagaw

species of bird

lammin

cold

sammaked

prop; support

ikkat

remove, take away

kappo

clam

balligi

victory, triumph

Some consonants may geminate as a result of derivational affixation. lalaki

boy

lallaki

boys

babai

girl

babbai

girls

asawa

spouse

assawa

spouses, couple

baro

bachelor

babbaro

bachelors

Geminate consonants (t, d, k, m, and n) may result from encliticization: Agdaitto.

He/she will sew.

Tabbedda.

They are stupid.

Nagragsakkan!

How happy you are!

Sardammo.

It is your evening.

Ayanna?

Where is he?

Gemination may also transcend prefix boundaries, where the coda consonant of the prefix matches the onset consonant of the root or following prefix. Naggatangam?

/nag-gatang-an=mo/

'Where did you buy it?' pagattao a sarming 'full-length mirror'

/pagat-tao a sarming/

' In s o m e cases, consonants will geminate d u e to their environment, such as intervocalically preceding t w o v o w e l s and especially b e f o r e the sequences ia and ua. N o orthographic conventions have been established to reflect this gemination, so in the body o f the dictionary, words will be spelled as they are most o f t e n found in texts. C o m m o n w o r d s like takiag ' a r m ' are p r o n o u n c e d [tak.kiag]

but written with a s i n g l e k in modern publications.

Phonology * xxxv Certain prefixes m a y trigger consonant gemination, such as agaC-/agatpagaC-/pagat-

'to smell like' or

'to reach until'.

Pagabbarukongnak. pagaC -barukong=na=ak reach-chest=3s=ls ' S h e reaches my c h e s t ' . Agattakkida. a g a C -takki=da smell-excrement=3p ' T h e y smell like e x c r e m e n t ' . G e m i n a t e nasals may be triggered by fusing a homorganic nasal [N] prefix to certain roots, in which the onset consonant appears as a nasal in the appropriate place o f articulation. 2 tarày

run

mannaray

runner

dàniw

poem

mannàniw

poet

sugai

gamble

mannugàl

gambler

durfken

mollusk

mannuriken

c o l l e c t o r o f mollusks

dàit

sew

mannàit

seamstress

bagi

body

pammagi

physique

pàti

believe

pammati

faith

urna

clear land

mangnguma

slash and b u m farmer

saó

speak

pannaó

word

4. Glottal Stop T h e glottal stop m a y o c c u r in syllable-initial position or in onset position word-medially. A s a variant o f k or t before another consonant, the glottal stop m a y also appear in coda position. U n l i k e in T a g a l o g , there is no word-final glottal stop. In the orthography, word-initial glottal stop is never written, and word-medial glottal stop after a consonant is written with a hyphen. A s all syllables in Docano must have a consonantal onset, words that orthographically begin with a vowel are actually articulated with an initial glottal stop ( S e e also section 6 ) . aso

[?a:.so]

dog

ita

[?i.ta]

now

liken

[?u:.kuin]

puppy

Orthographic double vowels are articulated with an intervening glottal stop, as all syllables take a consonantal onset. In rapid speech, this m a y reduce to a mere audible syllable break. mabiit

[ma.bi.?it]

naalas

[na.Ta.las]

short time ugly

mapuoran

[ma.pu.?u:.ran]

be burned

These actor (maNN-) and instrumental (paNN-) nominalizations result from the regular loss of an unstressed vowel following affixation of maN-/paN- + CV-: Mannaray < *mananaray\pammati < *panamati (Lawrence Reid, p.c.).

2

xxxvi * Phonology kees

[kui:.?uis]

crazy

agtaul

[?ag.ta.?ul]

bark

nagsao

[nag.sa.?o]

spoke

daiten

[da.?i:.tuin]

sew something

tao

[ta:.?o]

man

saan

[sa.?an]

no

ruot

[ru:.?ot]

grass

An initial glottal stop may be seen as an underlying consonant, as in the following reduplications o f ? V C sequences: ad-adda

[?ai/.?ad.da]

m o r e likely

ay-ayam

[?ay.?a:.yam]

toy, g a m e

kaing-ingas

[ka.?iq.?i:.qas]

resembling

in-fnut

[?in.?i:.nut]

gradually

ag-al-al-al

[?ag.?al.?al.?al]

panting

Fully reduplicated words or roots that begin with a glottal stop must c o m m e n c e with a glottal stop b e f o r e the second reduplicated segment: maulit-ulit

[ma.?ii:./!f.?u:.lit]

do repeatedly

inulit-ulit

[?i.nu:.lit.?u:.lit]

done repeatedly

W o r d - m e d i a l glottal stop may be underlying. In this instance, it is written with a hyphen. agug-ôg

[îa.gug.?6g]

cry noisely

nasam-it

[na.sam.?it]

sweet

agdiram-us

[îag.di.ram.îus]

wash the f a c e

agbariw-as

[?ag.ba.riw.îâs]

turn abruptly

al-6

[?al.?ô]

pestle

buy-ông

[buy.?ong]

large belly

T h e consonants k and t may be pronounced as glottal stops b e f o r e another consonant, the only environment where the glottal stop may appear in c o d a position. pukray

[pu?.ray]

poklo

[po?.lo]

ripening

angle brace

(squash)

agtakder

[?ag.ta?.duir]

stand up

itlog

[7it.log]

egg

litnaw

[li?.naw]

clear, transparent

Certain prefixes when used before vowels require that the vowel be articulated with an initial glottal stop (see page xvii). sinan-abôgado

[si.nan.?a.bo.gâ:.do]

f a k e lawyer

akin-uken

[?a.kin.?u:.kuin]

owner o f the puppy

makin-unég

[ma.kin.îu.nuig]

in the interior, inner

agin-uulaw

[?a.gin.?ù.?û:.law]

pretend to b e dizzy

Phonology * xxxvii

5. Morphophonemics (Phonological Changes Due to Affixation) a. The infix -in- may metathesize to ni- before I or r due to Tagalog influence. Both forms are found in spoken Ilocano but the non-metathesized form is preferred in writing. nirugian niluto nilukatan

= rmugian = lmuto = lmukatan

started cooked opened

b. The vowel e of many roots is often lost with affixation that causes it to become unstressed. itdan ulsan pagablan

cf. ited + -an cf. ules + -an cf. pag- abel + -an

give to someone cover with blanket loom

c. With certain roots, single vowels may be lost with affixation: kanen tarimnen luktan

cf. kaan + -en cf. tarimaan + -en cf. lukat + -an

eat something fix open

d. Many roots containing geminate consonants usually undergo two changes under affixation. The geminate consonant becomes single, and the unstressed or de-stressed vowel (often e) is lost: maikatlö lumtég kadaklân pannakatnâg napnö nalpâs nakalpéng pannakapnék bumtâk rumsuâ parsuâ sumgâr

cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf. cf.

maika- tallö lettég + -umka- dakkél + -an pannaka- tinnâg na- punnö na- leppâs naka- leppéng pannaka- pennék bettâk + -umrussuâ + -umpa- + russuâ seggâr + -um-

third swell largest act of falling full finished deafening satisfaction crack; explode emerge creation bristle

e. Certain roots may add epenthetic consonants when affixed: pasfreken sumbrek bisrraden

cf. pa- serrek -en cf. serrek + -umcf. bisrad + -en

let in, allow to enter enter spread open

f. The homorganic nasal (represented as N in the dictionary) assimilates to the first consonant of a root (N > -ng before velars k, g, sonorants r, I, w, y, and vowels; m before labials m, p, b\ and n elsewhere). In some cases, the initial consonant of the root becomes a nasal: pangulotén mamméti mangapkappö panait

cf. paN- kulöt -en maN- pâti maN- CVC- kappö paN- dâit

rather curly to believe gathering clams thread

xxxviii * Phonology na/nituén nanaksí pawiigát pangngeddéng

naNnaNpaNpaN-

bituén saksí bigát keddéng

starry witnessed breakfast decision

g. In a few rare cases, high frequency roots with t/d onsets preceding an unstressed vowel may lose a syllable (*starred forms are not synchronically parsable): manggéd panggedán mangngég makangég pangngegán mambí pagpagténg mapagténg makagténg pamkuátan pambár

maN- teggéd paN- teggéd -an maN- dengngég maka- dengngég paN- dengngég - a n maN- tibbí pag- CVC- daténg mapag- daténg maka(pa)g- daténg paN- *takkuát - a n paN- *tebbár

work employment hear, listen be able to hear insinuate, hint cotton spinner experiences experience, undergo be able to arrive reason for doing excuse

h. Some roots undergoing onomatopoetic affixation undergo internal modification resulting in the reduplication of their second vowel [V 2 ?V 2 ]. These affixes include: Voice affix + -V2-, commonly seen with the following forms: m{an}a- -V 2 -, p(an}a- -V2-, CaC- -V2-, k{an}a- -V2-, and permutations thereof (Rubino 1999). tumpáak rumsíit palbaágen palsuótan dadpúor kaktúol makakréeb pababtuógen mababséet kanadlúog kanakláang manarsíit agkanarsibók panalpaáken panarsaáken ipanabráang

tupák -um- -V 2 rissít -um- -V 2 pa- libág -V 2 - -en pa- lisút -V 2 - -an CaC- dipór -V 2 CaC- kitól -V 2 ma- CaC- kiréb -V 2 pa- CaC- bitóg -V 2 - -en ma- CaC- bisét -V 2 k{an}a- dilóg -V 2 k{an}a- kiláng -V 2 m{an}a- rissít -V 2 ag- k{an}a- rissibók -V 2 p{an}a- lipák -V 2 - -en p{an}a- rissák -V 2 - -en i- p{an}a- biráng -V 2 -

fall down with a thump sizzle, hiss (burning meat) slam a door shoot someone with a pop gun crumbling, rumbling sound clicking sound of heels crash (waves) slam a door dart out; swish continuous thunder successive clattering sounds produce a hissing/crackling sound make a loud splash slap someone in the face crush dry leaves slam

6. Syllabification Every syllable in native Ilocano words is composed of a consonantal onset and vowel, with an optional consonantal coda [CV(C)]. Geminate consonants cross syllable boundaries. árak agsángit nasam-ít

[?á:.rak] [?ag.sá:.i]it] [na.sam.?ít]

wine, alcohol to cry sweet

Phonology * xxxix pagabbarûkong arasâas

[pa.gab.ba.ru:.koq] [?a.ra.sa.?as]

reaching the chest whisper

Each vowel in Uocano maintains its own syllable, except word-finally with a suffix in which the vowel becomes a glide. This rule holds true for all vowel combinations except i followed by a, e, o, or u\ or u followed by a, e, or i. babbâi agsaó lakién babawién agintuturog rüot

[bàb.bâ:.?i] [?ag.sa.?ó] [lak.kyxün] [ba.baw.yiün] [?a.gin.tù.tû:.rog] [ru:.?ot]

girls speak tomboy regret pretend to sleep grass

siâk diâk siémpre diós siuman muâk suér suiti k

[Jâk] [d 3 âk] [Jem.pre] [d30s] [Ju:.man] [mwâk] [swüir] [swi:.tik]

I I don't of course god stepchild without antlers (deer) bronze cheat

but

Two nondiphthongal vowels followed by vowel-initial suffixes become glides but do not lose their consonantal onset, except in high-frequency words such as sao 'speak' in rapid speech. bai én katataodn

[ba.îyuin] [ka.ta.ta.7wan]

effeminate male fiend, nonhuman spirit

sao en or saw én

[sa.?wiün] [sa.wuin]

say

but

GRAMMAR OUTLINE This grammar outline is aimed primarily at introducing the fundamentals of Ilocano word formation that may assist readers in using this dictionary. 1 I will break up the grammar outline into grammatical classes and discuss morphological forms. For a more complete treatment of Ilocano morphology and a discussion of issues in Ilocano syntax, please see Rubino (1997). SYNOPSIS FOR LINGUISTS: Ilocano, like its sister Philippine languages, is a predicate-initial language with a complex, head-marking, highly-prefixing morphology. Affixes denote a wide range of grammatical categories including aspect, focus, number, volition, transitivity, reciprocity, and some lexical categories such as pretense, smell, and relative size. Noun phrases may function as predicates and arguments. As arguments, they are usually preceded by noun markers (articles or demonstratives) that inflect for case (core vs. oblique), number (singular vs. plural), and time. Articles also inflect for reference (common vs. personal). Pronouns inflect for person, number, and case (ergative, absolutive, and oblique). There is an inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person plural forms. When core (non-oblique) pronouns are used with predicates, they are enclitic. There is a pervasive particle (nga/a) used to link related constituents (heads and attributes) called a ligature (§12), and a number of uninfecting adverbial particles (§7.2). All roots (non-p/articles) may be nominalized or verbalized by morphology or syntactic function.

1. Pronouns Ilocano has five sets of pronouns: independent absolutives, independent possessives, enclitic absolutives, enclitic ergative forms, and obliques. Pronouns in Ilocano encode person and number. The first person plural pronouns differentiate inclusivity (including the addressee: I/we + you) and exclusivity (excluding the addressee: we, but not you). Second person pronouns encode respect. Pronouns do not mark gender distinctions. 1.1 The independent absolutive pronouns are summarized below: 2 siak sika isu(na) data dakami datayo dakayo isuda

First person singular (I) Second person singular, informal pronoun (you) Third person singular (he, she, it) First person dual inclusive (you and I) First person plural exclusive (we not you) First person plural inclusive (I/we and you) Second person plural; second person singular formal (you sir or maam) Third person plural (they); second person formal (more formal than dakayo).

Independent pronouns may stand alone in an utterance as full predicates. When a nominal appears in predicate position, it usually serves to identify or contrast a referent: Asino ti napan? Siak.

Who went? I (did).

1 Special thanks to Nikolaus Himmelmann, Marianne Mithun, Lawrence Reid, and Chikao Yoshimura for their helpful comments on a previous version of this grammar outline. 2

The regional variants sita, sikami, sitayo, and sikayo may replace data, dakami, datayo, and dakayo, respectively.

xlii * Grammar Outline He/she (did). They (did). I (was the one who) went to Tagudin. I went to Tagudin. They (are the ones who) are lazy. They are lazy.

Isuna. Isuda. Siâk ti napân idiây Tagudin. cf. Napânak idiây Tagudin. Isuda ti nasadut. cf. Nasadutda.

When partially reduplicated, the independent pronouns express uniqueness: Only Only Only Only

si siâk siksikâ Is-isû(na) Dakdakamf.

I you he/she us (exclusive).

1.2 The enclitic absolutive pronouns (=ak series) The enclitic absolutive pronouns are referred to in the dictionary as the =ak series pronouns to avoid confusion among many linguistic traditions of naming them (absolutive, nominative, focus). In this grammar sketch, we will refer to them as absolutives, as they encode both single arguments of intransitive verbs and patient (object) arguments of transitive verbs, the absolutive category. As second position enclitics, they usually attach to the first constituent of their phrase. The absolutive (=ak series) paradigm is as follows: Independent

=ak series pronoun

English gloss

siâk sikâ isû, isuna datâ, sitâ dakami datayô dakayô isûda

=ak3 =ka 0 , isu =ta =kami =tayo =kayo =da

I you he, she you and I we, not you we and you you (pi); you (formal) they; you (very formal)

lalâki lalâkiak

boy I am a boy

nangân nangânka

ate you ate

Idi napânda idiây Bacnôtan, nagsângitkami. 'When they went to Bacnotan, we cried'. In negative constructions, the absolutive pronouns encliticize to the negative particle (saan or di) in the verb phrase, the first constituent of the verb phrase: Saânda a nangân. Dida nangân.

3

The enclitic

=ak takes

the form

They did not eat. They did not eat.

=akd before

the enclitic

=(e)n,

reflecting its origin.

Grammar Outline * xliii 1.3 The ergative enclitic pronouns The ergative enclitic pronouns are used to indicate possession of a nominal (concrete noun or nominalization) and to indicate the actor of a transitive verb (see section 6). In the body of this dictionary, they are also referred to as the =ko series pronouns to avoid confusion in the many linguistic traditions of naming them (actor, nonfocus subject, genitive). As enclitics, they have the same morpho-syntactic properties as the =ak series pronouns. With verb phrases, they attach to the first constituent. The =ko series paradigm is outlined below: Independent

=ko series

English gloss

siak sikâ isu, isuna data dakami datayo dakayo isuda

=ko, =k =mo, =m =na =ta =mi =tayô =yo =da

my your his, her our (dual, inclusive) our (exclusive) our (inclusive) your (plural); your (polite) their

The first and second person singular pronouns have two forms =ko, =k\ and =mo, =m, respectively. The forms =k and =m are used after vowels and fuse with the suffixes =en or -an where the final -n of the suffix is lost, making these pronouns more like affixes than clitics: balayko pusam inumek Intedko kenkuana.

my house (f. balay 'house') your cat (f. pusa 'cat') I (will) drink something, (f. inumen 'to drink something') I gave it to him.

Ilocano transitive verbs and possessed nouns may express both the actor and patient (or possessor/possessed) pronominally with enclitics. In this case, the =ko pronouns express the agent (or possessor) and the =ak pronouns express the patient (or possessed entity). Some of the forms have fused together and are now portmanteau enclitics that neutralize certain combinations, i.e. -mo/-na + -ak = -nak, -yo/-da + ak = -dak, -na + -ka = -naka, -da/-kami + -ka- -daka, etc.4 ACTOR i

4