Haydn's Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information: Relating to All Ages and Nations 9781463214036

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Haydn f s Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information

Gorgias Reference Classics

2

Gorgias Reference Classics intends to keep valued reference works from the nineteenth century and earlier in circulation. This series will include reference works that have made an impact on the historical understanding of the present day, and which, despite their age, have continued to be utilized by scholars.

Haydnfs Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information

Relating to All Ages and Nations

Benjamin Vincent

i gorgias press 2009

Gorgias Press LLC, 180 Centennial Ave., Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2009 by Gorgias Press LLC

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2009

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&

l ISBN 978-1-59333-797-1 ISSN 1937-3287

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE TO AMERICAN EDITION.

IK preparing this edition of Ilaydn's Dictionary of Dates for American publication, it has been the desire of the publishers to make as few and as slight alterations in the text of the latest English edition as might be.

The American

editor has corrected errors in the English work with respect to American matters; has added American dates to all important titles from which they were omitted in the English work; and has inserted such additional titles, relating to American subjects, as were necessary to fit the work for the use of American readers. He has omitted none of the many titles concerning English matters which would be deemed superfluous if the work were American in its origin, nor has it been possible, without swelling the book to undue size, to add an equally full list of American titles; but it is believed that the additions made include all important matters in American history which readers expect to find in such a work.

The

Dictionary, as it is now offered to the public, is simply the latest English edition of Haydn with American dates added, and errors of statement and date concerning American matters corrected. GEORGE C A E Y

EGGLESTOK.

PKEFÀCE TO THE SEVENTEENTH EDITION.

"WIIEN

Mr. Joseph Haydn first published this work (in 1841), it was well

received, as iu jome degree supplying a public want; and six editions had been sold, in 1855, when I was earnestly requested by the publisher, Mr. Edward Moxon, to superintend the printing of a new edition.

This led, eventually,

to my undertaking its thorough renovation, which has been effected by longcontinued labor in revision and in selection from an abundance of valuable materials, and now little of the original work remains; the present edition containing twice as much matter as the sixth, published in 1853, at the same price. The new features include Chronological Tables at the beginning of the volume, innumerable literary, scientific, topographical, and geographical facts inserted in the body of the work, and a Dated Index.

To make room for these additions,

the size of the page has been enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed in smaller type, and much useless matter has been expunged. TEENTH EDITION

This

The SIX-

was published in October, 1878.

SEVENTEENTH

EDITION

has been thoroughly revised, and includes the

general history of the world during the last three years, continued under the heads of the respective countries; the more important events being noticed in separate articles.

Especial attention has been given to the affairs of our own

country, political, ecclesiastical, social, commercial, and philanthropic.

Details

are given of our recent wars in Afghanistan and South Africa, and of the troubles in Ireland, Russia, and Turkey.

The progress of science, and its applications

(such as electricity and the electric light, the telephone, and the discovery of new planets and new metals), have been specially noticed, and many small articles have been inserted relating to topics liable to arise in general conversation. This edition contains forty-eight pages more than the last, published in 1878, and one hundred and forty-six more than that published in 1873. Above a quarter of a century has elapsed since my first connection with this work, and I still feel encouraged to continue to endeavor to make it, not a mere

viii

PREFACE.

Dictionary of Dates, but a dated Cyclopaedia, a digested summary of every department of human history, brought down to the eve of publication; acting under the influence of the old maxims, " H o m o sum; humani nihil a me alienum jputo," and " Nulla dies sine lined."

The kindness of those friends who

have pointed out some of the errors and omissions, which are almost unavoidable in a work of such scope and magnitude, is gratefully acknowledged. The more important events that have occurred during the printing of this edition are noticed in the Addenda, page 767. BENJAMIN VINCENT. ROYAL INSTITUTION, ALBEMABLE STREET, LONDON, Sept.

1881.

W.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. THE design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its possession material to every individual—in the same manner that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. . . . The Compiler persuades himself that the

DICTIONAEY

OF

DATES

will be

received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the range or design of such publications. JOSEPH LONDON, May,

1841.

HAYDN.

[Died Jan. 17, I860.]

T A B L E OP C O N T E M P O R A R Y

Peninsula.

Great Britain. France. England. I Scotland.

Castit.e ani» Leon.

Germany. Hungary. AKAGON.

1066. Will. 1. 1057. Male. 3. 1060. Philip 1. 1066. Sancho 2. 1065. Sancho. 1093. Donald '1072. Alfonso 6. 10SÏ. Will. 2. 1094. Dune. 1094. Donald! 1094. Peter. again. 1098. Edgar.

ì 'o L'I 1065. Sancho of 1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Soioin. Castile. emperor 1072. Alfonso 6. 1075. Geisa. 1076. Lad. 1. 1093. Henry, 1098. C o l o count. man.

1100.Ilen.l. 1107. Alex.l. 1108. Louis 6. 1109. Urraca and 1104. Alfonso 1. 1112. Alfonso, as 1106. Hen. 5. Alfonso 7. colint. 1126. Alfonso 1. 1124. Dav. 1. 1125. Loth. 2. 1137. Louis 7. 1135. Steph. 1134. Ramiro. 1137. Petronella 1139. Alfonso 1, 113S. Conr.3. 1154. IIen.2. 1153. Mal. 4. as king. 1157. Sancho 3. and Raymond, 1158. Alfonso 8. 1165. Will. 1152. Fred. 1. 1172. (Ireld. 1163. Alfonso 2. annexed.) 1180. Philip 2. 1188. Alfonso 9. llS9.Rich.l. 1185. Sancho 1. 1190. Hen. 6. (Leon.) 1196. Peter 2. 1198. Philip. 1199. J o h n . 1216. lieu.3.

1214. Alex.2.

1223. Louis 8. 1226. Louis 9.

1249. Alex.3.

1214. Henry 1.

1213. J a m e s 1.

1114. Step. 2. 1131. Bela 2. 1141. GeisaS. 1161. Step. 3. 1173. Bela 3.

1196.Emeric.

1212. Alfonso 2. 1208. Otho 4. 1204. Lad. 2.

1217. Ferdin. 3. (Castile.) 1230. (Leon.)

1223. Sancho 2.

1252. Alfonso 10.

1248. Alfonso 3. 1250. Conr.4.

1215. Fred. 2. 1205. And. 2. 1235. Bela 4.

1254.WH1. 1272. E d . 1.

1270. Philip 3.

1284. Sancho 4. 1282. (Wales Interregnen. 12S5. Philip 4. annexed. ) 1292. J o h n Balio!. 1295. Ferdin. 4.

1276. Peter 3. 1285. Alfonso 3. 1291. J a m e s 2.

1257. Rich. 1270. Step. 4. 1279. Dionysius, 1273. Ro1272. Lad. 8. or Denis.' dolph. 1292. Adolp. 129S. Alb. 1. 1290. And. 3.

1307. Ed. 2. 1306. Robert 1308. Hen. 7. 1301. Charo(Bruce) 1. 1314. Louis 10. 1312. Alfonso 11. 1314. Lou. 5. bert. 1316. J o h n 1. 1327. Alfonso 4. 1325. Alfonso 4. Phil. 5. 1327. Ed. 3. 1329. Dav. 2. 1332.Ed.Bal. 1321. Chas. 4. 1336. Peter 4. 1342. Dav. 2 1328. Phil. 6. again. 1342. Louis. 1347. Chas. 4. 1350. J o h n 2. 1350. Peter. 1357. Peter. 1367.Ferdinand. 137S. Wen137T.Rlcll.2. 1371. Robert 1364. Chas. 5. 1369. Henry. 1379. J o h n 1. 1387. J o h n 1. 2 (Stuart). ceslas. 1382. Mary. 1390.Rob.3. 1380. Chas. 6. 1383. J o h n 1. 1387. Mary & 1395. Martin. 1390. Henry 2. 1399. Hell.4. 1400.Rupert. Sigismund. 1410. Interreg. 1406. J o h n 2. 1406. Jas. 1. 1410. Sigismund. 1412. Ferdinand 1413. Hen. 5. 1422. Chas. 7. of Sicily. 1422. Hen.6. 1416. Alfonso 5. 1433. Edward. 1437. J a s . 2. 1454. Henry 4. 1438. Alfonso 5. 1438. Albert. 1458. J o h n 2. 1460. J a s . 3. 1440. Fred. 3. 1440. Lad. 4. 1479. Ferdin. 2. 1461.Louis 11. 1474. Isabella. 1461. Ed. 4. 1445. Lad. 5. 1458. MatSpain. thias. 1483. Ed. 5. 1490. Lad. C. 1483. Chas. 8. 1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 1481. J o h n 2. 1493. Max. 1. 1483.Rieti.3. 1499. Switz. 1485. Heu.7. 1488. Jas. 4. independ. 149S. Louis 12. 1495. Emanuel.

EUROPEAN

SOVEREIGNS.

Scandinavia. Poland. SWEDEN.

1060. Halstan.

NOEWAY.

1069. Olaf.

DENMARK.

1093. Magnus.

1112. Philip. 1118. Ingo 2. 1129. Swerker.

1103. Sigurd 1, 1105. Eric 2. and others.

1156. Eric 1.

1130. Magnus 4, and others.

1161. Char. T.

Civil war and anarchy.

1167. Canute.

1199. Swerker 2.

1122. Sigurd 1.

1186. Swerro.

POPES.

1047. Sweyn 2. 1058. B o l e s - 1068. Eom. 4. 1076. Harold. 1080. Canute 4. ¡2.Ladis- 1071. Mich. 7. 1086. Olaus 4. las. 11078. Nicep.3. 1095. Eric 1. 1081. Alexius.

1090. Ingo.

Italy.

Eastern Empire.

N A P L E S ANI> S I C I L Y .

1061. Alex. 2. 1073. Greg. 7. 1086. Victor 3. 1088. Urban 2. 1099. Pascal 2.

1118. Gelas 2. 1102.Boles.3. 1118. J o h n Comneuus. 1119. Calixt. 2. 1124. Honor. 2. 1130. Innoc. 2. 1143. Celest. 2. 1144. Lucius 2. 1138. Lad. 2. 1143. Manuel 1145. Eugen.3. 1137. Eric 3. Comneuus. 1153.Anasta.4. 1145.Koles.4. 1147. Sweyn 3. 1154. Adrian 4. Canul e 5. 1159. Alex. 3. 1173. Miecis1157. Walde1181. Lucius 3. las 3. 1180. Alex. 2. 1185. Urban 3. mar. 1178. Casi1183. Andro- 1187. Greg. 8. mir 2. g e n s C. Clem. 3. 1185. Isaac 2. 1191. Celest. 3. 1182. Canute 6. ,1194. Lcsk. 5. 1195. Alex. 3. 1198. Innoc. 3.

1131. Roger 1.

1154. William 1. 1166.William 2. 1189. Tancred. 1194.William 3. 1197. Fred. 2, ofGerm'y.

1202. Hako 3, 1202. Walde. 2. 1200. Miec. 3.1204. Theodo. 1216. Honor. 3. 1202. Lad. 3. 1222. J o h n 1227. Greg. 9. and others. 1227.Boles.5. Ducas. 1241. Celest. 4. 1207. Hako 4. 1243. Innoc. 4. 1250. Conrad. 1222. Eric 3. 1241. Eric 4. 1254. Alex. 4. 1254. Conradin. 1255. Theo. 2. 1261. Urban 4. 1258. Manfred. 1250. Abel. 1252. Christo. 1265. Clem. 4. 1260. Charles of Anjou. 1258. J o h n 1259. Eric 5. 1268-9. Vacant. 1250. Birger, Jarl Lascaris. 1271. Greg. 10. 1263. Magnus 6. 1259. Mich. S. 1276. Innoc. 5. 1266. Waldemar. Adrian 5. 1276. J o h n 21. Sicily. 1279. Lesk. 6. 1277-Nichol. 3. 1275. Magnus 1. 1281. Martin 4. 1280. Eric. 1282.Peter 1285. Honor. 4. of Aragon. 1289. Anarc. 1282. Andro- 1288.Nichol. 4. 1285.Chas.2. 1285. Jas. nicus 2, 1292-3. Vacant. 1290. Premis1294.Celest.fi. ias. 1299. Hako 5. Bonif. 8. 1290. Birger 2. 1296.Ladis.4. 1295.Fred. 2. 1303. Bene. 11. 1309. Robt. 1300. Winces1305. Clem. 5. las. United to 1320. Christo. 2. 1319. Magnus 2. (A vignon.) Sweden. 1314^15. Vac't. 1334. Interreg. 1333. Cas. 3. 1332. And. 3. 1316. John 22. 1334. Bene. 12. 1337. Pet. 2. 1341. J o h n 5. 1342. Clem. 6. 1343. Joan 2 1342. Louis. 1340. Walde. 3. 1350. Eric 4. 1352. Innoc. 6. & And'w 1355.Fred.3, 1359. Magnus 3. 1362. Urban 5. ofHung. 1375. Tnterrea. 1370. Louis. 1363. Albeit. 1376. Olaus 5. (Home.) 1349. Louis. 1376.Maria & Martin. 1870. Greg. 11. 1382. Mary. 1389. United to 1389. Margaret. Denmark. 1387. Margaret. 1384. Hedw. 1391. Manuel 1378. Urban 6. 1381.Chas.3. 6. 1389. Bonif. 9. 1385.Ladislas. 1390. Lad. 5. 1210. Eric 2. 1216. J o h n 1.

1412. Eric 13. 1440. Christopher 3. 1448. Charles 8. j 1457. Christian 1. 1483. John of Denmark.

1404. Innoc. 7. 1425. J o h n 6. 1406. Greg. 12. 1409. Alex. 5. ¡1410. John 23. 1448. Con1417. Martin 5. stallt. 13. 1431. Eugen. 4. 1445. Casi. 4. 1447. Nicll. 5. 1448. Christ'n 1. 1455. Calix. 3. Turkey. 1458. Pius 2. 1433. Moham- 1464. Paul 2. med 2.'1471. Sixtus 4. 1481. John. 14S1. Bajaz. 2.! 1484. Innoc. 8. 1492. Albert. 1492. Alex. 6. 1434. Lad. 6.

1402.Mart.l. 1409. Mart. 2. 1414. Joan 2. (United to Aragon.) 1410.Ferd.2. 1416.A1Í0.1. 1435. Alfonso 1. 1458.Ferd.1.1458. John. 1479. Ferd. 1494.A1Í0.2. 1495.Ferd.2. 1496.Fred.2.

T A B L E OF

Peninsula.

Great Britain. France. ENGLAND.

1509. Hen.8.

1547. Ed. 0. 1553. Mary. 1558. Eliz.

SCOTLAND.

1513. J a s . 5.

1542. Mary.

1567. J a s . 6.

CONTEMPORARY

1515.Fr'ncisl.

1547. Henry 2.

CASTILE AND LEON.

Germany. Hungary. AEAGON.

PoiiTCGAL.

1516. Lou. 2. 1519. Chas. 5 1526. J n . Za(1 of Spain). polski and Ferd. 2.

1504. J o a n n a & Ferdinand 2. Philip 1.

Spain.

1521. J o h n 3.

1512. Ferd. 5 (Cae t.), 2 (Aragon). 1516. Charles 1 ( 5 of Germ. 1519).

Holland.

1559.Fr'ncis 2. 1560. Chas. 9.

(EMPEROHS — K I N G S OF

HUNG A K Y . )

1557. Sebastian.

1574. Henry 3. 1550. Philip 2.

1579. William of 1578. Henry. Orange, stadt- 1580. Annexed Spain. holder.

15S9. Henry 4.

15S7. Maurice.

to

1603. J a m e s 1 (6 of Scot.). 1610. Louis 13. 1021. Philip 4. 1625. Charles 1. 1598. Philip 3. 1643. Louis 14. 1649. Commonwealth. 1605. Charles 2. 1660. Charles 2. 1685. J a m e s 2. 1689. William and Mary. 1700. Philip 5. 1694. William 3.

Kingd. restored. 1640. J o h n of 1647. William 2. Braganza. 1650-72. No 1656. Alfonso 6. stadtholder. 1667. Peter, 1672. Will. Hen. regent. (Will. 3 of 1683. Peter 2. England).

1702. Anne. 1714. George 1.

1702-47. Xo 1706. J o h n 5. stadtholder.

1727. George 2.

1715. Louis 15. 1724. (abdicated). Louis. u Philip 5, again.

1625. Fred. Hen.

1746. Ferd. 6. 1747. Will. Hen. 1750. J o s e p h . 1757. William 4. 1759. Charles 3.

1760. George 3.

1558. Ferdi n a n d . 1564. Maxi aiilian 2. 1576. R u d o p h 2.

1612. Mathias. 1019. F e r d i n a n d 2. 1637. Ferdinand 3. 165S. Leopold 1.

1705. J o s e p h . 1711. Chas. 6.

Prussia.

1701. F r e d . 1. 1713. Fred. William 1. 1742. Chas. 7. 1740. Fred. 2. 1745.Fr'ncis.

1765. Jos. 2. 1777. Maria and Peter 3. 1786. Maria, 1786. Fred. 1783. [United States inWilliam 2. alone. 17S8. Charles 4 dependent.] 1790.Leop. 2. 1797. Fred. 1793.Louis 17. {abdicated). 1795. Annexed to 1791. J o h n , regent. 1792. F r a n . 2. William 3. Republic 1. France. 1774. Louis 10.

1802. C'ns'l'te. 1808. Ferd. 7 1S16. Lou., king. {dethroned). 1811. (George, Prince of lS04.Napol. 1. Jos.Bonap. Netherlands. Wales, regent.) 1S14. Louis 18. 1S14. Ferd. 7 {restored). 1814. Will. Fred. 1810. J o h n 6. king.* 1S20. George 4. 1S24. Chas. 10. 1826. Peter 4. Maria 2. 182S. Miguel. 1S33. Maria 2. 1830. L. Phil. 1S30. William 4. 1833. Isabella 2. 1840. William 2. 1S37. Victoria. 1848. Repub. 2. 1S49. William 3. 1S53. Peter 5. 1852. Napol. 3. 1808. (dethroned). 1870. Amadeua 1870. Ttepub. 3. (iabdicated 1873). 1ST!. L. A. Thiers, pres. 1S73. Marshal 1873. Republic. MacMahon. 1875. Alfonso 12. 1S79. J. Grevy.

ISfil. Luis 1.

• BELGIUM.—1831, Leopold 1; 1S65, Leopold 2.

Austria. 1806. Fran. 1.

1835. Ferd. 2. 1840. F r e d . "William 4.

1S48. Francis Joseph.

1860. Will. 1.

1871. Emperor of GERMANY.

EUROPEAN

SOVEREIGNS.—Continued,

Scandinavia.

Turkish Empire.

Poland. Sweden,

Noeway.

Denmark.

Italy. Poras.

1501. Alex. 1503, Pius 3. 1513.Christa.2, 1500. Sig. 1. 1512. Sclim. Julius 2. 1513. Leo 10. 1522. Adrian 6. 1520. Soly1523. Fred. 1 1523. Gustavus man 2. 1523, Clem. T. Russia.* and Norway. 1534. Paul 3. Vasa. 1550. Julius 3. 1533. Ivan 4. 1555. Marcel.2. 1534.Christn.3. 1548. Sig. 2. Paul 4. 1559. Pius 4. 1559. Fred. 2. 1566. Selim 2. 1566. Pius 5. 1560. Eric 14. 15T2. Greg. 13. 1573. Ilenry. 1574. Amn- 15S5. Sixtus 5. 1568. John 3. 1575. Steph. l-ath 3, 1590. Urban 7. 15S4. Feodor 1. Greg. 14. 158S. Christa. 4. 1587. Sig. 3. 1591. Iunoc.9. 1592. Sigismund. 1595. Mah. 3. 1592. Clem. 8. 1598. Boris.

Napi.i:g a n d

Sicily.

1501. United to Spain.

1520. Christian 2.

1604. Charles 9. 1611. Gustavus 1606. Basil. Adolphus. 1613. Michael (Romanoff) 1033. Christina. 1645. Alexis. 1648. Fred. 3. 1654. Charles 10. 1060. Charles 11. 1676. Feodor. 1670. Christa. 5. 1682. Ivan 5 and Peter 1. 169T. Charles 12. 1689. Peter 1. 1699. Fred. 4.

1603. A eli. 1. 1617. Must. 1. 1618. Osm. 2. 1022. Mustapha, again. 1632. l a d . 7. 1648. John C. 1623. Ani. 4. 1669. Mich. 1640. Ibrah. 1674. John 1648. Mah. 4. Sobieski. 1687.Solvm. 3. 1697. Fred. 1691. A eh. 2. August. 1. 1695. Must. 2.

1704. Stall. 1, 1T19. Ulrica and 1709. Fred. Frederick 1. 1725. Cather. 1. 1727. Peter 2. Augustus, 1730. Anne. 1730. Christa. 6. restored. 1733. Fred. 1740. Ivan 6. August. 2. 1T41. Fred. 1. 1741. Elizabeth. 1746. Fred. 5. 1751. Adolphus Frederick. 1764. Stan. 2. 1762. Peter 3. 1766. Christa. 7. Cather. 2. 1771. Gustav. 3. 1792. Gustav. 4.

1796. Paul 1.

1855. Alex. 2. 1859. Charles 15.

1872. Oscar 2. 1881. Alex. 3.

1676.Illll0C.ll.

1689. Alex. 8. 109l.[nnoc.l2. 1700. Clem. 11. Naples and 1721.Tnnoc.13. 1724. Bene. 13.

Sicily.

Sardinia.f

1713.Chas.3. Naples. Victor Am. of Sa1754. Osm. 3. voy, Sicily. 1720. Victor 1757. Must. 3. 1758. Clem. 13. 1720. Annex, Amadeus. to Germany. 1730. Chas. 1769. Clem. 14. 1774. Abdul- 1775. Pius 6. 1738.Chas.4. Emman. 1. Naples. 1773. Victor Hamid 1 1784. Prince 1759.Fred.4. Amadeus 2. or Ach. 4. Fred-, regent. Sicily. 1796. Chas. 1789. Selim 3. 1795. PartiEmman. 2. 1800. Pius T. tion.

ISO». Charles 13. 1801. Alex. 1. 1808. Fred. 6. 1814. Norway 1814. Norway antaken away, nexed. 1818. Charles 14. 1828. Nicholas.

1844. Oscar 1.

1703. Acll. 3.

1605. Leo 11. Paul 5. 1621. Greg. 15. 1623. Urban 8. 1644. Innoc.10. 1655. Alex. 7. 1667. Clem. 9. 1070. Clem. 10.

1730. Mah. 5.

1730. Clem. 12. 1740. Bene. 14.

1507. Must. 4. 1508. Mahmud 6, 1S23. Leo 12.

1S02. Victor Emman. 1. 1805.Annex, 1806. Joseph to kingdom Bonaparte. of Italy. 1829. Pius 8. 1808. Joach. 1832. Otho 1. 1831. Greg. 16. Murat. 1839. Christa. 8. 1839. Abdul Medjid, 1814. Victor 1846. Pius 9. Naples and Emman. 1. 1S4S. Fred. 7. Sicily. 1821. Chas. Felix. lSlö.Ferd.l. 1831. Chas. Albert. 1825. Fran.1. 1830.Ferd.2. 1S49. Victor 1859. Fran. 2. Emman. 2. Km. Annex, 1861. Abdul to Italy. Aziz. 1863. Christa. 9. 1863. Geo. 1. 1S76. AmuItaly. rath 5. May 1S76. AbdulHamid 2. 1878. Leo 13. 1861. Victor Emmanuel. August. 1878. Humbert.

Greece.

* See article Kitssia for preceding Eulers.

t See article Savoy.

Naples.

P O P U L A T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T S OP THE W O R L D . {According

COUNTRIES—RELIGIONS.

to the Almanack

cle Gotha.)

POPULATION.

Anhalt, E....Population in Dec. 1ST5 213,689 Argentine Confederation,/i.e... 1S69 1,877,490 Austrian Empire, R.C. (after cession 1806) Dec. 1875 37,904,435 Baden, R.C. Dec. 1875 1,507,179 Bavaria, R. C. (after cessions 1866) Dec. 1S75 5,022,390 Belgium, R.C. Dec. 1875 5,403,006 Bolivia, R.C 1880 2,325,000 Brazil, R.C. 1876 10,108,291 Brunswick, L Dec. 1875 327.493 Bulgaria 1873 1,965,474 Chili, R.C. 1876 2,136,724 Chinese Empire (estimated), B.. 1877 434,600,000 Colombia, state, R.C 1880 3,000,000 Costa Rica, R.C. 1S80 185,000 Denmark & colonies, L. (estm.). 1876 2,032,000 Egypt, etc., M. 1874 16,922,000 Equator, R. C. (estimated) 1877 1,040,400 Prance alone,R.C. 1876 86,905.78S Germany, R.C., L. and E... .Dec. 1875 42,727,360 Gt. Britain & colonies, P. (estm.) 1877 238,159,800 Greece & Ion. Is., Q.C. (estm.)... 1870 1,457,894 Guatemala, R.C. 1S80 1,190,754 Hayti (estimated) 572,000 Hesse-Darmstadt, L 1S75 884,21S Holland, not colonies, C 1S79 4,037,010 Honduras, R. C. 1874 351,700 Italy, R.C. (estimated) Dec. 1S75 27,165,553 Japan (estimated) 35 to 40 mil. Liberia, P 880,000 Liechtenstein, R.C 1876 8,664 Lippe, C. Dec. 1875 112,452 Mecklenbarg-Schwerin, L. .Dec. 1S75 553,785 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, L 1S75 95,673 9,6S6,777 Mexico, R.C. (estimated) 1879 5,741 Monaco, R.C. 1373 170,000 Montenegro, O.C. (estm.) 1S75 8,000,000 Morocco, M. about 300,000 Nicaragua, R.C 1S75 314,591 Oldenburg, P. (estimated) 1871 Papal States annexed to Italy.... 1S70 221,079 Paraguay, R.C 1873 7,000,000 Persia, M. (estimated) 1877 2,673,075 Pern, R.C. (estimated) 1S76 7,64S,729 Portugal and col. t ll.C Dec. 1872 Prussia, E Dec. 1875 25,742,204 149,360 Heuss, h 1871 4,500,000 Roumania (Dan. Prncip.), estm. 1S75 Russia, O.C., Poland, etc. (estm.) 1S74 85,685,945 69,800 Sandwich Islands (Hawaii, etc.). 1861 7,816 Sail Marino, R.C 1874 600,000 San Salvador,R.C. 1874 145, S44 Saxe-Altenburg, P. 1875 1S2,599 Saxe-Cobnrg-Gotha, L 1S75 194.494 Saxe-Meiningen, L 1875 292,933 Saxe-Weiinar-Eisenach, L 1S75 2,760,5SG Saxony, P 1S75 33,133 Schailmburg-Lippe, L 1S75 76,670 Schwartzburg-Rlldolstadt, /. 1S75 67,480 Schwartzburg-Sondershauseu.L. 1875 1,333,505 Servia, G.C. (estimated) 1S73 Spain aud colonies,R.C. (estm.). 1870 25,779,976 136,500 St. Domingo, R.C. (estimated) 6,137,559 Sweden, Norway, L. (estimated). 1871 2,759,854 Switzerland, R. C. and P... .Dec. 1876 Turkish Empire, M. (estimated). 1874 47,627,000 450,000 Uruguay, R.C 1875 1,7S4,194 Venezuela, R. C. 1S73 1,831,505 Wurtemberg, L 1875 United States of America, P 18S0 50,155,783

ACCESSION.

Frederick, duke N. Avelianeda, president..

) April, 1831.

22 May, 1871. 12 Oct. 1874.

Francis Joseph, emperor. Frederick, grand-duke

18 Aug. 1S30 9 Sept. 1S26.

2 Dec. 184S. 24 April, 1852.

Louis II., kin;7 Leopold II., king N. Camyero, president Pedro II., emperor William, duke Alexander I., prince Anibal Pinto, president Kwang-su, emperor Aquileo Parra, president Thomas Guardia, president Christian IX., king Mehemed Tewfik, khedive J . de Veintamilla(?), president.. Jules Grevy, president William I., emperor Victoria, queen George I., king Rufinos Barrios, president Gen. Salomon Louis IV., grand-duke William III., king M. A. Soto, president Humbert I., king Montz Hito, mikado A. W. Gardner,president John I I p r i n c e Waldemar, prince Frederic Francis, grand-duke .. Frederic William, grand-duke.. Manuel Gonzales, president.... Charles III., prince Nicholas I., prince Mnley Hassan, sultan Joaquin Znvala, president Peter, grand-duke Leo XIII., pope Candido Bareivo, president Nassir-ed-Deen, shah N. de Pierola, president Luis I., king William I., king Henry XXII., prince Chs. of Ilohenzollern, king Alexander III., czar Kalakaua I., king Capitani reggenti R. Zaldivar, president Ernest, duke Ernest II., duke George II., duke Chas. Alexander, grand-duke... Albert, king Adolphus, prince George, prince Charles, prince Milan IV Alfonso XII F. A. de Merino Oscar II., king E. Marte, president Abdul-Hamid II., sultan F. S. Vidal,president A. G. Blanco, president Charles, king Chester A. Arthur, president...

25 Aug. 1845 9 April, 1835

10 March, 1864. 10 Dec. 1865. 1 June, 1880. 7 April, 1831. 20 April, 1831. 29 April, 1879. IS Sept. 1876. Jail. 1875. 1 April, 1876. Oct. 1877. 15 Nov. 1863. 8 Aug. 1879. 8 Sept. 1876. 30 Jan. 1879. IS Jail. 1871. 20 June, 1S37. 6 June, 1SC3. 1S79. July, 1876. 13 June, 1877. 17 March, 1S49. 29 May, 1877. 9 Jan. 1878. 1S67. 18S0. 12 Nov. 1S5S. 8 Dec. 1S75. 7 March, 1842. 6 Sept. 1860. 1 Dec. ISSO. 20 June, 1856. 14 Aug. 1860. 25 Sept. 1873. 1 March, 1879. 27 Feb. 1853. 20 Feb. 1878. 25 Nov. 1878. 10 Sept. 1848. 23 Dec. 1879. 11 Nov. 1861. 2 Jan. 1S61. 8 Nov. 1859. 20 April, 1866. 13 March, 1881. 12 Feb. 1874.

2 Dec. 1825.. 25 April, 1806 5 April, 1857 1871... S April, 1818 1852 15 Aug. 1813 22 March, 1797 24 May, 1S19 24 Dec. 1845. 12 Sept. 1S37 19 Feb. 1817 14 March, 1844. 1852 5 Oct. 1840 18 April, 1824.. 28 Feb. 1S23 ... 17 Oct. 1819.... 8 Dec. 1813. 7 Oct. 1S41. 8 July, 1827.... 2 March, 1810.. 1830. 31 Oct. 1838.... 22 March, 1797. 28 March, 1S46. 20 April, 1839.. 10 March. 1845. 16 Nov. 1836... 16 Sept.1826... 21 June, ISIS .. 2 April, 1826... 24 June, 1818 .. 23 April, 1828.. 1 Aug. 1817. . . . 23 Nov. 183S. .. 7 Aug. 1830.. .. 28 Nov. 1857... 10 Aug. 1854.., 21 Jail'. 1829 .. 22 Sept. 1842... 6 March, 1823.. 5 Oct. 1830....

May, 1876. 3 Aug. 1853. 29 Jail. 1844. 20 Sept. 1S06. S July, 1853. 29 Oct. 1873. 21 Nov. 1800. 26 Nov. 1869. 17 July, 1S80. 10 June, 1868. 2 July, 1874. ISSO. 15 Sept. 1872. 4 June, 1S77. 31 Aug. 1S76. 11 March, 1880. 1879. 25 June, 1S64. 19 Sept. 1881.

Predominant Religions.—R.C'., Konmii Catholic; G.C., Greek Church; P., Protestant; L., Lutheran; E., Evangelical Church—a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans; C., Calvinist or Reformed: M.. Mahometan: B., Buddhist.

D I C T I O N A R Y OF D A T E S . AAR

ABE

A a r g a u ( S w i t z e r l a n d ) , f o r m e r l y included in Berne, was made an independent canton in 1803, and settled as such in 1815. I t was ranch disturbed b y religious dissensions in 1841; and the expulsion of the Jesuits was demanded in 1844.

abbots of R e a d i n g , Glastonbury, and St. John's, Colchester, w e r e executed as traitors for d e n y i n g the king's supremacy, probably for not surrendering their abbeys, 1539; see Glastonbury.

Abacus,

the tile on the capital of a column. That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 B.C.—This name is also g i v e n to a f r a m e traversed b y stiff wires, on w h i c h beads were strung, used f o r calculating b y the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. L a l a n n e published an ABACUS at Paris in 1845.—The multiplication-table has been called the P y t h a g o r e a n abacus. A b a n c a y , a r i v e r in P e r u , on the banks of which the Spanish marshal A l m a g r o defeated and took prisoner A l v a r a d o , a partisan of Pizarro, 12 J u l y , 1537. A b a t t o i r s , s l a u g h t e r - h o u s e s for cattle. I n 1810 N a p o l e o n decreed that five should be erected near Paris, w h i c h w e r e opened in 1818. O n e was erected at E d i n b u r g h in 1851; and t h e y form part o f the n e w L o n d o n metropolitan cattle - market, opened on 13 June, 1855. Abattoirs were first introduced i n t o A m e r i c a in 1866.

Abbassides, descendants of M a h o m e t ' s uncle, A b b a s - B e n - A b d u l - M o talleb. M e r w a n I I . , the last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by A b u l A b b a s in 750, and became caliph. T h i r t y - s e v e n Abbasside caliphs (including H a r o u n al Raschid, 786-809) reigned f r o m 750 to 1*258. T h e y settled at B a g d a d , built b y A l - M a n sour about 7G2. T h e i r color was b l a c k ; that of the F a t i m i t e s b e i n g green, and that of the O m m i a d e s w h i t e . Abbaye, a m i l i t a r y prison near St.-Germain-desPres, Paris, w h e r e 164 prisoners were murdered b y i n furiated republicans led b y Maillard, 2 and 3 Sept. 1792. Abbeville, N . France. H e r e H e n r y I I I . met L o u i s I X . of F r a n c e and made peace, renouncing his r i g h t to N o r m a n d y and other provinces, 20 M a y , 1259. A b b e y s , monasteries for men or w o m e n ; see Monachism and Convents. T h e first a b b e y founded in E n g land was at Bangor in 560; in France, at Poitiers, about 3 6 0 ; in Ireland in the f i f t h c e n t u r y ; in Scotland in the s i x t h century. 110 alien priories were suppressed in E n g l a n d , 2 H e n r y Y . 1414.—Salmon. T h e gross disorders in these establishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. A f t e r visitations of inquiry, k i n g H e n r y V I I I . commenced the suppression of small monasteries to raise revenues for W o l s e y ' s colleges at O x f o r d and I p s w i c h , 7 June, 1525; m a n y small monasteries were suppressed in 1586; and all religious houses w e r e suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 1539-40— 186 l a r g e monasteries ( r e v e n u e 104,919/. 13s. 3cZ.), 347 less monasteries (revenue 33,479/. 13s. 7f. 1600. K. C. His t h e o r e m of t h e h a r m o n i c c u r v e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y Dr. Achaia invaded b y E p a m i n o n d a s 3G6 Brook Taylor in 1714; f u r t h e r p e r f e c t e d by D ' A l e m b e r t , E u The ACHAEAN' LKAUUE revived by lour cities about 280, ler, Bernouilli. a n d La (¡range, a t v a r i o u s p e r i o d s of t h e a n d by o t h e r s 275, 274 eighteenth century. A r a t u s m a d e praetor 245 Hookc calculated t h e v i b r a t i o n of s o u n d s b y t h e s t r i k i n g of The league j o i n e d bv Corinth (captured 243), Megara, t h e teeth of brass wheels, 1081. etc ' 242-228 S a u v e u r d e t e r m i n e d t h e n u m b e r of v i b r a t i o n s belonging to a S u p p o r t e d by A t h e n s and A n t i g o n u s Doson 229 given note, a b o u t 1700. The Aehieans defeated a t Ladocea, b y t h e Spartans, under Cleomenes III.. 226; totally defeat t h e m at Sellasia 221 Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second by Gassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini. Römer, a n d o t h e r s ; 908 feet by NewThe Social w a r begun ; battle of Caphyac in A r c a d i a ; t o n ; 1090 feet, at t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of 32° F a h r e n h e i t , b y A r a t u s defeated 220 Tyndall, The velocity i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e rise of t e m p e r a T h e Peloponnesus ravaged by t h e .¿Etolians 210 turo. Peace of N a u p a c t u s 217 Chladni {who raised acoustics to an i n d e p e n d e n t science; pubA r a t u s poisoned a t JEgiuni 21:3 lished his i m p o r t a n t discoveries on t h e ligures p r o d u c e d in I'hilopoemen, leader of t h e league, defeats t h e S p a r t a n layers of sand by h a r m o n i c chords, etc., in 1787. a n d s i m e . t y r a n t Maehanidas 208 Alliance of t h e league w i t h t h e R o m a n s 1U8 Cugniard-Latour, invented t h e Sirène (which see), 1810. S a v a r t d e t e r m i n e d t h e r a n g e of t h e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e h u m a n Philopcemen defeated by Nabis in a n a v a l battle 194 ear to be f r o m 7 to 24,010 v i b r a t i o n s a second, 1830. All t h e Peloponnesus j o i n s t h e league 191 Biot, Pavart, W h c a t s t o n e , Lissajous, H e l m h o l t z , Tyndall. a n d W a r w i t h Messene : Philopcemen m a d e prisoner a n d others, in t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , h a v e greatly increased o u r slain 183 knowledge of acoustics. The Achteans o v e r r u n Messenia w i t h fire and s w o r d . . . . 182 Over-tones, h a r m o n i c s , well i n v e s t ' g a t e d b y H e l m h o l t z ; unThe R o m a n s e n t e r Achaia. a n d c a r r y off n u m b e r s , inder* tones by Auerbach, 1878. cluding Polybius t h e historian 165 W a r w i t h Rome, 150; Metellus e n t e r s Greece 147 T y n d a l l ' s e x p e r i m e n t s o i l ' t h e South F o r e l a n d on fog signals and gun-cotton d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of s-ound The Achaeans defeated by M u m m i u s a t Leucopetra, 147; is checked by t h e n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y of t h e air, i n d e p e n d e n t t h e league dissolved; Corinth taken ; Greece subjected ly of fog a n d rain. J u l y , 1873. to Rome, a n d named t h e province of Achaia 140 Achaia m a d e a Latin p r i n c i p a l i t y by William of Cham- A.D. The r e s u l t s of T y n d a l l ' s e x p e r i m e n t s showed t h a t t h e ] arabolic-muzzle g u n w i t h gun-cotton, a n d t h a t of sir R i c h a r d plitte 1205 Collinson's gun-cotton rocket, a r e v e r y effective fog-sign:;is. Obtained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210; by Geoffrey II. 1218 F i n e g r a i n g u n p o w d e r w i t h h o w i t z e r s is t h e best s o u n d By liis b r o t h e r William, 1246; w h o c o n q u e r s t h e Moors, p r o d u c e r ; pebble p o w d e r t h e worst, 1874-7. 1248; m a k e s war w i t h t h e e m p e r o r Michael, 1259; a n d Sound p r o d u c e d by electricity, light, a n d f r o m r a d i a n t h e a t , g a i n s t h r e e fortresses 12C2 see Telephone and 1'hotophone, 1881. Succeeded by Isabella, 1277; w h o m a r r i e s Ploreuz of Hainault 1291 A c r e , a land measure, formerly of uncertain quantiT h e i r d a u g h t e r Maud, princess, 1311; t h r i c e m a r r i e d ; ty, and differing in various parts of the country, was reforcibly m a r r i e d to J o h n de Gravina, a n d dies in prison 1324 duced to a standard by Edward I., about 1805. In 1824 Achaia, a fief of Naples 1246-1430 the standard acre was ordered by statute to contain 4840 Conquered b y t h e T u r k s about 1540 LEAGUE.

square yards. A c h e e n , capital of a kingdom N.W. of Sumatra, A c r e , Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was taken was visited by the Portuguese about 1509. Factories by the Saracens in 038 ; by the crusaders under Baldwin were set up here by the Dutch, 159G; by the English, I. in 1104; by Saladin in 1187; and again by Richard I. 160*2; by the French, 1621. For the war with the and other crusaders, 12 July, 1191, after a siege of 2 Dutch, see Sumatra. years, with a loss of G archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 carls, Achonry, SLIGO ( N . Ireland), a bishopric founded 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named by St. Finian, who erected the church of Achad, or St. Jean iVAcre. It was retaken by the Saracens in Achonrv, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple 1291, when GO,000 Christians perished, and the nuns, Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first bishop. The see, who had mangled their faces to preserve their chastity, held with Killala, since 1612, was united with Tuam in were put to death. Acre was gallantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bonaparte, till relieved by sir Sid1834. ney Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, A c h r o m a t i c T e l e s c o p e s , in which color is got betw een 16 March and 20 May, 1/99, when lionaparte rid of, were invented by John Dollond, and described in retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 27 Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, London, 1753-8. May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On A c i d s (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are gener- 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet under sir ally soluble in water, redden organic blues, decompose Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalies, form- few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed ing alkaline salts. The number of acids was increased and wounded, and 3000 prisoners, while the British had by the Arabs; Geber (8th century) knew nitric acid and but 12 killed and 42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids A c r o p o l i s , the ancient citadel of Athens, built on a were put forth by Becher (1669). Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1728). After the discovery of oxygen by Priest- rock. Near it stood the temple of Minerva, the Parthelev, 1 Aug. 1774, Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxy- non, which see. Other cities had similar fortresses. gen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 1810 Davy, A c r o s t i c , a poem in which the first or last letters Gay-Lussac, and others proved the existence of acids of each line, read downwards, form a word, is said to have free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the binary been invented by Porphyrins Optalianus in the fourth or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied century. Double acrostics became very popular in 1867. the theories of Davy and Dulong to explain the constiA c s , or Acz (Hungary). The Hungarians under tution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids were Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians and Rustermed anhydrides by Gerhardt (died 1850). Many acids sians on 2 and 10 July, 1849.

ACT

7

ADE

A c t O P SETTLEMENT, etc., see A ccession, Succession, " New I n d e x to acts 1235-1874, published 1876. Publication of t h e revised edition of t h e s t a t u t e s Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 15 v o l u m e s published, 1870-8.

Acta Diurna, see Newspapers.

(1325-1868),

Report of select c o m m i t t e e on a c t s of p a r l i a m e n t , published J u l y , 1875. The greatest n u m b e r of acts passed in a n y one y e a r since 1800 w a s 570, in 1846 (tlie railway y e a r ) ; 402 were local and personal, 51 private, a n d 117 public acts. I n 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), of w h i c h two were private. I n t h r e e instances only, t h e a n n u a l n u m b e r was u n d e r a h u n dred. The average n u m b e r of t h e first ten y e a r s of t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y was 132 public acts, i n t h e ten y e a r s ending 1850, t h e average n u m b e r of acts, of public interest, was 112. The n u m b e r of public general acts passed in 1851 was 106; in 1852, 88; in 1S53, 137; in 1854, 125; in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, 109; in 1859, 101; in 1860, 154; in 1861, 134; in 1862, 114; in 1863, 125; in 1864, 121; in 1865, 127; in 1866, 122; in 1867, 146; in 1868, 130; in 1869, 117; in 1870, 112; in 1871, 117; in 1872, 98; in 1873, 91; in 1874, 96; in 1875, 96; in 1876, 81; in 1877, 69; in 1878, 79; in 1879, 78; in 1880, 19 a n d 48 (new parliament).

A c t a S a n c t o r u m ("acts of the saints"), a work began bv the Jesuits. The first volume appeared in 1643: the publication was interrupted in 1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 15 Oct., had been published. The work was resumed by the Jesuits in 1837, and 6 more volumes had been published in 1867. The writers have been named finllandists, from John Bolland, who published the first two volumes. A c t i n o m e t e r , an instrument to measure the heating power of the solar rays, invented by sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825 ; see Sun. A c t i u m , a promontory of Acarnania, W. Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C., the battle between the fleet of Octavius Caesar and that of Marc AnA c t u a r y , ACTUARIUS, the Roman accountant. The tony and Cleopatra, which decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Csesar. This victory Institute of Actuaries, founded in 1848, publishes its procodings in the Assurance Magazine. made Octavius master of the world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 1 Jan. 30 B.C. (the A ctian Era). A d a m a n d E v e , ERA OF, in the English Bible, The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and 4004 B.c.; see Creation. instituted the Actian games. A d a m i t e s , a sect said to have existed about 130, A c t o n - B u r n e l , or Shrewsbury. At the parliament and to have been quite naked in their religious assem11 held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the statute of mer- blies, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would chants" against debtors was enactcd. have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus; they defied the elements, rejected prayer, and said A c t o n M u r d e r , see Trials, 1880. it was not ncccssarv to confess Christ. — Kusebius. A A c t r e s s e s appear to have been unknown to the an- sect with this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th cencients, men or eunuchs performing the female parts. tury, under Tandem us or Tanchelin, whose followers, Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public 3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. It appearance of women on the stage in England in 1662; became extinct soon after the death of its chief; but anbut Anne, queen of James I., had previously performed other of the same kim', n imed Turin pins, appeared shortin a theatre at court.—Theat. Biog. Mrs. Colman was ly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. Picard, a Fleming, the first English public actress; she performed the part revived this sect in Bohemia, about 1415; it was supof Ianthe in Davenant's Siege of Rhodes," in 1656.— pressed by Ziska, 1420. Victor. A d d a , a river N. Italy, passed by Su war row after deA c t s , in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace ("Art of feating the French, 27 April, 1799. P o e t r y " ) as t h e rule (about 8 B.C.). A d d i n g t o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Mr. Pitt, having A c t s of t h e A p o s t l e s , supposed to have been engaged to procure Roman Catholic emancipation to prowritten by Luke in continuation of his Gospel. It ter- mote the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was minates A.D. 63. A c t s of P a r l i a m e n t , or STATUTES, see Parlia- formed by Mr. Addington, March-July, 1801; after vament. The following are among the most celebrated rious changes it terminated about 10 May, 1804. early statutes: Provisions of Morton, 1235-6. S t a t u t e of Marlborough, 1267. " of Bigamy, 1275-6. " of Gloucester, t h e earliest s t a t u t e of w h i c h a n y record exists, 6 Edw. 1.1278. " of Mortmain, 1279. Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. S t a t u t e of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. S t a t u t e s of Wales, 1284. " of Winchester, Oct. 1284. " of Westminster, 1275,1285, 1290. S t a t u t e forbidding t h e levying of t a x e s w i t h o u t t h e consent of parliament, 1297. " of Praemunire, 1306. S t a t u t e s first p r i n t e d in t h e reign of R i c h a r d III., 1483. 11 of t h e Realm, from Magna C h a r t a to George I., p r i n t ed f r o m t h e original records a n d MSS. in 12 vols, folio, u n d e r t h e direction of commissioners appointed in 1801,1811-28. The s t a t u t e s pa s s d d u r i n g e a c h session were f o r m e r l y printed a n n u a l l y in 4to a n d 8vo, now in 8vo only. Abstracts a r e given in t h e Cabinet Lawyer. B e t w e e n 1«23 a n d 1829,1126 a c t s were wholly repealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising o u t of t h e consolidation of t h e laws b y Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel. Of these acts, 1344 related to t h e k i n g d o m a t large, a n d 225 to Ireland solely; a n d in 1856 m a n y obsolete s t a t u t e s (enacted between 1.285 a n d 1777) were repealed. B y t h e Statute Law Revision Act of 1861. 770 a c t s were wholly repealed, a n d a great in a n y partially. By similar acts since passed, a g r e a t n u m b e r of e n a c t m e n t s h a v e been repealed, c o m m e n c i n g w i t h t h e Provisions of Merton, 20 Henr y III (1235-6). a n d ending 1844. " A c t s of p a r l i a m e n t abbreviation b i l l , " introduced b y lord B r o u g h a m 12 Feb., passed 10 J u n o , 1850. 1410 a c t s (passed b e t w e e n 1G89 a n d 1770) partially or wholly repealed. 1867. "Chronological Table a n d I n d e x to t h e S t a t u t e s to t h e end of 1869," published 1870.

H e n r y Addington, lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. Lord El don, lord chancellor. D u k e of Portland, lord president. E a r 1 o f W est m o re land, lord pri vy seal. Lord Pel h a m , home secretary. Mr. R. B. J e n k i n s o n (lord H a w k e s b u r y , 1803; a n d earl of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. Lord Hobart. colonial secretary. Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. E a r l of C h a t h a m , ordnance. Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. Viscount Lewi sham, lord Auckland, etc.

A d d i s c o m b e C o l l e g e , near Croydon, Surrey, purchased by the East India company in 1809, for education of candidates for scientific branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861, A d d i s o n ' s D i s e a s e , a dangerous affection of the renal capsules, described by its discoverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. A d d i t i o n a l C u r a t e s , the society for their employment in populous places was founded in 1837 (High Church). A d d l e d P a r l i a m e n t , see Parliament. A d d r e s s e r s , see Abhorrers. A d e l a i d e , the capital of South Australia, was * Born 1757; b e c a m e viscount S i d m o u t h , J a n . lBlir»; "held v a r i o u s offices afterwards, a n d died in 1844. His circular to t h e lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing t h e m to adopt severe m e a s u r e s against t h e a u t h o r s of blasphemous and seditious p a m p h l e t s , was g r e a t l y censured, a n d n o t carried into effect.

ADE

8

f o u n d e d i n 1S36. I t c o n t a i n e d 14,000 i n h a b i t a n t s in 1850, a n d 18,259 in 1 8 5 5 ; a b o u t 30,000 i n 1875. It was m a d e a b i s h o p r i c in 1847. U n i v e r s i t y f o u n d e d , 1876. I t "was v i s i t e d b y t h e d u k e of E d i n b u r g h , 1 M a r c h , 1 8 6 9 . A & e l p h i ( G r e e k for b r o t h e r s ) , s e v e r a l s t r e e t s on t h e s o u t h s i d e of t h e S t r a n d , L o n d o n , e r e c t e d a b o u t 1768 b y the brothers John, Robert, James, and William Adam, a f t e r w h o m t h e s t r e e t s a r e n a m e d . ADELPIII THEATRE, b u i l t 1806, r e b u i l t 1 8 5 8 ; see u n d e r Theatres. A d e n , a f r e e p o r t on t h e S . W . c o r n e r of A r a b i a , w h e r e in D e c . 1836 a B r i t i s h s h i p w a s w r e c k e d a n d plundered. T h e sultan promised compensation, and a g r e e d to c e d e t h e p l a c e t o t h e E n g l i s h . T h e sultan's son r e f u s i n g to fulfil t h i s a g r e e m e n t to c a p t a i n H a y n e s , a n a v a l a n d m i l i t a r y f o r c e , u n d e r c a p t a i n I I . S m i t h } of t h e Volage, w a s d e s p a t c h e d t o A d e n , w h i c h c a p t u r e d i t , 19 J a n . 1839. I t is n o w a g a r r i s o n a n d c o a l d e p o t f o r I n d i a n steamers, etc. A d i a p h o r i s t s ( f r o m adiapkora, indifferent things), a term applied to M c l a n c h t h o n and others, w h o were willi n g to g i v e u p c e r t a i n t h i n g s to t h e R o m a n i s t s as i n d i f ferent, a b o u t 1548. A d i g e , a river in N . Italy, n e a r w h i c h t h e A u s t r i a n s d e f e a t e d t h e F r e n c h o n 26, 3 0 M a r c h , a n d 5 A p r i l , 1799. A d j u t a t o r s , see A

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f u l l e r a c c o u n t of e a c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s i n c e 1700, see s e p a r a t e a r t i c l e s h e a d e d w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e given

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HENRY V I I I . — A r c h b i s h o p W a r h a m ; b i s h o p s F i s h e r a n d F o x ; e a r l of S u r r e y , e t c A.D. Cardinal T h o m a s Wolsey, ctc E a r l of S u r r e y ; T u n s t a l l , b i s h o p of L o n d o n , c t c Sir T h o m a s More; bishops Tunstali a n d Gardiner, and C r a n m e r ( a f t e r w a r d s a r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y ) A r c h b i s h o p C r a n m e r ; l o r d C r o m w e l l , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of E s s e x ; T h o m a s B o l c y n , e a r l of W i l t s h i r e , e t c T h o m a s , d u k e of N o r f o l k ; H e n r y , e a r l of S u r r e y ; T h o m as. l o r d A u d ! e y ; b i s h o p G a r d i n e r ; s i r R a l p h S a d l e r . etc '. L o r d W r i o t h e s l e y ; T h o m a s , d u k e of N o r f o l k ; l o r d L i s l e ; sir William Petre; sir William Paget, etc EDWAKD V I . — L o r d W r i o t h e s l e y , n o w e a r l of S o u t h a m p t o n , l o r d c h a n c e l l o r ^ e x p e l l e d ) ; E d w a r d , e a r l of H e r t f o r d . l o r d p r o t e c t o r , c r e a t e d d u k e of S o m e r s e t ; J o h n , l o r d R u s s e l l ; H e n r y , e a r l of A r u n d e l ; T h o m a s , l o r d S e y m o u r ; s i r W i l l i a m P a g e t ; s i r W i l l i a m P e t r e , etc. . J o h n D u d l e y , l a t e l o r d L i s l e a n d e a r l of W a r w i c k , c r e a t e d d u k e of N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ; J o h n , e a r l of B e d f o r d ; bisho p G o o d r i c h , s i r W i l l i a m Cecil, e t c M A R Y . — S t e p h e n G a r d i n e r , b i s h o p of W i n c h e s t e r ; Edm u n d B o n n e r , b i s h o p of L o u d o n ; W i l l i a m , m a r q u e s s of W i n c h e s t e r ; s i r E d w a r d H a s t i n g s , etc

1509 1514 1523 1529 1532 1540 1544

1547 1551 1554

* T i l l 1850 t h e c a b i n e t c o u n c i l u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d of t h e foll o w i n g t w e l v e m e m b e r s : F i r s t l o r d of t h e t r e a s u r y ; l o r d c h a n c e l l o r ; l o r d p r e s i d e n t of t h e c o u n c i l ; c h a n c e l l o r of t h e e x c h e q u e r ; lord p r i v y seal; h o m e , foreign, a n d colonial secret a r i e s ; f i r s t l o r d of t h e a d m i r a l t y ; p r e s i d e n t of t h e b o a r d of t r a d e ; p r e s i d e n t of t h e b o a r d of c o n t r o l ; c h a n c e l l o r of t h e d u c h y of L a n c a s t e r . I n 1850 t h e n u m b e r w a s fifteen, a n d included the secretary-at-war, the postmaster-general, and the c h i e f secretary for Ireland. In t h e P a h n e r s t o n - R u s s e l l cabin e t [which see), t h e p r e s i d e n t of t h e p o o r - l a w b o a r d r e p l a c e d t h e s e c r e t a r y f o r I r e l a n d . I n 1868 t h e G l a d s t o n e c a b i n e t cons i s t e d of 15; t h a t of Mr. D i s r a e l i , in F e b . 1874, of 12. The average duration of a m i n i s t r y h a s b e e n s e t d o w n a t f o u r , five, a n d s i x y e a r s ; b u t i n s t a n c e s h a v e o c c u r r e d of t h e d u r a t i o n of a ministry for m u c h longer periods: sir Robert Walpole was m i n i s t e r f r o m 1721 t o 1742 (21 y e a r s ) ; Mr. P i t t , 1783 t o 1801 (18 y e a r s ) ; a n d l o r d L i v e r p o o l , 1812 t o 1827 (15 y e a r s ) . Several m i n i s t r i e s h a v e not lasted b e y o n d a few m o n t h s , as the Coalition Ministry in 1783, a n d t h e " Talents " M i n i s t r y in 1806. T h e "Short-lived" A d m i n i s t r a t i o n l u s t e d 10 t o 12 F e b . 1746.

A D 31

ELIZABETH.—Sir N i c h o l a s B a c o n ; E d w a r d , l o r d C l i n t o n ; s i r R o b e r t D u d l e y , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of L e i c e s t e r ; s i r W i l l i a m Cecil, a f t e r w a r d s l o r d B u r l e i g h 1558 William, lord Burleigh ( m i n i s t e r d u r i n g n e a r l y all t h e reign); sir Nicholas Bacon, etc 1572 Lord Burleigh; sir T h o m a s B r o m l e y ; R o b e r t Devereux, e a r l of E s s e x (a f a v o r i t e ) ; e a r l of L e i c e s t e r ; e a r l of Lincoln; sir Walter M i l d m a y ; sir F r a n c i s Walsingh a m , etc 1579 L o r d B u r l e i g h ; R o b e r t , e a r l of E s s e x ; s i r C h r i s t o p h e r H a t t o n , etc 15S7 T h o m a s Sackville, lord B u c k h u r s t , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l ' o f Dorset; sir T h o m a s Egerton, a f t e r w a r d s lord Ellesmere a n d v i s c o u n t B r a c k l e y ; s i r R o b e r t Cecil, e t c : . 1599 JAMES I . — ' T h o m a s , e a r l of D o r s e t ; T h o m a s , l o r d E l l e s m e r e ; C h a r l e s , e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m ; T h o m a s , e a r l of S u f f o l k ; E d w a r d , e a r l of W o r c e s t e r ; R o b e r t Cecil, aft e r w a r d s e a r l of S a l i s b u r y , e t c 1603 R o b e r t Cecil, e a r l of S a l i s b u r y ; T h o m a s , l o r d E l l e s m e r e ; H e n r y , e a r l of N o r t h a m p t o n ; C h a r l e s , e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m ; T h o m a s , e a r l of S u f f o l k , e t c 1609 H e n r y , e a r l of N o r t h a m p t o n ; T h o m a s , l o r d E i l c s m e ' r o ; E d w a r d , e a r l of W o r c e s t e r ; s i r R a l p h W i n w o o d ; C h a r l e s , e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m ; R o b e r t , v i s c o u n t R o c h e s t e r , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of S o m e r s e t , e t c 1612 T h o m a s , l o r d E l l e s m e r e ; T h o m a s , e a r l o f S u f T o l k ; Charle's, e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m ; s i r G e o r g e V i l l i e r s (a f a v o r i t e ) , a f t e r w a r d s v i s c o u n t Villiers, a n d s u c c e s s i v e l y e a r l , m a r q u e s s , a n d d u k e of B u c k i n g h a m 1G15 Sir H e n r y Montagu, a f t e r w a r d s v i s c o u n t Mandeville a n d e a r l of M a n c h e s t e r . 1620 L i o n e l , l o r d C r a n f i e l d , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of M i d d l e s e x ; E d w a r d , e a r l of W o r c e s t e r ; J o h n , e a r l of B r i s t o l ; J o h n W i l l i a m s , d e a n of W e s t m i n s t e r ; G e o r g e V i l l i e r s , m a r q u e s s of B u c k i n g h a m ; s i r E d w a r d C o n w a v , e t c 1621 CHARLES I . — R i c h a r d , l o r d W e s t o n , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l o f P o r t l a n d ; s i r T h o m a s C o v e n t r y , a f t e r w a r d s l o r d Cove n t r y ; H e n r y , e a r l of M a n c h e s t e r ( s u c c e e d e d b y J a m e s , e a r l of M a r l b o r o u g h , w h o , in t u r n , g a v e p l a c e t o E d w a r d , lord, a f t e r w a r d s v i s c o u n t , C o n w a y ) ; W i l l i a m L a u d , b i s h o p of L o n d o n ; s i r A l b e r t M o r t o n , e t c 1628 W i l l i a m L a u d , a r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y ; F r a n c i s , l o r d C o t t i n g t o n ; J a m e s , m a r q u e s s of H a m i l t o n ; E d w a r d , c a r l of D o r s e t ; s i r J o h n C o k e ; s i r F r a n c i s W i n d e bank, etc 1035 W i l l i a m J u x o n , b i s h o p of L o n d o n ; s i r J o h n F i n c h , a f t e r w a r d s lord F i n c h ; F r a n c i s , lord C o t t i n g t o n ; W c n t w o r t h , e a r l of S t r a t f o r d ; A l g e r n o n , e a r l of N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ; J a m e s , m a r q u e s s of H a m i l t o n ; L a u d , a r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y ; s i r F r a n c i s W i n d e b a n k ; s i r H e n r y Vane, etc 1640 [The k i n g b e h e a d e d , 30 J a n . 1649.] COMMONWEALTH.—Oliver C r o m w e l l , p r o t e c t o r , n a m e d a c o u n c i l , t h e n u m b e r n o t t o e x c e e d 21 m e m b e r s , o r b e l e s s t h a n 13 1053 R i c h a r d C r o m w e l l , s o n of Oliver, s u c c e e d e d o n t h e d e a t h of h i s f a t h e r . A c o u n c i l of o f f i c e r s r u l e d a t W a l l i n g ford house 1658 CHARLES I I . — S i r E d w a r d H y d e , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of Clare n d o n ; G e o r g e M o n k , c r e a t e d d u k e of A l b e m a r l e ; E d w a r d M o n t a g u , c r e a t e d e a r l of S a n d w i c h ; l o r d S a y e a n d S e l e ; e a r l of M a n c h e s t e r ; l o r d S e y m o u r ; s i r R o b e r t Long, etc 1660 G e o r g e M o n k , d u k e of A l b e m a r l e , m a d e first c o m m i s s i o n e r of t h e t r e a s u r y , e t c 1667 11 C a b a l " M i n i s t r y ; Clifford, A s h l e y , B u c k i n g h a m , A r l i n g t o n , L a u d e r d a l e (see Cabal) 1670 T h o m a s , l o r d C l i f f o r d ; A n t h o n y , e a r l of S h a f t e s b u r y ; H e n r y , e a r l of A r l i n g t o n ; A r t h u r , e a r l of A n g l e s e y ; sir T h o m a s Osborne, created viscount L a t i m e r ; H e n r y C o v e n t r y ; s i r G e o r g e C a r t e r e t ; E d w a r d S e y m o u r , e t c . 1672 T h o m a s , v i s c o u n t L a t i m e r , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of D a u b y , m a d e lord h i g h treasurer 26 J u n e , 1673 A r t h u r , e a r l of E s s e x ( s u c c e e d e d b y L a w r e n c e H y d e , a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of R o c h e s t e r ) ; R o b e r t , e a r l of S u n d e r land. etc 1679 T h e k i n g n o m i n a t e d a n e w c o u n c i l o n 21 A p r i i , c o n s i s t i n g of 30 m e m b e r s o n l y , of w h o m t h e p r i n c i p a l w e r e t h e g r e a t o f f i c e r s of s t a t e a n d g r e a t o f f i c e r s of the household " S i d n e y , l o r d G o d o l p h i n ; L a w r e n c e , e a r l of R o c h e s t e r ; ' D a n i e l , e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m ; R o b e r t , e a r l of S u n d e r l a n d ; sir T h o m a s Chicheley; George, lord D a r t m o u t h ; H e n r y , e a r l of C l a r e n d o n ; c a r l s of B a t h a n d R a d n o r . . 1684 JAMES I I . — L a w r e n c e , e a r l of R o c h e s t e r ; G e o r g e , m a r q u e s s of H a l i f a x ; s i r G e o r g e J e f f r e y s , a f t e r w a r d s l o r d J e f f r e y s ; H e n r y , e a r l of C l a r e n d o n ; s i r J o h n E r n l c y ; v i s c o u n t P r e s t o n , etc 1685 T h e e a r l of R o c h e s t e r w a s d i s p l a c e d , a n d J o h n , l o r d B e l a s y s e , m a d e first c o m m i s s i o n e r M" t h e t r e a s u r y in h i s r o o m . 4 J a n . ; t h e e a r l of S u n d e r l a n d m a d e p r e s i d e n t of t h e c o u n c i l ; v i s c o u n t P r e s t o n , s e c r e t a r y of s t a t e , etc 1687-8 T h e k i n g l e f t W h i t e h a l l in t h e n i g h t of 11 D e c . , a n d , q u i t t i n g t h e k i n g d o m , l a n d e d a t A m b l e t o u s e , in F r a n c e , Dec. 1688. WILLIAM I I I . AND MARY.—Charles, v i s c o u n t M o r d a u n t ; T h o m a s O s b o r n e , e a r l o f D a n b y , c r e a t e d m a r q u e s s of C a r m a r t h e n , a f t e r w a r d s d u k e of L e e d s ; G e o r g e , m a r q u e s s of H a l i f a x ; A r t h u r H e r b e r t , a f t e r w a r d s l o r d T o r r i n g t o n ; e a r l s of S h r e w s b u r y , N o t t i n g h a m , a n d S u n -

ADM

9

ADM

in the lords, on tbe Reform bill, 10 May; but resumes derland; earl of Dorset and Middlesex; William, earl his post 18 May, 1832 (afterwards duke) of Devonshire; lord Godolphin; lord July, 1834 Montagu; lord I)e la Mere, etc 1689 Viscount Melbourne, etc [M e I bo u rn c ad n 1 i n i s 1. rat i 0 n d i ssol ve d, No v. 1834. The Sidney, lord Godolphin; Thomas, earl of Danby; Richard duke of Wellington held the seals of ofhee till the reHampden; Thomas, earl of Pembroke; Henry, visturn of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 1834.] count Sydney; Daniel, earl of Nottingham, etc 1690 Sir Robert Peel; lord Lyndhurst; duke of Wellington; Sir John Somera became lord Somcrs in 1(197, and lord earl of Aberdeen; etc Nov. and Dec. " chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterwards lord Halifax, Viscount Me I bourne, etc April, 1835 was made first commissioner of the treasury, 1 May, 20 June, 1837 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of Tankcrvillc 1699 VICTORIA.—Viscount Melbourne, etc Subsequent accessions: F. T. Bari 11 g; earl of ClarenANNE. — Sidney, lord (afterwards earl o f ) Godolphin; don ; T. B. Macau lay, etc. Viscount Melbourne reThomas, earl of Pembroke, etc May, 1702 signed, and sir Robert Peel received the queen's comRobert Harley, earl of Oxford; sir Simon Harcourt, etc. mands to form a new administration, 8 May. This lJune, 1711 command was withdrawn, and lord Melbourne returnCharles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer three ed to power 10 May, 1839 days before the queen's death, etc 30 July, 1714 Sir Robert Peel; duke of Wellington; lord Lyndhurst; GEORGE I.— Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on his sir James Graham: earl of Aberdeen; lord Stan Joy, etc. death by the earl of Carlisle), etc " Aug. and Sept. 1841 Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chancellor [Accessions: Sidney Herbert; W. E. Gladstone, etc.] of the exchequer, etc 1715 Lord John Russell; viscount Palmerston; earl Grey, etc. James (afterwards earl) Stanhope ; William lord Cowper, July, 1C46 etc 1717 [Accessions: earl Granville; Mr. Fox Maule; earl of Charles, earl of Sunderland, etc 1718 Carlisle; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord Truro, etc.] Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and earl of Orford, etc 1721 Lord John Russell and the marquess of Lansdowne on the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of ministers, owing GEORGE II.—Robert Walpole continued 1727 to their defeat on Mr. Locke King's motion respecting [Sir Robert remained prime - minister twenty-one the franchise; they informed parliament that, it havyears, numerous changes occurring in the time; see ing been found impossible to construct a coalition min*Walpole..] istry, the queen, by the advice of the duke of WellingEarl of Wilmington; lord Hardwicke, etc 1742 ton, had called upon her late ministers to resume ofHenry Pelham, in the room of carl of Wilmington, defice. Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interceased Aug. 1743 ilBroad - bottom " administration—Henry Pelham; val, had been unable to form a cabinet 3 March, 1851 lord Hardwicke, etc Nov. 1744 Earl of Derby (late lord Stanley); lord St. Leonards; Benjamin Disraeli; Spencer H. Walpole; earl of Malmes" Short-lived " administration—earl of Bath ; lords Winbury; sir John Fakington; duke of Northumberland, chilsea and Granville 10-12 Feb. 1746 etc 27 Feb. 1852 Henry Pelham, etc., again 12 Feb. u Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell; viscount PalmerThos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; earl of Holderness, ston, etc 28 Dec. " etc April, 1754 Various changcs of offices took place; a fourth secDuke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, etc Nov. 1756 retary of state was appointed, by the separation of the Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards carl of Chatwar from the colonial department; see Secretaries of ham. etc June, 1757 State, The retirement of lord J. Russell, 24 Jan. 1855, GEORGE III.—Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's ministry, conand a majority in the commons against ministers of tinued 1760 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roebuck's motion respecting Earl of Bute ; lord Henley, etc May, 1762 the conduct of the war, led to the resignation of lord George Grenville; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, etc. Aberdeen and his colleagues, 30 Jan.; the cabinet was April, 1763 reconstructed by Marquess of Rockingham; carl of W inch il sea, etc. .July, 1765 Earl of Chatham; duke of Grafton, etc Aug. 1766 Viscount Palmerston; lord Cranworth; etc 7 Feb. 1855 Duke of Grafton; lord North, etc Dec. 1767 Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. (xladstone, and Mr. Frederick, lord North ; earl Cower, etc Jan. 1770 S. Herbert. Accession oi lord John Russell; earl of [Lord North was minister during the whole of the Clarendon; sir G. Grey; sir G. C. Lewis; sir W. MolesAmerican war.] worth, etc 24 Feb. " Marquess of Rockingham ; lord Camden; C. J. Fox; EdOn the second reading of the Foreign Conspiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote of censure being mund Burke, etc March, 1782 passed by a majority of 19, on the motion of Mr. Milner Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marques*3 of Lansdowne); G i bso n) 1*es i gn e d i in m e d i at el y 19 F eb. 1858 William Pitt, etc July, u Earl of Derby; Benjamin Disraeli; Spencer Walpole; lord "Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland; lord North; Stanley; sir F.Thcsigcr (lord Chelmsford), etc..26 Feb. u C. J. Fox; Edmund Burke, etc April, 1783 [The Derby administration, in consequence of a vote William Pitt; Henry Dundas, etc Dec. " of want of confidence in it being carried by a majority [During Mr. Pitt's long administration, numerous of 13,10 June, 1859, resigned the next day. Earl Granchanges in the ministry took place.] ville failed to form an administration.] Henry Addinglon; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, etc. March et scq. 1801 Viscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, etc. 18 June, 1859 William Pitt; lord Eldon; George Can 11 ing, etc., May et seq. 1804 [Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] [Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 11 All the Talents'''—lord Earl Russell; W. E. Gladstone; earl of Clarendon; etc. Grenville; lord Henry Petty; Oct. 1865 lord F.rskine: C. J. Fox; sir Charles Grey (afterwards earl ( Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the ReFeb. 1806 y). [Sir. Fox's death, 13 Sept. 1806, led to numerous form b i 11,19 J u ne 26 J line, 1866 changes. ] Earl of Derby; Benjamin Disraeli ; lord Stanley, etc. Duke of Portland; lord Eldon, etc.* March, 1807 For changes, see Derby Administrations July, " Spencer Perceval; earl of Liverpool; viscount PalmerEarl of Derby resigned through ill-health Feb. 25, 1868 ston, etc Nov. and Dec. 1809 B. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 Feb. ' 1 REGENCY.—Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot bv Bellingham, Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the elections 11 May, 1812), etc " 5 Feb. 1811 in November giving a majority of about 114 to the LibEarl of Liverpool; lord Eldon; Mr.Vansittart; lord Melerals 2 Dec. " ville; viscounts Castlereagh,Palmerston, etc.. May, June, 1812 W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon; Robert Lowe; John GEORGE IV.—Earl of Liverpool, etc 29 Jan. 1820 Bright, and others, received seals 9 Dec. " [During lord Liverpool's long administration numerLost their majority by the general election, Feb.; ous changes occurred.] resigned 17 Feb. 1874 George Canning; lord Lyndhurst; viscount Godcrich; B. Disraeli (earl of Bcaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876); the earl William Huskisson; viscount Palmerston; duke of of Derby; the marquess of Salisbury, and others, reu Clarence, etc April, 1827 ceived seals 21 Feb. [Mr. Canning died 8 Aug. 1827.] [For changes, see Disraeli Administrations.] Viscount Goderich; viscount Palmerston; marquess of Lost their majority by elections in April; resigned Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, etc Aug. 22 April, 1880 Duke of Wellington; Robert Peel; Mr. Huskisson; etc. W. E. Gladstone; carl Granville; marquess of HartingJan. to n; d u k e of A rgy 11; sir Win. Harco u r t; J oh 11 B r i gh t, The ministry reconstructed on the retirement of the and others, received seals 28 April, " earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, Mr. Hus[For changes, see separate articles under the prekisson May and Juno, 1828 mier's name.] WILLIAM IV.— Duke of Wellington, etc 26 June, 1830 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s OF TIIE UNITED STATES. The Earl Grey; marquess of Lansdowne; lord Brougham; visfollowing is a list of the presidents of the United States count Althorp; earl of Durham; viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James Graham ; lord and their respective cabinet officers, from the commenceJohn Russell, etc Nov. ment of the federal government to 1881: Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against him FIRST ADMINISTRATION—1789 TO 1797.

* The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, 22 President: George Washington, o f V a . Sept. 1809, led to the breaking-up of this administration. Vice-president: John Adams, oi Mass.

ADM

10

S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e : T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , o f V a . , 2G S e p t . 1 7 8 9 ; E d m u n d Randolph, of Va., 2 J a n . 1791; T i m o t h y Pickeri n g , o f M a s s . , 1 0 D e c . 1795. S e c r e t a r i e s of the T r e a s u r y ; Alexander Hamilton, of X . Y . , 11 S e p t . 1 7 8 9 ; O l i v e r W o l e o t t , o f C o n n . , 3 F e b . 1795. S e c r e t a r i e s o f W a r : H e n r y K n o x , o f M a s s . , 1-J S e p t . 1 7 8 9 ; T i m o t h y Pickering, of Mass., 2 J a n . 1795; J a m e s McHenry, o f M d . , 27 J a n . 1 7 9 6 . Secretaries of the Navy. No navy department was organized during Washington's administration. P o s t m a s t e r s g e n e r a l : S a m u e l Osgood, o f M a s s . , 2G S e p t . 1 7 8 9 ; T i m o t h y Pickering, of Mass., 7 Nov. 1791; J o s e p h Habers h a m , o f G«i., 2 5 E c b . 1 7 9 5 . A t t o r n e y s - g e n e r a l : E d m u n d R a n d o l p h , o f V a . , 26 S e p t . 1 7 8 9 ; W i l l i a m B r a d f o r d , o f P a . , 27 J a n . 1 7 9 1 ; C h a r l e s E e e . o f V a . , 10 Dec. 1795. SECOND A D M I N I S T R A T I O N — 1 7 9 7

TO

1801.

ADM SEVENTH ADMINISTRATION—1829

TO

1837.

President: Andrew J a c k s o n , of Tenn. V i c e - p r e s i d e n t s : J o h n C. C a l h o u n , o f S . C. — r e s i g n e d 2 8 D e c . 1 8 3 2 ; M a r t i n V a n B u r e n , o f X . Y . , 4 M a r c h , 1833. S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e : M a r t i n V a n B u r e n , o f N. Y . , 6 M a r c h , 1829; E d w a r d Livingston, o f La., 24 May, 1831; Louis M c l . a n e , o f Del., 29 M a r c h , 1 8 3 3 ; J o h n F o r s y t h , of Ga., 27 J u n e , 1834. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : S a m u e l D. I n g h a m , o f P a . , 6 M a r c h , 1 8 2 9 ; L o u i s M c l . a n e , o f Del., 8 Aug. 1 8 3 1 ; W i l l i a m J . D u a n e , o f l ' a . , 29 M a y , 1 8 3 3 ; l i o g e r B . T a n e y , o f Md., 2 3 Sept. 1833—not continued by the s e n a t e ; Levi Woodbury, o f X . ]-I., 27 J u n e , 1 8 3 4 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f W a r : J o h n H. E a t o n , o f T e n n . , 9 M a r c h , 1 8 2 9 ; L e w i s Cass, o f M i c h . , 1 Aug. 1 8 3 1 — r e s i g n e d N o v . 1 8 3 6 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : J o h n B r a n c h , o f N. C., 9 M a r c h , 1 8 2 9 ; L e v i W o o d b u r y , o f N. H . , 2 3 S l a y , 1 8 3 1 ; M a l i l o n D i c k e r s o n of X . J . , 30 J u n e , 1834. P o s t m a s t e r s - g e n e r a l : W i l l i a m T. B a r r y , o f K y . . 9 M a r c h . 1829. P r e v i o u s to this date the p o s t m a s t e r - g e n e r a l had not b e e n recognized as a m e m b e r of t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s cabinet. Aiuos K e n d a l l , o f K y . , 1 M a y , 1835. Attorneys-general: J o h n MePlierson Berrien, o f Ga., 9 March 1 8 2 9 ; R o g e r It. T a n e y , o f M d . . 27 D e c . 1 8 3 1 ; B e n j a m i n j r . B u t l e r , o l ' N . Y . , 24 J u n e , 1834.

P r e s i d e n t : J o h n Adams, o f Mass. V i c e - p r e s i d e n t : T h o m a s Jefl'erson, o f Va. S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e : T i m o t h y P i c k e r i n g , c o n t i n u e d in o f i i c e ; J o h n M a r s h a l l , o f V a . , 1 3 M a y , 1800. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : O l i v e r W o l e o t t , c o n t i n u e d in office; S a m u e l D e x t e r , o f M a s s . , 3 1 D e c . ISOO. S e c r e t a r i e s o f AVar: J a m e s M c H e n r y , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; S a m u e l D e x t e r , o f M a s s . , 13 M a y , 1 8 0 0 ; R o g e r G r i s w o l d , o f C o n n . , 3 F e b . 1801. E I G H T H A D M I N I S T R A T I O N — 1 8 3 7 TO 1 8 4 1 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : George Cabot, o f Mass., 3 May, 1798, | P r e s i d e n t : Martin V a n B u r e n , o f W Y . d e c l i n e d ; B e n j a m i n S t o d d e r t , o f M d . , 21 M a y , 1 7 9 8 . V i c e - p r e s i d e n t : R i c h a r d M. J o h n s o n , o f K y . P o s t m a s t e r - g e n e r a l : J o s e p h H a b e r s h a m , c o n t i n u e d in office. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e : J o h n F o r s y t h , c o n t i n u e d in office. A t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l : C h a r l e s L e e , c o n t i n u e d in ofiice. S e c r e t a r y o f t h e T r e a s u r y : L e v i W o o d b u r y , c o n t i n u e d in o f fice. T H I R D A D M I N I S T R A T I O N — 1 8 0 1 TO 1 8 0 9 . S e c r e t a r y o f W a r : J o e l R . P o i n s e t t , o f S . C., 7 M a r c h , 1 8 3 7 . P r e s i d e n t : T h o m a s Jefl'erson, o f V a . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : M a h l o n D i c k e r s o n , c o n t i n u e d in ofV i c e - p r e s i d e n t s : A a r o n B u r r , o f N. Y . , f r o m 1 8 0 1 t o 1 8 0 5 ; f i c e ; J a m e s K . P a u l d i n g , o f N. Y . , 2 0 J u n e , 1 8 3 8 . G e o r g e C l i n t o n , o f N. Y . , f r o m 1 M a r c h , 1«05. P o s t m a s t e r s g e n e r a l : A m o s K e n d a l l , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; J o h n S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e : J a m e s Madison, o f V a . . 5 M a r c h . 1801. M. N i l e s , o f C o n n . , 18 M a y , 1 8 4 0 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : S a m u e l D e x t e r , c o n t i n u e d in of- I | A t t o r n e y s - g e n e r a l : B e n j a m i n 1'. E u t l c r , c o n t i n u e d i n o f f i c e ; f i c e ; Albert G a l l a t i n , o f V a . , 26 J a n . 1802. F e l i x G r u n d y , o f T e n n . , 7 J u l y , 1 8 3 8 ; H e n r y D. G i l p i n , o f S e c r e t a r y o f W a r : H e n r y D e a r b o r n , o f Mass.. 5 M a r c h . 1801. P a . , 10 J a n . 1 8 4 0 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : B e n j a m i n S t o d d e r t , c o n t i n u e d in office; R o b e r t S m i t h , o f Md., 2 6 J a n . 1 8 0 2 ; J a c o b C r o w n i n s b i e l d , o f M a s s . , 2 M a r c h , 1805. P o s t m a s t e r s g e n e r a l : J o s e p h H a b e r s h a m , c o n t i n u e d in o f i i c e ; G i d e o n G r a n g e r , o f C o n n . , 2 6 J a n . 1802. A t t o r n e y s - g e n e r a l : Levi Lincoln, of Mass.. 5 March, 1801; Robe r t S m i t h , o f Md., 3 M a r c h , 1S05; J o h n B r e c k i n r i d g e , o f K y . , 17 J a n . 1 8 0 6 ; Caesar A. R o d n e y , o f D e l . , 2 0 J a n . 1&07. FOURTH ADMINISTRATION—1809

TO

1817.

P r e s i d e n t : J a m e s M a d i s o n , o f Va. V i c e - p r e s i d e n t s : G e o r g e C l i n t o n , o f N. Y . , d i e d 2 0 A p r i l , 1 8 1 2 ; E l b r i d g e Gerry, o f Mass., 4 March, 1 8 1 3 — d i e d 23 Nov. 1813. S e c r e t a r . e s o f S t a t e : R o b e r t S m i t h , o f Md., 6 M a r c h , 1 8 0 9 ; J a m e s Monroe, o f Va., 2 April. 1811. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : A l b e r t G a l l a t i n , c o n t i n u e d in office; ( i e o r g e W. C a m p b e l l , o f T e n n . , 9 F e b . 1 8 1 4 ; A l e x a n d e r J . D a l l a s , o f P a . , 6 O c t . 1814. Secretaries of W a r : William Eustis. o f Mass., 7 March, 1809; J o h n A r m s t r o n g , o f N. Y . , 13 J a n . 1 8 1 3 ; . l a m e s M o n r o e , o f V a . , 27 S e p t . 1 8 1 4 . a c t i n g s e c r e t a r y ; W i l l i a m I I . C r a w f o r d o f Ga., 3 M a r c h , 1815. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : P a u l H a m i l t o n , o f S. C., 7 M a r c h , 1 8 0 9 ; W i l l i a m J o n e s , o f P a . , 12 J a n . 1 S 1 3 ; B e n j a m i n W . C ' r o w n i n s l i i e l d , o f M a s s . , 17 D e c . 1814. P o s t m a s t e r s - g e n e r a l : G i d e o n G r a n g e r , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; R e t u r n J . M e i g s , o f O., 17 M a r c h . 1814. A t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l : C s e s a r A. R o d n e y , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; W i l l i a m P i n c k n e v , o f M d . , 11 D e c . 1 8 1 1 ; R i c h a r d R u s h , o f P a . , 10 F e b . 1814. FIFTH ADMINISTRATION—1817

TO

1825.

P r e s i d e n t : J a m e s M o n r o e , o f Va. Yice-president: Daniel D.Tompkins. o f N . Y. S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e : J o h n Quincy Adams, o f Mass., 5 March 1817. S e c r e t a r y o f t h e T r e a s u r y : W i l l i a m H. C r a w f o r d , o f G a . , 5 M a r c h . 1817. S e c r e t a r i e s o f W a r : I s a a c S h e l b y , o f K y . , 5 M a r c h , 1817, declined the a p p o i n t m e n t ; (ieorge G r a h a m , of Va., 7 April 1 8 1 7 ; J o h n C. C a l h o u n , o f S . C.. 8 O c t . 1 8 1 7 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : B e n j a m in W . C r o w n i n s h i e l d , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; S m i t h T h o m p s o n , o f N. Y . , 1) N o v . 1 8 1 8 ; . J o h n Rogers, of Mass., 1 Sept. 1823; S a m u e l L. Southard, o f J.t 16 S e p t . 1823. P o s t m a s t e r s - g e n e r a l : R e t u r n J . M e i g s , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; J o h n M c L e a n , o f (>.. 2 6 J u n e , 1823. A t t o r n e y s - g e n e r a l : R i c h a r d R u s h , c o n t i n u e d in o f f i c e ; W i l l i a m W i r t , o f V a . , 13 N o v . 1817. STXTH A D . U I N I S T H A T I O N — 1 8 2 5

TO

1829.

P r e s i d e n t : J o h n Q u i n e y A d a m s , o f Mass. V i c e - p r e s i d e n t : J o h n C. C a l h o u n , o f S. C. S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e : H e n r y Clay, o f K y . . 7 M a r c h . 1825. S e c r e t a r y of t h e T r e a s u r y : R i c h a r d R u s h , o f Pa. 7 March 1825. S e c r e t a r i e s o f "War: J a m e s B a r h o u r , o f V a . , 7 M a r c h 1 8 2 5 ; Pet e r B . P o r t e r , o f N. Y . , 2 6 M a y , 1828. S e c r e t a r y o f t h e N a v y : S a m u e l L . S o u t h a r d , c o n t i n u e d in office. P o s t m a s t e r g e n e r a l : J o h n M c L e a n , c o n t i n u e d in office. A t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l : W i l l i a m W i r t , c o n t i n u e d in office.

NINTH A D M I N I S T R A T I O N — 1 8 4 1

TO

1845.

P r e s i d e n t : W i l l i a m H e n r y H a r r i s o n , o f O. Died 4 April, 1841, when J o h n Tyler, the vice-president, b e c a m e president. Vice-president: J o h n Tyler, of Va. S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e : Daniel Webster, o f Mass., 5 March, 1841 — r e s i g n e d 8 M a y , 1 8 4 3 ; H u g h S. I . e g a l ' e , o f S . C . . 9 M a y 1 8 4 3 — d i e d 2 0 J u n e , 1 8 4 3 ; A b e l P. U p s h u r , o f V a . , 2 4 J u l y , 1 8 4 3 — k i l l e d b y t h e b u r s t i n g o f a c a n n o n , 28 F e b . 1 8 4 4 ; J o h n N e l s o n , o f Md. ( a c t i n g s e c r e t a r y ) , 2 9 F e b . 1 8 4 4 ; J o h n C. Calh o u n , o f S . C., 0 M a r c h , 1 8 4 4 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : T h o m a s E w i n g , o f O., 5 M a r c h , 1 8 4 1 — r e s i g n e d 11 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 ; W a l t e r F o r w a r d , o f P a . . 1 3 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 — r e s i g n e d 1 .March, 1 8 4 3 ; C a l e b G u s h i n g , o f M a s s . , r e j e c t e d b y t h e s e n a t e ; J o h n C. S p e n c e r , o f N . Y . , 3 M a r c h , 1 8 4 3 ; G e o r g e M. B i b b , o f K y . , 15 J u n e , 1844. S e c r e t a r i e s of W a r : J o h n Bel], of T e n n . , 5 M a r c h , 1841—res i g n e d 11 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 ; J o h n M c L e a n , o f O., 1 3 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 , d e c l i n e d ; J o h n C. S p e n c e r , o f N. Y . , 12 O c t . 1 8 4 1 ; J a m e s M. P o r t e r , o f l ' a . , 8 M a r c h . 1843, r e j e c t e d b y t h e s e n a t e ; W i l l i a m W i l l i a m s , o f P e n n . , 15 I-'cb. 1 8 4 4 . S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : G e o r g e E . B a d g e r , o f N. C . . 5 M a r c h , 1 8 4 1 — r e s i g n e d 11 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 ; A b e l P . U p s h u r , o f V a . , 1 3 S e p t , 1 8 4 1 ; D a v i d H e n s h a w , o f M a s s . , 2 4 J u l y , 1843, r e j e c t e d b y t h e s e n a t e ; T h o m a s AV. G i l t n e r , o f Va ' 15 F e b . 1 8 4 4 — died 28 F e b . 1844; J o h n Y . Mason, o f Va., 14 March, 1844. P o s t m a s t e r s - g e n e r a l : F r a n c i s G r a n g e r , O f N . Y . . 6 .March. 1 8 4 1 — r e s i g n e d 12 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 ; C h a r l e s A . W i c k l i l l ' e , o f I i v 13 S e p t . 1841. Attorneys-general: J o h n J. Crittenden, of Ky., 5 March. 1 8 4 1 — r e s i g n e d 11 S e p t . 1841 ; H u g h S. l . e g a r e , o f S . C . , 1 3 S e p t . 1 8 4 1 ; J o h n N e l s o n , o f S i d . , 1 J u l y , 1843. TENTH A D M I N I S T R A T I O N — 1 8 4 5

TO

1849.

P r e s i d e n t : J a m e s K. Polk, of Tenn. V i c e - p r e s i d e n t : G e o r g e M. D a l l a s , o f P a . Secretary of S t a t e : J a m e s B u c h a n a n , of Pa., 5 March, 1845 Secretary of the Treasury: Robert J . Walker, of Miss , 5 March, 1845. S e c r e t a r y o f W a r : W i l l i a m L . M a r c y , O f N . Y . . 5 M a r c h , 1845. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e N a v y : George B a n c r o f t , o f Mass. 10 M a r c h 1 8 4 5 ; J o h n Y . Mason, o f Va., 9 S e p t . 1846. ' P o s t m a s t e r - g e n e r a l : Cave J o h n s o n , o f T e n n . , 5 M a r c h , 1845. Attorneys general: J o h n Y. Mason, o f Va., 5 March, 1845- Nat h a n Clifford, o f M e . , 17 Oct. 1 8 4 6 ; I s a a c T o u e e y , o f C o n n 21 J u n e , 1848. ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION—1849

TO

1853.

P r e s i d e n t : Zacliary Taylor, o f La. Died 9 J u l y , 1850, a n d w a s s u c c e e d e d b y tlio v i c e - p r e s i d e n t . V i c e - p r e s i d e n t : Millard Fillmore, o f N . Y . S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e : J o h n M. C l a y t o n , o f D e l . , 7 M a r c h , 1 8 4 9 — r e s i g n e d 10 J u l y , I 8 6 0 ; D a n i e l W e b s t e r , o f Mass., 20 J u l y , I 8 6 0 — d i e d 24 Oct. 1 8 5 2 ; E d w a r d E v e r e t t , o f Mass., 9 Dec. 1852. S e c r e t a r i e s o f t h e T r e a s u r y : W i l l i a m M. M e r e d i t h , o f l ' a . , 7 M a r c h , 1 8 4 9 — r e s i g n e d 1 0 J u l y , 1 8 5 0 ; T h o m a s C o r w i n , o f O., 20 J u l y , 1850. S e c r e t a r i e s o f W a r : George W. Crawford, o f Ga., 7 M a r c h , 1849 — r e s i g n e d 1 0 J u l y , 1 8 5 0 ; W i l l i a m A. G r a h a m , o f N. C., 2 0 J u l y , 1 8 5 0 — r e s i g n e d 15 J u l y , 1 8 5 2 ; J o h n P. K e n n e d y , o f M d . , 22 J u l y , 1 8 5 2 .

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11

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Secretaries of tlie Interior (a new office): Thomas Ewing, of Secretary of the Treasury: John Sherman, of O., 8 March, 1877. O., 7 March, 1849—resigned 10 July, 1850; James A. Pearce. of Md., 20 July, 1850; T. MeKemion, of Pa., 15 Aug. 1850J Secretaries of War: George W. McCrary, of la., 12 March, 1877; Alexander Ramsey, of Minn.. 10 Dec. 1879. and died soon afterwards; Alexander H. H. Stuart, of Va., Secretaries of the Navy: Richard W. Thompson, of Ind., 12 12 Sept. 1850. March, 1877; Nathan GofT, ,lr., of W. Va., 6 Jan. UHl. Postmasters-general: Jacob Collamer, of Vt.,7 March, 1849— resigned 10 July, 1850; N. K. Hall, of N. Y., 20 July, 1850— Secretary of the Interior: Carl Schnrz, of Mo., I.*J March, 1877. Postmasters-general: David M. Key, of Tenn., 12 March, 1877; resigned Aug. 1852; Samuel I). Hubbard, of Conn., 31 Aug. Horace Maynard, of Tenn., 2 June, 1880. 1852. Attorney-general: Charles Devens, of Mass., 12 March, 1877. Attorneys-genera!: Reverdy Johnson, of lid., 7 March, 1849— resigned 10 Jul v. 1850; John J. Crittenden, of Ky., 20 July, SEVENTEENTH ADMINISTRATION—1881. 1850. President: James A. Garfield, of 0.—died 19 Sept.. 1881, when TWELFTH ADMINISTRATION—1853 TO 1857. vice-president Chester A. Arthur, of N. Y., became pros dent. President: Franklin Pierce, of N. 11. Vice-president: Chester A. Arthur, of N. Y., succeeded to the Vice-president. William It. King, of Ala. Died 18 April, 1853. presidency 19 Sept. 1881. Secretary of State: William L. Maroy, of N. Y., 5 March, 1853. Secretaries of State: James G. Blaine, of Me., 5 March, 1881; Secretary of the Treasury: James Guthrie, of Ky.,5 March, F. T. Frelinghuysen, of N. J., 12 Dec. 1881. 1853. Secretaries of the Treasurv: William Windom, of Minn., 5 Secretary of War: Jefferson Davis, of Miss., 5 March, 1853. March, 1881; Charles J. Folger, of N. Y., 27 Oct. 1881. Secretary of the Navy: James C. Dobbin, of N. 0., 5 51 arch, Secretary of War: Robert T. Lincoln, of 111., 5 March. 1881. 1853. Secretary of the Navy: William H. Hunt, of La., 5 March, Secretary of the Interior: Robert McClellan, of Mich., 5 March, 1881. 1853. Secretary of the Interior: Samuel J. Kirkwood, of la., 5 Postmaster-general: James Campbell, of Pa., 5 March, 1853. March, 1881. Attorney-general: Caleb Cushiiig, of Mass., 5 March, 1853. Postmasters-general: Thomas L. James, of N. Y., 5 March, 1881; Timothy O. Howe, of Wis., 20 Dec. 1881. TiriRTEKNTII ADMINISTRATION—1857 TO 1861. Attorneys-general: Wayne McVeagh, of Pa., 5 March, 1881; President: James Buchanan, of Pa. Benjamin Harris Brewster, of Pa., 16 Dec. 1881. Vice-president: John C. Breckinridge, of Ky. Secretaries of State: Lewis Cass, of Mich., 6 March. 1857—reAdministrative Reform Association designed 14 Dec. 1860. Jeremiah S. Black, of Pa., succeeded rived its origin from an opinion that the disasters which him. Secretaries of the Treasury: Howell Cobb, of Ga., 6 March, occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1851-5 were 1857—resigned 10 Dec. lrftiO; Philip F. Thomas, of Md.—re- attributable to the inefficient and irresponsible managesigned 11 Jan. 1861; John A! i>ix, of N. Y. ment of the various departments of the state. The assoSecretaries of War: John B. Floyd, of Va., 6 March, 1857—reciation was organized in London. 5 M a y , 1855. A meetsigned 29 Dec. 1860; Joseph Holt, of Ky., 30 Dec. 1860. Secretary of the Navy: Isaac Touccy, of Conn.. 6 March, 1857. ing was held in Drury-lane theatre on IB June, and Mr. Secretary o f t lie Interior: Jacob Thompson, of Miss., 6 March, Layard's motion on the subject in parliament was nega1857—resigned 8 Jan. 1861. tived 18 June following. T h e association was reorganPostmasters-general: Aaron V. Brown, of Tenn., 6 March, 1857—died 6 March, 1859; Joseph Holt, of Ky., July, 1859; ized in 185G, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming chairman, but soon became unimportant; see Civil Service. Horatio King, of Me., 12 Feb. 1861. Attorneys general: Jeremiah S. Black, of Pa., 6 March, 1857; Admiral. T h e title docs not appear to have been Edwin M. Stanton, of O., Dec. 1860. adopted in England until about 1300, but was previously FOURTEENTH ADMINISTRATION—1861 TO 1869. A 1 fred, A thclstaii, Pr es i den ts: Abr ah am I, i ncol n, of 111. — d i ed 15 A p r i 1,1855. A n -in use in France.—Sir Harris Nicolas. drew Johnson, of Tenn., succeeded Abraham Lincoln, 15 Edgar, Harold, and other kings were commanders of April, 1865. their own fleets. T h e first French admiral is said to Vice-presidents: Hannibal Hamlin, of Me.; Andrew Johnson, have been appointed 1 '28-1. T h e rank of admiral of the of Tenn., 4 March, 1865—died 31 July, 1875. Secretary of State: William H. Seward, of N. Y., March, 1861. English seas was first g i v e n to W i l l i a m de Ley bourne by T h e first LORD Secretaries of the Treasury: Salmon P. Chase, of ()., March, Edward I . in 1297.—Spelman ; ltymer. 1861; William P. Fesscndcn, of Me., Sept. 1864; Hugh H I G H ADMIRAL in England was created by Richard I I . McCuIloch, of Ind., March, 1865. in- 1 3 8 5 ; there had been previously high admirals of Secretaries of War: Simon Cameron, of Pa., March, 1861; Eddistricts—the north, west, and south. T h e duties have win M. Stanton, of O., Jan. 1862. Secretaiy of the Navy: Gideon Welles, of Conn., March, 1861. generally been executed by lords eomnsi: ioners; see Secretaries of the Interior: Caleb B. Smith, of Ind., March, Admiralty. A similar dignity existed in Scotland from 1861—resigned Dec. 1862; John P. Usher, of Ind., Jan. 1863; I n 1 6 7 3 , Charles I I . bestowed James Harlan, of la., May, 1865; O. H. Browning, of 111., the reign of Robert I I I . it upon his natural son Charles Lennox, afterwards duke July, 1866. Post in asters-general: Montgomery Blair, of Md., March, 1861; of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned the office to William Dennison, of O., Oct. 1864; Alexander W. Randall, the crown in 1 7 0 3 ; after the union it was discontinued. of Wis., July. 1866. Attorneys general: Edward Bates, of Mo., March, 1861; James — T h e dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief Speed, of Ky., Dec. 1864; H. F. Stansberrv, of Ky., July, existence) was conferred upon James Butler by I i e n r y 1866. V I I I . in M a y , 1 5 3 4 . T h e Admiral of the Fleet is the FIFTEENTH ADMINISTRATION—1869 TO 1877. highest rank in the Royal n a v y , corresponding to that President: Ulysses S. Grant, of 111. of field-marshal in the army. W e have now o admirals Vice-presidents: Schuyler Colfax, of Ind.; Iienry Wilson, of of the fleet, 10 admirals, 19 vice-admirals, 31 rear-admiMass., 4 March, 1873. Secretaries of State: Elihu B. Washburne, of 111., 5 March, rals, and 1 7 4 captains (April, 1 8 8 1 ) . T h e rank of admiral 1869; Hamilton Fish, of N. Y., 11 March, 1869. in the United States n a v y was created July 25,18G6, for Secretaries of the Treasury: George S. Bout well, of Mass., 11 March, 1869; William A. llicliardson, of Mass., 17 March, the purpose of honoring D a v i d G. Farragut and suitably 1873; Benjamin H. Bristow, of Kv., 2 June, 1874; Lot M. rewarding him for his eminent services. Morrill, of Me., 21 June, 1876. Secretaries of War: John A. Rawlins, of 111., 11 March, 1869; A d m i r a l t y , COURT OF, a court for the trial of William T. Sherman, of 0., 9 Sept. 1869; William W. Bel- causes relating to maritime affairs, said to have been knap, of la., 25 Oct, 1869. Secretaries of the Navy: Adolph E. Borie, of Pa. 5 March, erected by Edward I I I . in 1357. I t was enacted in the reign of H e n r y V I I I . that criminal causes should be 1869; George M. Robeson, of N. J., 25 June, 1869. Secretaries of the Interior: Jacob D. Cox. of 0.. 5 March, 1869, tried b y witnesses and a j u r y , some of the judges at Columbus Delano, of O., 1 Nov. 1870; Zachariah Chandler, Westminster (or, as now, at the Old B a i l e y ) assisting. of Mich., 19 Oct. 1875. Post in asters-general: John A. J. Creswell, of Md., 5 March, T h e judgeship of the admiralty was constituted in 1514, 1869; James W. Marshall, of Pa., 3 July, 1874; Marshall and was filled by two or more functionaries until the Jewell, of Conn., 24 Aug. 1874; James N. Tyner, of Ind., 12 Revolution, when it was restricted to one.—Beatson. July, 1876. T h e judge has usually been an eminent doctor of the Attorneys-general: Ebenezer R. Hoar, of Mass., 5 March, 1869; Amos T. Akerman, of Ga., 23 June, 1870; George H.Will- civil law. I n 1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court iams, of Or., 10 Jan. 1872; Edwards Pierrepont, of N. Y. 15 was removed, and by 20 & 21 Vict. e. 77 (1857), the Aiay, isTo; Aiphonso Tuft, of O 2 2 May, 1876. j u d g e of the Probate court was to be also judge of the Admiralty court. T h e judge of the Admiralty court, SIXTEENTH ADMINISTRATION—1877 TO 1881. President: Rutherford B. Hayes, of O. Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed in 1838), resigned 1 Vice-President: William A. Wheeler, of N. Y. July, 1867, and was succeeded b y Sir Robert Phillimore. Secretary of State: William M. Evarts, of N. Y., 12 March, T h e jurisdiction of this court was extended in 1 8 6 1 ; see 1877.

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Supreme Court. In the United States admiralty juris- 1828. R o b e r t , v i s c o u n t Melville, 19 Sept. 1830. S i r J a m e s R o b e r t G e o r g e G r a h a m , h a r t . , 25 N o v . diction is exercised by the circuit and district courts. A d m i r a l t y , Whitehall. " At t h e south end of Duke street, Westminster, was seated a large house made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford house, against Whitehall." It was rebuilt by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the brothers Adam, in 177G.— Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on 8 J a n . 1800, aud on the next day was buried at St. Paul's.

Admiralty and War-office Act, to facilitate improvements in the organization of these offices, by the retirement of clerks from certain of the civil departments by granting gratuities, was passed 10 Aug. 1878, A d m i r a l t y O f f i c e dates from 1512, when H e n r y V I I I . appointed commissioners to inspect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth the admiralty affairs were managed by a committee of the parliament; and at the restoration in 1660, James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, the great officers of state being the commissioners; see succeeding changes belvic. In 1688-9 the admiralty was put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at admiral Herbert's lodgings, in Channel row. Westminster, he being at t h a t time first lord. I n 1830,1832, and 183G various changes were made in the civil departments, several offices being abolished or consolidated with others. I n March, 1861, a royal commission recommended the abolition of the board of admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the n a v y department. The board was reconstituted 14 J a n . 1869, and 4 May, 1872. FIRST LORDS OF TIIE ADMIRALTY.

1660. JAMES, DUKE OF YORK, lord high admiral,

6 June.

1 6 7 0 . K I N G CHARLES I I . , 1 4 J u n e . " PRIXCK RUIMCRT, 9 J u l y .

1679. 1680. 1681. 1G83.

Sir H e n r y Capel, 14 F e b . D a n i e l F i n c h , esq., 19 F e b . D a n i e l , lore F i n c h , 20 .Tan. D a n i e l , e a r l of N o t t i n g h a m , 17 April.

1 6 8 4 . K I N G CHARLES I I . 1 6 8 5 . K I N O J A M E S II., 17

1689. 1690. 1692. 1693. 1694. 1699. 1701. 1702. 1708. 1709. 1710. 1712. 1714. 1717. 1727. 1733. 1742. 1744. 1748. 1751. 1756. 1757. " 1762. 1763. '• " 1766. " 1771. 1782. u

1783. 1788. 1794. 1801. 1804. 1S05. 1806. " 1807. 1809. 1812.

Slav. Office in commission. A r t h u r H e r b e r t , esq., »"March. T h o m a s , e a r l of P e m b r o k e a n d M o n t g o m e r v . 20 J a n C h a r l e s , lord C o m w a l l i s , 10 M a r c h . A n t h o n y , v i s c o u n t F a l k l a n d . 15 April E d w a r d R u s s e l , esq. ( a f t e r w a r d s e a r l of Orford), 2 May. J o h n , c a r l of B r i d g e w a t e r , 2 J u n e . T h o m a s , e a r l of P e m b r o k e , 4 April. GEORGE, PRINCE OF DENMARK, lord high admiral, 20 May. T h o m a s , e a r l of P e m b r o k e , ditto, 29 N o v . Office in commission. E d w a r d , e a r l of O r f o r d , 8 Oct. Sir J o l m L e a k e , 4 Oct. T h o m a s , e a r l of S t r a f f o r d , 30 Sept. E d w a r d , c a r l of O r f o r d , 14 Oct. J a m e s , e a r l of B e r k e l e y , 19 M a r c h . George, v i s c o u n t T o r r i n g t o n , 2 Aug. S i r C h a r l e s W a g e r , k n t . , 25 J u n e . D a n i e l , e a r l of W i n c h i l s e a , 19 M a r c h . J o h n , d u k e of B e d f o r d , 27 Dec. J o h n , earl of S a n d w i c h , 10 Feb. George, l o r d A n s o n , 22 J u n e . R i c h a r d , e a r l T e m p l e , 19 Nov. D a n i e l , e a r l of W i n c h i l s e a , 6 April. George, lord A n s o n , 2 J u l y . G e o r g e M. D u n k , earl of H a l i f a x , 19 J u n e . G e o r g e G r e n v i l l e , esq., 1 J a n . J o h n , earl of S a n d w i c h , 23 April. J o h n , e a r l of E g m o n t , 10 Sept. S i r C h a r l e s S a u n d e r s , 10 Sept. S i r E d w a r d Havvke, 10 Dec. J o h n , e a r l of S a n d w i c h , 12 J a n . H o n . A u g u s t u s K e p p e l , 1 April. A u g u s t u s , v i s c o u n t K e p p e l , 18 J u l y . R i c h a r d , v i s c o u n t H o w e , 28 J a n . J o h n , c a r l of C h a t h a m , 16 J u l y . G e o r g e J o h n , e a r l S p e n c e r . 20 Dec. J o h n , earl St. V i n c e n t , 19 Feb. H e n r y , v i s c o u n t Melville, 15 May. C h a r l e s , l o r d B a r h a m , 2 May. H o n . C h a r l e s G r a y , 10 Feb. T h o m a s Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. H e n r y , lord M u l g r a v e , 6 April. C h a r l e s Y o r k e , e s q . , 10 May. R o b e r t , v i s c o u n t Melville, 25 M a r c h .

1 8 2 7 . WILLIAM H E N R Y , DUKE OF CLARENCE,

2 M a y ; r e s i g n e d 12 Aug. 1828.

lord high admin

1834. " 1835. " 1841. 1846. '' 1849. 1852. 1853. 1855. 1858. 1859. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1871. 1874. 1877. 1880.

George, lord A u c k l a n d , 11 J u n e . T h o m a s P h i l i p , e a r l d e G r e y . 23 Dec. George, lord A u c k l a n d , 25 April. Gilbert, e a r l of Minto, 19 S e p t . T h o m a s , e a r l of H a d d i n g t o n , 8 Sept. E d w a r d , e a r l of E l l e n b o r o u g h , 13 J a n . George, e a r l of A u c k l a n d , 24 J u l v. S i r F r a n c i s T h o r n l i i l l B a r i n g . 18* J a n . A l g e r n o n , d u k e of N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , 28 F e b . Sir J a m e s Robert George G r a h a m , 5 J a n . S i r C h a r l e s Wood, h a r t . , 24 Feb. S i r J o h n P a k i n g t o n , b a r t . , 26 Feb. Eclward, d u k e of S o m e r s e t . J u n e . Sir J o h n Pakington. bart., 6 July. H e n r y Lowry Corry, 8 March. H u g h Culling E a r d l e y C h i l d e r s , 9 Dec. George J o a c h i m Goschen, 9 March. G e o r g e W a r d H u n t . 21 F e b . ; died 29 J u l y , 1877. W i l l i a m H e n r y S m i t h , a b o u t 7 Aug. T h o m a s G e o r g e B a r i n g , e a r l of N o r t h b r o o k , 28 A p r i l .

" Admonition T O T H E P A R L I A M E N T , " condemning all religious ceremonies but those commanded by t h e New Testament, was published by certain Puritans ill 1571. Its presumed authors, Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Admonition, by Thomas Cartwright, was answered by archbishop W h i t g i f t . Adorno AND Fregoso, two families, of which the doges were frequently members, disturbed Genoa from the fourteenth to the sixteenth c e n t u r y ; the former favoring the emperor, the latter the French king. Their power was annihilated by Andrea Doria about 1528.

Adrian's (or Hadrian's) W a l l (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, then under the Roman government) extended from the T y n e to Sol way frith, and was e i g h t y miles long, twelve feet high, and eight feet in thickness, with watch-towers; built 121. I t was repaired and strengthened by Severus, 207-210. A d r i a n o p l e , in Turkey, so named after its restorer, the emperor Adrian, or Hadrian (who died 10 July, 138). Near here Constantine defeated Licinius and gained the empire, 3 July, 823; also, near here the emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, 9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by t h e Turks, under Amurath, in 1361, and was their capital till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. I t was taken by the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored 14 Sept. same y e a r ; occupied by the Russians, without resistance, 20 J a n . 1878 ; see Turkey. Adriatic. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about 1173) took place annually on Ascension-day. T h e doge dropped a ring into the sea from his Bucentaur, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was first omitted in 1797. A d u l l a m , a cave to which David fled from t h e persecution of Saul about 10G2 B.C. (1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2). Mr. H o r s m a n , Mr. R. L o w e , e a r l G r o s v e n o r , l o r d E l c h o , a n d o t h e r l i b e r a l s w h o o p p o s e d t h e F r a n c h i s e bill in 1866 w e r e t e r m e d " A d u l l a m i t e s . " D u r i n g a d e b a t e on tliis bill o n 33 M a r c h , 1806, Mr. B r i g h t s a i d of Mr. H o r s m a n t h a t h e " h a d r e t i r e d i n t o w h a t m a y b e called h i s p o l i t i c a l c a v e of A d u l l a m . t o w h i c h h e i n v i t e d e v e r y o n e w h o w a s in d e b t , a n d e v e r y o n e w h o w a s d i s c o n t e n t e d , " etc. On 19 April, l o r d E l c h o said, u N o i m p r o p e r m o t i v e h a s d r i v e n u s i n t o t h i s cave, w h e r e we are a most h a p p y family, daily—I m a y say, h o u r l y — i n c r e a s i n g in n u m b e r a n d s t r e n g t h , w h e r e w e s h a l l r e m a i n until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppression.51 A l t h o u g h t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n led t o t h e d e f e a t a n d r e s i g n a t i o n of t h e R u s s e l l m i n i s t r y , t h e y d e c l i n e d t o t a k e office u n d e r lord D e r b y in J u l y , 1H66. t h e y d i d n o t v o t e t o g e t h e r u n i f o r m l y in 1867, a n d ( l o r d Elclio a n d Mr. W y l d e x c e p t e d ) v o t e d w i t h Mr. G l a d s t o n e f o r t h e d i s e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e I r i s h c h u r c h , 1 M a y , 1808.

Adulteration. T h a t of food was prohibited in England in 1267, and punishments for it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, etc. Much attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Accum's book, called " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 through Dr. HassaH's book, " Food and its Adulterations." By an act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in 1860, parochial chemical analysts may be appointed. An act to prevent adulteration of seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. Another

ADU

13

to prevent adulteration of food and drugs passed 10 Aug. 187'2. Penalties for adulterating liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed same time. The report of a commission, issued in July, 1874, declared that the public " w e r e cheated rather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration acts were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875 ; which was amended in 1879. A d u l t e r y was punished with death by the law of Moses (1490 B.C.; Lev. x x . 10), and by Lycurgus (884 J3.C.). The early Saxons burned the adulteress and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Adultery was ordained to be punished capitally by the parliament, May 14,1650 ; but there is no record of this law taking effect ; and it was repealed at the restoration. In New England the punishment for adultery was made capital to both parties, and several suffered for it, 1662.—JIardie. Till 1857 the legal redress against the male offender was by civil action for a money compensation, the female being liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857), the " action for criminal conversation " was abolished, and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes established with power to grant divorces for adultery and ill-usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in 1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give evidence. In the United States adultery is variously punished under differing state laws, usually by fine or imprisonment or both. I t is also good ground for absolute divorce iu all the states.

JEOL

parliament of Paris in 1685 that the king's advocate of France might at the same time be a j u d g e ; and in Scotland, sir William Oliphant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord advocates and lords of session at the same time.—Jieatson. The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was established by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682; see Judge A drocate. -ZEdiles. Koraan city officers of three degrees, said to owe their name to having had charge of the rndes, or temple, of Ceres. 1. Two plebeian aidiles were appointed with the tribunes to assist them in looking after buildings, weights, and measures, the supply of provisions and water, etc., 494 B.C. 2. The cediles curuks, at first patricians, were appointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Cassar appointed cediles cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The aediles became a kind of police under the emperors. -ZEdui, or H e d u i , a Celtic people, N.E. France, who were delivered from subjection to the Sequani bv Julius Caesar, B.C. 58; but afterwards, opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their insurrection, headed by Julius Sacrovir, A.B. 21, was quelled by C. Silius. A g a t e s I s l e s , W. of Sicily: near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman consul C. Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hauno, 10 March, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents.

- S i g m a , a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C.; and taken and its works destroyed, 455. Its inhabitants expelled, 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they renewed war with A d v e n t (adventus, arrival). The season includes Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the first the nearest i E g o s p o t a m i (the Goat-rivers), in the ChersoneSunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. sus, where Lysander, the Lacedaimonian, defeated the Advent Sunday, 1880, 28 Nov.; 1881, 27 Nov.; 1882, 3 Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponncsiau war. Dec. ; 1883, 2 Dec. ; 1884, 30 Nov. ; 1885, 29 Nov. A . E . I . O. U . (for "Austria est imperare orbi uniA d v e n t i s t s . An American sect who look for the early second coming of Christ. A fanatical member of versi," "Austria is to rule all the world ") was the motto the sect in Pocasset, Mass., professing to imitate Abra- of the weak and unfortunate emperor Frederick III ham, sacrificed his child, the mother looking on, Mav, 1440-93. 1879. i E l f r i c S o c i e t y , founded 1842; closed 1856; published "Homilies of/Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury," A d v e n t u r e B a y , S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, and other Anglo-Saxon works. discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux in his first voyage .S31ia C a p i t o l i n a , built on the ruins of Jerusalem to the Pacific, and named from his ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 1777 ; by capt. Bligh in 1788 by the emperor Adrian, 130. and 1792. E m i l i a , the name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sardinia in 1860, A d v e n t u r e r s , see Merchants. A d v e r t i s e m e n t s I N N E W S P A P E R S , as now pub- and now part of the kingdom of Italy. - S J n e i d , the great Latin epic poem relating the adlished, were not general in England till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 50i. was inflict- ventures of J5neas, written about 24 B.C. by Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had finally corrected the ed on persons advertising a reward with " No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolon, and on the poem. It was first printed in 1469 at Iiome. printer, 1754. The advertisement duty (first enacted ¿ E n i g m a . Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C.; Judg. 1712), formerly charged according to the number of xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale attributes eniglines, was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6sar, 54 B.o. I t was retaken, after much slaughter, b y B o a d i c e a or Bunduica, queen of t h e I c e n i , A.t>. 61.

A l a m o , a f o r t i n T e x a s , near San A n t o n i o . Here occurred t h e massacre of t h e A l a m o , 6 M a r c h , 1836, on w h i c h d a y a M e x i c a n f o r c e of 1500 or 2000 men, under Santa A n n a , after h a v i n g in v a i n b e s i e g e d and b o m b a r d ed its garrison of 140 T e x a n s , under col. T r a v i s , e v e r since the 23d of t h e p r e c e d i n g m o n t h , stormed t h e place and took it, after b e i n g t w i c e repulsed. B u t s i x T e x a n s w e r e l e f t a l i v e a f t e r t h e assault, and these w e r e murdered in cold blood in Santa A n n a ' s presence, b y his order, a f t e r surrender on promise of protection.

First battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were defeated, their leader. Edmund, duke of Somerset slaiu, and king Henrv VI. taken prisoner by the duke of Y o r k and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, ShroveTuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. Disfranchised for bribery. 17 June, 1852. Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric of St. Albans, 29 June, 1875. See constituted, 30 April; made a city, 28 Aug. 1877.

A l a n d I s l e s ( G u l f of B o t h n i a ) , taken f r o m den b y Kussia, 1809; see Bomarsund.

BISHOP. 1877. Thomas I.egh Claughton (trans, from Rochester).

Swe-

A l a n i , a T a r t a r race, i n v a d e d P a r t h i a , 75. They j o i n e d t h e H u n s i n i n v a d i n g t h e R o m a n empire, and w e r e defeated b y Theodosius, 379-382. T h e y w e r e subdued b y t h e V i s i g o t h s , 452, and e v e n t u a l l y incorporated w i t h them. A l a r c o a (central S p a i n ) . H e r e t h e Spaniards, under A l f o n s o I X . , k i n g of Castile, w e r e t o t a l l y defeated b y t h e M o o r s , 19 J u l y , 1195. A l a s k a , t h e name g i v e n t o the Russian possessions i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , purchased b y t h e U n i t e d States b v t r e a t y , 13 M a r c h , 1SG7, for $7,200,000, r e c e i v e d 1 A u g . 1868. S i t k a is t h e principal station. A l b a L o n g a , an ancient c i t y of I t a l y , said to h a v e been founded b y Ascanius, son o f .Ijnoas. 1152 B.C. Its h i s t o r y is m y t h i c a l .

St. Albans Raid, see United States, Oct, 1864. St. Albans Murder, see Trials, 1880. A l b a n ' s , S t . , C h u r c h , H o l b o r n ; see under of England, 1867.

Church

Albany, or ALHAINN, the ancient name of the Scottish H i g h l a n d s . R o b e r t S t e w a r t , t h e brother of k i n g R o b e r t I I I . , w a s created t h e first d u k e of A l b a n y in 1398, and t h e t i t l e has e v e r since been connected w i t h the c r o w n of Scotland. T h e y o u n g pretender, prince Charles E d w a r d , and his w i f e took the title of count and countess of A l b a n y ; see York. DUKES OF ALBANY. 1398. Robert; regent; 1406; died 3 Sept. 1420. 1420. Murdoch, son; regent; executed for treason by king James I., 1424. 1452. Alexander, brother of king James I I . ; acted treasonably • exiled; killed accidentally at Paris, 1485. 1514. John, son; regent; went abroad; died at Paris, 1526. See York and Albany, duk'-k. 1881. Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881.

Ascanius, son of ¿Eneas, 1152 B.C.; Sylvius Posthumus, 1143; ¿Eneas Sylvius B.C. 1114 Beign of Latinus, 1048; Alba, 1038; Atys, or Capetus, 916 1002; Capys, 976; Capetus Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in battle near the river Albula, he throws liimself into the stream, is A l b a n y , t h e capital drowned, and hence this river is called the Tiber 895 founded b y the D u t c h , Agrippa: Romulus Silvius, 864; Aventinus, 845; Procasj 808 ; Numitor 795 1686; m a d e the capital, a u t h o r i z i n g the b u i l d i n g Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 794;

c i t y of t h e state of S e w Y o r k ; 1614; incorporated as a c i t y , 1797 ; capitol built, 1807; act of a n e w c a p i t o l passed, 1865;

ALB

22

ALC

cert was given to t h e w o r k m e n 25 Feb.. and t h e hall was first appropriation for t h a t purpose, 1867; corner-stone opened by t h e queen 29 March, 1871, w h e n a grand concert laid "24 J u n e , 1871. D u d l e y Observatory incorporated, was given. 1852 ; dedicated, 1856. E x c e p t J a m e s t o w n , Ya., A l b a n y ALBERT BRIDGE, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873; freed f r o m toll is t h e oldest settlement in t h e t h i r t e e n original states. 2 4 May, 1 8 7 9 . H e n r y H u d s o n visited t h e place in h i s ship t h e Half ALBERT EMBANKMENT, etc.. see Thames, 1869; Docks. ALBERT INSTITUTE, Windsor, opened b y t h e prince of Wales Moon, Sept. 1G09. T h e town was originally n a m e d N e w 10 Jan. 1880. O r a n g e ; n a m e changed to Albany, 1664. First conven- ALBERT MEDALS, to be awarded to persons who e n d a n g e r t h e i r lives by saving o t h e r s lrom sliipwrcck, appointed b y roval tion for t h e union of t h e colonies (13. Franklin, presiw a r r a n t , 3 March, 1M56. The first was given to Samuel Popdent) assembled a t Albany, 1754.

A l b e r t M e m o r i a l s (see England, Queen).

The

Prince-consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, deeply lamented b y t h e whole civilized world. H i s remains were transferred to t h e mausoleum of Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. T h e sarcophagus is composed of t h e largest k n o w n block of g r a n i t e w i t h o u t flaw. A m e e t i n g to organize a m e t h o d of receiving contributions for a g r e a t national memorial was held a t t h e Mansion-house, 14 J a n . 1862; and a large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000^. h a d been received on 1 M a r c h ; 50,220/. on 11 J u n e , 1862; and parliament voted 50,00(V., in addition to t h e 60,000/. received by volu n t a r y contributions, 23 April, 1863. The n a t u r e of the memorial was referred to the queen herself. I n a letter to t h e lord mayor, d:»ted 19 Feb. 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, " I t would be m o r e in accordance w i t h her own feelings, a n d she believes with those of t h e country in general, t h a t t h e m o n u m e n t should be directly personal to its object. After giving the subject h e r m a t u r e s t consideration, h e r m a j e s t y has come to t h e conclusion t h a t nothing would be more appropriate, provided it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, t h a n an obelisk to be erected in H y d e p a r k on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some spot i m m e d i a t e l y contiguous to it. Nor would a n y proposal that could be m a d e be more g r a t i f y i n g to t h e queen herself personally, for she can never forget t h a t the prince himself had h i g h l y approved of t h e idea of a memorial of this character being raised on the s a m e spot in r e m e m b r a n c e of the Great E x h i b i t i o n . " In a second letter t h e queen expressed h e r intention of personally contribu t i n g towards erecting the memorial, t h a t 4- it m i g h t bo recorded in f u t u r e ages as raised by t h e queen a n d people of a grateful country to the m e m o r y of its b e n e f a c t o r . " Shortly a f t e r a c o m m i t t e e was appointed to fulfil h e r m a j e s t y ' s desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be obtained, t h e proposal for an obelisk was given up. The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for a n Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, accompanied by statues, etc., 22 April, 1803; work begun 13 May. 1864. The" sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, J o h n Bell, a n d A r m i s t e a d : material. Sicilian marble. («Fan. 18G5.) The gilt statue by Foley uncovered 9 March, 187G. The memorial, complete, except t h e statue by Foley (delayed t h r o u g h illness), was given u p to h e r m a j e s t y privately, 1 July, 1872. Doyne C. Bell's Descriptive and Illustrated Account of this Monument, published by Mr. J o h n Murray, 1873. Inscription on the '''Memorial Cairn''' on a high m o u n t a i n overlooking Balmoral P a l a c e : — u T o t h e beloved m e m o r y of ALBERT, t h e great and good Prince-consort, erected by his b r o k e n - h e a r t e d widow, VICTORIA R . , 2 1 Aug. 1862." Upon a n o t h e r dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this q u o t a t i o n : " H e being made perfect in a short t i m e , fulfilled a long t i m e : for his soul pleased t h e hord, therefore b a s t e d h e to t a k e h i m away f r o m among the w i c k e d . " — Wisdom of Solomon, IV. 13,14. A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at Rosenau. his birthplace, in t h e presence of the queen and the royal family, 19 Aug. 1865. " E a r l y Y e a r s ' o f t h e P r i n c e - c o n s o r t , " edited by t h e Hon. Charles Grey, published 6 July. 18G7. A n o t h e r s t a t u e by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 Oct. 1867. The statue at t h e Holborn Circus, uncovered by t h e prince of Wales, 9 J a n . 1874. The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor opened to t h e public, 1 Dec. 1875. Life, by Theodore Martin, 5 vols., published 1875-80. The'Scottish National Memorial to t h e prince, Edinburgh, inaugurated by t h e queen, 17 Aug. 1876. Statue at Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, uncovered b y the prince of Wales, 22 J a n . 1878. Many other memorials of the prince h a v e been set u p througho u t t h e empire.

plcstone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life on 23 March previous; m e d a l s awarded to Pontypridd m i n e r s and o t h e r s for saving m e n imprisoned in a m i n e t h r o u g h i n u n d a t i o n (see Coal: Accidents), April, 1877. ALBERT MEDAL (gold), awarded b y t h e Society of A r t s to s Rowland Hill, 1WM; Napoleon III. 1865; Michael Farada1866; Charles Wheal stono and William Fothcrgill Cook't, 1867; J o s e p h Wliinvortli, 1868; J u s t u s Liebig, 1869; Ferdin a n d de Lesseps, 1870; H e n r v Cole, C. B., 1871; H e n r y Bessemer, 1872; Michel Eugene Chevreul, 1873; C. William Siemens, 1874; Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. C. Airy, 1876; J e a n Baptist.e Dumas, 1877; sir William G. Armstrong, J878; sir William Thomson, 1879; J a m e s Prescott Joule, 1880. Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot; founded 18G4.

A l b i g e n s e s , a n a m e given to various persons w h o opposed t h e doctrines and corruptions of t h e C h u r c h of Rome, l i v i n g a t Albi, in Languedoc, and a t Toulouse in t h e 12th c e n t u r y . T h e y were persecuted as Manichteans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by pope I n n o c e n t I I I . ) against t h e m commenced in 1207. Simon de M o n t f o r t commanded 500,000 men, and a t Beziers, 1209, h e and t h e pope's l e g a t e p u t friends and foes to t h e sword, s a y ing, " God will find his own !" * A t M i n e r b a h e burned 150 of t h e Albigenses a l i v e ; and at L a V a u r h e h a n g e d t h e governor, and beheaded t h e chief people, d r o w n i n g t h e governor's wife, and m u r d e r i n g o t h e r women. He defeated K a y m o n d , count of Toulouse, b u t was himself killed in 1218. Louis V I I I . and I X . , k i n g s of F r a n c e , patronized t h e c r u s a d e ; count R a y m o n d was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; and t h e heretics were g i v e n u p to t h e Inquisition. T h e y h a d little in common w i t h t h e Waldenses

{which

see}.

Albion. B r i t a i n is so called b y Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). J u l i u s Citsar and o t h e r s are said to h a v e g i v e n it t h e n a m e (from alius, white) on account of its c h a l k v cliffs.

Albuera, or ALiiuitEiiA, E s t r e m a d u r a , Spain. H e r e a battle w a s f o u g h t between t h e F r e n c h , c o m m a n d ed b y m a r s h a l Soult, and t h e British and A n g l o - S p a n ish arm}-, under m a r s h a l ( a f t e r w a r d s lord) licreslbrd, 16 M a y , 1811. T h e allies o b t a i n e d a brilliant victor}-. T h e F r e n c h loss exceeded 8000 men previously to t h e i r r e t r e a t ; b u t t h e allies lost a large n u m b e r . T h e chief b r u n t of t h e action fell on t h e B r i t i s h ; colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more t h a n 400 men, out of 570 w h o h a d m o u n t e d a hill, fell— out of t h e 57th r e g i m e n t a l o n e ; t h e other r e g i m e n t s were scarcely better off, n o t one t h i r d b e i n g left s t a n d i n g : 1500 unwounded men, t h e r e m n a n t of 6000 unconquerable British soldiers, stood t r i u m p h a n t on t h i s f a t a l h i l l . " — X a p i e r . A l b u f e r a ( S p a i n , E a s t C e n t r a l ) , a lagoon near w h i c h t h e F r e n c h m a r s h a l Suchet (afterwards d u k e of A l b u f e r a ) defeated t h e Spaniards under Blake, 4 J a n . 1812: t h i s led to his capture of Valencia on 9 J a n . A l c a l a , Spain, near t h e R o m a n C o m p l u t u m . At t h e university here was printed t h e Complutensian P o l y glot Bible, a t t h e expense of cardinal X i m e n e s , 1502-15.

A l c a n t a r a , , a town on t h e Tagtts, "\V. Spain. A fine bridge was built here b y T r a j a n about 104. T h e d u k e of A l v a acquired P o r t u g a l for Spain b y d e f e a t i n g t h e P o r t u g u e s e a m y here, 24 J u n e , 1580. T h e Spanish m i l i t a r y order of k n i g h t h o o d of A l c a n t a r a was establishROYAL A L B E R T H A L L OP A R T S AND SCIENCES: T h e e r e c t i o n o f a great building for congresses, concerts, etc.. was proposed ed in 115«. T h e sovereign of Spain h a s been g r a n d by the prince-consort a t the close of t h e exhibition of 1851, m a s t e r since 1495.

and an estate a t Kensington was p u r c h a s e d ; a committee, w i t h the prince of Wales at the head, to erect the building, w a s appointed 6 July, 1805; circulars soliciting subscriptions were issued April, 18G6; aud t h e first stone was laid by t h e queen, 20 May, 1867. The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly a f t e r designs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000/. The organ, by Will's, is said to be the largest in t h e world. An experimental con-

A l c a z a r - Q u i v e r , near F e z , N . W . Africa, w h e r e t h e Moors totally defeated t h e Portuguese, whose gall a n t k i n g Sebastia i was slain, 4 A u g . 1578. T h e P o r t u * Now contradictcd.

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guese disbelieved his deatli and long e x p e c t e d his ret u r n ; t h i s led to t h e appearance of five impostors. A l c h e m y , t h e forerunner of c h e m i s t r y ; its chief objects b e i n g t h e discovery of t h e philosopher's stone ( w h i c h was to effect t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n of metals into gold), an alkahest, or universal m e n s t r u u m , and t h e elixir of life. * T h e alchemists assert t h a t t h e i r founder was H e r m e s Trismegistus (thrice greatest), an ancient E g y p tian k i n g . — P l i n y says t h e emperor Caligula was t h e first w h o prepared n a t u r a l arsenic, in order to m a k e gold of it, b u t l e f t i t off, because t h e c h a r g e exceeded t h e profit.

ALE 1120. T h e British m a n - o f - w a r Victory, of 100 g u n s and 1160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; t h e admiral, sir J o h n Balcheu, and all his crcw, perished. Through t h i s strait t h e F r e n c h escaped a f t e r t h e i r defeat a t L a H o g u e b y admirals Russell and Kooke, 19 Slav, 1692. T h e construction of a breakwater, in order to m a k e Ald e r n e y a n a v a l station, was b e g u n in 1852, and a f t e r h a v i n g cost 1,337,100?., was.suspended by p a r l i a m e n t in 1871. I n 1874 t h e harbor and lands were transferred from t h e control of t h e board of t r a d e to t h a t of t h e a d miralty and the war department.

Aldershot Camp, on a moor near F a r n h a m , about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, t h e War-olHce, h a v i n g obtained a g r a n t of 1,000,000/., purchased 4000 acres of land for a p e r m a n e n t c a m p for 20,000 men. Additional land purchased in 1856. Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the superintendence of capt. John Grant, 1857. Visited by the queen, 18,19 April, 1856. The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 7, 16 July, 1856. About 15,000 men wTere stationed here, 1859. Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291,531!. up to Feb. I860. An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers and men and their wives, opened 29 June ; closed 14 July, 1864. Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manœuvres, Aug., Sept. 1871. Many liorscs broke away through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. Alcohol. P u r e spirit of wine or h y d r a t e d alcohol is said to h a v e been obtained b y t h e distillation of fer- Review of 14,000. etc.. by the queen, 5 July, 1872. Summer manœuvres hero, 1874,1875,1876,1877. m e n t e d liquors b y Abucasis in t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ; and Review by the queen, 13 May, 1878. t h e d e h y d r a t i o n of t h i s liquor to h a v e been partially efAldine Press, t h a t of Aldo l l a n u z i o (Aldus M a n u fected b y R a y m o n d Lullius in t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y tius) a t Venice, where were p r i n t e d m a n y of t h e first carbonate of potassium. Alcohol h a s n e v e r been reeditions of t h e Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, comduced to t h e solid state, b u t becomes viscid at v e r y low m e n c i n g in 1494 with Musœus. t e m p e r a t u r e s . I n 1820, F a r a d a y and H e n n e l l obtained A l e , BEER, AND WINE are said to h a v e been i n v e n t e d traces of alcohol b y passing olefiant g a s (bicarburetted h y d r o g e n ) t h r o u g h sulphuric a c i d ; a n d in 1862 t h i s b y Bacchus. Ale was k n o w n as a beverage a t least in process was e x a m i n e d and confirmed b y B e r t h e l o t ; see 404 B.C. H e r o d o t u s ascribes t h e first discovery of t h e Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum„ A b o u t 250 med- a r t of brewing barley-wine to Isis, t h e wife of Osiris, ical men, including t h e president of t h e Royal College and a beverage of this k i n d is mentioned b y Xenophon, of Physicians, and m a n y hospital officials, issued a cau- 401 B.c. T h e Romans and G e r m a n s v e r y early learned tionary declaration concerning t h e use of alcohol in med- from t h e E g y p t i a n s t h e process of p r e p a r i n g a liquor from corn b y means of f e r m e n t a t i o n Tacitus. Aleicine, Dec. 1871; see Temperance. houses are mentioned in t h e laws of I n a , k i n g of Wessex. A l c o l e a (Andulasia, S. Spain). N e a r t h e bridge a Booths were set up in E n g l a n d , 728, w h e n l a w s were s h a r p e n g a g e m e n t took place between the royalists u n - passed for t h e i r regulation. N o n e b u t freemen were alder gen. P a v i a y L a c y , m a r q u i s de Novaliches, and lowed to keep ale-houses in London, 13 E d w . I. 1285. t h e insurgents under m a r s h a l Serrano, 27 Sept. 1868. T h e y were f u r t h e r subjected to regulation b y 5 & fi E d w , T h e former was defeated, and, b e i n g severely wounded, V I . c. 25, 1551. By 1 J a m e s I. c. 9, 1603, one full surrendered 28 Sept. A b o u t 600 were killed on both q u a r t of t h e best, and two q u a r t s of small ale, were to be sides. sold for one p e n n y . E x c i s e d u t y on ale and beer was Al-coran, or A L - K O B A N , see Koran, Mahometanism, imposed b y t h e parliament in 1643, and continued b y Charles I L , 1G60 ; repealed, 1 Will. I V . c. 51, 1830 ; sec etc. Porter, Wine, Victuallers. A l d e r m a n . T h e S a x o n ealdorman was n e x t to t h e k i n g and f r e q u e n t l y a v i c e r o y ; b u t after t h e settlement A l e m a n n i , or ALL HEX (i. e. men of all nations), of t h e Danes t h e title was g r a d u a l l y displaced by t h a t hence Allemand, German. A b o d y of Suevi, w h o took of earl. Aldermen in corporations are n e x t in d i g n i t y t h i s name, were defeated b y Caracalla, 214. A f t e r sevto t h e mayor. T h e y were appointed in London ( w h e r e eral repulses, t h e y invaded t h e empire under Aurelian, t h e r e are t w e n t y - s i x ) in 1242; and in Dublin ( w h e r e w h o subdued t h e m in t h r e e battles, 271. T h e y were t h e r e arc t w e n t y - f o u r ) in 1323. Aldermen chosen for again v a n q u i s h e d by J u l i a n , 356, 357; b y Jovinus, 368. life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. I I . 1394. P r e s e n t mode T h e y were defeated and s u b j u g a t e d b y Clovis a t Tolof election established, 11 Geo. 1.1725. A l d e r m e n made biac (or Zülpich), 496. T h e Suabians are their descendj u s t i c e s of t h e peace, 15 Geo. I I . 1741. ants. Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410. The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in the thirteenth century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hon. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476.—Hymer's Fwdera. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of his experiments, and brought specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, ho was required, under pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Riggins); but after much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783.

London aldermen arc elected by the wards. In 1877 the court A l e n ç o n (N. France) g a v e title to a count a n d of aldermen exercised their ancient right of veto against sir duke. John Bennett (thrice chosen alderman for the ward of 1268-82. retor, made CotTXT by his father, king Louis TX. Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar Breffitt, 23 Oct. 1877. 1293. Charles I. of Valois, made COUNT by his brother kin» a Philip the Fair. ' A l d e r n e y (English Channel), w i t h J e r s e y , etc., was 1325. Charles II. (his son), killed at Creey. acquired by W i l l i a m t h e Conqueror, 1066. T h e " Race " 1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. is celebrated for t w o f a t a l occurrences; William of Nor- 1361. Peter, his brother. m a n d y , son of H e n r y I. of E n g l a n d , and m a n y y o u n g no- 1104. John (his son), made DCKE in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt 1415. ' bles (140 y o u t h s of t h e principal families of France and 1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9; inBritain), were o v e r t a k e n b y a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. trigued against the French king; died in prison 1470.

'

* M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a "vital 1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, and fluid'' by combining nitrogen and carbon in a porous cell condied shortly after of chagrin. The duchy was antaining ammonia, immersed in a vessel filled with molasses. nexed by the crown. The current was to flow through silk threads attached to the vessel: about 1868, Aleppo (N, Syria), a large town named Bcrœa by

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Seleucus Nicator, about 209 B.C. T h e pachalic of Aleppo is one of t h e five g o v e r n m e n t s of Syria. I t was t a k e n b y t h e Saracens, A.P. 638, w h o restored its ancient n a m e H a l e b , or C h a l e b ; b y Saladin, 1193; and sacked bj T T i m o u r , Nov. 1400. I t s depopulation b y t h e plague h a s been f r e q u e n t : 60,000 persons were computed to h a v e perished b y it in 1797; m a n y in 1827. T h e cholera r a g e d here in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from t h e terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830, and h a s often been t h e scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, t h e M a h o m e t a n s attacked t h e Christians, b u r n i n g eve r y t h i n g . T h r e e churches were destroyed, five o t h e r s plundered, and thousands of persons slain. T h e total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was a t t e m p t e d b y t h e pacha. A l e s s a n d r i a , a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under t h e n a m e of Caesar b y t h e Milanese and Cremonese, to defend t h e T a n a r o against t h e emperor, and afterw a r d s n a m e d after pope A l e x a n d e r I I I . I t h a s been f r e q u e n t l y besieged and taken. T h e F r e n c h took it in 1796, b u t were driven out b y Suwarrow, 21 J u l y , 1799. T h e y recovered it after t h e battle of Marengo, 14 J u n e , 1800, and held it till 1814, when t h e strong fortifications erected b y Napoleon were destroyed. T h e s e h a v e been restored since J u n e , 1856. A l e u t i a n I s l e s , in t h e N . Pacific Ocean, discovered b y B e h r i n g , 1741 ; visited b y Cook, 1778; and settled b y Russians, 1785. A l e x a n d e r , ERA OF, dated from t h e d e a t h of A l e x ander t h e Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.C. I n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n of t h i s era, t h e period of t h e Creation was considered to be 5502 y e a r s before t h e b i r t h of Christ, and, in consequence, t h e y e a r 1 A.D. was equal to 5503. T h i s computation continued to t h e y e a r A.D. 284, which was called 5786. I n t h e n e x t year (A.D. 285), w h i c h should h a v e been 5787, ten y e a r s were discarded, and t h e d a t e bec a m e 5777. T h i s is still used in t h e Abyssinian era (which see). T h e date is reduced to t h e Christian era b y s u b t r a c t i n g 5502 u n t i l t h e y e a r 5786, and a f t e r t h a t t i m e b y s u b t r a c t i n g 5492.

" A l e x a n d r a Case," see Trials, 1862-4. A l e x a n d r a P a r k , Muswell Hill, London, N., p u r chased b y a c o m p a n y , and n a m e d after t h e princess of Wales, was opened w i t h a flower-show, 23 J u l y , 1863. A portion of t h e E x h i b i t i o n b u i l d i n g of 1862 was to be erected here. T h e w o r k proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, recommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873.

ALF dence of t h e Greek sovereigns of E g y p t , t h e Ptolemies, 323. Seventeen councils were held here, A.I>. 231-633. Ptolemy Soter e m t s the Museum, the Serapeum, the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the library about b.C. 298 These works compl 'tod by his son, P. Philadclphus, and his grandson, P. Fu-.-rgetes 2S3-222 Alexandria taken by Julius Caesar; when a library is burned 47 "Which Antony reph.c^s by one brought from Pergamus, 36 The city restored BJ Adrian A.D. 122 Massacre of the youth by Caracaila in revenge for an insult 215 Alexandria, supporlii.g the usurper Achilleus, is taken by Diocletian afte * n long siege 297 Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the Athanasians and Arians. 321 George of Cappado( ib. was killed, 302, and Athanasius finally restored 363 50,000 persons peris 1 by an earthquake 365 Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second library is burned 390 Alexandria capturec by Chosroes II. of Persia 616 And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who ordered the library 10 be burned, whereby the baths wore supplied with fuel fy Robert, Aske * M u r p h y ' s A l m a n a c k for 1838 predicted correctly a frost Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 (iu on 7 J a n . ; t h a w and frost 14th; severe frost 21st, and t h e n gratitude for h e r escape f r o m an arrow-shot}, were rethaw. A great sale of t h e almanac ensued. Afterwards t h e built b y t h e Brewers' C o m p a n y predictions failed. B a n c r o f t ' s almshouses, Mile End, were erected

1620 1826 1850 1092 1839 1735

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ALT

Mont Cenis or Col de Frejus Tunnel.—A tunnel, 7 % miles long t h r o u g h Mont Cenis, connecting Savoy a n d Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long lying dormant, was discussed and plans d r a w n u p in 1848. The execution was p r e v e n t e d by t h e w a r of 1849. A l n e y , an island in t h e Severn, n e a r Gloucester. The work of excavaticn was begun by king Victor E m m a n u e l , 31 Aug. 1857. H e r e a c o m b a t is asserted to h a v e t a k e n place between The boring was a t first eflected by o r d i n a r y piercing maE d m u n d Ironside and Canute t h e Great, in s i g h t of their c h i n e r y ; s t e a m power was employed in 1860; a n d latterly compressed air. armies, 1016. T h e l a t t e r was wounded, a n d proposed a Engineers—Grattoni,C randis, a n d S o m m e i l l e r ; t h e boring was division of t h e k i n g d o m , t h e south p a r t falling to E d completed 25 Dec. 1870. m u n d . E d m u n d was murdered a t Oxford s h o r t l y after, The total cost was a b c u t 2,600,000!. As t h e Italians h a d executed the w o r k w i t h i n t h e given time, t h e F r e n c h governi t is said, b y i E d r i c S t r e o n ; and Canute obtained possesm e n t bore t h e chief expense. sion of t h e whole kingdom. The first e x p e r i m e n t a l trip was m a d e in 40 minutes, 13 Sept., and the tunnel was i o l e m n l y inaugurated by t h e passage of A l n w i c k ( S a x o n Ealnwic), on t h e river Alne in 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871; regular t r a i n s p a s s N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , was given at t h e Conquest to Ivo de through, 16 Oct, 1871. Vesci. I t h a s long belonged to t h e Percies. Malcolm, A railway for locomot ves over Mont Cenis was constructed k i n g of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, a n d h e and his sons u p o n Mr. F e l l s plan in 1807 (see Railways), a n d opened for traffic, 15 J u n e , 1868. were killed 13 N o v . 1093. I t w a s t a k e n b y D a v i d I. in The overland mail first travels t h r o u g h t h e tunnel to Brindisi, 1136, and a t t e m p t e d in J u l y , 1174, b y W i l l i a m t h e Lion, saving 24 hours, 5 J a n . 1872. w h o was defeated and taken prisoner. I t was burned b y St.Gothard Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect t h e North Sea a n d t h e Mediterranean), about 9 V miles, 21 k i n g J o h n in 1215, and by t h e Scots in 1448. Since broad; compressed air employed in b o r i n g ; begun J u n e , 1854 t h e castle h a s been repaired and enlarged w i t h 1870; completed 29 Feb. 1880; t h r o u g h failure in vaulting, g r e a t taste a n d a t unsparing expense. May. 1880, opening deferred.

The London almshouses, in c o m m e m o r a t i o n of t h e passing of t h e Reform Bill, built a t Urixton 1633 N u m e r o u s almshouses since erected for p r i n t e r s , bookbinders, etc.

Alpaca, or PACO, a species of t h e S. American q u a d ruped, t h e llama, t h e soft h a i r y wool of w h i c h is now largely employed in t h e fabrication of cloths. I t was introduced into t h i s country, about 1836, b y t h e earl of D e r b y . A n alpaca factory (covering eleven acres), w i t h a town, park, almshouses, etc., for t h e work-people, was erected a t Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, b y Mr. ( a f t e r w a r d s sir) T i t u s Salt in 1852. A statue of h i m a t B r a d ford was unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. H e died 29 Dec. 1876. Alphabet. Athotes, son of Mcnes, is said to h a v e been t h e a u t h o r of hieroglyphics, and to h a v e w r i t t e n t h u s t h e h i s t o r y of t h e E g y p t i a n s , 2122 B.C. — Blair. B u t J o s e p h u s affirms t h a t he h a d seen inscriptions b y Seth, t h e son of A d a m : this is deemed fabulous. The E g y p t i a n alphabet is ascribed to Memnon, 1822 B.C. The first letter of the Phoenician a n d Hebrew alphabet was aleph. called by t h e Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by t h e m o d e r n s to A." The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from t h e Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said to have b r o u g h t t h e Phoenician letters (fifteen in n u m b e r ) into Greece, viz.—a, 1!, r , a, I, K, A. M, N, o, n , p, s , T, y. These letters were originally either Hebrew. Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed gradually in form till they b e c a m e t h e ground of the R o m a n letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters e , X. If, S , about 1224 li.c.; and Simonides added z, Np, h, a. about 489 B.C.—Arundelian Marbles. When t h e e was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) u.c., w h e n the Ionic of 24 c h a r a c t e r s was introduced. The small letters are of later invention. The alphabets of t h e different nations contain t h e following n u m b e r of l e t t e r s : 28 English 26 Arabic 32 French 25 Persian Turkish 28 Italian 22 44 Spanish 27 Sanscrit Chinese radical characGerman 26 ters 214 Slavonic 42 Russian 35 Chinese alphabet said to be invented by bishop Latin '22 Eiigius Cosi of Canton Greek 21 (1880) 33 Hebrew 22

Alresford, B A T T L E OK, or Alsace, ELSASS, formerly

Cheriton, which see. p a r t of t h e k i n g d o m of Austrasia, a f t e r w a r d s t h e F r e n c h d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e U p per a n d Lower R h i n e . I t was incorporated w i t h t h e G e r m a n e m p i r e in t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . A portion w a s restored to France, 1648. and t h e whole, i n c l u d i n g Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace was reconquered b y t h e G e r m a n s , Aug.-Sept. 1870; a n d a n n e x e d to t h e i r empire, M a y , 1871; by law, 9 J u n e , 1871. T h e Alsatians w e r e p e r m i t t e d to choose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. M a n y e m i g r a t e d i n t o France, w i t h m u c h regret.—ALsACE-LouiiAixE was constituted a province of t h e G e r m a n empire, h a v i n g been ceded by F r a n c e b y t h e t r e a t y of peace concluded 10 May, 1781; see Belfort. T h e province sends 15 members to t h e G e r m a n p a r l i a m e n t . Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1781; iield-marshal M a n teuffcl, 1 Oct. 1879. P o p u l a t i o n of Alsace-Lorraine, 187», 1,529,408. A l s a t i a , a n a m e g i v e n to t h e precinct of W h i t e friars, London, is described in Scott's " F o r t u n e s of N i gel." I t s privilege of s a n c t u a r y was abolished in 1697. A l s e n ( D e n m a r k besieged b y t h e Prussians, a n d heroically defended, 26 J u n e ; t a k e n , 29 J u n e , 1864.

Altar. One was ouilt b y N o a h , 2348 B.C. ( G e n . viii. 2 0 ) ; o t h e r s b y A b r a h a m , 1921 (Gen. xii. 8). Directions for m a k i n g an altar are given, E x o d . x x . 24, 1491 B.C. Altars were raised to J u p i t e r , in Greece, b y Cecrops, 1556 B.C. H e introduced a m o n g t h e G r e e k s t h e w o r s h i p of t h e deities of E g y p r , — H e r o d o t u s . T h e t e r m " a l t a r " was applied to t h e Lord's table for t h e first t h r e e centuries after Christ ( H e b . xiii. 10). C h r i s t i a n altars in churches were instituted b y pope S i x t u s I. A.D. 135; a n d were first consecrated b y pope Sylvester. T h e C h u r c h of E n g l a n d t e r m s t h e table on w h i c h t h e e l e m e n t s a r e placed a n altar. Since t h e time of E l i z a b e t h t h e r e h a s been m u c h controversy on t h e subject, and t h e P u r i t a n s in t h e civil w a r destroyed m a n y of t h e ancient stone A l p h o n s i n e T a b l e s , astronomical tables, comaltars, s u b s t i t u t i n g wooden tables. In J a n . 1845 it was posed b y S p a n i s h and A r a b astronomers, and collected in decided, in t h e Arches Court, t h a t stone altars were not 1253 under t h e direction of Alphonso X . of Castile, surto be erected in E n g l i s h churches. n a m e d t h e Wise, w h o is said to h a v e e x p e n d e d u p w a r d s of400,000 crowns in completing t h e w o r k ; h e himself A l t e n k i r c h e n (Prussia). T h e F r e n c h , w h o h a d wrote t h e preface. T h e Spanish g o v e r n m e n t ordered defeated t h e A u s t r i a n s here, 4 J u n e , 1796, were t h e m t h e work of Alphonso to be reprinted from t h e best M S S . ; selves defeated, and t h e i r general, Marceau, killed, 19 t h e publication begun in 1863. Sept. following. A l p s , E u r o p e a n mountains. Those between F r a n c e and I t a l y were passed b y Hannibal, 218 B.c.; b y t h e Romans, 154 B.C.; and b y Napoleon I., M a y , 1800. Roads over M o n t Cenis a n d t h e Simplón, connecting F r a n c e a n d I t a l y , were constructed b y order of Napoleon, bet w e e n 1801-6; see Simplón. T h e " Alpine Club," w h i c h consists of B r i t i s h travellers in t h e Alps, was founded in 1858, and published its first work, " P e a k s , Passes, and Glaciers," 1859 ; and a j o u r n a l since; see Matterhorn.

A l t e r e g o (another or second I ) , a t e r m applied to S p a n i s h viceroys w h e n exercising regal p o w e r ; used a t Naples w h e n t h e crown-prince was appointed v i c a r general d u r i n g an insurrection in J u l y , 1820.

A l t o n Riot.

On the night of 7 Nov. 1837 a riot

occurred in Alton, 111., g r o w i n g out of t h e a t t e m p t of a m o b to destroy t h e p r i n t i n g - p r e s s of t h e Observer, a newspaper published b y t h e R e v . E l i j a h P . L o v e j o v ,

ALT

29

a n d devoted to t h e a d v o c a c y of t h e abolition of slavery. T h e a t t a c k s on t h e printing-office were repulsed, b u t Mr. L o v e j o y was shot as h e stepped o u t of his door. T h e leaders of t h e riot were tried and acquitted. Altona Danes, 1660, first b y t h e then bv the F e b . 1864.

(Holstein, N . G e r m a n y ) , acquired b y t h e a n d m a d e a city, 1664. I t was occupied G e r m a n federal troops, 24 Dec. 1863, and Prussians ( t h e federal diet protesting) 12

AMB a m p t o n on h e r first voyage, F r i d a y , 2 J a n . 1852, and on S u n d a y morning, 4 J a n . , w a s destroyed b y fire a t sea, about 110 miles W . S . W . of Scilly (ascribed to t h e spontaneous ignition of combustible m a t t e r placed near t h e engine-room). O u t of 161 persons on board, 102 persons m u s t h a v e perished b y fire or d r o w n i n g : 21 persons were saved b y t h e life-boat of t h e ship, 25 more w e r e carried into Brest harbor b y a D u t c h vessel passing b v , and 13 others were picked u p in t h e b a y of Biscay, also b y a D u t c h galliot. E l i o t W a r b u r t o n , a distinguished writer in g e n e r a l literature, w a s a m o n g those lost.

A l t - R a n s t a d t (Prussia), w h e r e t h e t r e a t y of peace dictated b y Charles X I I . of Sweden, to F r e d e r i c k A u g u s A m a z o n , a river in S. America, was discovered b y tus of Poland, was signed 24 Sept. 1706, o.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained t h e t h r o n e of P o l a n d after t h e Pinzon in 1500, a n d explored b y Francisco Orellana in 1510. C o m i n g from P e r u , h e sailed down t h e A m a z o n defeat of Charles X I I . , in 1709. to t h e Atlantic, and, observing companies of women in A l u m , a salt, is said to h a v e been first discovered a t a r m s on its banks, h e called t h e c o u n t r y A m a z o n i a , a n d Eoccha, in Syria, about 1300; i t was found in T u s c a n y g a v e t h e n a m e of Amazon to t h e river, previously called about 1470; its m a n u f a c t u r e was b r o u g h t to perfection Marailon. in E n g l a n d b y sir T . Challoner, w h o established l a r g e Amazons. T h r e e nations of A m a z o n s h a v e been alum works near W h i t b y in 1608; i t was discovered in Ireland in 1757; and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is used m e n t i o n e d — t h e Asiatic, S c y t h i a n , a n d African. T h e y as a m o r d a n t in d y e i n g , to h a r d e n tallow, to w h i t e n are said to h a v e been t h e descendants of S c y t h i a n s inh a b i t i n g Cappadoeia, w h e r e t h e i r husbands, h a v i n g m a d e bread, a n d in t h e p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e . incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades A l u m b a g h , a palace w i t h o t h e r buildings near b y t h e i r enemies. T h e i r widows formed a female state, Lucknow, Oude, India, t a k e n d u r i n g t h e m u t i n y from and decreed t h a t m a t r i m o n y was a s h a m e f u l servitude. t h e rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, a n d heroically defended by t h e —Quintus Curtius. T h e y were said to h a v e been conB r i t i s h under sir J a m e s O u t r a m . H e defeated an a t t a c k quered b y Theseus, about 1231 B.C. T h e A m a z o n s were of 30,000 sepoys on 12 J a n . 1858, and of 20,000 on 21 constantly employed in w a r s ; and, t h a t t h e y m i g h t Feb., a n d was relieved b y sir Colin Campbell in M a r c h . t h r o w t h e j a v e l i n w i t h more force, their r i g h t breasts A l u m i n i u m , a metal, t h e base of t h e e a r t h alumina, were b u r n e d off, whence t h e i r n a m e from t h e G r e e k — o , w h i c h is combined w i t h silica in clay, and w h i c h was no, jiat,oq, breast. O t h e r s derive t h e n a m e from maza, shown to b e a distinct e a r t h b y Marggraif in 1754, h a v i n g t h e moon, w h i c h t h e y are supposed to h a v e worshipped. been previously confounded w i t h lime. Oerstedt in 1826 A b o u t 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited A l e x a n d e r obtained t h e chloride of a l u m i n i u m ; and in 1827 t h e t h e Great, while h e was p u r s u i n g his conquests in Asia, m e t a l itself was g o t f r o m it b y F . W o h l e r , b u t was long w i t h 300 females in h e r t r a i n . — H e r o d o t u s . a scientific curiosity, t h e process being expensive. T h e mode of production was a f t e r w a r d s simplified b y Bunsen a n d others, more especially b y H . Ste.-CIaire Deville, w h o in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable q u a n tities of t h i s metal. I t is very l i g h t (sp. g. 2.25), malleable, and sonorous; w h e n pure does not rust, a n d is not acted on b y sulphur or a n y acid except hydrochloric. I n March, 1856, i t was 31, t h e o u n c e ; in J u n e , 1857, l i s . or 12s., aud it is now m u c h c h e a p e r (1873). T h e eagles of t h e F r e n c h colors h a v e been m a d e of it, a n d m a n y other o r n a m e n t a l a n d useful articles. Deville's work, " D e r A l u m i n i u m , " w a s published in 1859. A n a l u m i n i u m m a n u f a c t o r y w a s established at Newcastle in 1860, b y Messrs. Bell. T h e y obtain t h e m e t a l from a F r e n c h mineral, b a u x i t e . T h e i r a l u m i n i u m bronze, an alloy of copper and a l u m i n i u m , i n v e n t e d b y D r . J o h n Percy, F.K.S., was m a d e i n t o watch-cases, etc., by Messrs. Reicl of Newcastle, in 1862.

Amadis O F GAUL, a Spanish or P o r t u g u e s e romance, stated to h a v e been w r i t t e n about 1342 b y A'asco d e Lobeira. I t was enlarged b y D e Montalvo, about 1485; and first printed (in S p a n i s h ) 1519; in F r e n c h , 1540-56. A m a l e k i t e s (descendants of Amalek, grandson of E s a u , brother of Jacob) a t t a c k e d t h e Israelites, 1491 B.C., w h e n perpetual w a r was denounced against t h e m . T h e y w e r e subdued b y Saul a b o u t 1079; b y D a v i d , 1058 and 1056; a n d b y t h e Simeonites about 715 B.C. A m a l f i , a city on t h e gulf of Salerno, Naples, in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y became t h e seat of a republic, and flourished b y its commerce till 1075, w h e n it wras t a k e n b y E o g e r Guiscard, and e v e n t u a l l y incorporated w i t h N a ples. T h e Pisans, in t h e i r sack of t h e town in 1135, are said to h a v e found a copy of t h e P a n d e c t s of J u s t i n i a n , a n d t h u s to h a v e induced t h e revival of t h e s t u d y of Roman l a w in W e s t e r n E u r o p e ; t h e story is now doubted. F i n - l o Gioia, a native oiAmalii, is t h e r e p u t e d discoverer of t h e mariner's compass, a b o u t 1302.

A m b a s s a d o r s . Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are referred to in earlv ages. I n most countries t h e y h a v e g r e a t privileges, and in E n g l a n d t h e y and t h e i r s e r v a n t s are secured against arrest. E n g l a n d usually h a s s i x ambassadors, t w e n t y seven ministers, and about t h i r t y - s i x chief consuls, resid e n t a t foreign courts, exclusive of inferior a g e n t s ; the ambassadors and other chief a g e n t s from abroad a t t h e court of Loudon in 1865 were 4 7 ; in 1868, 4 3 ; in 1872. 42 ; in 1878, 39. Strictly speaking, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s sends no ambassadors—who are supposed to represent t h e person of a s o v e r e i g n — b u t only e n v o y s e x t r a o r d i n a r y and ministers p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y ; b u t American ministers are commonly called ambassadors, a n d t h e t e r m is used in t h e act of Congress of 1856 relating to t h e diplomatic service. The Russian ambassador being imprisoned for debt by a lacemercliant, 27 July, 1708, led to tlie passing tlie statute of 7 Anne for tlie protection of ambassadors. 1708. Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an ambassador, wore sentenced to be conducted to the liouse of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask liis pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, 12 Hay, 1780. The first ministers of the United States to France were Dr. Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, 1778. Deano and Lee were soon recalled, and Franklin made sole envoy. The first minister plenipotentiary from tlio United States of America to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 1785; the first from Great Britain to America was Hr. Hammond in 1791. A Japanese minister received by the queen, 3 March, 1876. The first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jin landed at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. ' A m b e r , a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found in t h e n o r t h e r n parts of Europe, of g r e a t repute" ill t h e world from t h e earliest t i m e ; esteemed as a medicine before t h e Christian e r a : T h e o p h r a s t u s wrote upon it, 300 B.C. U p w a r d s of 150 tons of a m b e r h a v e been found

* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. I t is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It Amateur Mechanical S o c i e t y (89 Stamford often contains delicately formed insects. Sir D. Brewster coneludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When nibbed it beStreet) issued its first prospectus 1 J a n . 1869. comes electrical, and from its Greek name, eXturpov, the term A m a z o n , W e s t I n d i a mail steamship, left S o u t h - electricity is derived.

AMB

30

i n o n e y e a r o n t h e s a n d s of t h e s h o r e n e a r lips.

Pillau.—Phil-

A m b l e f , near Cologne, G e r m a n y . Here Charles M a r t e l d e f e a t e d C h i l p e r i c II., a n d K a g e n f r o i , m a y o r of t h e N e u s t r i a n s , 716. A m b o i s e (Central France). A c o n s p i r a c y of t h e H u g u e n o t s a g a i n s t F r a n c i s II., C a t h e r i n e de' Medicis. a n d t h e G u i s e s , w a s s u p p r e s s e d a t t h i s p l a c e i n J a n . 1500. O n 1 9 M a r c h , 15GB, t h e P a c i f i c a t i o n of A m b o i s e w a s p u b lished, g r a n t i n g toleration to t h e H u g u e n o t s . T h e civil w a r was, h o w e v e r , soon renewed. A m b o y n a , c h i e f of t h e M o l u c c a i s l e s , d i s c o v e r e d a b o u t 1512 b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e , b u t n o t w h o l l y o c c u p i e d b y t h e m till 1580. I t w a s t a k e n b y t h e D u t c h i n 1605. T h e E n g l i s h factors at this settlement were cruelly tortu r e d a n d p u t t o d e a t h , 17 F e b . 1 6 2 3 - 4 , b y t h e D u t c h , o n a n a c c u s a t i o n of a c o n s p i r a c y t o e x p e l t h e m f r o m t h e i s l and, w h e r e the two nations jointly shared in the pepper t r a d e of J a v a . Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a s u m o f m o n e y t o t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of t h e s u f f e r e r s . A m b o y n a w a s s e i z e d b y t h e E n g l i s h , 16 F e b . 1796, b u t w a s r e s t o r e d b y t h e t r e a t y of A m i e n s in 3802. It was again seized b y t h e B r i t i s h , 17-19 F e b . 1810; a n d a g a i n res t o r e d a t t h e p e a c e of M a y , 1 8 1 4 . A m b r o s i a l ! C h a n t , s e e Chant,

Liturgy,

etc.

Ambulance Association, see John's, St. A m e n , a n a n c i e n t H e b r e w w o r d m e a n i n g true, faithf u l , certain, is used in t h e J e w i s h a n d Christian assemb l i e s a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of p r a y e r : s e c 1 Cor. x i v . 1 6 (A.D. 59). I t i s t r a n s l a t e d " verilyin t h e Gospels.

Amende HONORABLE, in F r a n c e , i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , was a p u n i s h m e n t inflicted on traitors a n d sacrilegious persons: t h e offender was delivered to the h a n g m a n ; h i s s h i r t w a s s t r i p p e d off, a r o p e p u t r o u n d h i s neck, a n d a taper in his h a n d ; he w a s then led into c o u r t , a n d w a s obliged to b e g p a r d o n of G o d a n d t h e country. D e a t h or b a n i s h m e n t s o m e t i m e s f o l l o w e d . T h e s e w o r d s also d e n o t e a r e c a n t a t i o n in open court, or in prese n c e of t h e i n j u r e d p e r s o n . A m e r c e m e n t , i n l a w , a fine a s s e s s e d f o r a n o f f e n c e d o n e , o r p e c u n i a r y p u n i s h m e n t a t t h e mercy of t h e c o u r t ; t h u s differing from a fine directed a n d fixed b y a statute. B y M a g n a C h a r t a , 1215, a f r e e m a n c a n n o t b e a m e r c e d for a s m a l l fault, b u t in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e offence h e h a s c o m m i t t e d ; t h e m o d e w a s d e t e r m i n e d b y 9 H e n . I I I . , 1225. A m e r i c a , * t h e g r e a t W e s t e r n C o n t i n e n t , is a b o u t 9 0 0 0 m i l e s l o n g , w i t h a n a r e a of a b o u t 1 3 , 6 6 8 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e miles. I t is n o w believed to h a v e been visited b y t h e N o r s e m e n or V i k i n g s in t h e t e n t h a n d eleventh cent u r i e s ; b u t t h e m o d e r n d i s c o v e r y is d u e t o t h e s a g a c i t y a n d c o u r a g e of t h e G e n o e s e n a v i g a t o r , C h r i s t o p h e r C o lumbus, f * T h e n a m e is d e r i v e d f r o m A m e r i g o V e s p u c c i , a F l o r e n t i n e m e r c h a n t , w h o d i e d i n 1512. H e a c c o m p a n i e d ' O j e d a i n h i s v o y a g e o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t in 1498; a n d d e s c r i b e d t h e c o u n t r y i n l e t t e r s s e n t t o h i s f r i e n d s in I t a l y . H e is c h a r g e d w i t h p r e s u m p t u o u s l y i n s e r t i n g " T i e r r a d e A m e r i g o " in h i s m a p s . I r v i n g d i s c u s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n in t h e A p p e n d i x t o t h e L i f e of Columbus, b u t comes to no conclusion. Humboldt asserts t h a t t h e n a m e w a s g i v e n t o t h e c o n t i n e n t in t h e p o p u l a r w o r k s of W a l d s e e m u l l e r , a G e r m a n g e o g r a p h e r , w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of V e s p u c c i . To A m e r i c a w e a r e i n d e b t e d , a m o n g other things, for maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, a n d tobacco. t C h r i s t o p h o r o C o l u m b o w a s b o r n a b o u t 1-445; first w e n t t o s e a a b o u t 14G0; s e t t l e d a t L i s b o n in 1470, w h e r e h e m a r r i e d F e l i p a . t h e d a u g h t e r of P e r e s t r c l l o , a n I t a l i a n n a v i g a t o r ; w h e r e b y h e o b t a i n e d m u c h g e o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e . H e is s a i d to'have laid the plans of his v o y a g e of d i s c o v e r y b e f o r e t h e r e p u b l i c of Genoa, in 1485, a n d o t h e r p o w e r s , a n d f i n a l l y b e f o r e t h e c o u r t of S p a i n , w h e r e a t l e n g t h t h e q u e e n I s a b e l l a b e c a m e liis p a t r o n . A f t e r u n d e r g o i n g m u c h i n g r a t i t u d e a n d cruel persecution from his own followers and t h e Spanish c o u r t , h e d i e d on 20 May, 1506; a n d w a s b u r i e d w i t h m u c h p o m p a t V a l l a d o l i d . H i s r e m a i n s w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d , in 1513, t o S e v i l l e ; in 1536 t o S a n D o m i n g o ; a n d in J a n . 1796 t o H a v a n a , C u b a . T h e o r i g i n a l i n s c r i p t i o n o n h i s t o m b is s a i d t o h a v e b e e n : " A Castilia y a L e o n N u e v o M u n d o dio Colon ' ' — " To Castile a n d L e o n Colon g a v e a N e w "World.'' Humboldt s a y s b e a u t i f u l l y , t h a t t h e s u c c e s s of C o l u m b u s w a s " a conquest of re/lection

AME C o l u m b u s s a i l e d on h i s f i r s t e x p e d i t i o n f r o m P a l o s i n A n d a l u s i a on F r i d a y , w i t h v e s s e l s s u p p l i e d b y t h e sove r e i g n s of S p a i n 3 Aug. 1492 H e k i n d s o n t h e i s l a n d of G u a n a h a n i . o n e of t h e B a h a m a s ; t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n of it in t h e n a m e of F e r d i n a n d a n d I s a b e l l a of CVstile, a n d n a m e s it S a n S a l v a d o r , F r i d a y , 12 Oct. " H e d i s c o v e r s C u b a , 2H Oct. ; a n d H i s p a n i o l a (now H a y t i ) , 6 Dec. " w h e r e h e b u i l d s a Jort, L a N a v i d a d H e returns to Spain 15 M a r c h , 1493 H e sails f r o m Ciidiz on h i s second e x p e d i t i o n . 25 S e p t , ; discovers the Caribbee Isles,—Dominica, 3 Nov.; Guad a l o u p c , 4 N o v . ; A n t i g u a , 10 N o v . ; f o u n d s I s a b e l l a in H i s p a n i o l a , t h e f i r s t C h r i s t i a n c i t y in t h e N e w W o r l d , Dec. " H e d i s c o v e r s J a m a i c a , 3 M a y ; a n d E v a n g e l i s t a {now Isle of P i n e s ) , 13 J u n e ; w a r w i t h t h e n a t i v e s of H i s p a n i o l a , 2494 H e v i s i t s t h e v a r i o u s isles, a n d e x p l o r e s t h e i r c o a s t s 1495-6 R e t u r n s to S p a i n t o m e e t t h e c h a r g e * of h i s e n e m i e s , 11 J u n e , 1496 Cabot ( s e n t o u t b y H e n r y VIT. of E n g l a n d ) d i s c o v e r s L a b r a d o r o n t h e c o a s t of N o r t h A m e r i c a [he is e r r o n e o u s ly said t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d F l o r i d a , a n d a l s o N e w f o u n d l a n d , a n d t o h a v e n a m e d it P r i m a V i s t a ] '24 J u n o , 1497 C o l u m b u s s a i l s on h i s third v o y a g e , 30 M a y ; d i s c o v e r s T r i n i d a d , 3 1 J u l y ; l a n d s on terra firma,without knowi n g it t o b e a n e w c o n t i n e n t , n a m i n g i t I s l a S a n t a , 1 Aug. 1498 Ojeda d i s c o v e r s S u r i n a m , J u n e ; a n d t h e g u l f of V e n e zuela 1499 V i c e n t e Y a n e z P i n z o u d i s c o v e r s B r a z i l , South America, 26 J a n . ; a n d t h e r i v e r Ma r a n on ( t h e A m a z o n ) ; C a b r a l t h e P o r t u g u e s e l a n d s in B r a z i l (see Brazil) 3 M a y , 1500 Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador ... " C o l u m b u s is i m p r i s o n e d i n c h a i n s a t S a n D o m i n g o b y B o b a d i l l a , s e n t o u t r.o i n v e s t i g a t e i n t o h i s c o n d u c t , M a y ; c o n v e y e d t o S p a i n , w h e r e h e is h o n o r a b l y r e c e i v e d 17 Dec. " C o l u m b u s sails o n h s fourth v o y a g e , 9 M a y ; d i s c o v e r s v a r i o u s isles o n t h e c o a s t of H o n d u r a s , a n d e x p l o r e s t h e c o a s t of t h e i s t h m u s , J u l y , e t c . ; d i s c o v e r s a n d n a m e s P o r t o Bello 2 N o v . 1502 Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola 1501-3 W o r r i e d b y t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s of h i s e n e m i e s , C o l u m b u s r e t u r n s to Spain, 7 N o v . ; his friend, q u e e n Isabella, dies '20 N o v . 1504 H e dies while treated w i t h base i n g r a t i t u d e b y t h e Spanish g o v e r n m e n t 20 M a y , 1506 Solis a n d P i n z o n d i s c o v e r Y u c a t a n " Ojeda f o u n d s S a n Seb.xstian, t h e first c o l o n y on t h e m a i n land 1510/ S u b j u g a t i o n of C u b a b y V e l a s q u e z 1511 T h e c o a s t of F l o r i d a d i s c o v e r e d b y P o n c e do L e o n 1512 V a s c o d e B a l b o a c r o s s e s t h e i s t h m u s of D a r i e n , a n d disc o v e r s t h e S o u t h PaciQc O c e a n 1513 M e x i c o d i s c o v e r e d b j F e r n a n d o de C o r d o v a 1517 G r i j a l v a p e n e t r a t e s i n t o Y u c a t a n . a n d n a m e s it N e w S p a i n 1518 P a s s a g e of Magellan's- S t r a i t b y h i m 1520 C o n q u e s t of M e x i c o b y F e r n a n d o C o r t e s 1519-21 P i z a r r o d i s c o v e r s t h e c o a s t of Q u i t o 1526 He invades and conquers Peru 1532-5 C a r t i e r , a F r e n c h m a n , e n t e r s t h e Gulf of St. L a w r e n c e , a n d sails u p t o M o n t r e a l 1534-5 G r i j a l v a ' s e x p e d i t i o n , e q u i p p e d b y C o r t e s , d i s c o v e r s California 1535 Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the adjacent country " O r e l l a n a sails d o w n t h e A m a z o n t o t h e s e a 1540-1 L o u i s i a n a c o n q u e r e d by De S o t o 14 Tuam ; Pallium, etc.), 1833. Lycœan games instituted, in honor of l'an 1320 Archchamberlain. T h e elector of B r a n d e n Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at the siege of Troy (Homer) 1104 b u r g w a s a p p o i n t e d t h e h e r e d i t a r y a r c h c h a m b e r l a i n of The Lacedsemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten by | t h e G e r m a n e m p i r e b y t h e golden b u l l of C h a r l e s I V . in the women of the country in the absence of their hus1 bands (?) 1102 1356, a n d in t h a t q u a l i t y h e bore t h e sceptre before t h e Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for offering j emperor. violence to the priestess of Diana 71ö 1 Archchancellors w e r e a p p o i n t e d u n d e r t h e t w o Aristocrates II. stoned; a republic founded Gtfl Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged SCO) abolished by ' first races of t h e k i n g s of F r a n c e ( 4 1 8 - 9 8 6 ) ; a n d w h e n t h c T h e b a n s ; Megalopolis founded by Epaminondas.. 371 t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e d i v i d e d , t h e a r c h b i s h o p s of M e n t z . The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are defeated bv Archidamus 307 Cologne, a n d T r e v e s b e c a m e a r c h c h a n c e l l o r s of G e r m a n y , I t a l y , a n d Aries. Arcadia, having joined the Achœan league, on its suppression is annexed by Home 146 ' A r c h d e a c o n , a n a m e e a r l y g i v e n to t h e first or Arcadians, an u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e F r e n c h political ' eldest deacon, w h o a t t e n d e d on t h e b i s h o p w i t h o u t a n y ! club, composed of a section of t h e m a j o r i t y in t h e c h a m - p o w e r ; b u t since t h e council of N i c e h i s f u n c t i o n h a s bers. a n d opposed to liberal measures, e v e n w h e n ema* The bridge of Chester, whoso span is 200 feet, was comn a t i n g from t h e e m p e r o r (such as t h e n e w press l a w ) . Ft d e r i v e d its n a m e f r o m R u e de 1'Arcade, w h e r e i t s menced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge is 1.'2 feet; and the three cast-iron arches of Southward Bridge, m e e t i n g s w e r e held : F e b . 18G8. which rest on massive stone piers and abutments are, the two ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet: t h u s the cenArch. I t a p p e a r s in e a r l y E g y p t i a n a n d A s s y r i a n side tre arch exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four architecture. T h e oldest a r c h in E u r o p e is p r o b a b l y in feet in the span, and the long-famed R alto at Venice, by l;J7 t h e Cloaca M a x i m a , at R o m e , c o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r t h e feet ; see Bridges.

ARC

41

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iriTECTS. Born. Died. Vitrnvius about n.c. 27 I W i 11 iam of Wick ha M A . D. 1 3 2 4 - 1 1 0 5 Michael Angelo Buonarotti 1474-1504 : A. Palladio 1518-1580 I Iñigo Jones 1572-1652 Bernini 1598-1680 Christopher Wren 1632-1723 Yanbrugh 1670-1726 A r c h e r y is ascribed to Apollo, who communicated J. James Gibbs. 1674-1754 it to the Cretans. It. and J. Adam 1728-1794 Sir William Chambers. 1726-1796 Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20) B.C. 1892 , Augustus W. Pugin . 1811-1852 The Philistine archers overctme Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 3).. 1056 Sir Charles Barry 1795-1860 David commanded the use of the bow to be taught (2 James Kergusson 1808Sam. i. 18) 1055 Sir George Gilbert Scott 1811-1878 Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, king George Edmund Street 1824of Macedón, at the siege of Methone shot an arrow, on An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural which was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," Society existed in London in 1805. The ROYAL INSTITUTE OP which it put out; Philip drew back the arrow with BRITISH ARCHITECTS was founded in 1834—Earl de Grey, presithese words: " If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged," and kept his word 353 dent, 1835-61. The Architectural Society, established in 1831, Archery introduced into England. previous to A. D. MO was united to the Institute in 1842. The ARCHITECTURAL A S SOCIATION began about 1846. The ARCHITECTURAL M U S E U M , Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot Westminster, opened 21 July, 1869. from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the batMr. James Kergusson's History of Architecture'' (the tle of Hastings 10SG best), 2d ed. 1874-6. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow 1199 A r c h o n s . When royalty was abolished at Athens, The victories of Crecy (1340), Poictiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415) were won chiefly by archers. in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 1044 or 1068 Four t housand archers of the king surrounded the houses B.C., the executive government was vested in elective of parliament ready to shoot; pacified bv the king, 21 Richard II.— Stow 1397 magistrates called archons, whose office continued for life. Me do ii, eldest son of Codrus, was the first archon. The The citizens of London formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III.; and into a corporate body office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year bv the style of "The Fraternity of St. George," 29 683 B.C. Henry VIII 1538 Roger Ascham's " Toxopliilus, the School of Shooting," A r e o l a (Lombardy), the site of battles between the published 1571 French under Bonaparte and t h e Austrian» under field Sc or to n Annual Arrow Meetings—a silver arrow shot for; articles agreed to 14 May, 1673 marshal Alvinzi, fought. 14-17 Nov. 1796. The AustriRoyal company of archers, instituted by the marquess of an s lost 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, Athol, as the king's body-guard for Scotland 1676 four flags, and eighteen guns. The French lost about The long-bow was six feet long, and the arrow three feet; 15,000, and became masters of Italy. In one contest Bothe usual range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is naparte, in most imminent danger, was rescued by the sa'd to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged with a trigger. impetuosity of his troops. The use of the long-bow was taught in Kenyon College, Ohio, as early as 1833. The archery revival in America A r c o t (Kast Indies). This city (founded 1716) was dates from the year 1877, the first club having been ortaken by col. Give, 31 Aug. 1751; was retaken, 1758, ganized in that year in Oakland, California. but again surrendered to col. Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; be[See Artillery Company, ToxophUites, etc.] sieged and taken by Ilyder Ali, when the British unArches, COURT OF, the most ancient consistory court, der col. Baillie suffered severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdictions within Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801; see the province of Canterbury; it derives its name from the India. church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), A r c t i c E x p e d i t i o n s , see North/west Passage and London, where it was formerly held, and whose top is Franklin's Expedition. On the German Arctic society apraised on stone pillars built archwise.—Coivell. Appeals plying to the German government, a committee of 13 from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy professors was appointed, who in their report recomcouncil, by statute, 1832. The judge, Dr. Stephen Lushmended that no more expeditions should be sent out; ing ton (appointed in 1828), resigned 1 July, 1867; sucbut that stations should be established for scientific obceeded by sir Robert J . Phillimore, who resigned 1875. servations; 1876. Lord Penzance then became judge in the court of arches. London Central Arctic Committee, formed to promote another expedition, 7 July, 1879. A r c h i t e c t u r e (from the Greek otp^trkKTwv, chief artificer). The five great orders are, the Doric, Ionic, A r d a g h , an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by and Corinthian (Greek); the Tuscan and Composite St. Patrick, who made his nephew, Mell, the first bishop, (Itomaii). Gothic began to prevail in the ninth cent- 454. This see, held with Kilmore since 1742, was held ury ; see the Orders and Gothic. in commendam with Tuam (which see). I t was united with Kilmore in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. The Pyramids of Egypt, begun about is.c. 1500 Solomon's Temple, begun 1004 A r d a h a n , a town in Turkish Armenia, ceded to Birs Nimroud, in Assyria about 900 I Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. The Doric order begins... about 650 Doric temple at Página 550 ; A r d f e r t and A g h a d o e , bishoprics in Ireland long Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, founded 616 j Babylon built 600 , united: t h e former was called the bishopric of K e r r v ; The Tonic order begins about 500-420 I E r t presided in the fifth century. William Fuller, apThe Corinthian order begins 335 ; pointed in 1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since Choragic monument of lysicrates 335 i when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united to that Architecture flourishes at Athens 480-320 . Erechthemn at Athens 450-420 ' prelacy. Near the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 The Parthenon finished 438 \ feet high, the loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly The Pantheon, etc,, bu ilt at Rome A. D. 13 1fell, 1770. The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, etc 117 A r d o c h , see Grampian. Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 [ A r d r e s , see Field of Cloth of Gold. Basilicas at Rome 330-900 Fi t Soph i a, at. Constantinople, begun 532 I Rock-cut temples in India—Caves of Ellora SOO-SOO 1 A r e i o p a g u s , or AREOPAGUS, a Greek tribunal, said Canterbury cathedral, founded 602 to have heard causes in the dark, because the judges Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem 637 I should be blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens York minster (present building) begun about 1171 I St. Peter's. Rome 14r0-1626 ¡ about 1507 B.C.; also ascribed to Cecrops, 1556. The St. Paul's. London 1675-1710 name is derived from the Greek "AOHOQ irayoc, the hill become a dignity above a priest. The appointment in these countries is referred to the eighth century. There are seventy-five archdeacons in England (1878). The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity; an appeal lies from it to t h e consistorial court, bv 24 Henry VIII. (1532).

A r e o m e t e r , or A r a e o m e t e r (from Greek

apawc,

t h i n ) , a n i n s t r u m e n t for m e a s u r i n g t h e d e n s i t y a n d s p e cific g r a v i t y of fluids, B a u m e d e s c r i b e d h i s a r e o m e t e r in 1768. O t h e r s h a v e b e e n m a d e b y N i c h o l s o n a n d M o h r .

Arequipa, P e r u , f o u n d e d b y 1 ' i z a r r o , 1 5 3 9 ; w a s d e s t r o y e d b y a n e a r t h q u a k e , 13 A u g . 1808. A r e t h u s a , see Naval Battles, 1778, and Chichester. A r e z z o , n e a r t h e ancient A r r e t i u m , or A r e t i n u m , an E t r u r i a n city, w h i c h m a d e peace w i t h H o m e for 30 y e a r s , 3 0 8 B.C., w a s b e s i e g e d b y t h e G a i l i S e n o n e s , a b o u t 2 8 3 B.C., w h o d e f e a t e d t h e R o m a n a r m y M e t e l l u s s e n t t o its r e l i e f — a disgrace avenged signally b y Dolabella. Arezzo was a n ancient bishopric : t h e cathedral founded i n 1277. I t is r e n o w n e d a s t h e b i r t h p l a c e of Maecenas, Petrarch, Yasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was born in t h e vicinity.

Argandab, 1880.

a r i v e r in A f g h a n i s t a n ; see

Alii

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of M a r s , t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t M a r s w a s t h e first w h o w a s t r i e d for t h e m u r d e r of I l a l i r r h o t i u s , w h o h a d v i o l a t e d h i s d a u g h t e r A l c i p p e . T h e p o w e r s of t h i s c o u r t w e r e e n l a r g e d b y Solon a b o u t 5 9 4 B.C., a n d d i m i n i s h e d b y P e r i c l e s , 4G1 r..c. P a u l p r e a c h e d o n M a r s ' h i l l A.D. 52 ( A c t s x v i i . ) .

Afghanis-

tan,

A r g a u m , in t h e D e c c a n , I n d i a , w h e r e sir A r t h u r W e l l e s l e y , on 29 N o v . 1803, t h o r o u g h l y d e f e a t e d a n d s u b j u g a t e d t h e r a j a h of B e r a r a n d t h e M a h r a t t a c h i e f S e i n diah.

Argentaria, A l s a c e ( n o w C O L M A R , N . E . F r a n c e ) , where the R o m a n emperor Gratian totally defeated the A l e m a n n i a n d s e c u r e d t h e p e a c e of G a u l , M a y , 3 7 8 . Argentine ( o r L A P L A T A ) Confederation ( S . A m e r i c a ) , 14 p r o v i n c e s ( B u e n o s A y r e s , o n e ) . T h i s c o u n t r y w a s d i s c o v e r e d b y t h e S p a n i a r d s i n 1515, s e t t l e d b y t h e m i n 1553, a n d f o r m e d p a r t of t h e v i c e r o y a l t y of P e r u till 1778, w h e n i t b e c a m e t h a t of R i o d e l a P l a t a . It j o i n e d t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n in 1811, a n d b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t in 1816. I t w a s a t w a r w i t h B r a z i l f r o m 1826 t o 1828 f o r t h e p o s s e s s i o n of U r u g u a y , w h i c h b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t as M o n t e v i d e o ; a n d a t w a r w i t h F r a n c e f r o m 1838-40. P o p u l a t i o n , in 1869, 1,877,490. See Buenos A yres. Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853; reunited 1859 An insurrection in San J u a n in Nov. 1860; suppressed in J a n . 1862 J. I'rqnizn. elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was succccdcd 8 F by Dr. S. Derqui c b . 18G0 Gen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, a s s u m e d t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s office 12 Oct. 1862 Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories, May. Mitre declared w a r against Paraguay, IB April; and made alliance w i t h Brazil and Uruguay 4 May, 1865 [See Buenos Ai/res for t h e disputes w i t h t h a t state, a n d Brazil for t h e w a r with Paraguay. 1 Col Dominique F. S a n u i c n t o elected p r e s i d e n t for six ; 12 Oct. 1868 years l i e suppresses t h e insurrection of Corrientcs Nov. " I'rquiza murdered 12 April, 1870 Treatv w i t h Brazil J a n . 1873 Dec. '' 1 (efeat of Lopez J o u r d a n . rebel, announced Dr. N. Avellaneda inaugurated president for six years, 12 Oct, 1874 Insurrection of Mitre at Buenos Ayres, Sept.-Nov., suppressed; he submits 2 Dec. " National b a n k stops; suspension of specie p a y m e n t s by government 1" May, 1876 End of rebellion; c a p t u r e of Jourdan ; announced 12 Dec. " Disputes w i t h Buenos Ayres; settled J u n e - J u l y , 1880 (ien. Roca (opposed to s u p r e m a c y of Buenos Ayres) n o m i n a t e d to become president in Oct,, opposed by Dr. Tejedor June-July, " (.'en. Iioca becomes president Oct. 1 'l'ranquillitv r e s t o r e d : Buenos Ayres to be definitive capital of the republic 7 Dec. "

Arginusae, isles b e t w e e n L e s b o s a n d A s i a M i n o r ; n e a r t h e s e C o n o n a n d t h e A t h e n i a n fleet d e f e a t e d t h e S p a r t a n a d m i r a l C a l l i c r a t i d a s , 4 0 6 B.C.

T h e s h i p in w h i c h P l i r y x u s h a d s a i l e d to C o l c h i s h a v i n g b e e n a d o r n e d w i t h t h e f i g u r e of a r a m , l e d to t h e f i c t i o n t h a t t h e j o u r n e y w a s t o r e c o v e r t h e g o l d e n fleece. T h i s is t h e f i r s t n a v a l e x p e d i t i o n o n r e c o r d . M a n y k i n g s a n d heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship w a s called Argo, from its builder.

Argonauts of St. Nicholas, m i l i t a r y k n i g h t s ; a n o r d e r f o u n d e d b y C h a r l e s I I I . of N a p l e s , 1382. A r g o s , t h e m o s t a n c i e n t c i t y of G r e e c e , s a i d t o h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d e i t h e r b y I n a c h u s , 1856 B.C., or h i s s o n . P h o r o n e u s , 1807, r e c e i v e d i t s n a m e f r o m A r g u s , tiie f o u r t h of t h e I n a c h i d : e , 1711 B.C. Reign of Triopas; Polyeaon seizes p a r t of tlie kingdom and calls it after liis wife. Messenia B.C. 1552 Geianor, last of the Inachidie, deposed by Danaus, a n Egyptian 1475 F e a s t of the Flambeaux, i n s t i t u t e d in h o n o r of l l y p e r m nestra, who saved h e r h u s b a n d . Lynceus. son of .•Egyptus. on his nuptial night, while h e r forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the c o m m a n d of t h e i r lather, Danaus 1425 Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 Tiie kingdom divided by t h e b r o t h e r s Acrisius and l'raitus 1344 (1313 Clinton.) Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos a n d f o u n d s Mycenge {which see) 1313 The Heraclidaj r e t a k e t h e Peloponnesus, and T e m e n u s seizes Argos 1102 P h e i d o n ' s prosperous rule 770-730 AVar w i t h S p a r t a : combat of 300 on each side 347 The Argives line Sicyon a n d yEgina for helping their enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta 514 Sparta becomes superior to Argos 495-490 Themistocles an exile a t Argos 471 The Argives destroy Myceme and regain t h e i r superiority 468 Peloponnesian war—Argos, long n e u t r a l , j o i n s A t h e n s . . 420 The aristocratical p a r t y m a k e s peace with Sparta, aud overthrows the democracy 417 A reaction—alliance w i t h A t h e n s r e s u m e d 395 I ' v r r h u s of Macedon, besieging Argos, slain 272 Argos governed by t y r a n t s supported by Macedon; f r e e d ; joins the Acllieun league 229 Subjugated by the R o m a n s 146 Argos t a k e n from t h e V e n e t i a n s A.D. 1686 'Taken by t h e T u r k s 1716, w h o held it until 1826 United to Greece u n d e r k i n g Otlio; see Greece.. .25 J a n . 1833

Argyle ( W . S c o t l a n d ) , b i s h o p r i c of, f o u n d e d a b o u t 1200, E v a l d u s b e i n g t h e first b i s h o p ; t h e diocese, p r e v i o u s l y u n i t e d w i t h D u n k e l d , e n d e d 1688. A r g y l e a n d t h e I s l e s is a p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n b i s h o p r i c , 1847 ; s e e Bishetprics. A r g y l l R o o m s , Oxford Street, London, opened for m u s i c a l a n d o t h e r e n t e r t a i n m e n t s e a r l y in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; re-erected by Nash, 1818; held by t h e P h i l h a r m o n i c Society, 1813-30. H e r e a p p e a r e d S p o h r , 1820; W e b e r , 3 A p r i l , " l 8 2 6 ; a n d M e n d e l s s o h n , 25 M a y , 1829. W h i l e h e l d by M . C h a b e r t , t h e fire-king, t h e b u i l d i n g w a s b u r n e d d o w n , 5 , 6 F e b . 1830. T h e n e w b u i l d i n g w a s e v e n t u a l l y converted into simps,

Arian, o r A U V A X (in S a n s k r i t s i g n i f y i n g n o b l e , w a r like), a term now f r e q u e n t l y applied to t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l l u d o - G c r m a n i c f a m i l y of n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e G r e e k , Roman, and Teutonic races. A r i a n s , f o l l o w e r s of A r i u s of A l e x a n d r i a , w h o p r e a c h e d a g a i n s t t h e d i v i n i t y of C h r i s t , a b o u t 315, a n d d i e d in 336. T h e c o n t r o v e r s y w a s t a k e n u p b y C o n s t a n t i n o , w h o p r e s i d e d a t t h e c o u n c i l of N i c e , J u n e t o A u g . 325, w h e n t h e A r i a n s w e r e c o n d e m n e d ; b u t t h e i r doctrine long prevailed. It was favored by Constantius I I . 341 ; a n d c a r r i e d i n t o A f r i c a b y t h e V a n d a l s i n t h e fifth c e n t u r y , a n d i n t o A s i a b y t h e G o t h s . Servetus p u b l i s h e d h i s t r e a t i s e a g a i n s t t h e T r i n i t y , 1531, a n d w a s b u r n e d , 1553. L e g g a t t , an A r i a n , was b u r n e d at S m i t h field in 1 6 1 4 ; see Athanasian Creed, Soeiuiai/s, a n d Unitarians.

Arica, P e r u , d e s t r o y e d b y a n e a r t h q u a k e , a n d i n u n d a t e d b y w a v e s of t h e s e a , 13 A u g . 1868. Arikera,

near Seringapatam.

H e r e lord Cornwallis

A r g o n a u t i c E x p e d i t i o n , 1263 B.C. (1225, Clin- d e f e a t e d T i p p o o S a h i b , 15 M a y , 1791. A r i s t o t e l i a n P h i l o s o p h y : the most compreton"), s a i d t o h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n b y J a s o n t o a v e n g e t h e d e a t h of h i s k i n s m a n P h r v x u s , a n d t o r e c o v e r t h e t r e a s u r e s s e i z e d b y h i s m u r d e r e r , ^ E e t e s , k i n g of C o l c h i s .

hensive ever devised b y man. Aristotle was born at S t a g e i r a ( h e n c e t e r m e d t h e S t a g e i r i t e ) , 3 0 4 B.C.; w a s a

43

ARI

pupil of Plato from 864 to 347; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, physics (including part of the science of mind), and ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the schoolmen during t h e middle ages, and too much depreciated after the Reformation. His works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary m i x t u r e of sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now maintained by eminent modern philosophers.

ARM

a powerful Roman city, was made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson in A.I>. 879 ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Transjuraue Burgundy by Uodolph II. in 933. l i e was succeeded by Conrad I. 937; and by Uodolph I I I . 993; who at his death, 1032, transmitted his kingdom to the emperor Conrad II. After various changes, it was annexed to France in 1486. M a n y councils (314-1275) were held at Aries ; the most celebrated in 314, when British bishops were present.

Armada, T H E I N V I N C I B L E , collectcd and equipped by Philip II., king of Spain, for the subjugation of E n g land. T h e following particulars are taken from Morant's A n Aristotelian Society, f o r t h e s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of p h i l o s o - historical account (accompanying Pine's engravings of p h y , w a s f o u n d e d in t h e s p r i n g of 1380; Dr. S h a d w o r t h H. the tapestries formerly in the house of lords), printed Hodgson, president. 1739: A r i t h m e t i c is said to have been introduced from E g y p t into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. T h e Chi- I t c o n s i s t e d of 132 s h i p s ( b e s i d e s c a r a v e l s ) , 3165 c a n n o n , 87GG s a i l o r s , 2088 g a l l e y - s l a v e s , 21,855 s o l d i e r s , 1355 nese used the abacus, or swanpan, at an early period. volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, a n d their attendIt is asserted t h a t the ancient Hindus adopted a system a n t s ) , a n d 150 m o n k s , w i t h M a r t i n Alarco. v i c a r of t h e having ten as a basis. I n q u i s i t i o n — t h e w h o l e u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of t h e

T h e o l d e s t t r e a t i s e u p o n a r i t h m e t i c is b y E u c l i d (7th, 8 t h , a n d 9 t h b o o k s of h i s " E l e m e n t s " ) a b o u t B.C. T h e s e x a g e s i m a l a r i t h m e t i c of P t o l e m y w a s u s e d . . .A.D. D i o p h a n t u s of A l e x a n d r i a w a s t h e a u t h o r of t h i r t e e n b o o k s of a r i t h m e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s (of w h i c h s i x a r e n o w extant) about N o t a t i o n b y n i n e digits a n d zero (Arabic figures), k n o w n a t l e a s t a s e a r l y a s t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y in H i n d u s t a n ; i n t r o d u c e d f r o m t h e n c e into Arabia, a b o u t 900; into Spain, a b o u t 980; into F r a n c e , b y Herbert, 991; into E n g l a n d , p r o b a b l y in t h e f o u r t e e n t h o r f i f t e e n t h c e n tury. T h e d a t e in C a x t o n ' s " M i r r o u r of t h e W o r l d , " A r a b i c c h a r a c t e r s , is A r i t h m e t i c of d e c i m a l s i n v e n t e d J o h n S h e r w o o d , b i s h o p of D u r h a m ' s " L u d u s A r i t h m o Machinfe," printed at Rome F i r s t w o r k p r i n t e d in E n g l a n d o n a r i t h m e t i c (- 1 J)e A r t e S u p p u t a n d i " ) w a s b y Tonstall, b i s h o p of D u r h a m . . . . T h e t h e o r y of d e c i m a l * f r a c t i o n s p e r f e c t e d b y N a p i e r i n his'-Kliabdologia" C o c k e r ' s A r i t h m e t i c a p p e a r e d in N y s t r o m ' s " T o n a l S y s t e m , " w i t h 10 a s a b a s i s , p u b l i s h e d Sawyer's "Automatic S y s t e m " p u b l i s h e d —

300 130 150

1480 1482 " 1522 1017 1077 1863 1878

Arithmometer, see Calculating-machines. A r i z o n a , a territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, was organized 24 Feb. 1863; capital, Tucson. I t was colonized by the Jesuits in the seventeenth century. A r k . Mount Ararat ('which see) is venerated from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2349 B.C. ; see Gen. vi., vii. Some assert Apamea, in P h r y g i a , to be the spot; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters N O E , and two doves; this place is ttOO miles west of Ararat. T h e Ark of the Covenant. made by Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 B.C. (Exod. x x v . ) , was placed in Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. ( i Kings viii.). A r k a d i , a Greek blockade-runner during the Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turkish vessel J zeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 22 successful voyages.

d u k e of M e d i n a - S i d o n i a 1587 T h e E n g l i s h fleet u n d e r l o r d C h a r l e s H o w a r d , s i r F r a n c i s D r a k e , a n d s i r J o h n H a w k i n s , r e a d y f o r s e a , a n d tV^ee a r m i e s on land Dec. " The A r m a d a sailed f r o m Lisbon; soon a f t e r dispersed by a storm 19 .May, 1588 R e c o l l e c t e d , e n t e r e d t h e C h a n n e l off C o r n w a l l . .19 J u i y ! " S u f f e r e d in a s e r i e s of e n g a g e m e n t s ( t h e s h a r p e s t on 25 July) 21-7 J u l y , " Dispersed b y lire-ships sent into the midst 28 J u l y , " M a n y vessels s u n k or taken by the English 29 J u l y , " The r e m a i n d e r retreat n o r t h w a r d to Spain, suffering m u c h loss b y s e v e r e s t o r m s Aug. a n d Sept. " C o m p u t e d S p a n i s h loss, 35 s h i p s ; 13,000 m e n . T h e q u e e n a t t e n d e d a m o s t s o l e m n t h a n k s g i v i n g a t St. Paul's 24 N o v . A n a n n u a l t h a n k s g i v i n g s e r m o n w a s e n d o w e d b y Mr. C h a p m a n , w h o d i e d 1616; it w a s p r e a c h e d at St. Maryle-13ow 12 A u g . 1877

A r m a g h , N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the lifth to the ninth century, t h e scat of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. In the king's book, by an e x t e n t taken 15 J a m e s I., it is valued at 400/. sterling a y e a r ; and until lately was estimated at 15,00(V. per annum. The see was reconstituted (see Pallium) in 1151.—Beatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes oil Easter-day, 85*2, and by O'Neil in 1564. A r m a g n a c s , a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy.

A r m e d N e u t r a l i t y , the confederacy against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, 1780; ended, 1781; renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The principle t h a t neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event, and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia, led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality.

A r k a n s a s , originally part of Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France, 1763; and purchased by the United States in 1803; was made a territory, 1819; and a state 1836; seceded from the Union 6 May, 1861; national authority re-established, and a loyal government organA r m e n i a , Asia Minor. Here Xoali is said to have ized 1864; readmitted to representation in Congress, 1868. Several battles were fought in this state in 1862 resided when he left the ark, 2.147 B.C. Armenia, after forming part of the Assyrian, ¡Median, and Persian emand 18G3. Pop. 1880, 802,564. Capital, Little Rock. pires, became subject to the (¡reek kings of .Syria, after A r k l o w (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 130 B.c. The Romans between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, small regular force of British, which signally defeated but their influence over them was frequently interrupted them, 10 June, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the aggressions of the Parthians. In all (heir politiby the insurgents in M a y previous.—Native gold was cal troubles the Armenians have maintained the profesdiscovered in Arklow in Sept. 1 7 9 5 . — P h i l . Trans. sion of Christianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Armevol. 86. nian convent has existed at Venice, where books on all A r i e s (Arelatum, from the Celtic A r-lait, near the subjects arc printed in the Armenian language. waters), S. France (said to have been founded 2000 B.C.),

ARM

44

City of A r t a x a r t a built B.C. 1SG Antioehus Epipliaues invades A r m e n i a 1(>5 Tigranes t h e Great reigns in A r m e n i a Major y5 Becomes king of Svria, and a s s u m e s t h e title of " K i n g of K i n g s " 83 Defeated by Lucullus, 69; be lays his crown a t t h e feet of I ' o m p e y 66 His son, Artavusdes, reigns, 51; h e assists P o m p e y against J u l i u s Ccesar, 4«; a n d the P a r t h i a u s against Marc Antony 36 Antony subdues, and sends h i m loaded with silver c h a i n s to Egypt 34 33 Artaxias, his son, made k i n g by the P a r t h i a n s Deposed by t h e Romans, w h o e n t h r o n e Tigranes II 20 A r m e n i a subjected to P a r t h i a A.D 15 Reconquered by Germanicus. grandson of Augustus 18 1 After m a n y changes Tiridates is m a d e k i n g by t h e Ro 1 mans 58 The P a r t h i a n conquerors of A r m e n i a are expelled by Trajan 115 Severus m a k e s Volagarses king of p a r t of Armenia 199 Christianity introduced between A.D. 100-300 A r m e n i a added to the Persian e m p i r e 232 Tiridates obtains t h e t h r o n e t h r o u g h Diocletian, 286; is expelled by Narses, 2'J4; restored by Galerius 298 On bis death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 342; is m a d e neutral by Rome and Persia, 384; who divide it by t r e a t y . . 443 A r m e n i a conquered and reconquered by the (»reek and P e r s i a n sovereigns 577-687 And by t h e Greek emperors and Mahometans 693-1065 The A r m e n i a n c h u r c h reconciled to Rome. about 1330 Leon VI., last king of Armenia, t a k e n prisoner by t h e Saracens. 1375; released, h e dies at Paris 1393 Overrun bv t h e Mongols, 1235; by Timour. 1383; by t h e Turks, 1516; by t h e Persians, 1534; by t h e Turks" 1583 S h a h Abbas of Persia surrenders A r m e n i a to t h e Turks, b u t t r a n s p o r t s 22,000 A r m e n i a n families into his own states 1604 A r m e n i a o v e r r u n by the Russians 1828 S u r r e n d e r of Erzeroum 9 July, 1829 (See Syria and Russo-Turkish I Tars, I. and II.) By t h e Berlin'Treaty, Kars, Ardahan. a n d Batoum were ceded to Russia, w i t h other changes J u l y , 1878

A r m e n i a n E r a commenced on 9 J u l y , 552; t h e ecclesiastical y e a r on 11 Aug. T o reduce t h i s last to our time, add 551 years and 221 d a y s ; and in leap-years subtract one d a y from 1 M a r c h to 10 Aug. T h e A r m e nians used t h e old J u l i a n style and m o n t h s in t h e i r correspondence with Europeans.

Armillary Sphere, an astronomical instrument composed of brass circles disposed in such a m a n n e r t h a t t h e g r e a t e r and lesser circles of t h e sphere m a y be seen in t h e i r n a t u r a l position and motion. I t is said to h a v e been i n v e n t e d b y E r a t o s t h e n e s about 255 B.C., and was employed b y T v c h o Braho and others.

Arminians, or REMONSTRANTS, derive t h e i r former n a m e from J a m e s A r m i n i u s (or I i a r m e n s e n ) , a P r o t e s t a n t d i v i n e of Leyden, Holland (died 19 Oct. 1G09); t h e l a t ter n a m e from his followers h a v i n g presented a Remonstrance to t h e states-general in 1(510. T h e y separated from t h e Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting predestination, etc. T h e i r doctrines were condemned in 1619 a t t h e synod of D o r t {which see); t h e y were exiled till 1625. T h e Calvinists were sometimes styled Gomarists, from Gomar, t h e chief opponent to Arminius. J a m e s I. and Charles I. favored t h e A r m i n i a n doctrine.

ARM A r m o r P l a t e s , see Iron and Navy

of

England.

A r m o r i a l B e a r i n g s b e c a m e h e r e d i t a r y in families at t h e close of the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . T h e y were employed b y t h e Crusaders, 1100. T h e lines to denote colors in arms, b y t h e i r direction or intersection, were i n v e n t e d b y Columbiere in 1639. T h e armorial bearings of t h e E n g l i s h sovereigns are g i v e n under t h e article England, Armorial bearings were t a x e d in 1798, and again in 1808. T h e t a x produced 64.515?. in t h e vear e n d i n g 31 Marcl), 1868; 1872,64,228/.; 1876,83,527/'; 1878,83,104/.; 1879, 81,854/. T h e t a x is now 2/. 2s.; if n o t on carriages, it is 1/. 1$. annually (1880). Sir B e r n a r d B u r k e ' s " G e n e r a l A r m o r y , " 1878, contains t h e a r m s of above 65,000 B r i t i s h families. A r m o r i c a , now B r i t t a n y , N . F r a n c e , was conquered b y J u l i u s Ctesar, 56 B.C. M a n y Gauls are said to h a v e retired t h e r e and preserved t h e Celtic tongue, A.D. 5 8 4 ; see Brittany. Arms. T h e club was t h e first offensive w e a p o n ; t h e n followed t h e raace, b a t t l e - a x e , pike, spear, j a v e l i n , sword and dagger, bows a n d arrows. P l i n y ascribes t h e i n v e n t i o n of the sling to t h e Phoenicians; see articles on the various weapons throughout the volume. A r m s , see Armorial

Bearings

and

Heraldry.

A r m s B i l l s , for t h e repression of crime a n d insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 1810, 1823, 1829, a n d 15 Oct. 1831, T h e g u n s registered under t h e last act a t t h e close of t h e first y e a r scarcely a m o u n t e d to 3000, and t h e n u m b e r w a s equally small of all other kinds of arms. T h e new A r m s bill, passed 22 A u g . 1843, h a s been since renewed, b u t was n o t rigidly enforced till 1867. A n o t h e r A r m s bill h a s been passed b y t h e commons entitled " A n act to a m e n d t h e law r e l a t i n g to t h e c a r r y i n g and possession of arms, and for t h e preservation of public peace in Ireland," to last till 1 J u n e , 1886 ; r o y al assent, 21 March, 1881; see Ireland. A r m s t r o n g G u n , see under

Cannon.

Army. N i n u s and S e m i r a m i s b a d armies a m o u n t i n g to nearly two millions of fighting-men, 2017 B.C. T h e tirst guards and regular troops as a s t a n d i n g a r m y were formed b y Saul, 1093 B.C.—Eusebius. T h e a r m y of X e r x e s i n v a d i n g Greece is said to h a v e been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse, 480 B.C. One of t h e first s t a n d i n g armies of w h i c h w e h a v e a n y account is t h a t of P h i l i p of Macedon. T h e a r m y w h i c h D a r i u s opposed to A l e x ander t h e Great ( 3 3 2 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. T h e first s t a n d i n g a r m y w h i c h existed as such, in modern times, was m a i n t a i n e d in F r a n c e b y Charles V I I . in 1445. T h e chief E u r o p e a n nations h a v e had in their service t h e following a r m i e s : Spain, 150,000 m e n ; G r e a t Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000; T u r k e y , 450.000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 1,000,000. E s t i m a t e d n u m b e r in E u r o p e in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. T h e E u r o p e a n powers are still increasing t h e i r armies.

Armor. T h a t of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) 1 S a m . x v i i . 5. Skins and padded hides were early 2,800,000 used, and brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, fol- J a n . 1875—Germany France 1,750.000 u lowed. T h e body armor of the Britons was skins of wild Russia 3,300,000 " Great Britain 22r\(.'3'i beasts, e x c h a n g e d , a f t e r the R o m a n conquest, for the Reserves, volunteers, etc 5!jo,ill well-tanned l e a t h e r n cuirass.—Tacitus. H c n g i s t is said to h a v e had scale armor, A.D. 4-19. Army, BRITISH, mainly arose in t h e reign of Charles The X o r m a n a r m o r formed breeches and j a c k e t . 1006 I I . in 1661, in consequence of t h e extinction of feudal The h a u b e r k had its hood of the s a m e piece 1100 tenures. T h e first five r e g i m e n t s of British i n f a n t r y J o h n wore a s u r t o u t over a h a u b e r k of rings set edgeways 1190 were established between 1633 and 1680, J a m e s I I . esThe h e a v y cavalry covered with a coat of mail. Some tablished several r e g i m e n t s of dragoon g u a r d s (1685-8). h o r s e m e n had vizors and skull-caps about 1216 In 1685 t h e a r m y consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 c a v a l A r m o r exceedingly splendid about 1350 rv. Standing armies were introduced b y Charles I. in Black a r m o r , used not only for battle, b u t for m o u r n i n g , Henry V U 1 3 1*038: t h e y were declared illegal in E n g l a n d , 31 Car. I I . A r m o r of H e n r y VII. consisted of a c u i r a s s of steel, in 1679; b u t one w a s t h e n g r a d u a l l y f o r m i n g , w h i c h was about 1500 t h e form o f a pair of stays Armor ceased to reach below t h e knees, Charles 1 1025 m a i n t a i n e d b y W i l l i a m III., 1689, w h e n t h e M u t i n y Act was passed. Grose's " H i s t o r y of t h e B r i t i s h A r m y " In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no o t h e r a r m o r t h a n a large gorget, w h i c h is c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e diwas published in 1801 : see Regiments, Militia, and Volm i n u t i v e o r n a m e n t k n o w n at t h e present day.— 3Ieyunteers. rick.

45

A i m BRITISH ARMY.

1780, Time of w a r : troops of the l i n e . . 1800, War 1810, W a r : army, including foreign troops 1815, Last year of the war 1820, Time of peace: war encumbrances 1830, Peace 1840, Peace . 1850. Peace 1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) 1854, War with Russia Total men. 1835-56,t War with R u s s i a . . . . 1856-57, War with Persia 1857-58, Indian Mutiny 1858-59 1859-60, Chinese W a r 1860-61 1861-62 1862-63 1863-64 1864-65 1865-66 1866-67 1867-68, Abyssinian W a r . . . . . . 1868-69 1869-70 1870-71, Franco-German War.. 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1879-80 1880-81

223,224 265,466 175,858 222,874 229,551 228,854 212,773 228,973 220,918 219^450 213,521 203,404 204,455 203,157 191,073 178,000 197,911 196,606 187,928 224,835 225,931 132,884 133,720 135.625 131,859

Men. 110.000 168,082

Sam voted. £7,847,000 17,973,000

300,000 300,000

26,748,000 39,150,000

88,100 89.300 93',471 99,118 101.937 112,977

18,253,000 0,991,000 6,890,267 6,763,488 7.018,104 7,387,000

In India,* men.

mmtei°etCi).

29,629 £32.006,603 26,363 20,811.242 30,197 14.405,850 92,739 13,294,814 91,897 14,915,243 71,528 18,013,896 60,041 16,854,299 83,523 16,264,790 72,676 14,723.976 72.684 14,382.672 71,044 14,569,279 65,827 14,675,540 65,292 15,418,582 64,466 15^000,000 63,907 13,565,400 62/963 13,430,400 62.864 15; 521,580 62/957 14,729,700 62,924 14.426,990 62,840 591,434 62,850 62,849 15,281,600 62,652 15,919,492 — 13,019,900 62,588 12,797,900

Total home and colonial establishments, 632,649; cost, 16,641,300i. Estimate, 1881-2, 15,887,300?., 16,109,500?. (Feb. 1881). Expended by army purchase commission: 1871-2 £340,000 1872- 3 683,500 1873-4.. . 713,974 1874- 5 579,115 Regular troops for home service: 1455!. 1875. 1878. Cavalry 7.603 12,945 15.098 Artillery 8,710 18,853 30,695 Engineers 1,039 4,074 4,273 Infantry 53.651 63,371 110,578 71,OUÖ 99/243 160/544 Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921; in 1872, 172,891; in 1875,161,150; in 1878, 193.026, (with stuft') 245,648. Militia, 1872, 139,018; 1880, 139,111; yeomanry, 1872, 15,455; 1880,14,511. Recruits of all classes in 1871, 23,198. The Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689; alterations made in this act and in the Articles of War 1855 (See below 1879.) A r m y Service Acts: 12 and 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 1847), and 18 Vict, c. 4. 27 Feb. '' Officers in the service of the East India Company to have the same rank and precedence as those in the regular army 25 April, " The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abolished, and the civil administration of the army and ordnance vested in the hands of lord Pan mure, the minister of war 25 May, " Examination of staff officers previous to their appointment ordered 9 April, 1857 The army largely recruited for Indian war 1857-8 The East India Company's army was transferred to the queen ..... 1859 Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in consequence of no bounty being granted; and threatenings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an arrangement was made granting discharge to those who desired it.. " Examination of candidates for the Military Academy, previously confined to pupils from Sandhurst, was thrown open, 1855; the principle of this measure was affirmed b y the house of commons by v o t e . . .26 April, 1858 Bj 7 22 and 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in her majesty's service 1859 Flogging virtually abolished in the a r m y : First class soldiers to be degraded to second class before being liable to it 9 Nov. " * Supported by the Indian government, t Ending March 31.

ARM A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sanitary improvements in the army, barracks, etc., under d rei; tion of Mr. Sidney Herbert 1859-60 A commission recommend the establishment of a recruiting department, increase of pensions, etc 31 Oct. 1866 Flogging restricted to insubordination ( w i t h violence) March ('?), 1867 and indecency N e w A r m y Enlistment Act (limiting period of enlistment to 12 years, etc.) passed 20 June, " Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) from 1 April. 1867; by warrant, dated 29 .June, " Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join the il army in the event of war, passed 20 Aug. " War Department Stores " Act passed 20 Aug, Sir I l e n r y Storks appointed control 1er-in-chief... .1 Jan. 1868 Flogging abolished in time of peace, by an amendment in the Muti 11 y A c t March, " Edward Card well, secretary for war 9 Dec. " Royal commission on military education appointed, 23 J u ne, 1868 ; r epo r t \v i t h re co ni m e ndat i 011 s i sa u ed abo u t Oct. 1869 Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers commanded by regular officers, established by royal warrant.. 12 Nov. " Royal commission on the purchase system, etc., appointed 5 A p r i l ; report recognizes the " o v e r regulation p a y m e n t s , ' hitherto ignored Aug. 1870 Regulations under the new " A r m y Enlistment A c t 1 ' issued 12 Aug. " 2,000,000/. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men, 1 Aug. " Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to in consequence of sanitary improvements, etc. (out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20,18,614 under 19).-— Lord Northbrook June, 1871 A r m y Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase system, etc. ) passed in the commons, 289-231, early 4 July ; introduced in the lords, 13 July; able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its favor, 14 July; rejected (155130), 2 a.m 18 July, » Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in pursuance of acts 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 16. and 49 Geo. i l l . c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871 1 20 J uly, " Regulation of the Forces Act passed 17 Aug. " Autumn campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and 01hers unipires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur engaged; foreign officers present. Manœuvres according to the Prussian system ; field days, etc 8-12 Sept. " Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope (¡¡rant, 13 Sept. « Series of battles near the l l o g ' s Back, Aldersliot ; Grant declared victor 16-19 Sept. " u Battle of Fox's-liill; Carey defeats Staveley 21 Sept. [ Repo rted results : ar t i 1 le ry 111 agn ific e n t ; ca val ry s u p e r b ; infantry v e r y good; transport insufficient; greater distribution of responsibility among officers needed.] Sham fight; Chatham stormed 24 Oct. y the act of 1861 it is punishable by penal servitude for life and minor degrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was convicted of arson, having set many houses on fire, for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving alarm, 13 Dec. 1871. In some states of the Union the law remains the same as in England; others make the setting fire to an inhabited house punishable by imprisonment for life. There are various degrees of arson, and minor punishments for minor degrees of the offence. A r s o u f (Syria). At. a battle here Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon surrendered, and Richard marched towards Jerusalem, 1192. A r t A c t , facilitating the public exhibit ion of works of art (lent to the president of the privy council), passed April, 1866 ; sec A rts, Exhibitions, and National Portrait Gallery. A r t e m i s , a Greek goddess; called by the Romans Diana, which see.

h i s L a t i n h i s t o r y b y G e o f f r e y o f M o n m o u t h , a b o u t 1115, w h o died 1 1 5 4 ; put into F r e n c h v e r s e b y Geoffrey Gaisn a r , a n d b y W a c o s o o n a f t e r ; a n d s e t f o r t h in a n E n g lish poem called B r u t by L a y a m o u about 1205 "Walter Map, b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g in h i s v e r s i o n t h e l e g e n d o f t h e H o l y G-raal, i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e l i g i o u s c l e m e n t about 1171 Sir Thomas Malory's " M o r t e d ' A r t h u r , " printed 1-185 Lord Lytton's u K i n g A r t h u r , " published 1818 Tennyson's " Idyls of the K i n g " 1859-69

A r t i c h o k e s are said to have been introduced from the East into Western Europe in the fifteenth century, and to have reached England in the sixteenth.

A r t i c l e s O F R E L I G I O N . On 8 June, 1536, after much disputing, the English clergy in convocation published Articles decreed by the king's highness'' Ilenrv VIEI., who published in 1539 the " S t a t u t e of Six Articles," decreeing the acknowledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders were punishable as heretics. In 1551 fortytwo were prepared, and published in 1553. These were modified by the convocation, and reduced to THIRTYNINE in J a n . 1563; and they received the royal authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four articles were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the English articles; see Perth Articles. The 39 Articles were ordered to be removed from the studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871.

A r t i c l e s OF WAR were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by Richard I I . in A r t e m i s i u m , a promontory in Eubnea, near which 1385 appear in "Grose's Military Antiquities." The indecisive conflicts took fAace between the Greek and articles of war now in force are based upon an act, passed Persian fleets for three days, 480 B.C. The former re- by William I I I . in 1689, to regulate the army about to tired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylae engage in his continental warfare. In the United States, A r t e s i a n W e l l s (from A rtesia, now Artois, in Congress only can make articles of war. These have France, where they frequently occur) are formed by been based on the English articles and Mutiny Act.

48

AKT

T h c v w e r e first a d o p t e d b y t h e C o n t i n e n t a l C o n g r e s s , J u l y 80, 1775, a n d e x t e n d e d M a r c h 20, 1 7 7 6 ; e n a c t e d a g a i n , w i t h l i t t l e a l t e r a t i o n , A p r i l 10, lSuti.

A R Y

his d a u g h t e r J u d i t h , on h e r m a r r i a g e with Baldwin Brasd e - f e r i n 8G3. L o u i s X V . c r e a t e d h i s g r a n d s o n , C h a r l e s P h i l i p p e , c o u n t of A r t o i s , w h o b e c a m e k i n g a s C h a r l e s X . , 16 S e p t . 1824.

Artificers A N D MANUFACTURERS. T h e i r a f f a i r s w e r e s e v e r e l y r e g u l a t e d b y t h e s t a t u t e s of l a b o r e r s , 1349, Reunited to t h e crown b y Philip Augustus 1 3 5 0 , 1 3 6 0 , 1 5 4 9 , a n d e s p e c i a l l y of 1562. T h e y w e r e p r o - F o r m e d into a c o u n t y for his b r o t h e r Robert, by Louis IX hibited from leaving E n g l a n d , and those abroad were Acquired, w i t h Flanders, t h r o u g h marriage, by t h e d u k e o u t l a w e d , if t h e y d i d n o t r e t u r n w i t h i n s i x m o n t h s a f t e r of Burgundy the notice given them. A fine of 100/., a n d i m p r i s o n - Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian, to the house of Austria m e n t for t h r e e months, were t h e penalties for seducing Restored to F r a n c e t h e m f r o m t h e s e r e a l m s , b y 9 G e o . I I . , 1736, a n d o t h e r Reverted to Austria statutes. T h e l a w w a s m o d i f i e d in 1 8 2 4 ; see Artisans. Conquered for F r a n c e Finally confirmed to it by t h e t r e a t y of Nimeguen, 10 Aug. Workmen, etc. Artillery, a t e r m i n c l u d i n g p r o p e r l y all h e a v y m i s siles, n o w r e s t r i c t e d to cannon. A small piece w a s cont r i v e d b y S c h w a r t z , a G e r m a n c o r d e l i e r , soon a f t e r t h e i n v e n t i o n of g u n p o w d e r , in 1330. A r t i l l e r y w a s u s e d , it is s a i d , b y t h e M o o r s of A l g e s i r a s , i n S p a i n , i n 1343 ; a n d a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e h i s t o r i a n s , a t t h e b a t t l e of C r e c v , in 1346, w h e n E d w a r d I I I . h a d f o u r p i e c e s of c a n n o n . W e h a d a r t i l l e r y a t t h e s i e g e of C a l a i s , 1347. T h e V e n e t i a n s e m p l o y e d a r t i l l e r y a g a i n s t t h e G e n o e s e a t sea, 1377.— Voltaire. Said to h a v e been cast, w i t h m o r t a r s f o r b o m b - s h e l l s , b y F l e m i s h a r t i s t s , in S u s s e x , 1543.— Rymer's Fcedera. M a d e of b r a s s , 1 6 3 5 ; i m p r o v e m e n t s b y B r o w n e , 1 7 2 8 ; see Cannon, Bombs, Carronades (under Can-Oil), Mortars, Howitzers, Petard, Rochets, Fire-arms. T h e Royal Artillery Regiment was established in the r e i g n of A n n e .

1180 1237 1384 1477 1482 1493 1640 1678

Arts. I n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , t h e c i r c l e of s c i e n c e s (gramw a s c o m p o s e d of s e v e n l i b e r a l a r t s — t h e tririum m a r , r h e t o r i c , l o g i c ) , t h e quadrivium (arithmetic, music, g e o m e t r y , a n d a s t r o n o m y ) . — Harris. T h e K o y a l Soc i e t y of E n g l a n d ('which see) o b t a i n e d i t s c h a r t e r 2 A p r i l , 1GG3. The Society of Arts, to p r o m o t e t h e polite arts, commerce, m a n u f a c t u r e s , a n d m e c h a n i c s , originated in t h e patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm, Shipley, and its first president, lord Folkestone March, 1754 FINE

ARTS.

F i r s t public exhibition b y t h e a r t i s t s of t h e British metropolis took place at t h e rooms of t h e Society of Arts. 1760 Repeated t h e r e for several years, till t h e Royal A c a d e m y was founded 1768 Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May. 1823 Their first exhibition opened 19 April. 1824 Prc-Raphaelites (which see) became p r o m i n e n t a b o u t . . . . 1850 IIOXORABLE A R T I L L E R Y COMPANY o f L o n d o n , instituted Society for t h e E n c o u r a g e m e n t of t h e F i n e A r t s founded in 1585. h a v i n g ceased, was revived in 1(510. It m e t in Dec. 1858 for military exorcise a t the Artillery ground, F i n s b u r y , Art Unions began in F r a n c e and G e r m a n y early in t h e w h e r e t h e London archers had m e t since 1198 (see present century. Archery). In t h e civil war, 1642-8, the company took The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. t h e side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towThe Art Union of London, 444 West Strnnd, was founded ards its success. The company n u m b e r e d 1200 in 1803, 14 Feb. 1837; and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The A r t and 800 in 1861. Since 1812 t h e officers h a v e been apI ' n i o n i n d e m n i t y act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subpointed by t h e queen. On the decease of the duke of scription for 1876. 20,932/.; 1877, 15,586Z. (depression Sussex in 1843, the prince consort became colonel and of trade). captain-general. He died 14 Dec. 1861, a n d the prince American Art Union, t h e first in t h e United States, w a s established in New York. 1839; ceased to exist 1851 of Wales was appointed his successor 24 Aug. 1863 u n d e r prohibition of the lottery law. NATIONAL VOLUNTEER ARTILLKKY ASSOCIATION h e l d i t s Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of w o r k s of art, first a n n u a l meeting for shooting for prizes given by etc., founded 1868 t h e queen and others, at Shoeburyness, July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes distributed in Julv, A m e m o r i a l of a convention for p r o m o t i n g universally 186(5; J u l y , 1867; Aug. 1868-78-70-80. r e p r o d u c t i o n s of works of art for t h e benefit of museR O Y A L A R T I L L E R Y INSTITUTION, e s t a b l i s h e d a t W o o l w i c h , u m s of all countries, signed by t h e prince of "Wales, proposed by lieuts. F. Eardley-Wilmot a n d J. H. Leand t h e crown princes of Prussia, Russia, D e n m a r k , froy. Feb. 1838; approved J u n e , 1838; building comSweden, Italy, Saxony, a n d others, was sent to t h e pleted Sept. 1840. Proceedings. Vol. I., published . . . . 1858 d u k e of Marlborough.' 12 March, 1868 The alleged great deficiency of artillery in t h e British See British Institution, National Gallery, Royal Acada r m y m u c h discussed, Sept. 1870; artillery brought to emy,, Albert Halt, Academy. t h e cam]-) a t Aldershot, reported to be v e r y One. .Sept. 1870 Arundel Castle ( S u s s e x ) , b u i l t b y t h e S a x o n s New organization of the artillery proposed, about 2(5 Feb. 1877 T H E ANCIENT AND HONORABLE A R T I L L E R Y COMPANY, o f a b o u t 8001 T h e d u k e of N o r f o l k e n j o y s t h e e a r l d o m of Boston. Mass., the oldest military organization in llie A r u n d e l , as a feudal honor, by i n h e r i t a n c e a n d possession United States, organized 1638 of t h e c a s t l e , w i t h o u t a n y o t h e r c r e a t i o n . Philip HowIts printed series of annual sermons begins with t h e discourse of Urian Oakes 1672 a r d , son of t h e a t t a i n t e d d u k e of N o r f o l k , w a s m a d e e a r l of A r u n d e l , b y s u m m o n s , a s possessor of t h i s c a s t l e , 1580. Artisans and Laborers' D w e l l i n g s Act, I t w a s t h o r o u g h l y r e p a i r e d b y a l a t e d u k e a t a v a s t e x " t o provide b e t t e r dwellings," passed 31 J u l y , 1868; pense. a n o t h e r a c t w a s p a s s e d 29 J u n e , 1875, " to f a c i l i t a t e t h e Arundel Society, f o r t h e p r o m o t i o n of t h e k n o w l i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e d w e l l i n g s of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s in l a r g e t o w n s ; " o n e f o r S c o t l a n d , 2 A u g . 1 8 7 5 ; o t h e r a c t s e d g e of a r t , w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1848. I t p u b l i s h e s f a c similes and photographs. p a s s e d in 1879.

Arundelian Marbles, c a l l e d also O x f o r d M a r b l e s ; o n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e c h r o n o l o g y of a n c i e n t h i s t o r v f r o m 1582 t o 3 5 5 B.C., a n d s a i d t o h a v e b e e n s c u l p t u r e d 2G4 B.C. T h e y c o n s i s t of 37 s t a t u e s , 128 b u s t s , a n d 2 5 0 i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d w e r e f o u n d i n t h e isle of P a r o s , in t h e r e i g n of J a m e s I., a b o u t 1G10. T h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d b v Mr. W . P e t t y , purchased by lord Arundel, a n d g i v e n b v ARTISANS' INSTITUTE, f o r p r o m o t i n g g e n e r a l a n d t e c h n i h i s g r a n d s o n . H e n r y H o w a r d , a f t e r w a r d s d u k e of N o r cal knowledge, near St. Martin's Lane: established by folk, t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y of O x f o r d i n 1GG7; a n d a r e t h e r e aid of the d u k e of Bedford, lord Lyttelton, Mr. S. MorT h e c h a r a c t e r s of ley. and o t h e r s ; opened 14 Oct. 1874 f o r e c a l l e d also OXFORD MAKBLKS. t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e ( 5 r e e k . A v a r i o r u m e d i t i o n of t h e Artists' Fund w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1810 t o p r o v i d e i n s c r i p t i o n s , b y M a i t t a i r e , a p p e a r e d i n 1732, a n d a tine a l l o w a n c e s for sick, a n d a n n u i t i e s f o r i n c a p a c i t a t e d , m e m - o n e b y C h a n d l e r in 17G3; a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s b y S e l d e n , b e r s . Artists' General Benevolent Institution, e s t a b l i s h e d 1G28 ; b y P r i d e a t i x , 1G7G; s e e KidiVs Tracts; and J W 1814. A rtisfs Orphan Fund, 1871. sort's Treatise, 1789. ARTISANS1,

L A B O R E R S 7 , AND

GENERAL

DWELLINGS

COM-

PANY. registered 31 Dec. 1866; p u r c h a s e d estates in v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e country. The S h a f t e s b u r y estate {which see) was formally opened 18 J u l y , 1874 The director (Dr. J o h n B a x t e r Langlcy). secretary (Mr. Wm. Swindlehurst), were sentenced to be imprisoned 18 m o n t h s ; and Mr. Edw. Saffery, estate agent, 12 m o n t h s , for conspiring to defraud the c o m p a n y of about 24.3122.; trial 23-6 Oct. 1877

A r t o i s ( N . F r a n c e ) , a p r o v i n c e o n c e h e l d b y Uie A t r e b a t e s , c o n q u e r e d b y t h e F r a n k s in t h e fifth c e n t u r y , g i v e n b y Charles t h e Bold, w i t h Flanders, as a d o w r y to

A r u s p i c e s , see fIarvspices. A r y a n , see Avian, and Language.

AS

49

A s , a R o m a n w e i g h t and c o i n : as a w e i g h t , i t w a s a p o u n d ; as a coin, it had d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t s , but t h e same value. I n the r e i g n of Scrvius, t h e as w e i g h e d a pound of brass; in t h e lirst P u n i c w a r , i t w e i g h e d t w o ounccs, 264 B.C.; in the second P u n i c w a r , one ounce, 218 B.C.: and a f t e r w a r d s half an o u n c e ; its v a l u e about three f a r things sterling. A s a p h , St. ( N . W a l e s ) , a bishopric said to h a v e been founded b y K e n t i g e r n , bishop of G l a s g o w . O n r e t u r n i n g into Scotland, about 560, he l e f t St. A s a p h his successor, f r o m w h o m t h e see is n a m e d . I t is v a l u e d in the k i n g ' s books at 187/. l i s . Qd. T h e present cathedral was erected b y bishop R e d m a n , 1472-95. B y an order in council, 1838, t h e sees of St. A s a p h and B a n g o r w e r e to h a v e been united on t h e n e x t v a c a n c y in cither, and the bishopric o f M a n c h e s t e r created. T h i s order w a s a n nulled in 1846. P r e s e n t i n c o m e 4200/.; see Manchester. T h e cathedral, restored b y Sir G i l b e r t Scott, reopened 2 Sept. 1875. Bisirors OF ST. ASAPH. 1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 1805. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 1815. John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870; died 13 April, 1872. 1870. Joshua Hughes. A s b e s t o s , a n a t i v e fossil stone, w h i c h m a y be split i n t o threads and filaments, and w h i c h is endued w i t h t h e p r o p e r t y of r e m a i n i n g unconsumed b y fire. C l o t h was m a d e o f i t by t h e E g y p t i a n s ( H e r o d o t u s ) , and napkins in t h e t i m e of P l i n y , 7 4 ; and also paper. T h e spinning o f asbestos k n o w n at Y e nice about 1500.—Porta,, A s c a l o n ( S y r i a ) , a c i t y of t h e P h i l i s t i n e s , shared t h e f a t e o f Phoenicia and Judea. T h e Egyptian army was defeated here b y t h e crusaders under G o d f r e y o f Bouillon, 12 A u g . 1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, t a k e n in 1158; and a g a i n in 1191. Its fortifications w e r e d e s t r o y e d for fear of t h e crusaders b y t h e sultan, 1270. A s c e n s i o n , an island in t h e A t l a n t i c ocean, 800 m i l e s N . W . o f St. H e l e n a , d i s c o v e r e d b y the P o r t u g u e s e o n Ascension d a y , 20 M a y , 1501; and taken possession o f b y the E n g l i s h , O c t . 1815. A s c e n s i o n d a y , also called H o l y T h u r s d a y , w h e n t h e church celebrates t h e ascension of our Saviour, the f o r t i e t h d a y a f t e r his resurrection f r o m the dead, 14 M a y , 8 3 ; first c o m m e m o r a t e d , it is said, 68. Ascension d a y , 1882, 18 M a y ; 1883, 3 M a y ; 1884, 22 M a y ; 1885, 14 May. Society for the better observance of Ascensiou day, formed June, 1869. A s c h a f f e n b u r g , on t h e M a i n e , B a v a r i a , S . W . G e r many. H e r e , on 14 J u l y , 1866, t h e Prussians d e f e a t e d t h e G e r m a n F e d e r a l a r m y , captured the t o w n , and took 2000 prisoners. A s c h a m S o c i e t y , f o r m e d t o p r o m o t e social i n t e r course a m o n g g e n t l e m e n e n g a g e d in education, and i m p r o v e educational methods, etc., 1880. F i r s t president, J . A . F r o u d e ; h o n o r a r y members, professors H u x l e y , T y n d a l l , M o r l e y , etc., sirs F . P o l l o c k , J. L u b b o c k , F . L e i g h t o n , and o t h e r e m i n e n t men.

A s c o t Races, see Races. Asculum, n o w ASCOLT, A p u l i a ,

ASH

They were totally defeated by col. Purdon 7 Aug. 182ft Treaty of peace and commerce concludcd by Mr. Maclean; the independence of the Fantees recognized 29 April, 1831 The governor of Cape Coast Castle began war with Ashantees early in 1863; suspended through sickness of our troops May, 1864 Offended at the British occupation of Elrnina, the Ashantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with varying success April, 1873 They were severely repulsed, 1:5 June; Elmina partially bombarded by the British for favoring them. .14 June, Commodore Commerell and his party, sailing up I he Prah, attacked and wounded; 4 men killed by people of Chamah, which is bombarded 14 Aug. 14 Sir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed governor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, sails with troops, etc 12 Sept. " He arrives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct.; addresses an assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to faithful action and promising rewards (the war to be defensive, if possible) 4 Oct. " Ashantees defeated in a conflict in the bush at Essaman, near Elmina; villages burned, 14 Oct.; again at Escau beo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing 27 Oct. Despatch from sir Garnet Wolseley, declaring native allies worthless, and more British troops needed.Ml Oct. " Indecisive conflict at Dunquah; lieut. Eardley Wihnot killed, 3 N o v . ; Ashantees' attack on Abrakampra totally defeated; their camp taken; disorderly retreat, " 5, Nov. Col. Wood's indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. " The Ashantees said to be retreating in disorder. .15 Dec. " Sir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah. .27 Dec. " The king, Koflee Kalcalli, pretends to accept the terms offered; releases captives; prepares for battle Jan. 1874 Skirmish at Borborassie; capt. Nicol killed 29 Jan. " Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at Amoaful, 31 Jan. " u Bocquali captured by sir A. Alison 1 Feb. u Ashantee attack at Fommanah repulsed 2 Feb. u The king takes command; defeated at Ordahsa.. .4 Feb. u Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassio 4 Feb. The king not acceding to proposals, his palace and city burned 6 Feb. " Daring ride through Coomassie by capt. Sartorius.il Feb. " The British retreat; a treaty of peace (terms: perpetual peace; indemnity, of 50,000 oz. of gold; supremacy over Adansi and other tribes renounced; free trade guaranteed; human sacrifices to be prohibited); signed " 13 Feb. The king, fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends first instalment of gold (1000 oz.) 13 Feb. " Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 19 Feb.; u sails; arrives at Portsmouth 21 March, The courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and sailors highly commended; expedition cost about 900,000i. The troops reviewed by the queen at Windsor; sir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and Hewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir A. Alison, and commander Glover thanked by parliament 30 March, " The deposed king, Kofl'ce Kalcalli, said to be defeated in his attack on his brother, king Womsah Sept. 1876 The king demands surrender of a fugitive prince by the governor of Cape Coast Castle, 18 Jan.; no result; professes desire of peace April 1881 The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who receives it at Windsor Castle 30 June "

A s h b u r t o n T r e a t y , concluded at Washington, 9 A u g . 1842, b y A l e x a n d e r lord A s h b u r t o n and D a n i e l W e b s t e r , then secretary o f state, p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s ; i t defined the boundaries of t h e r e s p e c t i v e countries bet w e e n Canada and the state of M a i n e , settled the e x t r a d i t i o n of criminals, etc.

Ashdod,

or AZOTUS, seat

of t h e worship of

the

Phoenician g o d D a g o n , w h i c h fell d o w n before the ark o f the L o r d , captured b y the P h i l i s t i n e s from the Israelites,

S. I t a l y .

N e a r it,

P v r r h u s of E p i r u s d e f e a t e d t h e R o m a n s , 279 B.C.

As-

culum, a c i t y of the P i c e n i , w i t h all their country, was conquered b y t h e consul Sempronius, 268 B.C.

Here

A n d r e a , g e n e r a l of t h e e m p e r o r H e n r y V I . , e n d e a v o r i n g to w r e s t N a p l e s f r o m T a n c r e d , was defeated and slain, A.D. 1190. A s h a n t e e s , w a r l i k e negroes of W e s t A f r i c a . In 1807 t h e y c o n q u e r e d Fantee, in w h i c h the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of their king, who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began; the Ashantees defeated about 1000 British under sir Charles McCarthy at Accra, and brought away his skull, with others, as trophies 21 Jan. 1824 4

about 1141 B.C. ( 1 Sam. v . ) .

A s h d o d was taken b y t h e

E g y p t i a n s a f t e r 29 years' siege, t h e longest recorded.

Ashdown, or ASSENDUNE, n o w t h o u g h t to be A s ton, Berks, w h e r e E t h e l r e d and his brother A l f r e d d e feated t h e D a n e s in 871. A t A s h d o w n , near S a f i r o n W a l d e n , E s s e x , Canute d e f e a t e d E d m u n d Ironside w i t h g r e a t slaughter, 1016. Tradition says that the day after the battle in 871 Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white horse the standard of Hengist, in tlie vale. Mr. Thomas Hughes ( " Tom Brown " ) , in his book , : T h e Scouring of the White Horse " (1859). describes the work and festival on 17 and 1« Sept. 1857 a ceremony performed at intervals from time immemorial. Records are found of the " s c o u r i n g " in 1755,27 M a y 177IS 15 May; 1780, 1785, 1803,1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept, : Sent' 1843. ' *

ASH

50

ASS

A s h m o l e a n M u s e u m (books, manuscripts, coins, D a n u b e was destroyed, and Napoleon's r e t r e a t e n d a n etc.) was presented to t h e u n i v e r s i t y of O x f o r d by E l i a s g e r e d ; b u t t h e success of t h e A u s t r i a n s was fruitless to Ashmole, t h e herald and a n t i q u a r y , and opened 1G82. It t h e m . included tlie collections of t h e Tradescants, to w h o m h e A s p h a l t , a solid bituminous substance, probably dewas executor. H e died a t L a m b e t h in 169"2. T h e Ash- rived from decayed vegetable matter. I t was used as a molean Society, O x f o r d (scientific), was established in b u i l d i n g material in ancient Babylon. I t s application 1828. for t h i s purpose was r e v i v e d b y Kirinus, a Greek p h y s i -

1 A s h t a r o t h , a Phoenician goddess, occasionally cian, w h o discovered beds of it near N c u f c h a t e l in 1712. worshipped b y t h e Israelites (see J u d g . ii. 13), about A s p h a l t stone was found a t Seyssel, near G e n e v a , in 1406 B.C., and even b y Solomon, about 984 B.C. (1 K i n g s ' 1802; and, after several failures, count Sassenay b r o u g h t I it into use for p a v e m e n t about 1832. T h e artificial asx i . 5). I phalt obtained from g a s - w o r k s b e g a n to be used as p a v e A s h - W e d n e s d a y , t h e first d a y of Lent, w h i c h in i m c n t about 1838. Claridge's patent a s p h a l t was laid early times b e g a n on t h e S u n d a y now called t h e first in down in T r a f a l g a r Square, .Ian. 1864. Various k i n d s of L e n t . I t is said t h a t pope F e l i x III., in 487, first added a s p h a l t p a v e m e n t h a v e been since laid in London a n d t h e four d a y s preceding t h e old L e n t S u n d a y to raise t h e 1 N e w York. n u m b e r of fasting d a y s to f o r t y ; t h a t Gregory t h e G r e a t (pope, 590) introduced t h e sprinkling of ashes on t h e A s p r o m o n t e (Naples). H e r e Garibaldi was defeatfirst of t h e four additional days, and hence t h e n a m e s of ed, wounded, and t a k e n prisoner 29 A u g . 1862, h a v i n g Dies Cinerum, or A s h - W e d n e s d a y . A t t h e Reformation injudiciously risen a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h occupation of t h i s practice was abolished " as b e i n g a m e r e shadow, or Rome. v a i n show." A s h - W e d n e s d a y , 1882, 22 F e b . ; 1 8 8 3 , 7 A s s a m ( N . E . I n d i a ) , acquired b y t h e British in F e b . ; 1884, 27 F e b . ; 1885,18 F e b . 1825, and surrendered b y t h e k i n g of A v a in 1826. T h e A s i a , t h e largest division of t h e globe, so called b y t e a - p l a n t was discovered here b y Mr. Bruce in 1823. A t h e G r e e k s from the n y m p h Asia, d a u g h t e r of Oceanus s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of the tea-forests was a p p o i n t e d in 1836, a n d T e t h y s , and wife of J a p l i e t . Asia was t h e first t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e p l a n t h a v i n g been r e c o m m e n d e d q u a r t e r of t h e world p e o p l e d : h e r e t h e law of God was b y lord William B e n t i n c k in 1834. T h e Assam T e a first p r o m u l g a t e d ; here m a n y of t h e greatest m o n - C o m p a n y , b y w h o m Chinese laborers a n d coolies w e r e archies of t h e e a r t h h a d t h e i r r i s e ; and hence most of introduced, was established in 1839. A f t e r several years, t h e arts a n d sciences h a v e been derived. I t s early his- t h e p l a n t a t i o n s suffered severely, i t is said, t h r o u g h overt o r y is derived from t h e Bible and from Ilcrodotus, w h o speculation and neglect of t h e laborers; as a r e m e d y , a relates t h e wars of Croesus, Cyrus, and o t h e r s ; see Jeu-s, labor act was passed a t C a l c u t t a about Jul}', 1867. China, India, Persia, Turkey, and the other countries. | A s s a s s i n a t i o n P l o t , said to h a v e been formed b y A s i a Minor, now ANATOLIA, comprised t h e Ionian t h e earl of A y l e s b u r y and o t h e r s to assassinate W i l l i a m colonies on t h e coast, t h e early seats of Greek civiliza- III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore J a m e s II., 14 tion, and t h e countries Mysia, P h r y g i a , Lycia, B i t h y n i a , F e b . 1695-6. I t was discovered b y P r e n d e r g a s t .

Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, etc., w i t h t h e cities Assassins, or ASSASSIXIANS, fanatical M a h o m e t a n s , T r o y , E p h e s u s , S m y r n a (all which see). F r o m t h e t i m e collected b y H a s s a n - b e n - S a b a h , and settled in P e r s i a of t h e rise of t h e Assyrian m o n a r c h y , about 2000 B.C., to about 1090. I n S y r i a t h e y possessed a large tract of t h a t of t h e T u r k s under Osman, Asia Minor was t h e b a t - land a m o n g t h e m o u n t a i n s of L e b a n o n . T h e y m u r d e r tle-field of t h e conquerors of the world. ed t h e marquess of M o n t i e r r a t in 1192, Lewis of B a v a r i a T h e y were F i r s t s e t t l e m e n t of t h e I o n i a n G r e e k s a b o u t B.C. 1013 in 1213, a n d t h e k h a n of T a r t a r v in 1254. Asia Minor s u b d u e d by t h e Medes a b o u t 711 e x t i r p a t e d in Persia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. Conquered by C y r u s a b o u t 546 T h e chief of t h e corps was n a m e d "Ancient of the MounContest b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k s a n d P e r s i a n s b e g i n s 544 They trained Asia Minor c o n q u e r e d by A l e x a n d e r 332 tain" a n d " Old Man of the Mountain" up y o u n g people to assassinate such persons as t h e i r C o n t e n d e d for by h i s s u c c e s s o r s ; s e p a r a t e k i n g d o m s established 321-278 chief h a d devoted to d e s t r u c t i o n . — I J e n a u l t . F r o m t h e m Gradually a c q u i r e d b y t h e R o m a n s B.C. 188 to A.D. 15 came t h e word assassin, Possessed b y t h e P e r s i a n s 609 P a r t i a l l y r e c o v e r e d by t h e e m p e r o r Basil 874 I n v a d e d by T i m o n r 1402 T a k e n f r o m t h e G r e e k emperor, a n d e s t a b l i s h e d a s an empire by the Turks under Mahomet 1 1413 (See Turkey.)

A s i a t i c S o c i e t i e s . The "Asiatic Society of Beng a l , " a t Calcutta, was established b y sir William J o n e s in 178-J-, " t h e bounds of its investigation to be t h e geog r a p h i c a l limits of Asia." T h e " R o y a l Asiatic Society," w h i c h h a s several branches in I n d i a , was founded in 1823. I t established t h e " O r i e n t a l Translation F u n d " in 1828, which h a d published 83 volumes of E a s t e r n literature in 1865; t h e " L i t e r a r y Society of Madras," 1845.

Askesiail S o c i e t y (from t h e Greek IWKI]79.

A s t r o n o m e r - r o y a l , see Greenwich. Astronomy. T h e earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon, it is said, about 2*234 B.C. T h e study was much advanced in Chaldaea under Nabonassar; was known to t h e Chinese about 1100 B.C. ; some say m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e ; see Eclipses, ¿Sun, Moon,

Jupiter,

Venus,

Saturn,

Planets,

Neptune,

Mars>

Comets, etc.

L u n a r eclipses observed a t Babylon, a n d recorded b y Ptolemy a b o u t B.C. 720 Spherical f o r m of t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e t r u e c a u s e of l u n a r a b o u t (500 eclipses, t a u g h t by Thales F u r t h e r discoveries b y P y t h a g o r a s , w h o t a u g h t t h e doct r i n e of celestial motions, a n d believed in t h e p l u r a l i t y of habitable worlds; died a b o u t 470 Meton i n t r o d u c e s t h e lunar-solar cycle 433 1 Treatises of Aristotle " c o n c e r n i n g t h e h e a v e n s , ' a n d of Autolycus 4 ' on t h e m o t i o n of t h e s p h e r e ' ' (earliest ext a n t w o r k s on a s t r o n o m y ) a b o u t 350 A r a t u s w r i t e s a poem on a s t r o n o m y 281 A r c h i m e d e s observes solstices, etc 212 H i p p a r c h u s , greatest of Greek a s t r o n o m e r s , d e t e r m i n e s m e a n motion of sun a n d m o o n ; discovers precession of equ inoxes, e t c 160-125 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, a n d t h e places a n d d i s t a n c e s of t h e p l a n e t s discovered, by Ptolemv, A.D. i39~161 A s t r o n o m y and geography c u l t i v a t e d b y t h e Arabs a b o u t 7(50; b r o u g h t into E u r o p e a b o u t 1200 Alphonsine tables (which see) c o m p o s e d a b o u t 1253 Clocks first used in a s t r o n o m y a b o u t 1500 T r u e d o c t r i n e of t h e m o t i o n s of t h e p l a n e t a r y bodies revived by Copernicus, f o u n d e r of m o d e r n a s t r o n o m y ; h i s " R e v o l u t i o n of t h e H e a v e n l y B o d i e s " published.. 1543 A s t r o n o m y a d v a n c e d b y T y c h o Brahc, w h o y e t a d h e r e s to t h e P t o l e m a i c s y s t e m a b o u t 1582 Galileo c o n s t r u c t s a telescope, 1G09; a n d discovers J u p i t e r ' s satellites, etc 8 J a n . 1610 True laws of t h e p l a n e t a r y m o t i o n s a n n o u n c e d b y KepI ler; 1st a n d 2d, 1609; 3d 1G18 I Various f o r m s of telescopes a n d o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s used in a s t r o n o m y invented 1608-40 Cartesian s y s t e m publ shed by Des Cartes 1637

ATI!

AST Tho t r a n s i t of Venus over the s u n ' s disk first observed b y Horrocks 24 Nov. H u y g h e n s completes t h o discovery of S a t u r n ' s ring Cassini draws his meridian line, a f t e r Dante (see Bologna) The a b e r r a t i o n of t h e light of t h o fixed s t a r s discovered by Horrebow Gregory invents a rellecting telescope Discoveries of Picard Charts of t h e m o o n constructed b y Scheiner, Laiigrenus, Hevclius, Kiccioli, etc about Discoveries of R o m e r oa the velocity of light, a n d his observation of J u p i t e r ' s satellites Greenwich Observatory founded Motion of t h e sun round its own axis proved by Halley.. N e w t o n ' s " P r i n c i p i a " p u b l i s h e d ; and t h e system, a s now taught, d e m o n s t r a t e d Catalogue of t h e stars made by F l a m s t e e d Cassiui's c h a r t of t h e full m o o n executed Satellites of Saturn, etc., discovered by Cassini Hallev predicts t h e r e t u r n of the comet (of 1758) F l a m s t c e d ' s " Historia Cselestis" published Aberration of the light of t h e stars discovered a n d explained by Dr. Bradley J o h n Harrison produces c h r o n o m e t e r s for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e longitude, 1735 et seq,, a n d obtains t h e reward " N a u t i c a l A l m a n a c " first published Celestial inequalities f o u n d by La Grange Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel (see Genr-

gkim Sidus)

was elected bishop, 326. He firmly opposed the doc1639 trines of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity), was sev1054 eral times exiled, and died ill 373. 1655 1059 1063 1069 1670 1675 " 1670 1637 1688 1692 1701 17U5 1725 1727 1704 1767 1780

13 March, 1781

" M é c a n i q u e C é l e s t e , " by La Place, published 1790 Royal Astronomical Society of London founded, 1820; chartered 1831 Beer a n d Miidler's m a p of t h e moon published 1834 Lord Rosse's telescope constructed 1828-45 Tho planet N e p t u n e discovered '23 Sept. 1846 Bond p h o t o g r a p h s t h e moon (seo Photography, O'testia ). 1851 H a n s e n ' s table of the moon published at expense of the British g o v e r n m e n t 1357 Trustees of the rev. Richard S h e e p s h a n k s present 10.000Î. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for promotion of t h o s t u d y of a s t r o n o m y , meteorology, a n d magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 S p e c t r u m analysis applied in a s t r o n o m y (see Spectrum). 1861 Large p h o t o g r a p h of t h e moon by Warren de la Rue 1863 Dr. H e n r y Draper, of New York, m a d e tho largest photog r a p h e v e r m a d e of the moon about " Spectra of t h e s t a r s p h o t o g r a p h e d by Dr. H e n r y Draper, of New Y o r k 1872 The s a m e observer produced a p h o t o g r a p h of t h e diffraction spectrum, w h i c h has never been excelled " Royal Astronomical Socicty r e m o v e d f r o m Somerset House to Burlington House 1874 Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph Hall, a t Washington, U. S 11,18 Aug. 1877 R e m a r k a b l e results in p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e nebula in Orion, a n d t h e tail of a cornet, by Draper 1881

A s t u r i a s (Oviedo since 1833), N.W. Spain, an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and by lus victories checked Moorish conquest. For his successors, see /Spain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title "prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I., king of Leon, on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808 the junta of Asturias began the organized resistance to the French usurpation.

Asylums, or PRIVILEGED PLACES, at first, were places of refuge for those who by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to tho law. God commanded the Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C., Numb. xxv.—The posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus is said to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.c.; and Romulus one at Mount Palatine, 751 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries. " A t a l a n t a " (formerly Juno), training-ship, left Bermuda on a trial voyage, under capt. Stirling, 31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and '265 petty officers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard of again. Many merchant-vessels were wrecked during a terrific gale, 12-16 Feb. 1880. See Mansion-house Funds.

Father and the Sou; see Filwqm.

Dr. W a t e r l a n d ' s Critical History of this creed published 1723. Much agitation against t h e general use of t h i s creed lias arisen in t h e c h u r c h of England a m o n g both clergy and lait.v, 1870-3. Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived by t h e lower house in convocation (62-7). early in May, 1872. The vote was rejected by t h e bishops, a n d t h e agitation continued. In a letter to tho earl of S h a f t e s b u r y , 22 J u l y , 1872, t h o archbishops of Canterbury anil Y o r k expressed t h e i r hope of devising a way for rendering t h e reading of the c r e e d during public worship not compulsory. Great m e e t i n g of laity a t St. J a m e s ' s Hall in defence of the creed. 31 J a n . 1873.

A t h e i s m (from the Greek a, without, Otoe, God; see Psa. xiv. 1). It was professed by Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1032-77). Lucilio Yanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burned at Toulouse in 1G19. Matliias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly confessed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciaries, becausc they held that there is no other deity than conscience. " T h o u g h a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God."—Lord Bacon. Atheism was the ruling doctrine of the French republic, 1794 till 1804; see Materialism. A t h e n a e a were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of Minerva. One was called Panathenaia, the other Chalcea; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C.; and revived by Theseus, who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 N.C.—Plutarch. A t h e n a e u m , a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited their compositions. T h a t of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.—Tho ATIIKN.EI'M CLUB of London was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific ami literary attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, etc., by the earls of Liverpool and Aberdeen, the marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Faraday, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future premiers. The club-house was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton palace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon.—The Liverpool Athenaeum was opened 1 Jan. 1799.—At Manchester, Bristol, and many other places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded.—The Boston Atheiireum, Boston, Mass., originated in the Anthology Club, and dates from 1804. It was incorporated 1807. It is an association of private persons, but its art gallery and its library, one of the finest in the United States, are practically open to scholars and students not members of the society. The Athenceum, a weekly literary and scientific journal, first appeared in 1828; see Trials, 1875.

A t h e m y (Galway). Near here the Irish were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, Feidlim O'Cunnor, slain 10 Aug. 1316. A t h e n s , the capital of ancient Attica and of modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is Ogvges, who reigned in Beeotia, and was master of Atlica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the country, which so remained Athanasius, of Alexandria, till the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony,

A t e l i e r s N a t i o n a u x (National Workshops) were established by the French provisional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labor and payment. The breaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the system was abolished in July. Athanasian Creed.

L u m b y , in " H i s t o r y of t h e C r e e d s " (1874), asserts t h a t t h i s creed, beginning '• Quicitnqtie vult," was not composed by A t h a n a s m s ; t h a t it is m a d e u p of two distinct parts, and w a s originally w r i t t e n in Latin a n d p u t into its present shape between 813 and 850; not connected with A t h a n a s i u s ' s n a m e by a n y t r u s t w o r t h y a u t h o r i t y before 809; set forth first in Gaul, about 870; gradually e x t e n d e d into Italy, Britain, etc. ; accepted by t h e Greek c h u r c h about 1200. This ereiMl asserts the procf.^ion of t h e Holy Ghost from the

ATH

54

by w h o m the land w a s repeopled, and t w e l v e cities founded, 1 5 5 6 B.C. T h e c i t y , said to h a v e been first called Cecropia, w a s a f t e r w a r d s n a m e d A t h e n s in honor of M i n e r v a ( A t h e n e ) , her w o r s h i p h a v i n g been i n t r o duced b y E r e c h t h e u s , 1 3 8 3 B.C. A t h e n s w a s ruled b y s e v e n t e e n successive k i n g s (487 y e a r s ) , b y thirteen perpetual archons ( 3 1 6 y e a r s ) , seven decennial arehons (70 y e a r s ) , and l a s t l y b y annual archons (7G0 y e a r s ) . It a t t a i n e d g r e a t power, and no other c i t y has h a d , in a short space of time, so g r e a t a n u m b e r of illustrious citizens. T h e ancients called A t h e n s Astu, t h e city, by eminence, and one of the e y e s of G r c e c e ; see Greece.

ATL R u l e of the t h i r t y tyrants, w h o are o v e r t h r o w n b y Thrasybulus 403 S o c r a t e s ( a g e d 70) p u t t o d e a t h 399 The Corinthian war begins 39. Much excitement was created by a 1555 similar attempt by the rev. Temple West at Bovne Hill in Sept, 1858. In May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of England pre1686 sented a petition to convocation for the education, selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors, in accordance Augury. H u s b a n d r y was in part r e g u l a t e d b y the with the provisions of canon-law. Strongly disapproved of c o m i n g or g o i n g o f birds l o n g before the t i m e o f I l e s i o d . by the bishops. T h r e e augurs at R o m e , w i t h vestals and several orders Letter from the bishop of London asserting that confession should be to God; that to the minister optional, 21 Jul v. o f the priesthood, w e r e f o r m a l l y constituted b y Nutria 1873. about 710 J3.c. T h e number increased, and was fifteen Archdeacon Denison {in a letter) declares war against all opa t the t i m e of S y l l a , 81. T h e college of augurs was abolposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. 96 peers send an address against auricular confession to the ished b y T h e o d o s i u s about A.D. 390. archbishop of Canterbury about 9 Aug. 1877; see Holy Cross. A u g u s t , t h e e i g h t h R o m a n month of t h e y e a r ( p r e Auriflamma, or O R I F L A M M E , t h e national banner v i o u s l y called Sextilis, or the s i x t h f r o m M a r c h ) , b y a decree o f the senate r e c e i v e d its present n a m e in honor m e n t i o n e d in French h i s t o r y , b e l o n g i n g to the abbey of o f A u g u s t u s C e s a r , in the y e a r 8 B.C., because in this St. D e n i s , and suspended o v e r t h e t o m b of t h a t saint. month he w a s created consul, had thrice t r i u m p h e d in L o u i s le Gros was the first k i n g w h o took this standard I t appeared R o m e , added E g y p t to the R o m a n empire, and made an from the a b b e y to battle, 1 1 2 4 . — R e n a u l t . end of the c i v i l wars. H e added one d a y to the month, for t h e last t i m e at A g i n c o u r t , 25 O c t . 1 4 1 5 . — T i l l e t . m a k i n g it 31 d a y s , — T h e appearance of shooting-stars O t h e r s say a t M o n t l h e r y , 16 J u l y , 1465. on the 10th o f A u g . w a s observed in the m i d d l e ages, "Aurora," F R I G A T E , sailed f r o m B r i t a i n in 1771 to w h e n t h e y w e r e t e r m e d " S t . L a w r e n c e ' s tears." T h e i r i t h e East Indies, and w a s n e v e r a g a i n heard o f . — A U R O R A , p e r i o d i c i t y was noticed b y M r . Forster early in the pres- d a i l y papal newspaper, appeared a t R o m e , 1 June, 1880. ent century. Auroree Boreales A S D Australes ( N o r t h e r n Augusta, SIEGK OF. A u g u s t a ( i n G e o r g i a , U n i t e d and Southern P o l a r L i g h t s ) , t h o u g h r a r e l y seen in cenS t a t e s ) was held b y a force under a l o y a l i s t named tral E u r o p e , are f r e q u e n t in t h e arctic and antarctic r e B r o w n in the s p r i n g of 1781. W h i l e g e n . G r e e n e was gions. I n M a r c h , 1716, an aurora borealis e x t e n d e d c a r r y i n g on the siege o f fort N i n e t y - s i x , L e e , Pickens, I f r o m the west of I r e l a n d to t h e confines of Russia. The C l a r k e , and other Southern partisan leaders laid siege to w h o l e horizon lat. 5 7 ° N . w a s overspread w i t h continuAugusta. Jt c o m m e n c e d on 23 M a y , and on 5 June ous haze of a dismal red d u r i n g a w h o l e n i g h t , N o v . B r o w n surrendered. T h e A m e r i c a n s lost 51 men killed 1705. — M r . Foster, t h e companion o f capt. Cook, saw and wounded ; t h e British lost 52 killed, and 334, includ- t h e aurora in lat. 58° S, T h e aurora is now attributed i n g the wounded, w e r e taken prisoners. to t h e passage of electric l i g h t t h r o u g h the rarefied air

A u g u s t a » E r a began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., or 727 years of t h e polar regions. a f t e r t h e foundation o f R o m e .

Augustin (or A U S T I X ) FRIARS, a r e l i g i o u s order w h i c h ascribes its o r i g i n to St. Augustin, bishop of H i p po, w h o died 430. T h e y first appeared about the e l e v e n t h century, and the order was constituted b y pope A l e x a n d e r I V . , 1256. T h e rule requires p o v e r t y , h u m i l i t v , and c h a s t i t y . M a r t i n L u t h e r was an A u g u s t i n monk. T h e A u g u s t i n s held the doctrine of f r e e grace, and w e r e r i v a l s of the D o m i n i c a n s . T h e order appeared in E n g land soon a f t e r the conquest, and had 32 houses at the suppression, 1536. O n e of their churches, at A u s t i n Friars,

I n A u g . and Sept. 1850 (and about

24 O c t . 1870), when brilliant auroras w e r e v e r y frequent, the electric t e l e g r a p h - w i r e s w e r e seriously affected, and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s interrupted.

A u r o r a w e r e seen at H o m e

and Basel, and also in A u s t r a l i a .

Auscultation, see Stethoscope.

Austerlitz, a t o w n in M o r a v i a , w h e r e a battle w a s f o u g h t b e t w e e n the F r e n c h and the allied Austrian and Russian armies, 2 D e c . 1805. T h r e e emperors c o m m a n d ed : A l e x a n d e r of Russia, F r a n c i s o f Austria, and N a poleon of F r a n c e . T h e k i l l e d and wounded e x c e e d e d , 30,000 on the side of the allies, w h o lost 40 standards, 150

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pieces o f cannon, a n d thousands o f prisoners. T h e d e c i - Census (including Port Phillip)—114,700 males; 74,800 females..... 1846 s i v e v i c t o r y o f t h e F r e n c h l e d t o t h e t r e a t y o f I'resburg, Kennedy's expedition, 1847; killed 1848 s i g n e d 26 D e c . 1805; see Freshing. Great agitation against transportation, which had been revived by earl Grey 1849 Austin Friars, see A ugustin Friars. Port Phillip erected into a separate province as Victoria. 1850 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, etc.* 1851 A u s t r a l a s i a , t h e fifth g r e a t d i v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d . Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclusive of 11 Victoria, 80,000) T h i s n a m e , o r i g i n a l l y g i v e n i t b y D e lirosses, includes March, 1853 A u s t r a l i a , V a n D i e m e n ' s L a n d , N e w Guinea, N e w Z e a - Mints established Transportation ceased land, N e w B r i t a i n , N e w Caledonia, etc., m o s t l y d i s c o v - Gregory's explorations of interior 1848, 1855-8 e r e d w i t h i n t w o centuries. A c c i d e n t a l discoveries w e r e Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about fifty years' residence [ July, 1858 m a d e b y t h e Spaniards as e a r l y as 1526; but t h e first Queensland made a province 4 Dec. 1859 accurate k n o w l e d g e o f these southern lands is due t o t h e J. McDouall Stuart's expeditious 1858-62 D u t c h , w h o i n 1606 e x p l o r e d a part o f t h e coast o f P a p - Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landed Is organized Aug. 1860 ua, or N e w G u i n e a . T o r r e s , a Spaniard, passed t h r o u g h Robert O'Hara Burke, William John Wills, and others t h e straits w h i c h n o w bear h i s name, b e t w e e n t h a t isla start from Melbourne 20 Aug. and and A u s t r a l i a , and g a v e t h e first correct r e p o r t o f the | Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian continent to the gulf of Carpentaria; all perish on their rel a t t e r , 1606. T h e D u t c h continued t h e i r discoveries. t u r n, e x e e p t J oh n K i n g, wh o a IT i v es at M e 1 bo u r n e, N o v. 1861 G r a n t i n 1800, and F l i n d e r s a g a i n ( 1 8 0 1 - 5 ) , c o m p l e t e d Stuart, McKinlay, and Landsborough cross Australia from the survey.—JPCulloclu , sea to sea 1801-2 A u s t r a l i a ( f o r m e r l y N e w H o l l a n d ) , t h e largest isl- Remains of Burke and Wills recovered; public funeral, 21 Jan. 1863 and and smallest c o n t i n e n t ; e s t i m a t e d area about t h r e e Strong and general resistance throughout Australia to m i l l i o n square miles, i n c l u d i n g l i v e p r o v i n c e s — N e w the reception of British convicts in West Australia, about June, 1864 S o u t h W a l e s , V i c t o r i a ( f o r m e r l y P o r t P h i l l i p ) , South Cessation of transportation to Australia in three years A u s t r a l i a , W e s t A u s t r a l i a (or S w a n R i v e r ) , and Q u e e n s announced amid much rejoicing 26 Jan. 1865 l a n d {all which see). P o p u l a t i o n , w i t h T a s m a n i a and Morgan, a desperate bush ran go r and m u r de r e r, s u r ro u n ded and shot 1 April } N e w Z e a l a n d , i n 1871, about 1,958,650; 1874. 2,331,210; Boundary disputes between N e w South Wales and Vic1878, 2.705,700. toria. in summer of 1864; settled amicably.. .19 April, 44 Total population of Australia,exclusive of natives, 1,^98.Mr. R. H. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was known 667 i Jan. 1866 to the French prior to 1531 Royal Society of N e w South Wales (originally the PhiloAlleged discovery by Manoei Godinho de Eredia, a Porsophical Society of Australia, founded 1821), estabtuguese 1001 u lished May, The Dutch also discover Australia March, 1606 Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies at The const surveyed by Dutch navigators; north,by ZeaMelbourne to arrange postal communication with Euchen, 1618; west, by Edels,1619; south, by Nuyts, 1027; rope March. 1867 north, by Carpenter 16*27 William Dampier explores the \V. and N.W. coasts 1084-90 Exploration of S. Australia; capt. Cadell discovers mouth of the river lioper, and line pastoral country, lat. 14° S. Tasrnan coasts S. Australia and Van Diemen's L a n d . . . .1612-4 u Nov. Terra Australia (Western Australia) named N e w Holland by order of the States-General 1(565 Despatch from lord Kimberlcy objecting to the complex tariffs between the Australian colonies 13 July, 1871 William Dampier lands in Australia Jan. 1086 Explorations of Willis and Carteret 1763-6 Meeting of delegates from N e w South Wales, Victoria, S. Australia, and Tasmania; they object to imperial Capt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others land at Botany interference with their mutual fiscal arrangements, Bay, and name the country " N e w South W a l e s , " 27 Sept. " 28 April, 1770 Exploration of Furneaux 1773 Synod of the church of Australia and Tasmania held at "Sydney 25 Oct. 1872 Governor Phillip founds Sydney near Port Jackson, with 1030 persons 20 Jan. 1788 GOVERNORS. [The 82d anniversary of this event was kept with Captain Arthur Phillip ,.... 1788 much festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] Captain Ilunter 171-5 Great distress in consequence of the loss of the store-ship Captain Philip G. K i n g 1NJ0 Guardian, capt. Kiou 1790 Captain William Bligh l»06 Voyages of Bligh 1789-92 Colonel Laelilan Macquaric (able and sucd s> •ful adminisFirst church erected Aug. 1793 tration) 1809 Government gazette first printed 1795 General sir Thomas Brisbane 1H21 Bass's straits discovered by Bass and Flinders 1798 Sir Richard Bourke 1831 First brick church built 1802 Sir George Gipps lb38 Colony of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) established 1S03 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-g J u l y , F r e e d e b a t e s in t h e R e i c h s r a t h ; s t r i c t u r e s on t h e concordat, t h e finances, e t c . ; proposals for s e p a r a t e const¡tutions for the provinces Aug. a n d Sept. The Reichsrath adjourned 29 Sept. D i p l o m a c o n f e r r i n g on t h e R e i c h s r a t h legislative p o w ers, t h e control of t h e finances, etc.. a m a n i f e s t o issued t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e e m p i r e (not well received), 20 Oct, Meeting of t h e e m p e r o r w i t h t h e e m p e r o r of R u s s i a a n d p r i n c e regent of P r u s s i a a t "Warsaw; n o i m p o r t a n t result 20-26 Oct. T h e g o v e r n m e n t p r o f e s s e s n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n in Italy, b u t increases t h e a r m y in Venetia Oct. and Nov. T h e empress? goes to Madeira for h e a l t h Nov. Sale of Venetia, publicly s p o k e n of, is r e p u d i a t e d in Dec.

GO 1853 " 1854 " 1855 " 1856 1857

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1859 " "

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Ministerial c r i s i s : M. S c h m e r l i n g b e c o m e s m i n i s t e r m o r e political concessions 13 Dec. T h e p r o s c r i b e d H u n g a r i a n c o u n t Teleki, a t Dresden, is given u p to A u s t r i a , w h i c h c a u s e s g e n e r a l i n d i g n a t i o n , a b o u t 20 D e c . ; h e is released on parole 31 Dec. A m n e s t y for political offences in H u n g a r y , Croatia, etc., published 7 Jan. R e a c t i o n a r y policy of t h e c o u r t l e a d s to i n c r e a s e d general disaffection Jan. and Feb. T h e s t a t u t e s of t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n for t h e A u s t r i a n ] monarchy published 26 F e b . , Civil a n d political r i g h t s g r a n t e d to P r o t e s t a n t s t h r o u g h j o u t t h e e m p i r e , e x c e p t in H u n g a r y a n d Venice, 8 April, Meeting of R e i c h s r a t h — n o d e p u t i e s p r e s e n t f r o m H u n g a r y , Croatia, T r a n s y l v a n i a , Venetia, o r I s t r i a . 2 9 April, Miuistry of m a r i n e c r e a t e d Jan. I n u n d a t i o n of t h e D a n u b e , c a u s i n g g r e a t d i s t r e s s . .4 F e b . I n c r e a s e d t a x a t i o n proposed March, At an i m p e r i a l council, t h e e m p e r o r present, t h e p r i n c i ple of m i n i s t e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is resolved on, 26 April, Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial s t a t e m e n t ; indignat i o n of t h e R e i c h s r a t h June, A m n e s t y to c o n d e m n e d political o f f e n d e r s in H u n g a r y proclaimed 18 Nov*. R e d u c t i o n in t h e a r m y a s s e n t e d t o ; a n d a p e r s o n a l libe r t y l a w ( r e s e m b l i n g o u r h a b e a s c o r p u s act) passed, Dec. I n s u r r e c t i o n in R u s s i a n Poland, J a n . ; A u s t r i a j o i n s in t h e intercession of E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e April, Meeting of t h e G e r m a n s o v e r e i g n s (except k i n g s of P r u s sia, Holland, a n d D e n m a r k ) w i t h t h e e m p e r o r of Aust r i a a t F r a n k f o r t , by h i s i n v i t a t i o n ; t h e d r a f t of a ref o r m of t h e federal c o n s t i t u t i o n agreed t o . .16-31 Aug. Transylvanian deputies accept the constitution, and take s e a t s in t h e R e i c h s r a t h 20 Oct. A u s t r i a j o i n s Prussia in w a r w i t h D e n m a r k (sec Denmark-) Jan. Galicia a n d Cracow declared to b e in a s t a t e of siege, 29 F e b . T h e A r c h d u k e M a x i m i l i a n b e c o m e s e m p e r o r of Mexico (see Mexico) April, T h e e m p e r o r a n d t h e k i n g of P r u s s i a m e e t at Carlsbad, 22 J u n e , R e s i g n a t i o n of c o u n t R e c h b e r g , foreign m i n i s t e r , succeeded b y c o u n t Mensdorff-Pouilly 27 Oct. Peace w i t h D e n m a r k , signed at V i e n n a 30 Oct. E m p e r o r o p e n s R e i c h s r a t h , 14 N o v . ; g r e a t f r e e d o m of d e b a t e ; t h e s t a t e of siege in Galicia c e n s u r e d . . . . Dec. A u s t r i a s u p p o r t s t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n in t h e d i s p u t e respecting the duchies Dec A p p a r e n t r e u n i o n b e t w e e n A u s t r i a and P r u s s i a Jan. Great financial difficulty; p r o p o s e d r e d u c t i o n in t h e Jan. a r m y by t h e c h a m b e r s Contest b e t w e e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e c h a m b e r s , April, R e p o r t e d f a i l u r e of Mr. H u t t ' s m i s s i o n to Vienna, to promote free trade Juno, New ministry formed; count Mensdorfl'as nominal prem i e r ; c o u n t s Belcredi and E s t e r h a z y a s m i n i s t e r s ; conciliatory m e a s u r e s t o w a r d s H u n g a r y proposed, 27 J u l y , C o n v e n t i o n of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 14 Aug. E m p e r o r ' s rescript suppressing the constitution, with t h e view of g i v i n g a u t o n o m y t o H u n g a r y (which see), 20 Sept. Rejoicings in H u n g a r y , b u t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n in A u s t r i a , Croatia, etc Nov., Dec. T r e a t y of c o m m e r c e w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n , s i g n e d . . 16 Dec. A m n e s t y for Italy issued ' 1 Jan. W a r m d i s p u t e s w i t h P r u s s i a (aggressive) r e s p e c t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t of Holstein J a n . , March, P r e p a r a t i o n s for w a r begin .March. T h e a r c h d u k e Albrecht m a d e c o m m a n d e r of t h e s o u t h e r n a r m y . 6 M a y ; B e n e d e k of t h e n o r t h e r n 12 May, W a r declared by Prussia, 18 J u n e ; by I t a l y (which see), 20 J u n e , T h e A u s t r i a n s e n t e r Silesia, 18 J u n e ; a n d t h e P r u s s i a n s Bohemia 23 J u n e , T h e I t a l i a n s d e f e a t e d by t h e a r c h d u k e A l b r e c h t at Custozza 24 J u n e . P r u s s i a n v i c t o r i e s a t Nachod, e t c 27-9 J u n e , B e n e d e k totally d e f e a t e d a t K o n i g g i \ . t z or Sadowa, 3 July, (For details of t h e war, see Prussia and Italy.) T h e e m p e r o r c e d e s Venetia to t h e e m p e r o r Napoleon, and requests intervention 4 July, P r e l i m i n a r i e s of peace signed a t N i k o l s b u r g 26 J u l y , T r e a t y of p e a c e w i t h Prussia signed at P r a g u e . . .23 Aug. T r e a t y of p e a c e w i t h I t a l y signed a t V i e n n a , ceding Ven e t i a , 3 Oct.; t h e iron c r o w n given u p l l Oct. The Q u a d r i l a t e r a l a n d Venice s u r r e n d e r e d to t h e Italians, 11-19 Oct. B a r o n F e r d i n a n d von B e u s t , l a t e S a x o n m i n i s t e r of f o r e i g n affairs, m a d e A u s t r i a n foreign m i n i s t e r . .30 Oct, Meeting of t h e R e i c h s r a t h 19 Nov. C o m m e r c i a l t r e a t y w i t h F r a n c e (to c o m m e n c e 1 J a n . 1867) signed 11 Dec. Great dissension a m o n g t h e n a t i o n a l i t i e s of t h e e m p i r e . Dec. E x t r a o r d i n a r y diet c o n v o k e d (for 25 F e b . ) 3 Jan.

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E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a u t o n o m y for H u n g a r y a n u o u n c e d ; res'gnatiou of Bclcredi, 4 F e b . ; Von Beust made president of t h e council 7 Feb. 18G7 Rescript restoring a separate m i n i s t r y fur Hungary, count Andrassy president 17 Feb. " Death of a r c h d u k e Stephen {palatine of H u n g a r y in 1848), Feb. " Commercial t r e a t y w i t h Italy signed 23 April, Reichsrath opened a t Vienna 20 May, " The Czechs (of Bohemia a n d Moravia), Croats, Slavonians, Serbs, R o u m a n s (of Transylvania), and Russinians {of Galicia). protest against .absorption, and d e m a n d national legislative powers . May and J u l y , 4t Painful d e a t h of the a r c h d u c h e s s Matilda t h r o u g h burns, 6 June, " The e m p e r o r a n d e m p r e s s crowned k i n g a n d queen of H u n g a r y at B u d a 8 June, " Von Beust m a d e chaucellor of t h e e m p i r e 23 J u n e , 44 The sultan visits Vienna 27 J u l y - 1 Aug. " The e m p e r o r s of Austria and F r a n c e m e e t a t Salzburg, 18-23 Aug. " A r r a n g e m e n t s for dividing t h e financial affairs of Austria a n d H u n g a r y , signed 13 Sept. " Changes (respecting marriage and education) in t h e concordat proposed Sept. " 28 bishops d e m a n d the m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e concordat, 28 Sept. " Letter f r o m t h e e m p e r o r to cardinal Rauscher, declaring for complete liberty of conscience in opposition to t h e c o n c o r d a t ; t h e concordat almost annulled by t h e lower u house Oct. E m p e r o r of Austria and k i n g of Prussia m e e t a t Oos, n e a r Baden-Baden 22 Oct, " E m p e r o r a r r i v e s a t Paris, 23 Oct.; leaves 5 Nov. " Dualism accepted by the Reichsratli a t V i e n n a Nov. " N e w A u s t r i a n m i n i s t r y under prince Auersperg constiu tuted 30 Dec. Civil marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction over them) passed by t h e upper house, a f t e r s h a r p resistance, 21-23 March; received the e m p e r o r ' s a s s e n t . . 2 5 May, 1868 G e r m a n sharp-shooting m a t c h held at V i e n n a . . .20 July, 44 Von Beust justifies the m a i n t e n a n c e of a n a r m y of 800,000,11 Oct.; is m a d e a c o u n t Dec. 44 Continued opposition of t h e clergy to t h e g o v e r n m e n t , J a n . 18G9 The frigit-e Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost, 20 Feb. " The crown-prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct. 44 The e m p e r o r visits the E a s t ; a t J e r u s a l e m , 10 N o v . ; present a t t h e opening of t h e Suez canal 17 Nov. 44 Successful insurrection against the conscription in Dalmatia. Oct.; ceased Nov. " The R e i c h s r a t h opened by the e m p e r o r a t Vienna, 13 Dec. " Ministerial crisis, J a n . ; t h e C i s I.eithan m i n i s t r y resigns; count Potoeki. p r i m e - m i n i s t e r 4 April, 1870 Neutrality in the F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n war announced, 18 July, 44 The concordat with R o m e declared to be suspended in consequence of the promulgation of the doctrine of papal infallibility 30 July, " The Reichsrath opened by the e m p e r o r ; no deputies from Bohemia 17 Sept. 44 Dissension between t h e federal and national parties, 29 Sept., Oct. 44 The Reichsrath a d j o u r n e d 22 Nov. " The m i n i s t r y support Great Britain in opposing the Rusu sian repudiation of the t r e a t y of Parts (SCQ Russia) ,~Xov. Austrian a r m y , 804,869 regulars; 187,527 l a n d w e h r (militia) Dec. " The new G e r m a n e m p i r e recognized by t h e e m p e r o r . Jan. 1871 Dismissal of Potoeki; count H o h e n w a r t m i n i s t e r . .Feb. 44 44 Meeting of t h e R e i c h s r a t h 20 Feb. Death of a d m i r a l Tegethoff, m u c h l a m e n t e d 7 April, " F i r s t m e e t i n g of " Old C a t h o l i c s " a t Vienna 26 J u l y , " An international exhibition a t Vienna in 1873, proposed Sept. " Meeting of emperor w i t h e m p e r o r William 6-8 Sept. 44 Meeting of 17 provincial diets; struggle between t h e (Slavonian) conservatives a n d t h e (German) constitutionalists renewed 14 Sept. " Political crisis: dissension between G e r m a n and Slavon i a n parties, Oct.; resignation of the H o h e n w a r t m i n istry 25 Oct. " A m i n i s t r y formed u n d e r baron Keliersperg 4 Nov. " Resignation of count Beust, the arch-chancellor; m u c h 44 excitement 6 Nov. Count Andrassy appointed m i n i s t e r of t h e imperial household and of foreign affairs; Von Beust to be ambassador at L o n d o n ; Lonyay, p r e m i e r of H u n g a r i a n ministry 13-14 Nov. 41 New A u s t r i a n m i n i s t r y f o r m e d b y prince Auersperg, about 25 Nov. 44 The R e i c h s r a t h opened by t h e e m p e r o r with speech annoancAng poY>twa) and educational reforms 28 Dec, " New constitutional law promulgated, giving the e m p e r o r power to order new elections of the chambers, 13 March, 1872 Meeting of t h e e m p e r o r with t h e e m p e r o r of G e r m a n y and other sovereigns a t Berlin 6-12 Sept. 44 Reform b 11 passed changing the Reichsrath into a national representative assembly. 10 March, 1873

AUS Great international exhibition a t Vienna; opening, 1 May, F i n a n c i a l crisis t h r o u g h overtrading in ld72; panic in May, Visits to V i e n n a : t h e prince of Wales, 28 April; t h e czar of Russia, 1 J u n e ; the s h a h of Persia, 30 J u l y ; t h e k i n g of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the e m p e r o r of G e r m a n y , 17 Oct. Elections for t h e R e i c h s r a t h : 228 constitutionalists; 125 federals, 30 Oct.; t h e R e i c h s r a t h opened b y t h e emperor, 5 N o v . ; 25tli a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e e m p e r o r ' s accession celebrated t h r o u g h o u t t h e e m p i r e ; a m n e s t y for political offenders 2 Dec. The e m p e r o r a t St. P e t e r s b u r g 13 Feb. Encyclical letter from t h e pope c o n d e m n i n g t h e n e w ecclesiastical laws, dated 7 March, Protest of the Austrian bishops; adoption by both parties of C a v o u r ' s cry, " A free c h u r c h in a f r e e s t a t e , " April, The e m p r e s s a t the Isle of Wight July-Aug. Ofenheim, railway financier connected w i t h Messrs. Brassey, a f t e r long trial for fraud, acquitted a t Vienna, 27 Feb. The e m p e r o r w a r m l y received at Venice by t h e k i n g of Italy 5 April, I n a u g u r a t i o n of t h e new bed of t h e Danube by t h e emperor 30 May, The czar m e e t s t h e e m p e r o r at Eger 28 J u n e , Death of the ex-emperor F e r d i n a n d 29 J u n e , C. de Tisza, president of the H u n g a r i a n m i n i s t r y . .20 Oct. Deficiency in t h e budget for 1876 ; r e v e n u e about 37,800,000?.; expenditure, 40,300,0001 Nov. Death of cardinal Rauscher, prince-bishop of Vienna, 24 Nov. The czar and the emperor m e e t at R e i c h s t a d t ; agree to n e u t r a l i t y in t h e Servio-Turkish w a r 8 July, New t r e a t y of commerce w i t h Great Britain, signed 5 Dcc. Declaration of n e u t r a l i t y in Russo-Turkish w a r by Aust r i a n a n d H u n g a r i a n m i n i s t e r s ; foreign policy to bo 41 for t h e interest of the m o n a r c h y , to t h e exclusion of all a n t i p a t h . e s and s y m p a t h i e s , " M. de Tisza (Hungarian) 2(5 J u n e , Resignation of Austrian m i n i s t r y , 26 J a n . ; w i t h d r a w n 5 Feb. Prince Auersperg a n n o u n c e s d i s a g r e e m e n t with the proposed Russian conditions of peace 19 Feb. Death of a r c h d u k e Francis Charles, the e m p e r o r ' s father, 8 March, The Sphinx b u r n e d a t sea, near cape St. Elie, 500 perish, 9 March, Resignation of m i n i s t r y ; w i t h d r a w n 6, 7 J u l y , Count Andrassy at the lierlin conference. 13 J u n c - 1 3 July, Austria to occupy and a d m i n i s t e r Bosnia and Herzegovina, by t r e a t y of Berlin 13 July, The Austrians enter,and war ensues (sqq Bosnia). .29 J u l y , Resignation of Auersperg m i n i s t r y a n n o u n c e d to t h e Reichsrath 22 Oct. Bosnia occupied (except Novi-Bazar) Oct. Baron Depretis fails to form a m i n i s t r y 30 Oct. New m i n i s t r y u n d e r Dr. S t r e m a y r 15 Feb. Silver wedding of the emperor a n d e m p r e s s kept, 24 April, Liberal m a j o r i t y a t elections 11 J u l y , Resiguation of count Andrassy, t h e p r e m i e r ; m i n i s t r y formed by count Edw. Taafe. 12 A u g . ; baron von Haymerle foreign minister i 22 Aug. B i s m a r c k ' s visit to Vienna; w a r m l y received, 21-24 Sept. R e i c h s r a t h o p e n e d ; the Czech d e p u t i e s a t t e n d 8 Oct. Andrassy formally resigns; succeeded by baron Haymerle as foreign minister and p r e s i d e n t of the council, 8 Oct. Opening of all t h e diets of t h e e m p i r e 8 June, Marriage of t h e a r c h d u k e Rodolph and t h e princess Step h a n i e of Belgium 10 May, See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, etc

1S73 "

"

" 1874 44

14 44

1875 44 44 44 44 44 u 44

1876 44

1877 1878 44 44 il 44 44 44 44 44 44 44

1879 44

44

14 44 44

44

1880 1881

MARGRAVES OF AUSTRIA. Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018; Ernest, 1056; Leopold II., 1075; Leopold III., 1096; Albert II., 1136: LeopoldIV., 113G: H e n r y II., 1142 (made a d u k e , 1156). DUKES. 1150. H e n r y II. 1177. Leopold V. He m a d e prisoner Richard I. of England w h e n r e t u r n i n g incognito from t h e crusade, a n d was compelled to s u r r e n d e r h i m to t h e emperor H e n r y VI. 1194. Frederic I., the Catholic. 1198. Leopold VI., the Glorious. Killed in battle. 1230. F r e d e r i c II., the Warlike. Killed in a battle with the Hungarians, 15 J u n e , 124G. Interregnum. 1276. Rodolph I. 1282. Albert I. a n d his brother, Rodolph II. Albert becomes e m p e r o r of Germany, 1298. 1303. F r e d e r i c I. a n d Leopold I. 1326. Frederic I. 1330. Albert II. a n d Otho, h i s brother. 1339. Albert II. 1358. Rodolph IV. 1355. Albert III. and Leopold II. or. III. (killed a t Sempach). 1395. William I. a n d brothers, and t h e i r cousin Albert IV.

ADT

62

1411. T h e s a m e . T b e p r o v i n c e s divided i n t o t h e d u c h i e s of A u s t r i a and Car n t k i a , and t h e c o u n t y o f T y r o l . 1411. Albert V., d u k e of A u s t r i a ; o b t a i n s B o h e m i a a n d Morav i a ; elected k i n g of H u n g a r y a n d e m p e r o r , 1437; dies, 14:59; succeeded !>v li s p o s t h u m o u s son. 1439. Ladislaus, w h o dies childless. 1457. 1457. T h e e m p e r o r F r e d e r i c i i l . a n d Albert VI. 1493. M a x i m i l i a n I., sun of 1'rederic 111. (archduke), e m p e r o r ;

see Germany.

ElirERORS.

AZO

A v e i n , or A v a i n e ( L u x e m b u r g , Belgium). Here t h e French and D u t c h defeated the. Spaniards, 20 M a y , 1635. " A v e M a r i a !" the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin (Luke i. 28), was made a formula of devotion by pope J o h n X X I . about 1326. In t h e beginning of the tifteenth century Vincentius Ferrerius used it before bis discourses.— Bingham.

1801. F r a n c i s I. (late F r a n c i s II. of Germany), styled e m p e r o r A v i g n o n , a city (S.E. France) ceded by P h i l i p I I I . of A u s t r i a only, 11 Aug. 1804; resigned e m p i r e of tierto the pope in 1273. T h e papal seat was removed by m a n y , 6 Aug. 1805; died 2 March, 1835. 1835. F e r d i n a n d , liis son, 2 M a r c h ; a b d i c a t e d in f a v o r of h i s Clement V. to Avignon in 1309. In 1348 Clement V I . n e p h e w ( h i s b r o t h e r F r a n c i s C h a r l e s h a v i n g re- purchased the sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provn o u n c e d liis rights}. 2 Dec. 1843; died 29 J u n e , 1875. 1848. F r a n c i s J o s e p h (son of F r a n c i s Charles), b o r n 18 Aug. ence and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, wearied 1830; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848; m a r r i e d 24 April, 1854, of t h e schism, expelled Benedict X I I I . , and Avignon t o E l i z a b e t h of B a v a r i a ; c r o w n e d k i n g of H u n g a r y , 8 ceased to be the seat of the papacy. H e r e were held J u n e , 18(57. nine councils (1080-1457). Avignon was seized and re[Ileir: t h e i r son, t h e a r c h d u k e Rodolph, b o r n 21 Aug. 1858; m a r r i e d to p r i n c e s s S t e p h a n i e Clotilde of Belgium, 10 stored several times by t h e French kings; t h e last t i m e restored, 1773. It was claimed by t h e national assembly, May, 1881.]

1791, and was conlirmed to France by t h e congress of For t h e law securing copyright, see Cojjy- sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place h e r e ; see Popes, 1309-94. A u t o cla F e (Act of F a i t h ) , the term given to the A x e , W e d g e , L e v e r , and various tools in compunishment of a heretic, generally burning alive, inflictmon use, are said to h a v e been invented b y Dtedalus, an ed by the Inquisition (jchich see). artificer of A t h e n s ; to whom also is ascribed t h e invenA u t o m a t o n F i g u r e s (or A n d k o i d e s ) , made to tion of masts and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. M a n y tools imitate living actions, are of early invention. A r c h v - are represented on the E g y p t i a n monuments. tas's flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar BaA x u m , or A u x u m e , a town in Abyssinia said to h a v e con is said to have made a brazen head which spoke, a . d . 12G4. Albertus Magnus spent t h i r t y years in mak- been t h e capital of a kingdom whose people were coning another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a verted to Christianity b y l > u m e n t i u s about 330, and page, a lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis X ] Y. were allies of Justinian, 533. when a child, 1649 ; the horses and figures moved natuA y a c u c h o (Peru). H e r e t h e Peruvians finally rally, variously, and perfectly. Vaucanson, in 1738, made achieved their independence by defeating the Spaniards, an artificial duck, which performed m a n y functions of a 9 Dee. 1824. real one—eating, drinking, and q u a c k i n g ; and he also A y d e , or A i d e , t h e t a x paid by the vassal to t h e made a flute-player. T h e writing automaton, exhibited chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France and E n g in 17(19, was a pentagraph worked by a confederate out land an aide was due for k n i g h t i n g the king's eldest son. of sight, T h e automaton cliess-plaver, exhibited the j One was demanded by P h i l i p t h e Fair, 1313. T h e aide same year, was also worked by a hidden person; so was i due upon t h e birth of a prince, ordained by t h e s t a t u t e t h e "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a trumpeter j of Westminster ( E d w a r d I.), 1285, was not to be levied about 1809. Early in this century an automaton was until he was fifteen years of age, for t h e ease of t h e subexhibited in London which pronounced several sentences ject. T h e aide for t h e marriage of t h e king's eldest with tolerable distinctness. T h e " anthropoglossus," an daughter could not be demanded in this country until alleged talking-machine, exhibited at St. James's Hall, her seventh year. I n feudal tenures there was an aide London, July, 1864, was proved to be a gross imposition. for ransoming t h e chief lord; so when our Richard I. T h e exhibition of the talking-machine of professor F a was kept a prisoner b y the emperor of Germany, an aide ber, of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the of 20,1. to redeem him was enforced upon every k n i g h t ' s Palais Royal, Argyll street, W . T h e automatic chessI fee; see Benevolence. player at the Crystal Palace, 1873. Psycho, an automaton card-player, invented by J . N. Maskelyne and J o h n | A y l e s b u r y , Buckinghamshire, was reduced b y t h e Algernon Clarke, exhibited in London, J a n . 1875. An W e s t Saxons in 571. St. O'Svth, beheaded b y t h e automaton h a r e was hunted at Hendon, near London, 9 pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. William t h e Sept. 1876. Conqueror invested his favorites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing " straw for his bedchamA u t o t y p o g r a p h y , a process of producing a metal bers ; three eels for his use in w i n t e r ; and in summer, plate from drawings, made known by Mr. Wallis in straw, rushes, and two green geese thrice every year," April, 1803; it resembled Nature-printing (which see). Incorporated by charter in 1554. Authors. riyhts.

A u x e r r o D e c l a r a t i o n , see France, May, 1866.

A y l e s f o r d (Kent;, Here, it is said, the Britons A v a in 1822 became t h e capital of t h e Burmese em- were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed. pire, it is said, for the third time. A British embassy A y r , capital of Ayrshire (S.W. S c o t l a n d ) ; chartered was received here in Sept. 18,'>5. and endowed by William the Lion, twelfth c e n t u r y ; forA v a r s , barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and antified by Oliver Cromwell.—By a sudden fire at Templenoved the Eastern empire in the sixth and seventh centon's carpet-works, 29 persons perished, 16 J u n e , 1876, turies; subdued b y Charlemagne about 799, after an A z i n c o u r , see Agincourt. e i g h t years' war. A v e b u r y , or A b u r y (Wiltshire). H e r e are t h e remains of the largest so-called Druidical work in this country. T h e v have been surveyed by Aubrey, 1648; D r . Stiikeley, 1720; and sir E. C. l l o a r e in 1812^ and by others. Much information m a y b e obtained from Stukelev's " A b u r y ' ' (1743), and Hoare's " Ancient, Wiltshire " (1812-21). M a n y theories have been put forth, but the object of these remains is still unknown. T h e y are considered to have been set up during t h e " s t o n e age," i. e. when weapons and implements were mainly formed of t h a t material.

A z o f , S e a o f , the Palus M a o r i s of the ancients, communicates by the strait of Ycnikale ( t h e Bosporus Cimmerius) with t h e Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory, Taganrog and K e r t c h being t h e principal places. An expedition, composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded b y sir (J. Brown, arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, w h e n t h e Russians retired, after blowing up t h e fortifications. On t h e 25th t h e allies marched upon Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On t h e same evening t h e allied fleet entered t h e Sea of Azof, and in a few days com-

AZO

63

BAB

ment was established at the capital Angra. 1830-3. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811 a volcano appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fath; oms deep ; an island then formed gradually disappeared. A z o r e s , or WESTERN ISLES ( N . A t l a n t i c ) , b e l o n g i n g A destructive earthquake, lasting 12 days, happened in to Portugal, the supposed site of the ancient Atlantis, St. Michael's, 1591. are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by A z o t e , the name given by French chemists to niVanderberg of Bruges, who was driven on their coasts trogen (which see), by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, A z o t n s , see Ashdotl. fell in with St. Mary's in 1432. and in 1457 they were all discovered and named Azores from the number of A z t e c s , the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of goshawks found on them. They were given by Alfonso the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two preV. to the duel less of Burgundy in 140(5, and colonized tended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They by Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. were considered by professor Owen to be merely South The isle of Terceira, during the usurpation of dom American dwarfs. They were married in London, 1 Miguel, declared for donna Maria, 1829, and a govern- April, 1867, and exhibited for some time after.

pleted thcur occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, etc. An immense amount of stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling- into the hands of the allies.

B. B a a l (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, especially by Ahab, 918 n.c. His priests and votaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple defiled, 884 B.C.

Lenglet.f Ninus of Assj'ria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B.C. ; 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon commenced about 747 B.C.

B a a l b e c , HELIOPOLIS (both meaning " City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood (in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. Here Septimius Sever us built a temple to the sun, 200, The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timour Beg, 1400.

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 2234 B.C. [2230, / / . ; 2233, Nabonassar governs Merodach Bala dan king, 721; his embassy to llezekiah of J u dah abo u t Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 605; defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyptian power in Asia He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusalem.—

Baba Wali. Mazra.

See A\fghanistan, 1 Sept.. 1880; and

B a b b a g e , see Calculating Machines. B a b e l , TOWER OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis xi.). The magnificent temple of Bel us, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (t he Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was deified after death.—Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. B a b e u f s C o n s p i r a c y , see Agrarian Lata. B a b y - F a r m i n g , see Infanticide.

CI. J 747 712 C0-t

Blair; Lenglet

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the golden-headed image. Dan. ii Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusalem,

602

takes it and destroys the temple.—Blair ; Usher, 589

to 587; captures Tyre The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Mcshach, and A bed-n ego thrown into the furnace for refusing to worship it. Dan. iii Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. Dan. iv The king recovers his reason and his throne, 502; dies.. Evi 1 Merodach, 561; N e r i g l i k i n g Labv n e tu s, 556; Nab on ad i u s, 5 51; Be Mi azzar k i n g Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under Cyrus. and Belshazzar slain Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Dan. vi Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius Taken by Alexander, 331; he dies here Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 B.C., transfers the scat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is deserted.

585 570 569 561 559 539

538 537 f>18 323

B a b y n g t o n ' s C o n s p i r a c y , to assassinate queen B a b y l o n i a , * an Asiatic empire (see A ssyria),founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of the Holy Elizabeth, and make Mary of Scotland queen, was deWrit, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C.— vised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Win. Gilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babyngton and others joined in the * The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described as scheme. They were betrayed by Poolev Aspy, and having been of a square form, and in terraces one above an- fourteen were executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. other until they rose as high as the walls of the city, the asB a b y s m , a new sect in Persia, founded in 2843 cent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on other arches; and on by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at Shiraz. He the top were flat stones closely cemented together with plas- termed himself the " Bab," or " gate,1' of knowledge, and, ter of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon giving a new exposition of the Koran, claimed to be the which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large incarnate Holy Spirit. The destruction of himself and trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were live of these gardens, each containing about four the greater number of his followers was due to Hossein, English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. one of his disciples, combining political and warlike —Slrabo; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was but principles with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was a d esol ate w i Id era ess. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 1811. ,\n d sir K. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. tolerated by the shah Mahomet, but nearly extermiLayard, sir H. Kawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and the in- nated by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself was teresting relics excavated and brought to this country between executed lo July, 1849. The present head of the sect, the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to still numerous, Beheyah Allah, imprisoned in a Turkish be given to the history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions m the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, fortress, is said to be well conversant with the Bible, principally by col. {now sir Henry) Raw! in son, and published and to propound a doctrine based on it, termed " Bab el in the Journal of the' Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of Huk," gate of truth.

1855 lie returned to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, etc., which are now in the British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution. London, in 1851, 1855, and 18(55. The Rev. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at the same place in 1877.

t According to the earliest existing history the country was divided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), the probable inventors of cuneiform writing ; and the Accad (Semitic), which became predominant.

AZO

63

BAB

ment was established at the capital Angra. 1830-3. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811 a volcano appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fath; oms deep ; an island then formed gradually disappeared. A z o r e s , or WESTERN ISLES ( N . A t l a n t i c ) , b e l o n g i n g A destructive earthquake, lasting 12 days, happened in to Portugal, the supposed site of the ancient Atlantis, St. Michael's, 1591. are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by A z o t e , the name given by French chemists to niVanderberg of Bruges, who was driven on their coasts trogen (which see), by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, A z o t n s , see Ashdotl. fell in with St. Mary's in 1432. and in 1457 they were all discovered and named Azores from the number of A z t e c s , the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of goshawks found on them. They were given by Alfonso the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two preV. to the duel less of Burgundy in 140(5, and colonized tended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They by Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. were considered by professor Owen to be merely South The isle of Terceira, during the usurpation of dom American dwarfs. They were married in London, 1 Miguel, declared for donna Maria, 1829, and a govern- April, 1867, and exhibited for some time after.

pleted thcur occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, etc. An immense amount of stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling- into the hands of the allies.

B. B a a l (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, especially by Ahab, 918 n.c. His priests and votaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple defiled, 884 B.C.

Lenglet.f Ninus of Assj'ria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B.C. ; 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon commenced about 747 B.C.

B a a l b e c , HELIOPOLIS (both meaning " City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood (in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. Here Septimius Sever us built a temple to the sun, 200, The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timour Beg, 1400.

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 2234 B.C. [2230, / / . ; 2233, Nabonassar governs Merodach Bala dan king, 721; his embassy to llezekiah of J u dah abo u t Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 605; defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyptian power in Asia He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusalem.—

Baba Wali. Mazra.

See A\fghanistan, 1 Sept.. 1880; and

B a b b a g e , see Calculating Machines. B a b e l , TOWER OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis xi.). The magnificent temple of Bel us, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (t he Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was deified after death.—Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. B a b e u f s C o n s p i r a c y , see Agrarian Lata. B a b y - F a r m i n g , see Infanticide.

CI. J 747 712 C0-t

Blair; Lenglet

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the golden-headed image. Dan. ii Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusalem,

602

takes it and destroys the temple.—Blair ; Usher, 589

to 587; captures Tyre The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Mcshach, and A bed-n ego thrown into the furnace for refusing to worship it. Dan. iii Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. Dan. iv The king recovers his reason and his throne, 502; dies.. Evi 1 Merodach, 561; N e r i g l i k i n g Labv n e tu s, 556; Nab on ad i u s, 5 51; Be Mi azzar k i n g Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under Cyrus. and Belshazzar slain Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Dan. vi Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius Taken by Alexander, 331; he dies here Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 B.C., transfers the scat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is deserted.

585 570 569 561 559 539

538 537 f>18 323

B a b y n g t o n ' s C o n s p i r a c y , to assassinate queen B a b y l o n i a , * an Asiatic empire (see A ssyria),founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of the Holy Elizabeth, and make Mary of Scotland queen, was deWrit, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C.— vised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Win. Gilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babyngton and others joined in the * The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described as scheme. They were betrayed by Poolev Aspy, and having been of a square form, and in terraces one above an- fourteen were executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. other until they rose as high as the walls of the city, the asB a b y s m , a new sect in Persia, founded in 2843 cent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on other arches; and on by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at Shiraz. He the top were flat stones closely cemented together with plas- termed himself the " Bab," or " gate,1' of knowledge, and, ter of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon giving a new exposition of the Koran, claimed to be the which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large incarnate Holy Spirit. The destruction of himself and trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were live of these gardens, each containing about four the greater number of his followers was due to Hossein, English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. one of his disciples, combining political and warlike —Slrabo; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was but principles with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was a d esol ate w i Id era ess. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 1811. ,\n d sir K. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. tolerated by the shah Mahomet, but nearly extermiLayard, sir H. Kawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and the in- nated by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself was teresting relics excavated and brought to this country between executed lo July, 1849. The present head of the sect, the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to still numerous, Beheyah Allah, imprisoned in a Turkish be given to the history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions m the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, fortress, is said to be well conversant with the Bible, principally by col. {now sir Henry) Raw! in son, and published and to propound a doctrine based on it, termed " Bab el in the Journal of the' Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of Huk," gate of truth.

1855 lie returned to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, etc., which are now in the British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution. London, in 1851, 1855, and 18(55. The Rev. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at the same place in 1877.

t According to the earliest existing history the country was divided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), the probable inventors of cuneiform writing ; and the Accad (Semitic), which became predominant.

BAC

BAH

B a c c h a n a l i a (games in honor of Bacchus) arose in E g y p t , and were brought into Greece by Melampos, a n d called Diomjsia, about 1415 i$.c\ — Diudorus. In Kome t h e Bacchanalia were suppressed, 186 r..c. T h e priests of Bacchus were called Bacchanals. Baccon or Bacon, see Orleans.

Charles William, m a r g r a v e of B a d e n - P o u r l a c h , born 1679, died 1746; succeeded b y h i s son. Charles Frederic, born 1728; m a r g r a v e of Baden-Dourl a r h , 1738; a c q u i r e d B a d e n - B a d e n , 1771; m a d e grandd u k e by Napoleon, 1806. Treaty of Baden : L a n d a u ceded to F r a n c e 7 Sept. 1714 Baden m a d e a grand-duchy, w i t h enlarged t e r r i t o r i e s . . . 1803 A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n g r a n t e d by c h a r t e r . 1 8 Aug. 1818 R e p u b l i c a n agitation d u r i n g 1848 I n s u r r e c t i o n ; j o i n e d by t h e free city R a s t u t t ; t h e grandd u k e ilccs May, 1849 The P r u s s i a n s e n t e r B a d e n , 15 J u n e ; d e f e a t t h e insurg e n t s c o m m a n d e d by Mierolawski ; R a s t a t t s u r r e n d e r s , '23 J u l y ; t h e g r a n d - d u k e r e - e n t e r s C a r l s r u h e . .18 Aug. u Arrests for political offences 9 J u i y , 1857 Concordat w i t h t h e pope signed 28 J u n e ! 1859 Greatly opposed by t h e c h a m b e r s ; annulled b y t h e grandd u k e by a manifesto, s e c u r i n g a u t o n o m y to t h e Catholic a n d P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s ; signed 7 April, 1860 I n t e r v i e w â t Baden-Baden of t h e e m p e r o r Napoleon III., t h e prince-regent of Prussia, a n d t h e G e r m a n k i n g s a n d princes 16 J u n e , " The new ecclesiastical law (adopted b y t h e c h a m b e r s ) promulgated 16 Oct, " Opposition of t h e a r c h b i s h o p of F r i b u r g a n d t h e clerical party 18G0-65 Disputes in t h e G e r m a n d i e t ; t h e g r a n d - d u k e v a i n l y end e a v o r s to obtain a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ; a n d r e m a i n s neutral J u n e , 18C6 Baden j o i n s t h e Zollverein (which see) J u l y , 1807 Meeting of t h e c h a m b e r s ; liberal m e a s u r e s promised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage a d o p t e d by t h e second c h a m ber 29 Oct. 1869 Civil m a r r h i g e m a d e obligatory 17 Nov. " Baden j o i n s P r u s s i a in t h e war w i t h F r a n c e , a b o u t 20 J u l y , 1870 Gambling-houses s u p p r e s s e d ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 GRAND- DC KKS. 1805. Charles F r e d e r i c ; dies 1811; succccded b y h i s grandson, 1811. Charles Louis Frederic, w h o died w i t h o u t issue in 1818; succeeded by h i s uncle, 1818. Louis William, died w i t h o u t issue in 1830, succeeded by bis b r o t h e r , 1830. Leopold, died in 1852; succeeded b y his second son {the first being imbecile), 1852. F r e d e r i c (born 9 Sept. 1826), r e g e n t 24 April. 1852; declared g r a n d - d u k e , 5 Sept. 1856. Heir: h i s son F r e d e r i c William, born 9 J u l y , 1857.

Bach Society, instituted in London in 1849, for

t h e collection of t h e works of J . S. Bach, and the promotion of t h e i r public performance. T h e original comm i t t e e included W . Sterndale Bennett, sir G. Smart, J . I l u l l a h , C. Potter, and other eminent musicians. T h e society was dissolved 21 March, 1870, and the music g i v e n u p to the Royal Academy of Music. B a c h e l o r s . T h e Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men, and men of full age were obliged to m a r r y . T h e Spartan women at certain g a m e s laid hold of old bachelors, dragged t h e m round their altars, and intiicted on them various m a r k s of infamy and disgrace.— A t a x laid upon bachelors in E n g l a n d , twenty-five years of age ( v a r y i n g from 12/. 10s. for a d u k e to Is. for a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. Bachelors (Romanist priests excepted) were subjected to an e x t r a t a x on their male and female servants in 1785. A grand ball given by 84 bachelors at Kensington House, the prince and princess of Wales present, 22 J u l y , 1880. Backgammon. Palamedes of Greece is t h e reputed inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. I t is said to h a v e been invented in W a l e s before its conquest.— Henry.

Baconian Philosophy, propounded by Francis Bacon specially in his " N o v u m Organon," published in 1620. I t s principles are utility and progress, and its objects t h e alleviation of the sufferings and promotion of t h e comforts of m a n k i n d . — M a c a u l a y , 1837.

Bacon's Rebellion.

A movement made by a

Virginian, N a t h a n i e l Bacon, and a strong party, against Berkeley, t h e tyrannical royalist governor, in 1676. Bacon was successful for a time, drove Berkeley out of J a m e s t o w n , burned it (Sept. 9), b u t died of a fever in Oct. T h e rebellion came to nothing, being p u t down d u r i n g the beginning of 1677, and several persons were h a n g e d , fined, etc., for being concerned in it. I t is wort h y of note t h a t this first serious revolt against the abuse of British authoritj 7 , in America occurred precisely 100 y e a r s before the Declaration of Independence was signed.

Badge of Military Merit, established Aug. 1781, by W a s h i n g t o n . I t was conferred upon non-commissioned officers and soldiers for t h r e e years' good conduct, or for specially meritorious service, and entitled the person receiving it " to pass and repass all g u a r d s and m i l i t a r y posts as fully and a m p l y as a n y commissioned officer whatever." B a f f i n ' s B a y (N. America), discovered by W i l l i a m Baffin, an E n g l i s h m a n , 1616. T h e e x t e n t of this discovery was much doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and P a r r y proved t h a t Baffin was substantially accurate in his s t a t e m e n t . P a r r y entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered t h e islands known b y his name, 1818; see

B a c t r i a n a , a province in Asia, was subjugated by C y r u s and formed p a r t of the Persian empire, when conquered b y Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, threw off t h e yoke of the Passage. Seleucidie, a n d became king. Eucratides I. reigned Northicest prosperously about 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B a g d a d , in Asiatic T u r k e y , built by A1 Mansour, B.C. T h e Greek kingdom appears to h a v e been broken and made t h e seat of t h e Saracen empire, a b o u t 762. up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after. T a k e n by the Tartars, a n d a period p u t to the Saracen B a d a j o z ( S . W . Spain), an important barrier fort- rule, 1258. O f t e n taken by t h e Persians, a n d retaken b y ress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 11 March, the Turks, with g r e a t s l a u g h t e r : the latter h a v e held i t 1811; invested b y the British, under lord Wellington, on since 1638. 16 M a r c h , 1812, a n d stormed and t a k e n on 6 April folB a g p i p e , an ancient Greek and R o m a n instrument. lowing. T h e F r e n c h retreated in haste. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculpture, now in Rome, a B a d d e s d o w n H i l l , or Mount Badon, near B a t h , bagpiper is represented dressed li ke a modern H i g h l a n d where Bede says t h e Britons defeated the Saxons in 493; er. Nero is said to h a v e played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our H i g h l a n d regiments retain t h e i r pipers. others say in 511 or 520. B a d e n ( S . W . G e r m a n y ) . T h e house of Baden is descended from H e r m a n n , regarded as t h e first m a r g r a v e (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Z i i h r i n g e n ; b u t H e r m a n n I L assumed t h e title, Feb. 1130. From Christopher, who died 1527, proceeded t h e branches BadenBaden and Baden-Dourlach, united in 1771. Baden is a h e r e d i t a r y constitutional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818; it joined t h e German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 1,461*562; Dec. 1875, 1,507,179. Louis William, m a r g r a v e of B a d e n - B a d e n , a great general, born 1665; sallied out f r o m V i e n n a a n d defeated t h e T u r k s , 1683 died 1707

B a h a m a I s l e s (N. America) were t h e first points of discovery b y Columbus. San Salvador was seen b y him on t h e n i g h t of 11 Oct. 1492. New Providence w a s settled b y t h e English in 1620. T h e y were expëfteû b y the Spaniards, 1641; returned, 1666; again expelled in 1703. In 1776, commodore Hopkins, of the U . S. N a v y , stripped New Providence of its artillery and stores, and took t h e governor and other persons as prisoners. The isles were formally ceded to t h e E n g l i s h in 1783. P o p u lation in 1861, 35,287; in 1867, about 38,000; in 1871, 39,162. T h e B a h a m a s profited b y blockade-running during t h e American Civil W a r , 1862-5. Governors 5 William Rawson, 1864: sir J a m e s W a l k e r , 1868; J o h n

BAIl

G5

1'ope H e n n e s s y , 1871; W i l l i a m Robinson, 1874; T h o m a s F . Callaghan, 1879. B a h a r ( N . I n d i a ) , a province (conquered b y Baber in 1530), with B e n g a l and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to t h e .English E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y in 1765 b y t h e t r e a t y of A l l a h a b a d for a quit-rent of about 300,000«. Bail. B y ancient common-law, before and since t h e conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder was e x cepted b y s t a t u t e ; and b y t h e 3 E d w . I . (1275), t h e power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was t a k e n a w a y . Bail was f u r t h e r regulated in later reigns. It is now accepted in all cases, except felo n y ; and w h e r e a m a g i s t r a t e refuses bail, it m a y be g r a n t e d b y a j u d g e . Acts respecting bail passed 1826 and 1852. E x c e s s i v e bail is forbidden b y t h e constitution of t h e U n i t e d States, and also by t h e organic laws of most of t h e states.

BAL

Balance

to assure t h e i n d e p e n a e n c y and i n t e g r i t y of states and control t h e a m b i t i o n of sovereigns, a principle said to h a v e been first laid down b y t h e Italian politicians of the fifteenth c e n t u r y on the invasion of Charles V I I I . of France, 1494.—Robertson. I t was recognized b y t h e t r e a t y of Minister, 24 Oct. 1648. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t s for t h e balance of power in E u r o p e m a d e in 1815, w i t h o u t t h e consent of t h e people of t h e countries concerned, h a v e been nearlv all set aside since 1830. OF P O W E R

Balawat, see Nineveh. Baldachin, or BALDACHINO,

more properly cihorinm (which see), a canopy placed over t h e altar in some a n c i e n t c h u r c h e s ; t h e practice, b e g i n n i n g about 1130, was introduced into E n g l a n d , 1279. 'The proposal to erect one in St. B a r n a b a s C h u r c h , Pimlico, was opposed in t h e consistory court, A u g . 1873. T h e trial took place 23, 24 Oct. D r . T r i s t r a m decided against t h e erection Bailiff, or S H E R I F F , said to be of S a x o n origin. of t h e baldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. London h a d its shire-reve prior to t h e conquest, and t h i s Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean, called by officer was generally appointed for counties in E n g l a n d t h e Greeks Balearides and b y t h e R o m a n s Baleares, from in 1079. H e n r y Corneliill and R i c h a r d Iieynere were t h e d e x t e r i t y of the i n h a b i t a n t s a t s l i n g i n g : t h e y include appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in London in 1189.—Stow. Majorca, Minorca, Ivi^a, T o r m e n t e r a , Cabrera, Conejera,, Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under t h e n a m e of and other islets. T h e y were conquered b y t h e Romans,. bailiffs in 1308, a n d t h e n a m e was c h a n g e d to sheriff in 123 B.C.; b y t h e Vandals, about A.D. 426; and formed 1548. T h e r e are still places w h e r e t h e chief m a g i s t r a t e part of Charlemagne's empire in 799. Conquered b y the' is called bailiff, as t h e high-bailiff of W e s t m i n s t e r . Hum- Moors about 1005, and held b y t h e m till about 1286, w h e a bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, e v e r y bailiff being t h e y were a n n e x e d b y A r a g ó n ; see Majorca a n d Miobliged to enter into bonds of security for his good be- norca. havior.—Blackstone.

Balham Mystery, sec Braco.

Bairam, or BEIRAM, M a h o m e t a n festivals. I n 1865 B a l i z e , see Honduras. t h e L i t t l e Bairam, following t h e fast of R a m a d a n (which B a l k a n s , t h e ancient Hsemus, a range of m o u n t a i n s see), fell on 28 Eeb., 1 and 2 M a r c h ; in 1868, on 26, 27, 28 J a n . ; t h e G r e a t B a i r a m in 1865, began on 10 M a y ; e x t e n d i n g from t h e A d r i a t i c to t h e E u x i n e . T h e passage, deemed impracticable, was completed b y t h e R u s in 1868, on 10 April. sians under Dicbitseh, d u r i n g t h e Russian a n d T u r k i s h B a i z e , a species of coarse w r oollen m a n u f a c t u r e , was war, 26 J u l y , 1829. A n armistice was t h e consequence; b r o u g h t i n t o E n g l a n d by some Flemish or D u t c h e m i a n d a t r e a t y of peace was signed a t Adrianople, 14 Sept. g r a n t s who settled a t Colchester, in Essex, and had p r i v following. T h e Balkans were crossed by t h e Russians, ileges g r a n t e d t h e m b y p a r l i a m e n t in 1660. T h e trade under Gourko, 13 J u l y , 1877; see Russo-Turkish War w a s under t h e control of a corporation called t h e governI I . B y t h e t r e a t y of Berlin, 13 J u l y , 1878, t h e Balkans ors of t h e D u t c h baize-hall, w h o e x a m i n e d t h e cloth prebecame t h e frontiers of t h e sultan's E u r o p e a n dominions. vious to sale.—A nderson. B a l l a d s m a y be traced in t h e British history to t h e Baker AND BAKEHOUSES, see Bread. Anglo-Saxons. — T a m e r . Adhelme, w h o died' 709, is B a k e r i a n L e c t u r e s , Royal Society, originated in mentioned as t h e first w h o introduced ballads into E n g a bequest of 100/. b j ' H e n r y Baker, F.R.S., t h e interest land. " T h e h a r p was sent round, and those m i g h t sing of w h i c h was to be g i v e n to one of t h e fellows for a w h o could."—Bede. Alfred s u n g b a l l a d s . — M a l m e s b u r y . scientific discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Canute composed one.— Turner. Minstrels were protectW o u l f e g a v e t h e first lecture in 1705. L a t t e r l y it has ed b y a c h a r t e r of E d w a r d I V . ; b u t b y a s t a t u t e of E l i z been t h e custom to nominate as t h e lecture a paper writa b e t h t h e y were m a d e punishable a m o n g rogues and ten b y one of t h e fellows. D a v y , F a r a d a y , Tvndall, and vagabonds and sturdy beggars.— Yiner. " Give me t h e other e m i n e n t men h a v e g i v e n t h e lecture. w r i t i n g of t h e ballads, and you m a y m a k e t h e laws."— T h e sea-ballads of Dibdin were B a l a k l a v a , a small town in t h e Crimea, w i t h a fine Fletcher of Saltoun. harbor, 10 miles S.E. from Sebastopol. A f t e r t h e battle v e r y popular in t h e F r e n c h w a r ; h e died 20 J a n . 1833. of t h e Alma, t h e allies advanced upon t h i s place, 26 Sept. Mr. J o h n Boosey's " Ballad Concerts," St. J a m e s ' s Hall, b e g a n 1866. 1854. Battle of Balaklava: About 12,000 Russians, c o m m a n d e d b y gen. L i p r a n d i , a t t a c k e d a n d took s o m e r e d o u b t s iu t h e vicinity, w h i c h b a d b e e n i n t r u s t e d to a b o u t '¿00 T u r k s . T h e y n e x t a s s a u l t e d t h e English, by w h o m t h e y w e r e compelled t o retire, m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e c h a r g e of t h e h e a v y c a v a l r y , led b y brigadier Scarlett, u n d e r t h e o r d e r s of lord L u c a u . A f t e r this, f r o m a n u n f o r t u n a t e m i s c o n c e p t i o n of lord R a g l a n ' s order, lord L u o a n o r d e r e d lord Cardigan, w i t h t h e light cavalry, to c h a r g e t h e R u s s i a n a r m y , w h i c h h a d r e f o r m e d on its o w n g r o u n d w i t h its a r t i l l e r y in f r o n t . The order w a s m o s t g a l l a n t l y obeyed, a n d g r e a t h a v o c w a s m a d e on t h e e n e m y : but, of (170 British h o r s e m e n , only 198 ret u r n e d . (Termed b y T e n n y s o n " T h e Charge of t h e Six H u n d r e d . " ) The i n f a n t r y engaged were t e r m e d a " t h i n red l i n e " 25 Oct. 1854 A b a n q u e t w a s given to t h e s u r v i v o r s at t h e A l e x a n d r a Palace 25 Oct. 1875 A sortie f r o m t h e g a r r i s o n of Sebastopol led to a despera t e e n g a g e m e n t here, in w h i c h t h e R u s s i a n s w e r e vig-

orously reptt/sed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and

Ballarat, see Australia, 1851. B a l l e t s began t h r o u g h t h e meretricious taste of t h e Italian courts. One performed a t t h e interview between our H e n r y V I I I . and F r a n c i s I. of France in the Field of t h e Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 1520.—Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in F r a n c e , and Louis X I V . bore a part in one, 1664. T h e y were introduced here w i t h operas early in the e i g h t e e n t h century. B a l l i n a m u c k (Longford). Here, on 8 Sept. 1798, t h e Irish rebels and t h e i r F r e n c h auxiliaries were defeated a n d captured. Balloons.* A j u s t idea of t h e principle of t h e construction of balloons was f o r m e d b y Albert of S a x o n y , an Augustine monk in t h e 14th century, and adopted b y a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, who died a t L y o n s in 1626. T h e idea is also a t t r i b u t e d to ISartolo-

w o u n d e d ; t h e allies losing a b o u t 600 22 March, 1855 T h e electric t e l e g r a p h b e t w e e n London a n d B a l a k l a v a * " A s t r a C a s t r a ; E x p e r i m e n t s and A d v e n t u r e s in t h e Atcompleted April, " m o s p h e r e ; by H a t t o n T u m o r , " a c o p i o u s work, a p p e a r e d iu A r a i l w a y b e t w e e n B a l a k l a v a a n d t h e t r e n c h e s completed J u n e j " J 1865.

5

BAL m e o d e G u z m a o , w h o d i e d in 1724. T h e p r i n c i p l e s of aeronautics i n c l u d e : 1, t h e p o w e r of a b a l l o o n t o r i s e in t h e a i r ; 2, t h e v e l o c i t y of i t s a s c e n t ; a n d , 0, t h e s t a b i l i t y of i t s s u s p e n s i o n a t a n y g i v e n h e i g h t . T h e applic a t i o n of sails a n d r u d d e r s h a s b e e n d u l y c o n s i d e r e d , a n d j u d g e d t o b e f u t i l e ; b u t in 1872 H e l m h o l t z t h o u g h t t h e y m i g h t be s t e e r e d , if m o v i n g s l o w l y . F a t a l accid e n t s t o t h e v o y a g e r s h a v e b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t 2 or 3 p e r c e n t . T h e A e r o n a u t i c a l S o c i e t y of G r e a t B r i t a i n , f o u n d ed w i t h t h e o b j e c t of f o s t e r i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g a e r o n a u t i c s a n d a e r o l o g y , b y t h e d u k e of A r g y l l , M r . J a m e s G l a i s h e r , sir C h a r l e s B r i g h t , a n d o t h e r s , 12 J a n . I 8 6 0 . F r a n c i s Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate t h e air by m e a n s of a boat raised by four hollow balls made of thin copper, from w h i c h ¿he air hud been e x h a u s t e d . . 1G70 J o s e p h Galien suggested the filling a bag w i t h t h e fine diffuse air of the upper regions of t h e a t m o s p h e r e . . . 1755 H e n r y Cavendish discovered t h a t hydrogen gas is 10.8 t i m e s lighter than common air 1766 And soon after Black of Edinburgh idled a bag with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the room 17G7 Cavallo tilled soap bubbles with hydrogen 1782 J o s e p h Montgollierinadea silken bag ascend with heated air ( f i r s t f i r e balloon) Nov. " J o s e p h a n d Stephen Montgoliier ascend and descend safely b y m e a n s of a lire balloon at Annonay, for w h i c h t h e y received m a n y honors 5 .lime. 1733 First ascent in a balloon filled w.th hydrogen, at Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles '27 Aug. J o s e p h Montgoliier ascends in a balloon inflated with smoke of burned straw and wool 19 Sept. First aerial voyage in a fire balloon —Pilatre de Rozier and the m a r q u i s d'Arlandes 21 Nov. " Second ascent of Charles m a hydrogen balloon to t h e h e i g h t of 9770 feet 1 Dec. " Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgoliier balloon at Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 Ascents become n u m e r o u s : Andreatii. 25 F e b . ; Blam hard, 2 March; Guyton de Morveau, t h e chemist. 2.5 April and 12 J u n o ; Fleurant and Madame T h i b l j (the first female aeronaut), 28 J u n e ; t h e d u k e o f C h a r t r e s (Philip Egalite) 19 Sept. The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi, at Moorfields, London 15 Sept. " Blancliard and Jefi'ries ascend at Dover; cross the Channel ; alight near Calais 7 J a n . 1785 The first ascent in Ireland, from Kanelagh Gardens, Dublin 19 J a n . Rozier a n d Romain killed in their desccnt near Boulogne; the balloon took fire 15 J u n e , P a r a c h u t e s constructed and used by B l a n c h a r d . . . .Aug. G a r n e r i n ' s narrow escape w h e n descending in one in London 2 Sept It 02 Sadler, who made m a n y previous e x p e d i t ' o n s in lingland, fell into t h e sea, near Holyhead, but was taken up. 9 Oct.' 1812 Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli a t n i g h t ; t h e balloon, bo.ng surrounded by tire works, took lire, and she was precipitated to the ground and killed. .0 J u l y , 1819 Mr. Charles Green's first ascent (he introduced coal gas in ballooning) 19 July, 1821 Lieut. H a r r i s killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1824 Sadler, j u n . , kdled, falling from a balloon 1825 The great Nassau balloon, w h i c h had for some time previously been exhibited to the i n h a b i t a n t s of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall Gardens, started from that place on an e x p e r i m e n t a l voyage, having t h r e e individuals in the car, and after having been eighteen h o u r s in t h e air descended at Woilburg, in the duchy of Nassau 7 Nov. 183d Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his parac h u t e ; in its descent from the balloon it collapsed, and lie was t h r o w n out and killed 24 July, 1837 An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Denm a r k ; h s corpse was subsequently found on the seashore in a contiguous island, dashed to pieces.14 Sept. 1851 Ascent from Adrian, Michigan, by which Mr. Ira Thurston lost his life Sept. 185f J. B. Lassie's model of an -'aerial ship."' in w h K h the screw was used, was submitted to the a c a d e m y of sciences at Paris, 1859; and exhibited at Washington. IT. S. 185'J Mr. Wise and t h r e e o t h e r s ascended from St. Louis (after travelling 1150 miles they descended in Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 23 J u n e , * • Sadar's grout balloon (largest over made) when fully inflated contained 215.3G3 cubic feet of gas; the car. a cottage in wicker work, r a s e d 35 soldiers a t P a r i s ; Nadar hoped by m e a n s of a screw to s i e e r a balloon in the h e a v e n s ; his first ascent, w.tli 14 persons, successful 4 Oct. 1803 His second ascent; voyagers i n j u r e d ; saved by presence of m . n d of M. J u l e s Godard; descend at Nieuburg, li Hanover 12 Oct. Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, S y d e n h a m , Nov. Society for promoting aerial navigation formed at M. Nadar's, at P a r i s ; president, M. Barral, 15 J a n . 1SG4

6G

BAL

j Godard's great Montgolfior or fire balloon ascends I 28 J u l y and 3 Aug. 1804 I Ascent of X a d a r and others in his great balloon at BrusI sels 2(j Sept. « I Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; sev1 cral persons are injured by t h e balloon becoming un! controllable; it escapes 3 J u l y 18G5 Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris 23 J u n e ! l^GG , Mr. Coxwell said to h a v e m a d e 550 successful ascents 1 up to April, 1807 An aerial screw m a c h i n e (helicopteric) suggested, in i Paris, 18G3; described by Dr. J. Bell Pettigrew, in Lonj don, a t t h e Royal I n s t i t u t i o n 22 March, " I Mr. Hodsman crossed t h e Channel f r o m Dublin, a n d descended in Westmoreland 22 April, " A great balloon exhibited a t A s h b u r n h a n i Park, London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, Bucks, 25 May, 18G9 Charles Green, aeronaut, said to h a v e m a d e about GOO ascents, died aged H4 27 March, 1870 Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his navigable '' balloon, w i t h 13 p e r s o n s ; e x p e r i m e n t reported to be successful Eeb. 1S71 Professor Wise proposed to cross t h e Atlantic from NewYork to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in diameter, 110 feet perpendicular, w i t h a s u p p l e m e n t a r y balloon 36 feet in d i a m e t e r ; t h e two giving a lifting power of 15,900 lbs., a carrying power of 9500 lbs., and disposable ballast 7500 lbs., J u l y ; t h e balloon was reported imperfect, Sept.; a smaller balloon, under the mana g e m e n t of W. J. Donaldson, started (with a life-boat) 9.19 A.m.. G Oct.. and descended during a storm over Connecticut; the m e n narrowly escaped 7 Oct. 1873 Vincent de Groof, a Belgian (named the " f l y i n g m a n ' ' ] , constructed a p a r a c h u t e to imitate the flight of a b i r d ; he b r o u g h t it to London; ascended from Cremorne Gardens, and descended from a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex. 29 J u n e ; at his n e x t a t t e m p t , the parachute, either detached by himself or by accident, was disarranged, and h e was killed bv falling. 9 J u l y , 1874 Under the Government Balloon Committee. Mr. Coxwell ascended a t Woolwich to try C. A. Bowdler's apparatus (based on t h e screw-propeller) for s t e e r ' n g balu loons; failure reported 25 July, [It has been proved t h a t a screw with a vertical axis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby save gas and ballast.] M. and Mad. Duruof (see above, 1870) ascend from Calais to cross the c h a n n e l , 3 1 A u g . ; carried out to sea; t h e balloon fell into t h e water and drifted towards Norw a y ; rescued by a s m a c k (the Grand Charge) \ t h e a e r o n a u t s were lauded a t Grimsby 4 Sept. " Duruof and others ascend f r o m t h e Crystal Palace, 14 Sept. " Menier's new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept, and 10 Oct. 44 Ascent of capt. Burnaby a t t h e Crystal Palace to t r y his m a c h i n e for ascertaining t h e course of the wind above t h e clouds; reported successful 10 Nov. " MM. Tissandier, Croce-Spinelli. a n d Sivel ascend in t h e " Z e n i t h " f r o m La Villette, n e a r P a r i s ; at 2G,1G0 feet Croco t h r o w s out ballast; t h e y ascend r a p i d l y ; h e and Sivel die through suffocation; Tissandier recovered, 15 April, 1875 Washington J. Donaldson, e m i n e n t aeronaut, perishes in L a k e Michigan during a s t o r m i . . .18 J u l y , " Reported failure of Carrol's directing a p p a r a t u s at Paris, J u l y , 1878 F r e q u e n t ascents in a ' ' c a p t i v e balloon " Aug. Mr. Gitt'ard's great captive balloon. Paris, b u r s t 16 or 17 Arg. 1879 Five balloons start from various places n e a r London, competing for a silver medal given by t h e Balloon Soc i e t y ; the " O w l , " Mr. Wr'ght and C o m m a n d e r Choyne, travelled 48 miles in one h o u r 4 Sept. 1880 Internal,onal balloon contest at t h e Crystal Palace; England (•• Eclipse "), Mr. Wright; Frane'e, M.de Fonvielle; both alighted near P o r t s m o u t h 21 Oct. " Giflard and De L o m e ' s aerial s h i p said to be successful for direction, speed, etc J a n . 1881 MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATION'S.

Guyton de Morveau ascended twice d u r i n g the battle of Fleurus, and gave i m p o r t a n t information to J o u r d a i n , 17 June, The use of balloons for postal purposes invented by Mr. G. Shepherd. C.E Balloons were used d u r ' n g t h e b a t t l e of tioJfer'no, 24 J u n e , 1S59; and by the Federal a r m y near Washington July. The Balloon Corps of the United States A r m y was employed by gen. McClellan d u r i n g t h e first s ege of Richmond, lsG2. In consequence of t h e b r e a k i n g of t h e rope wii ch held his balloon captive, gen. F i t z - J o h n Porter was carried over t h e Confederate lines (June, 18G2); but. in descending, entered a c u r r e n t of a ! r w h i c h blew in the opposite direction, and t h u s escaped capture. M. Duruof conveyed the ma'l-bags from Paris to Tours during the siege 23 Sept.

1704 3351 18G1

1870

BAL Postal balloons f r o m Metz a n d Paris Sept.-Dec. Postal balloon sent u p f r o m Crystal Palace, S y d e n h a m (successfully) 0 Oct. M. G a m b e t t a e s c a p e d f r o m P a r i s in a b a l l o o n , a n d a r rived at Rouen 8 Oct. Many balloons d e s p a t c h e d f r o m P a r i s and other places, Oct. 1 8 7 0 - F e b . M i l i t a r y e x p e r i m e n t s ; a s c e n t of " U n i v e r s ; ' ' v e r y cold weather; valve burst; several h u r t ; near Yincenncs; no deaths 8 Dec. Military ascents and balloon e q u i p m e n t for military purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, Captive balloon at the volunteer review, Brighton, 29 M a r c h , EQUESTRIAN

ASCENTS.

67

Mr. G r e e n a f f i r m e d t h a t h e a s c e n d e d f r o m L o n d o n , o n a horse a t t a c h e d to a balloon May, H e did s o f r o m V a u x h a l l G a r d e n s w i t h a v e r y d i m i n u t i v e pony July, L i e u t . Gale, a n E n g l i s h m a n , m a d e a n a s c e n t w i t h a h o r s e f r o m t h e H i p p o d r o m e of V i n c e n n e s , n e a r B o r d e a u x . On d e s c e n d i n g a n d d e t a c h i n g t h e a n i m a l f r o m t h e balloon, t h e p e o p l e w h o h e l d its r o p e s , f r o m s o m e m i s c o n c e p t i o n , p r e m a t u r e l y l e t t h e m go, a n d t h e u n f o r t u n a t e a e r o n a u t w a s r a p i d l y b o r n e in t h e a i r b e f o r e h e w a s quite ready to r e s u m e h i s voyage. (He was discove r e d n e x t m o r n i n g d a s h e d t o p i e c e s in a field a m i l e from w h e r e t h e balloon was found) 8 Sept. T h e a s c e n t of M a d a m e P o i t e v i n f r o m C r e m o r n e G a r d e n s , n e a r L o n d o n , a s " E u r o p a o n a b u l l ' ' (a f e a t s h e h a d often p e r f o r m e d in France), a n d several asccnts on h o r s e s , b r o u g h t t h e p a r t i e s c o n c e r n e d b e f o r e t h e pol i c e - c o u r t s o n a c h a r g e of c r u e l t y t o a n i m a l s , a n d p u t a n e n d to e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t o u t r a g e d p u b l i c f e e l i n g , Aug. M. P o i t e v i n a s c e n d e d o n a h o r s e in t h e v i c i n i t y of P a r i s , about the tune just mentioned; was nearly drowned in t h e s e a , n e a r M a l a g a , w h i l e d e s c e n d i n g f r o m h i s balloon (and died soon after) 1858 S C I E N T I F I C ASCENTS.

G a v - L u s s n c a n d Biot a t P a r i s , 23 Aug. ; G a y - L u s s a c (to t h e h e i g h t of 22,977 f e e t ) 15 S e p t . B i x i o a n d B a r r a i a t P a r i s (to t h e h e i g h t of 19,000 i e e t . T h e y p a s s e d t h r o u g h a c l o u d 1)000 f e e t t h i c k ) Mr. W e l s h a s c e n d s , 17, 20 Aug. ; 2 1 Oct. a n d 10 N o v Scientific balloon ascents h a v i n g been r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n a n d f u n d s p r o v i d e d , Mr. J a m e s G l a i s h e r c o m m e n c e d h i s s e r i e s of a s c e n t s , p r o v i d e d w i t h suitable a p p a r a t u s , in M r . C o x w e l P s g r e a t balloon, a t W o l v e r h a m p t o n : h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t of 5 m i l e s , 17 J u l y , H e a s c e n d e d a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e 18 A p r i l , 11, 21 J u l y ; a t W o l v e r t o n , '2ftJ u n e ; a t N e w c a s t l e , d u r i n g t h e m e e t i n g of t h e B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n 31 Aug. H e a s c e n d e d t o t h e h e i g h t of a b o u t 7 m i l e s a t W o l v e r h a m p t o n ; a t 5 % m i l e s h i g h h e b e c a m e i n s e n s i b l e ; Mr. C o x w e l l lost t h e u s e of h i s h a n d s , b u t w a s a b l e to o p e n t h e v a l v e w i t h h i s t e e t h ; t h e y t h u s d e s c e n d e d in s a f e t y , 5 Sept. H i s 16th a s c e n t ; s u r v e y s London 9 Oct. H i s 1 7 t h a s c e n t a t W o o l w i c h ; d e s c e n d s a t Mr. B r a n d o n ' s , S u f f o l k (1st w i n t e r a s c e n t t h i s c e n t u r y ) 12 J a n . H e a s c e n d s f r o m W o o l w i c h (24th t i m e ) 30 Dec. His 25th ascent 27 Feb. Other ascents 2 O c t . , 2 Dec. 1865; a n d in M a y , G l a i s l i c r ' s " T r a v e l s in t h e A i r " p u b l i s h e d Jan. Mr. C o x w e l l ' s s c i e n t i f i c a s c e n t in t h e " N a s s a u 51 a t H o r n sey 22 S e p t .

1804 1850 1852

1862 1863

" '* 18,973,(513/.—the total a m o u n t exceeding eleven millions.* I n Ire-land \ s i m i l a r b a n k s h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u t e d , t h e lirst b e i n g t h e j H i b e r n i a n B a n k , in 1825. T h e n o t e - c i r c u l a t i o n of j o i n t I s t o c k b a n k s , on 1 O c t . 1855, w a s , in E n g l a n d , 3,990,800/. ; in Scot l a u d , 4,280,000/.; a n d in I r e l a n d , (¡,785,000/. ; t o t a l , w i t h E n g l i s h p r i v a t e b a n k s , a b o u t 19,000,000/. ; a n d w i t h t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d , a b o v e 39.000,000/. By the new C o m p a n i e s A c t , p a s s e d 15 A u g . 1879, u n l i m i t e d c o m p a n i e s m a y r e g i s t e r as l i m i t e d . Chief London Banks. London and W e s t m i n s t e r (bya>m:s limited, 1879) London J o i n t Stock Union Bank of London Commercial Hank of London London a n d County (becomes limited, 1879) City Bank (becomes li mi l u d , 1880) B a n k of London

Founded. 1*34 l->36 1839 " 1855 "

Joint S/och• Bank.*, Jan. I860: England a n d Wales (including London) 94 Scotland 15 Ireland 8 British and foreign colonial b a n k s w i t h offices in L o n d o n . 8

Banks, NATIONAL. T h e n a t i o n a l - b a n k s y s t e m of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s o r g a n i z e d 2 5 F e b . 1803, to g i v e u n i f o r m i t y to t h e paper c u r r e n c y and t h e b a n k i n g l a w s of t h e c o u n t r y . T h e old b a n k s , a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e several states, were i n d u c e d b y certain privileges, or forced b y special taxes, to surrender their slate charters a n d a c c e p t c h a r t e r s as n a t i o n a l b a n k s f r o m t h e U n i t e d States government. A subsequent act was adopted a n d a p p r o v e d 12 J u n e , 1870. B y t h e t e r m s of I h i s l a w t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l b a n k s w r as l i m i t e d t o $ 3 5 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h w a s s e c u r e d b y t h e d e p o s i t of t h e b o n d s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i t h t h e U n i t e d .States t r e a s urer. T h i s limitation was removed by later legislation. O n t h e 1st O c t . 1881, t h e r e w e r e 2132 n a t i o n a l b a n k s i n e x i s t e n c e , w i t h an a g g r e g a t e c a p i t a l of if463,821,985, a n d a n a g g r e g a t e c i r c u l a t i o n of $ 3 6 0 , 3 4 4 , 2 5 0 . B a n k s O F SCOTLAND. T h e o l d b a n k of S c o t l a n d w a s s e t u p in 1695 a t E d i n b u r g h , a n d b e g a n 1 N o v . , t h e s e c o n d i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e k i n d in t h e e m p i r e ; l e n d i n g m o n e y to t h e crown was prohibited. Koyal B a n k of Scotland chartered 8 July, British Linen Company B a n k Commercial Bank National Bank. , Union Bank First stone of present Bank of Scotland laid 3 June, City of Glasgow Bankf Scotch b a n k i n g act passed 21 -July, Western B a n k of Scot land and the Glasgow Bank stopped, causing m u c h distress Nov. * T H E "ROYAL B K I T Ì S U

BANK w a s

established

1727 1740 1810 1825 1830 1801 1839 1845 1857

in 1849,

by

Mr. .John McGregor, M.P., and others, u n d e r sir R. Peel's Jointstock Banking Act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844), as an a t t e m p t to introduce t h e Scotch b a n k i n g system of cash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 185(5, it stopped p a y m e n t , occasioning m u c h distress a n d r u i n to m a n y small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of t h e existence of f r a u d in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of the b a n k , elicited during the examination before t h e court of b a n k r u p t c y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t instructed the attorney-general to l'ile ex-officio informations aga : ust t h e manager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They, were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, a f t e r thirteen days' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. ÀI t e m p t s to mitigate t h e p u n i s h m e n t failed (May, 1858); but all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, 1860, dividends had been paid to tiie a m o u n t of I5.v. in t h è pound. The attorney-general b r o u g h t in a bill called the F r a u d u l e n t Trustees' Act, 20 K 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions. On 19 April, 1800. a deficiency of 203,0007. was discovered in t h e Union Bank of London, Mr. George Pulling«'!', a cashier, confessed himself guilty of forgery a n d fraud, and was sentenced to t w e n t y years' imprisonment. On 18 Feb. 1801, it was discovered that,John Durden, a clerk of the Commerciai Bank of London, had robbed his employers of Verona (Theodoric defeats Ocloacer) 27 Sept. 489 Toll) a 'b. nr Zulpich '(Clovis defeats Alemunui) 496 ((\ovis defeats Visigoths) 507 Baddesdown h:lf (BrHons 'defeat Saxons) V 493, 511 Veseronce (Gondemar defeats Ciodomir) 524 Victories of Belisarius in Africa, etc 533-4 Narses defeats Totila, 552; and Teias '.... 553 Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 622 Beder (first victory of Mahomet) (523 Muta (Mahometans defeat Christians) 629 Hatlield (Heathfleld; Penda defeats Edwin) 633 AJnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) 13 July. Yermuk (Saracens victors) 23 Aug! 634 Yermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) Nov. tuguese defeat Moors) .25 July, L i n c o l n (Stephen defeated) . . 2 Feb. Jaen (Moors defeated, by Spaniards) Carcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) . 9 Aug. A l n w i c k ( William the Lion defeated) . . . 1 2 July. L e g n a n o (Italians defeat emperor) . . 29 M a y ! T i b e r i a s ( S a l a d i n defeats Crusaders) ..3. 4 July, Ascoli (Tancred defeats emperor Henry VI. army) A c r e t a k e n b y Crusaders . . . 1 2 July. . . . .6 Sept. A r s o u f (Richard I. defeats Saracens) .15 J u l y , F r u t e v i l l e (Richard I. defeats Pit Hip II.) A r c a d i a p o l i s (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) .19 July", A l a r c o s (Moors defeat Spaniards) .20 Sept. Gisors ( R i c h a r d I. defeats French) .16 J u l y , Tolosa (Moors defeated) .12 Sept. M u r e t (Albigenses defeated) .27 J u l v , Boil v i n e s (French defeat Germans) .20 M a y , L i n c o l n (French defeated) Corte N u o v a (Frederic II. defeats Milanese)... .27 N o v . .20 July, T a i l l e b o u r g (French defeat Henry HI.) Carizmians defeated twice

937 938 962 982 1014 « 1016 1030 1053 1054 1066 •»

1080 1080 1093 1097 1099 1106 1119 1134 1138 1139 1141 1157 1160 1174 1176 1187 1190 1191 1194 1195 1198 1212 1213 1214 1217 1237 1242 1247

BAT

79

.2"> May, 1249 Fossalta (Ghihellines defeale.d) 1250 Mausourah (Louis IX. and Crusader* defeated). . 7 . 3 Oct 1203 Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) • U May, 1201 Lowes (English barons victorious) Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) . .4: Aug. 1205 Benevcnto (Charts of Anjou defeats Manfred). .20 Feb. 1200 .23 Aug. 1208 Tagliac.ozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) . .'JO Aug. 1278 Marclifeld (Austrians defeat Bohemians) .11 Dei'. 1282 Aber IM'.v (Llewellyn of II'"/.x defeated) 1292 Zagrab (defeat of Charles Marlel) 27 April, 1290 Dunbar (Scots defeated) .10 Sept. 1297 Cambuskenneth (TVallaee defeats English) . .2 July, 1298 Goelbeiln (Adolphus of Nassau defeated) .22 July, Falkirk ; 11 '.dlar" defeated) .11 Julv, 1302 Court.ray (Flemings defeat count of Arlois) .21 Feb. 130:1 Roslin, Scotland (Com'yn defeats English) 1311 .March, Cephisus ( B r i e n n e , duke of Athens, defeated) .. . .24 June, 1314 Bannockbum (Bruce defeats English) 1315 .15 Nov. Morgarten (Siviss defeat Austrians) .10 Aug. 1310 Athenry (Irish defeated)1318 . . .6 Oct. Fougliard. or Dundalk (Edward Bruce defeated) Boroughbridge (Edward III. defeats Barons) 1G March, 1322 28 Sept. Milhldorf ( B a v a r i a n s defeat Austrians) 11 Aug. 1332 Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) 10 July, 1333 Halidoil Hill (Edward III. defeats Scots). .. 28 or 30 Oct. 1340 Tarifa {Moors defeated) l!l Aug. 1341 Auberoclie (earl of Derby defeats French)... 20 Aug. 1340 Crecy (English defeat French) 17 Oct. Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) 1347 La Roche Darien (Charles of Blois defeated). .19 Sept, 1358 Poitiers (English defeat French) .10 May, 1301 Cocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) ... .29 Sept. Aur.'iy (Du Guescliti defeated) Najara (Navarrete, Logroño) (Black Prince defeats Henry of Trastamare) 3 April, 1367 Montiel (Feter of Castile defeated) 14 March, 1309 Rosbecqne (French defeat Flemings) 27 Nov. 1382 Aljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Sjmniards) 14 Aug. 1385 Sempaell (Swiss defeat Austrians) .9 July, 1386 Otterburn {Chevy Chase; Scots victors) 10 Aug. 1388 Nafcls (Swiss defeat Austrians) C'ossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and A murath I. killed}, V Sept. 1389 . .28 Sept. 1390 Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians). . . . 7 May, 1402 Nesbit (Scots defeated) . .28 July, [. 1 V I .1 (Timour [ ! III!"".! defeats (it/CUfc.l I Bfyazet) "• I Aneyra t T í i m di ,1 m i Hill H i l l (English f I.'.-. 1 1 ! / i ''' // 'it ' . ! Scots) Vi . . 1 1 Sept. Homeldotl . .23 Julv, 1403 Shrewsbury (Perries, etc., 'feated) Braiuham Moor ( H e n r y TV. defeats rebels)... . . . . 19 Feb. 1108 . .15 Julv, 1110 Tannenberg (Pole:; defeat Teuton knights) . .21 Julv, 1111 Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . . .25 Oct. 1115 Agincourt (English defeat French) . .14 Julv, 1120 Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) Anjou, Beatlge (English defeated by Scots).... 22 March, 1121 Crevant (English defeat French and Scots). . .. .11 Juno, 1423 .. .2 June, 1421 Aquila (Aragonese defeated by Italians) Yemeni I (English defeat French and Scots) .. . . 1 7 Aug. . . . 12 Feb. 1429 Herrings (English defeat French) .29 April, Orleans (siege relieved) .18 June, Patay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) Lippau, or Bolimischbrofl (Hussites defeetted), . . 28 May, 1434 . . . 2 4 Dec. 1143 Kunobitza ( H u n n i a d e s defeats the Turks) . . 20 Aug. 1144 St. .lii/'Oli (French defeat Swiss) . . 10 Nov. Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) . ..17 Oct 1418 Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) .15 April, 1450 l'ormigni (English defeetted by French) .27 June, Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) . . . 23 Oct. 1452 Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonls) Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defeats Crawford) . . 18 May, Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot).11 or 3 July, 1453 • Y O R K I S T S AND

LANCASTRIANS.

St. Albans (Yorkists victorious) Blorehcath (Yorkists victors) Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken).... Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) St. Albans (Lancastrians victors) Towton ( Y o r k i s t s victorious) Hexham (Yorkists victors) Edgecote, or Banbury (Yorkists defeetted) Stamford ( L a n c a s t r i a n s defeated) Barnet (ditto) Tewkesbury (ditto)

22 or 23 May, .23 Sept. 10 July, . . . . 3 1 Dee. 2 Feb. . . . . 17 Feb. . . 2 9 March. . . . . 1 5 May, 20 July, . . 1 3 March, . . . 1 4 April, 4 May,

WAR

OF THE

ROSES

1 Sept. Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) Montlhery (Louis XI. and nobles; indecisive) . .10 Julv, . . . 3 March, Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) . . .22 June, Morat (ditto) 5 Jan. Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) 22 Aug. Bosworth ( R i c h a r d III. defeated) . . .10 June, Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken), . . . .28 Jul}-, St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) Sauchieburn, near Bannockbum (James III. defeated Inj rebels) . 0 July Fornovo ( F r e n c h defeat Italians) Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) .22 Juno, Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) .21 April, Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) .28 April, Cerignola (diltv)

1155 1159

ii:;o

1404 1469 1170 1171

1450 1405 1470 1177 1485 1487 1488 1495 1497 1503

BAT Gar'gliano (Gonsalco defeats French) 27 Dec. Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) 14 May, Ravenna (Gaston de Foix. victor, killed) 11 April, Novara { P a p a l Swiss defeat French) 0 June, Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) 16 Aug. Flodden (English defea.t Scots) 9 Sept. Marignano (French defeat Swiss) 13-15 Sept. Bicocca, near Milan (Lautree defeated) 29 April, Pavia (Francis I. defeated) 24 Feb. Frankenhausen (Anabaptists defeated) 15 May, Molnvz [Turks defeat Hungarians) 29 Aug. (.'appel (Zwinglius slain) 11 Oct. LauU'en (Hessians defeat Austrians) 13 May, Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish relicts) Abancay (Almagro defeats Alvarado) 12 July, Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) 25 Nov. Ceresuola ( F r e n c h defeat imperialists) 14 April, Muhlberg (Charles Idefeats Protestants) 24 April, Pinkey (English defeat Scots) 10 Sept. K e f s rebellion suppressed by Warwick Aug. Marciano (Florentines defeat French) 3 Aug. St, Quentin (Spanish ami English defeat French). 10 Aug. Calais (taken) * 7 Jan. Gravelines, n. (Spanish atid English deft. French).Vd July, Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) 19 Dec. Carberrv Hill (Man/ of Scotland defealej) .15 Julie. St. Heir's (ditto) ...'. .' 10 Nov. I.atigside (ditto) 13 May, J a r n a c (Huguenots defeated) 13 March, Moncontour (Coligny defeated) 3 Oct. Lepanto, re (Don John defeats Turks) 7 Oct. Dormans (Guise defeats Huguenots) .10 Oct, Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) 4 Aug. Alcantara ( S p a n i a r d s defeat Portuguese) 24 June, Zutplien (Dutch and English defeat Spaniards). .22 Sept, Coutras (Henry IV. defeats League) 20 Oct. Spanish Armada defeated, » fuly, Aug. Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) 21 Sept. 14 March, Ivry, or YA'res (ditto) Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France 20 July, Fontaine Française (Henry IV. beats Spaniards).5 June, Blackwater (Tyrone and rebels defeat. Bagnal) 14 Aug. Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) Kinsale (Tyrone reelured tnj Mountjoy) Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) Gibraltar (Dutch elegit Spaniards) Prague (king of Bohemia defeated) 8 Nov. Dessau ( Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld) 25 April, Rochelle (taken) .' 28 Oct. St.uhm (Gustavtts defeats Poles) Leipsie, or Breitenfeld (Gustams defeats Tilly).. .7 Sept, Lech (Imperialists defeated; Tilly kilted) 5 April, Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or I.utzen ( S w e d e s vichiriotis; Gustavus slain) fx, s i 10 Nov. Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) 27 Aug. Arras (taken by the F"rench) 10 Aug. Leipsie (Swedes defeat Austria?is) 23 Oct. Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) I'.i May. Friedburg (Conde victor) 3-5 Aug. Nordlingen (Tureane defeats Austrians) C I V I L W A R IN

1503 1509 1512 1513 1515 1522 1525 1526 1531 1534 1535 1537 1542 1544 1547 1519 1554 1557 1558 1562 1507 1508 1509 1571 1575 1578 1580 1580 1587 1588 1589 1590 1592 1595 1598 10110 1001 1005 1007 1020 1020 1028 1031 1032 1034 1640 1042 1643 1644 1045

ENGLAND.

Worcester ( prince Itnpert cictoi-) Edgeliill light (issue doubtful) Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated). Bratnharn Moor (Fairfax defeated) Stratton (Royalists vieiorieius) Clialgrove { H a m p d e n killed) Atherton Moor (Royalists victorious) Lansdown (ditto) Devizes, or Roundway-down {ditto) Gainsborough (Cromwell v.ie:tor) Newbury (favorable to Royalists) Clieriton, or Alresford (ditto) Cropredy Bridge (Charles 1. victor) Marston Moor { p r i n c e Rupert defeated) Tippermuir (Memtrose defeats Covenanters).. Newbury (indecisive) Naseliy (Charles I. totally defeateil) Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) Kilsyth (ititto) ' Philipllaugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose).. Benburb (if Neill defeats English) Dungan Hill (Irish defeated) Preston (Cromwell victor) .... Iiathuiiiies (Irish Royalists defeated) Droglieda (taken by storm) Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.).... Galway (surrendered) Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk)

. . .23 Sept. 23 Oct. Jan. .29 March, . . . 10 Mav, . .18 June, . .30 June, 5 Julv, . . . 1 3 Julv, . . 2 7 July, . . . 2 0 Sept. .29 March. .. .29 June, . . . . 2 July. 1 Se] it. . . ..27 Oct. .. .14 June. . . . . 2 July,' .. .15 Aug. . . . 1 3 Sept. . . . 5 June, . . . . 8 Aug. . . . 1 7 Aug. . . . . 2 Aug. . . .12 Sept. . .27 April, 3 Sept. 3 Seilt,

1042 1043

1016

1.147 1018

1019 1050

1051 1652 .21 i p r i ï , 1000

Arras. France (Turenne defeats Conde) Dunkirk (ditto) . . 1 4 June, Estremoz (Don John defeated, by Schömberg). . . . 8 Juno, St. Gotthard (Montecuculi. defea'ts Turks) . . . . 1 Aug. Villa Viciosa (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . Pentland hills (Covenanters defeated) . . 2 8 Nov. Cahdia (taken by Turks) ...OScpt.

1054 1658 1003 1004 1605 1600 106»

BAT

80

Choczim (Sobieski defeats Turks) 11 Nov. 1673 Seneff'e (French and Dutch ; indecisive) 11 Aug. 1674 Ensishcim (Turenne, defeats Imperialists) 4 Oct. Mulhauscn {ditto) 31 Dec. Turckhcim (ditto) 5 J¡111. 1675 Salzbach (Turenne killed) 27 .July, Dru 111 c 1 og (Covenante>'s defeat Ctaverhouse) 1 Jul 10,1 6 7 9 Both well Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) .'22 Juno, Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobie.ski) 12 Sept. 1683 Sedge 11100r (Monmouth defeated) 6 Ju 1 y, 1685 Moliacz (Turks defeated)... 12 Aug. 1687 KiIIiecran k i0 (Highlanders defeat Mackay) 27 July, New town-butler (Jacobites defeated) 30 July, losy Boy no ( W i l l i a m III. defeats James II.) 1 July, Fleurus (Ciarleroi, Luxembourg victor) 1 July, 1690 At hi one taken by Ginckcl 30 June, Aughrim (James II.'s cause ruined). . 12 July, 1691 Side 11 eke men (Louis of Baden defeats Turks)... .19 Aug. Enghein or Steenkirk {William HI. defeated).. .24 Julv, 1692 Landen ( W i l l i a m HI. defeated) 19 July, 1093 Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 4 Oct. Zenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) 11 Sept. 1697 Narva (Charles XIL defeats Russians) 30 Nov. 1700 Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) 9 July, 1701 Chiari (Austrians defeat French) 1 Sept. Clissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) 20 July, Santa Vittoria (French victors) 20 July, Friedlingen {French defeat Germans) 14 Oct. Pultusk (Swedes defeat'Poles) 1 May, 1703 Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 20 Sept. Don a u we r t h {Ma rlbo rough victor) 2 J u! v, Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) 24 July, 1704 Blenheim or Hochstadt (.Marlborough victor), (0. s.) 2 Aug. Tirlemont {Marlborough successful) 18 July, Cassano (prince Eugene; indecisive) 10 Aug. 1705 Hit tan {taken by Russians) 14 Sept. Ram i 11 i es (Ma rlbo rou e j . ( Wellington defeats Soutt) 28 J u l y , 2 Aug. K at zba< i ii ( Bi ile 'i e r def< ts Ney) 2i » A u g. Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) 20, 27 Aug. St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) 31 Aug. I > e n n e w i t z (->>'/ defea ted) 0 S e p t. Möckern (French defeated) 10 Ort. Leipsic (Napoleon defeated) 1 0 - 1 8 Oct. Hanau ( N< ipaleo n d" fe a ts Ba va ri ans) 30 0 c t. S t . - J e a n de-1aiz ( Wellington defeats Soutt) 10 Nov. Passage of the Nivo. 9 Dec. ; several engagements between the Allies and French ID to 1 3 Dec. S t. - D i z ier, Frauce ( Fi-ench victors) 28 Jan. Brienne (Allies defeated) 29 J a n . L a Iiothiure (Napoleon defeats Allies) 1 Feb. B a r - s u r - A u b c (JHies vict'ors) 7 Feb. Mincio {prince Eug'ne defeats Austrians) 8 Feb. C h a m p Aubert (French defeat Allies) 1 0 - 1 2 Feb. Montmirail (ditto) 1 1 Feb, V a u c h a m p (S.-20 F e b . , 5 March, Oloklikaha ' yi March Cooper's Post (defence o f ) ! ' . ' . ' . ! ! ! 5—17 April' Thlonotosassa 27 April' Micanopy "... '."9 J u n e ' Welika Pond 9 ju¡y Ridgeley's Mill '.27 J u l y ' Fort Drane 21 Au^.' San Velusco H a m m o c k 18 Sept. Wahoo S w a m p 17,18," and 21 Nov.' Hatcheeluskie 27 J a n . Camp Monroe 8 Feb. Clear R i v e r Mosquito Inlet 10 Sept. Okechobee L a k e 25 Dec. Waccassassa R i v e r 2(5 Dec. J u p i t e r Creek '15 j;)n, J u p i t e r Iulet 24 J a n . Newmansviile 7 June Carloosahatchee 23 J u l y ! Fort King W.%8 April) L e v i ' s Prairie 19 May Wacahoota g Sept'. Everglades (expedition into) 3 - 2 4 Dec. Micanopy 28 Dec. Fort Brooke, near (two skirmishes) 2 March, Hawe Creek 05 J a n ; P i l a k l i k a h a Big H a m m o c k 19 April (See Seminole War.) ' MEXICAN'

1835

1839 1840

1841 1842

WAR.

F o r t B r o w n (attack on) 3 May : Palo Alto " 8 May) R e s a c a de la Palma 9 May,' Monterey 2 1 , 2 2 , 23, and 24 Sept. Brazito 25 Dec. San Gabriel 8 Jan. : The Mesa 9 Jan. Encarnación 23 J a n . Canada 24 J a n . B u e n a Vista 22, 23 Feb. Pass oí' S a c r a m e n t o '.28 Feb. Vera Cruz (surrendered to the Americans) 29 March, Alvarado 2 April, Cerro Gordo in April,' Tuspan (surrendered) i s April) Contreras 20 Aug! Cherubusco 20 Aug. El Molino del R e y 8 Sept. Chapultepec 12-14 Sept. City of Mexico (taken) 14 Sept. Puebla (.4//iér Assau] t an d captu re of Delli i 14-20 Sept. '! Fredericksburg. Va 13 Dec. Conflicts before Lucknow 25, 26 Sept.; 18, 2» Nov. 4< Holly Springs, Miss, (caplured b>j Van Dom) '¿0 Dw " Victories of Coi. Grenthed 27 Sept.; 10 Oct, " Ch i ck asaw B a yo u, M i ss 27-29 Dec. " Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) 6 Dec. 11 Stone River, Murfreesborough.Tenn. .31 Dec. 1862-2 Jan. 1863 Futteghur (ditto) 2 Jan. 1858 Arkansas Post, Ark. (captured by McClernand) 11 Jan. Calpi (victory of Ingiis) 4 Feb. '1

Alumbagh (victories of Outram) Con iiicts at Luc know '(taken) Jliansi (Rose victorious)

12 Jan. and 21 Feb. 14-19 March, 4 April,

" '1 "

* There were many smaller conflicts, of which the accounts were very uncertain.

BAT

O e v e r s e e (Danes and Allies) D i i p p e l (taken by the Prussians) A l s e n (ditto) R e n d s b u r g (ditto)

BAT

84

R a i d b y Grierson (in Mississippi).Stoncman (in Virginia), a n d Streiglit (in Northern Georgia, terminating in Streight's defeat and capture) 11 A p r i l - 5 M a y , 1863 u P o r t Gibson, Miss 1 May, Chanceliorsvi 1 le, V a '2-4 M a y , '! 11 R a y m o n d , Miss 12 M a y , Jackson, Miss , 11 M a y , " Champion Hill, M i s 10 MaV, " B i g Black, Miss 17 M a y , V i c k s b u r g (I wo unsuccessful assaults) 19, 22 M a y , P o r t Hudson (assault repulsed) 27 M a y , " H a n o v e r Junction, Va 30 .Juno, " Gettysburg, Pa 1 - 3 July, " V i c k s b u r g , Miss, (surrendered to Grant) 4 July, " P o r t Hudson, La. (surrendered to Banks) 9 July, " F o r t W a g n e r , S. C. (assaults repulsed; captured 6 Sept.) 10-18 J u l y , " M o r g a n ' s raid, K y . , Ind., and 0 . (terminating in Morgan's defeat and capture) 24 June-26 July, " Ch i c k am a u ga Cree k, G a 19, 20 S e pt. " C a m p b e l l ' s Station, T e n n 16 N o v . " K n o x v i l i e (besieged and wn.succes*fully assaulted by Lonqstreet) 17 N o v . - 4 Dec. '' L o o k o u t Mountain. T e n n 24 N o v . " Missionary R i d g e , T e n n 25 N o v . " Olustee, F l a 20 Feb. 1864 Sabine Cross-roads, L a H April, " Pleasant H i l l , L a 9 April, " F o r t Pi 1 low, Tenn. (capture and massacre) 12 A p r i l , " Wilderness, V a 5, 0 M a y , " (1 7, 12 M a y , S p o t t s y l v a n i a Court house, V a Petersburg, Va. (Butler''s attack) 10 M a y , " Resaca, Ga.. 14, 15 May, " N e w H op e Cb u rc h, G a 25 M a y , " Cold Harbor. V a 1 - 3 Jtmej " 16 J u n e, " Petersbu rg ( 8 m ith's attack) W e l d o n Railroad 21, 22 June, " s

in Alsace,

by the Germans 3 N o v . 1870;

p i t u l a t e d 10 F e b . 1 8 7 1 ; r e s e r v e d t o F r a n c e w h e n

w e r e tolerated in ancient times, b e i n g often

musicians and ballad-singers.

Belfort,

France, was invested

170S 1787 1825

E. ca-

Alsace

w a s c e d e d , 2G F e b . ; q u i t t e d b y t h e G e r m a n s A u g . 1873.

Belgium,

the southern portion

of the

Netherlands,

a n d a n c i e n t l y t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e Belga?, w h o w e r e l y c o n q u e r e d b y J u l i u s C i e s a r , 5 1 i?.c. one e i g h t h of Great Britain.

I t s g o v e r n m e n t is a l i b e r -

al c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y , f o u n d e d in 1831. vious The 451;

h i s t o r v , sec

Flanders.

final-

I t s s i z e is a b o u t

and

Netherlands,

p o p u l a t i o n ( 3 1 D e c . ) , 18G2, 4 , 8 3 0 , 5 0 0 ; I860, 4,829,320; 1870.5,087,105;

For

pre-

Holland.

1805, 4 , 9 8 4 , -

1879,5,530,140.

T h e r e v o l u t i o n c o m m e n c e s at Brussels 25 Aug. T h e p r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t declares B e l g i u m indep e n d e n t (M. V a n de W e y e r , a c t i v e ) 4 Oct. A n t w e r p t a k e n ( e x c e p t the c i t a d e l ) 23 Dec. B e l g i a n independence a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e a l f e d p o w ers 2G Dec. D u k e de N e m o u r s e l e c t e d k i n g (his father, the F r e n c h king, r e f u s e d h i s consent) 3 Fob. Surlet de C h o k i e r is e l e c t e d r e g e n t 24 F e b . L e o p o l d , prince o f Saxe-Coburg, a c c e p t e d t h e c r o w n . 12 J u l y ; enters Brussels 19 J u l y , W a r w i t h the N e t h e r l a n d s c o m m e n c e s 3 Aug. F r a n c e sends 50,000 t r o o p s t o assist B e l g i u m , and an a r m i s t i c e ensues Aug. C o n f e r e n c e of m i n i s t e r s o f t h e five g r e a t p o w e r s held in L o n d o n ; acceptance o f 24 a r t i c l e s o f pacification, 15 N o v . C o n v e n t i o n b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e against Hoiland 22 Oct. A n t w e r p b e s i e g e d , 30 N o v . ; t h e c i t a d e l t a k e n b y t h e French 23 Dec. T h e F r e n c h a r m y returns t o F r a n c e 27 Dec. P r e l i m i n a r y c o n v e n t i o n w i t h H o l l a n d signed 21 M a y , R i o t at Brussels (see Brussels) G April, T r e a t y * b e t w e e n H o l l a n d aud B e l g i u m signed in London 19 A p r i l , Queen of E n g l a n d v i s i t s B e l g i u m Aug. T h e k i n g and his son visit E n g l a n d Oct. Increase o f a r m y to 100,000 m e n v o t e d 10 M a y , O p p o s i t i o n to r e l i g i o u s c h a r i t i e s b i l l t June, A n e w m i n i s t r y under M. Charles K o g i e r . 9 Nov. T h e c h a m b e r s d i s s o l v e d ; reassembled 10 Dec. T h e k i n g p r o c l a i m s B e l g i u m neutral in t h e I t a l i a n w a r , M — Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand 12 June, Death o f ' M . I ' o t t e r 22 .July, The king visits England June, V a g u e r u m o r s o f a n n e x a t i o n to F r a n c e p r o d u c e w a r m loyal addresses to the k i n g 13 June, T h e octrois abolished 21 J u l y , Successful m i l i t a r y v o l u n t e e r m o v e m e n t \ug. C o m m e r c i a l t r e a t y w i t h F r a n c e signed 1 May, Continued illness o f the king, w i t h occasional a m e n d ment May. June. C o m m e r c i a l t r e a t y w i t h Great B r i t a i n , adopted" b y t h e chamber 22 A u g .

1830 " 44

u

1831

u

" 1832

1833 1834 1839 ls>52 1853 1857

1859

I860 -1 1861 18G2 ••

J a m e s C o o k s u r v e y e d t h e coasts of b o t h continents.

Belfast,

capital

of Ulster, N . Ireland.

Its

castle,

supposed to h a v e been built by J o h n de Courcy, was destroyed

by

the

Scots

under

Edward

Bruce,

1315;

see

Orainje. Belfast, g r a n t e d b y J a m e s I. to sir A r t h u r Chichester, lord d e p u t y , l f i l ' 2 ; and erected into a c o r p o r a t i o n 1013 T h e L o n g B r i d g e (21 arches. 2562 feet long) built 1682-6 T h e lirst e d i t i o n o f t h e Bible in Ireland p r i n t e d h e r e 1704

* T h i s t r e a t y arose out o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e held in L o n d o n on t h e Belgian question, b y t h e decision o f w h i c h t h e t r e a t y o f 15 N o v . 1831, w a s m a i n t a i n e d , and t h e p e c u n i a r y c o m p e n s a tion o f s i x t y m i l l i o n s o f f r a n c s o f f e r e d b y B e l g i u m f o r t h e terr i t o r i e s a d j u d g e d to H o l l a n d w a s d e c l a r e d inadmissible. t At t h e r e v o l u t i o n in 1830, t h e R o m a n Catholic c l e r g y lost the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c charities, w h i c h t h e y h a v e struggled t o r e c o v e r e v e r since. I n A p r i l . 1857. M. D e c k e r , t h e h e a d o f the m i n i s t r y , b r o u g h t in a bill f o r this purpose, but w a s c o m p e l l e d t o w i t h d r a w it, a n d e v e n t u a l l y to resigu.

BEL

89

Great distrï'""3 through docayoftra.de Aug. 1802 Fierce dissensions 11 iro u g h Ro m an C at h o I i c s, J a n. ; tlie ministry resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; dissolution of the chambers, 17 J u l y ; the Protestants superior in the election Aug. 1864 Death of Leopold 1 10 Doe. IS05 The new king and queen visit England, 5 J u l y ; and Ghent, and other Belgian cities July, 18GG National riile meeting (tir) 12-16 Oct. Mr. Phillips, lord m a y o r of London, and 1100 English volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd - Lindsay ; other foreigners attend; grand banquet given by the king at. Brussels 20 Oct. " Opening of the chainbe rs. w i th a r eassu r i ng spec c li fro m the king 13 Nov. " Violent noting in mining districts ( March i e n n e au - Pont) on account of reduction in wages; suppressed by the military 1-2 Feb. 1867 About 24*00 Belgians (of the garde civique and volunteers) visit England; arrive, 10 J u l y ; received by lord mayor, 12 J u l y ; by prince of Wales at Wimbledon, 13 J u l y ; dine at Windsor, 16 J u l y ; at a ball at Agricultural Hall, 18 July ; received by Miss Burdett-Coutts, 19 J u l y ; attend the review at Wimbledon, 20 J u l y ; leave London 22 J uly, " New ministry (under M. Frere-Orban); l i b e r a l . . . .3 Jan. 1868 Serious riots in the mining districts; p u t down by the mill tary ; 10 1 ives lost 25-29 March, " M o n u m e n 11 o C harlo in agn e at L i ège, i n au gu rat ed 20 J u 1 y, " International congress of workmen at Brussels. 6-13 Nov. " The crown-prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Brabant, died 22 Jan. 18G9 Concession of a Luxembourg railway to a French railway company, without the assent of the state, prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with the F r e n c h government a r ra n ged May, 1 ' 19 Sept. 1 ' I n t e r na t i o n al riiie m c c t i n g he 1 d at L i ège Resignation ofFrère-Orban ministry abou 119 J une, 1870 M. d1A n e t lian 1 s in i n i s try an no u need 3 J u ! y, u Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the king and i »copie 8 Aug. £: T reaty for the neutrality of Belgiu m b e t we e n G reat B r i t ain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and Franco, signed 11 Aug. " After surrender of Sedan m a n y French soldiers enter Belgium ; disarmed and interned 1 - 2 Sept. " Strong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and others ; r i o ts at B r u ssel s 22-25 Nov. " Resignation of D'Anethan; M. Malou (a moderate) forms a ministry 7 Dec. 1871 The comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 17 Feb.; compelled to quit Belgium through popular demonstrations 27 Feb. 1872 The French government denounce the treaty of commerce with Belgium 29 March, " Treaty of commerce with France signed 5 Feb. 1873 The czar at Brussels 22 M ay, " M. Van de Weyer, statesman; active during the revolution of 1830; ambassador to England, 1831-67; died, 23 May, 1874 International conference at Brussels respecting rights of '27 J u i y-28 A u g. ' ' n e u t rais d u r i n g wa r—n o res u 11 s Notes from the German government, complaining of publications favoring the censured German ecclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne's proposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassinate Bismarck. .15 April, 1875 Diguilied Belgian replies March and May, u The court at Liège cannot interfere, May ; modification o f the c r i m i nal la w p ropo sed June, " Much popular opposition to religious processions: riots, Mav, June, 11 The king visits England 29 May, 1876 Catholic successes in the elections; riots against t h e m at ^ Brussels and Antwerp about 16,17 June, 11 Statue of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated by t h e king i Oct. - 434 e v e r y church, ' - f o r e v e r y m a n t h a t will to l o o k ;ind 397 read t h e r e i n . " ] T. M a t t h c w s ' s < said to be fictitious n a m e f o r J o h n R o g NKW TKSTAMKNT. ers) v e r s i o n ( p a r t l y by T y n d a l e * and Co.-erdale) 1537 GOSPELS b y M a t t h e w , M a r k , L u k e , and J o h n . . . .B.C. 5-A.D. 33 C r a n m e r ' s Great B i b l e ( M a t t h e w s ' s r e v i s e d ) , t h e first A c t s OF the A p o s t l e s A.D. 33-05 printed by authority 15:59 EPISTLES—1st a n d 2d o f l ' a u l to Thessalonians about 54 [ B i b l e reading p r o h i b i t e d ] 1542-57 T o Galatians 58 G e n e v a version. " B r e e c h e s B i b l e " ( t h e first w . t h figured verses), 1540-57; published 1500 A r c h b i s h o p P a r k e r ' s , called " T h e Bishops' B i b l e ' ' ( e i g h t * I n April, 1805, w a s published a proposal f o r raising a f u n d o f the f o u r t e e n persons e m p l o y e d b e i n g b i s h o p s ) 1508 f o r e x p l o r i n g P a l e s t i n e in o r d e r to illustrate t h e Bible by antiK i n g J a m e s ' s Bible, t h e present a u t h o r i z e d v e r s i o n — r e quarian and scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e first m e e t i n g w a s v i s i o n began 1004; published 1011 h e l d 22 June, 1805, the archbishop o f Y o r k in t h e c h a i r ; see [I)r. B e n j a m i n B l a y n e v ' s r e v i s e d e d i t i o n . 1709.] Palestine. R o m a n Catholic a u t h o r i z e d v e r s i o n : N e w T e s t a m e n t at f T h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e B i b l e into chapters has been ascribed R h e i m s . 1582; Old T e s t a m e n t , at D o u a y 1003-10 to a r c h b i s h o p I , a n f r a n c in t h e e l e v e n t h , and to a r c h b i s h o p 1851-01 L a n g t o n in t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; b u t T . H a r t w c l l H o r n o con- A u t h o r i z e d J e w i s h English v e r s i o n T h e revision o f the English v e r s i o n n o w in use w a s r e c o m mendsiders the real a u t h o r to h a v e been cardinal H u g o de S a n c t o ed b y the bishops in c o n v o c a t i o n . 10 Eeb. 1870. T h c c o m n n t Caro, about t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h century. The division into s e c t i o n s w a s c o m m e n c e d by rabbi N a t h a n (author o f a Concordance), about 1445. and c o m p l e t e d b y A t l i r a s , a Jew. in 1001. T h e present d i v i s i o n into verses w a s introduced b y t h e c e l e b r a t e d p r i n t e r Robert Stephens in h i s G r e e k Test a m e n t (1551) and in his L a t i n B i b l e (1550-7).

* H e w a s strangled at A n t w e r p . 0 Oct. 1530, at t h e instigat e » ! o f H e n r y V I I I . and his council. H i s last w o r d s w e r e , ' • Lord, open the k i n g o f E n g l a n d ' s e y e s ! " Fourteen ed.lions of his T e s t a m e n t h a d then b e e n published.

95

B I B

BIL

too, including e m i n e n t scholars of various denominations, appointed in May, held their first mooting a t Westiiiiuster Abbey, 22 J u n e . 1870. Revision of the Xow Testament completed (103d session of 4:07 days), 11 Nor. I •Wl; various editions published 17 May, SHI. Paragraph Bib! , published in F n g l a n d b y J o h n Reeve, 1808; by t h e Tract Society, J848; a t Cambridge, Mass., bv i»r. Coit. m Smatlrxt Bible k n o w n 111 / 2 / i n c h e s ; weight u n d e r 3^ oz.), issued f r o m Oxford University press, Oct. 1875.

Biblical Archaeology, S O C I E T Y FOR, e s t a b l i s h e d b y D r . S a m u e l B i r c h a n d o t h e r s , 1871. UeMi.es a j o u r n a l , i t h a s p u b l i s h e d " K e c o r d s of t h e l ' a s t , " t r a n s l a t i o n s from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and olher languages, 1873-8.

e s t s o c i e t i e s w h i c h h a v e m a d e t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of t h e S c r i p t u r e s a c o l l a t e r a l or a n e x c l u s i v e o b j e c t a r e t h e following :

Big Bethel ( V i r g i n i a , U . S . ) , B A T T L E OF, f o u g h t , 10 J u n e , 1801. Gen. l'ieree attacked the Confederates in t h e i r fortifications, a n d was repulsed, after a partial success, l o s i n g a b o u t 4 0 m e n .

Bibliography, t h e S c i e n c e of B o o k s . Gesner's " B i b l i o t h e c a Universale " a p p e a r e d 1545 De B u r e ' s " Bibliographic I n s t r u c t i v e " 1763 Peignot. " M a n u e l " 1823 MOOEliN TRANSLATIONS. * Ilorne. " Introduction to the Study of Bibliography " . . . 1814 JV. Tat, Bible. B r u n e t ' s " Manuel du L i b r a i r e , " 1st edit. 1810; Sth oil.. 1862-5 Flemish 1477 Bíblica," 1824; Darling, S p a n i s h (Valelician) 1478 Scriptural—Orme,Bibliotheca " Bibliographica " 1854-8 German 1522 1530 English 1526 1535 Classical—the works of Fabricius. Clarke, and Dibdin. English—Watt's " Bibliotheca Britalmica " 1824 French 1487 Swedish 1526 1541 Lowndes, " B i b l i o g r a p h e r ' s M a n u a l . " 1834; new edit, by Bohn 1857-62 Danish 1524 1550 1835-80 Dutch 1475 British Catalogues, by S a m p s o n Luff 1828-64 Italian 1471 French—Querard 1870 Spanish 1543 156!) Allibone's " Dictionary of A u t h o r s , " 1858; n e w edit A m e r i c a n Catalogue..' 1876 Russian (parts) 1519 1822 Welsh 1567 1588 B i b l i o m a n i a (or b o o k - m a d n e s s ) v e r y m u c h p r e Hungarian 1574 1589 Bohemian 1488 v a i l e d in 1811, w h e n D r . D i b d i n ' s w o r k w i t h t h i s t i t l e Polish 1551 1561 w a s p u b l i s h e d ; see Boccaccio, a n d Printing, 1450-5. Virginian I n d i a n s 1661 1663 B i c o c c a (M. I t a l y ) . Lautrec and the French were Irish 1602 1686 Georgian 1743 h e r e d e f e a t e d b y C o l o i n i a a n d t h e I m p e r i a l i s t s , 29 A p r i l , Portuguese 1712 1748 1522, a n d F r a n c i s t h e r e b y l o s t h i s c o n q u e s t s in M i l a n . Manx 1748 1767 Bicycle, see Velocipede. Turkish 1666 1814 Sanscrit 1808 1822 Bidassoa. T h e a l l i e d a r m y u n d e r l o r d W e l l i n g Modern Greek 1638 1821 Chinese 1814 1823 t o n , h a v i n g d r i v e n t h e F r e n c h f r o m S p a i n , e f f e c t e d t h e p a s s a g e of t h i s r i v e r 8 O c t . 1813, a n d e n t e r e d F r a n c e . T h e British and F o r e i g n Bible Society continues to m a k e Biddenden Maids. A d i s t r i b u t i o n of b r e a d a n d a n d p r i n t t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e B i b l e in a l l t h e d i a l e c t s of c h e e s e t o t h e p o o r t a k e s p l a c e a t B i d d e n d e n , K e n t , 011 t h e w o r l d ; see Polyglot. Easter Mondays, the expense being defrayed from the Bible Christians, see Shakers. r e n t a l of t w e n t y a c r e s of l a n d , in 1875 y i e l d i n g a b o u t Bible Dictionaries. T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e a r e 20/. a y e a r , t h e r e p u t e d b e q u e s t of t h e B i d d e n d e n m a i d s , C a l i n e t ' s " D i c t i o n a r y of t h e B i b l e , " 1 7 2 2 - 8 : I v i t t o ' s t w o sisters n a m e d C h u l k h u r s t , said to h a v e been j o i n e d Cyclopaedia of B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e , " 1843 a n d 1 8 5 1 ; a n d t o g e t h e r l i k e t h e S i a m e s e t w i n s , a n d to h a v e d i e d in t h e S m i t h ' s e l a b o r a t e " D i c t i o n a r y of t h e B i b l e , " 1 8 U 0 - 3 ; see t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . I n 1050, W i l l i a m H o r n e r , t h e r e c t o r , Concordances.j w a s n o n s u i t e d in a n a t t e m p t t o a d d t h e " B r e a d a n d Bible Societies. A m o n g t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d o l d - C h e e s e l a n d s " to h i s g l e b e .

Society for P r o m o t i n g Christian Knowledge Society for Propagating t h e Gospel in Foreign Parts . . . . Society in Scotland for Promoting Christian Knowledge Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge a m o n g t h e Poor Naval and Military Bible Society Sunday-school Society F r e n c h Bible Society British and Foreign Bible Society,$ began 1803; organized Hibernian Bible Society Bible Society of Philadelphia City of London Auxiliary Bible Society American Bible Society A bull from t h e pope, Pius VII., against Bible Societies appeared in American and Foreign Bible Society A m e r i c a n Bible Union

1698 1701 1709 1750 1780 1785 1792 1804 1806 1808 1812 1816 1817 1837 1850

Biblia Pauperum ( t h e B i b l e f o r t h e P o o r ) , c o n s i s t i n g of e n g r a v i n g s i l l u s t r a t i n g S e r i p t u r c h i s t o r y , w i t h t e x t s , c a r v e d in w o o d — a " b l o c k b o o k " — p r i n t e d e a r l y in t h e fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventura, g e n e r a l of t h e F r a n c i s c a n s , a b o u t 1260. A f a c - s i m i l e w a s p u b l i s h e d b y J . R u s s e l l S m i t h in 1859. * " T h e Bible of Every L a n d " (cd. 1860), published by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respecting ancient and m o d e r n versions of the Bible. t An " I n d e x to the Persons. Places, and Subjects occurring in the Holy Scriptures." compiled by B.Vincent, editor of t h e p r e s e n t work, was published by t h e q u e e n ' s p r i n t e r s in 1818; o t h e r s published since. J This society has issued 24.217,667 copies of t h e Bible, or p a r t s of it, up to Jan. 1851; in May, 1863, the n u m b e r hail risen to43.044,334; in 18t!7 to 52,639.089; in 1875 to 76,432,723; in March, 1881. to 91.014,448. The income of that year was 222,tmu.; in mi, 206,978/. • in i w * 212,303/.; in y e a r 1880-1, 209,519?. In 1857 the society published a catalogue of its library, w h i c h contains a large n u m b e r of r e m a r k a b l e editions of the Bible. The foundation-stone of its new Ctnlral halt, Queen Victoria street, London, was laid by t h e prince of Wales, 11 J u n e , 1866. The society has p r o m o t e d translations o f t h e Bible into 225 languages or dialects.

Bigamy. The Romans branded the guilty party w i t h a n i n f a m o u s m a r k ; a n d in E n g l a n d t h e p u n i s h ment, formerly, was death. A11 a c t r e s p e c t i n g i t w a s p a s s e d 5 E d w . [. 1270.— Yinei's StatntDeclared to be f e l o n y , w i t h o u t b e n e f i t of c l e r g y , 1 J a m e s I. 1C03. P u n i s h a b l e , by imprisonment, or t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . 35 Geo. I I I . 1 7 9 4 ; b y i m p r i s o n m e n t . 2 4 & 2 5 V i c t . e. 100 ( 1 8 6 1 ) . I11 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b i g a m y is p u n i s h a b l e b y i m p r i s onment. B i l b a o ( N . E . S p a i n ) , f o u n d e d a b o u t 1300; w a s t a k e n b y t h e F r e n c h a n d h e l d a f e w d a y s , J u l y , 1795. It was delivered from t h e Carlists b y Espartero, assisted by the B r i t i s h , 24 D e c . 1830. It w a s besieged by Carlists'from F e b . to M a y , 1874, w h e n t h e s i e g e w a s r a i s e d b y m a r s h a l Concha, w h o entered Bilbao 2 M a y .

Bill of Exceptions. T h e r i g h t of t e n d e r i n g s u c h a b i l l t o a j u d g e , e i t h e r to h i s c h a r g e , to h i s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e l a w , o r to o t h e r e r r o r s of t h e c o u r t , a t a t r i a l b e t w e e n p a r t i e s , p r o v i d e d b y t h e 2 d s t a t u t e of W e s t m i n ster, 13 E d w . I . 1284, w a s a b o l i s h e d b y t h e J u d i c a t u r e x\ct, 1875. T h e p r a c t i c e is slill m a i n t a i n e d in A m e r i c a n courts. B i l l of P a i n s , etc., see Queen Caroline.

Bill of Rights, etc., sec Rights. Billiards. T h e F r e n c h a s c r i b e

t h e i r i n v e n t i o n to H e n r i q u e D e v i g n e , a n a r t i s t , a b o u t 1571. S l a t e b i l l i a r d t a b l e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d in E n g l a n d i n 1827.

Billingsgate, t h e fish-market in L o n d o n , is s a i d to h a v e d e r i v e d its n a m e f r o m B e l i u u s M a g n u s , a B r i t i s h p r i n c e , t h e l a t h e r of k i n g L u d , 4 0 0 n.c., b u t S t o w t h i n k s from a former owner. I t w a s t h e old p o r t of L o n d o n , a n d c u s t o m s w e r e p a i d h e r e u n d e r E t h e l r e d I I . , A.D.

BIL

96

BIR

TN LONDON AND S U B L R B S ( 5 2 OR 5 3 W E E K S ) . 979.—Stow. Billingsgate was made a free market, 1699. Births. —Chamberlain. Fish by /:iN(/-carriage, as well as sea84.684 borne, now arrives daily here. In 1849 the m a r k e t was 1834 1856 86.833 extended and improved, and a new one was ereeted in 1858 ( F e m a l e s , 4 3 , 4 0 0 ) . . . . 88,620 ( F e m a l e s , 3 1 , 3 1 9 1 . . . . 1852, Mr. B u n n i n g architcct. A n o t h e r new one, erected 97,114 102,187 by Horace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874: completed Sept. 1864 1867 [Females. 5 4 , 8 0 2 ) . . . . 112.264 1876; lit b y electric light, 25 Nov. 1878.

1868 1809 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1S75 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880

B i l l s o f E x c h a n g e were invented by the J e w s as a means of r e m o v i n g their property from nations where t h e y wore persecuted, 1160.—Anderson. Bills are said to h a v e been used in E n g l a n d , 1307. T h e only legal mode of sending money from E n g l a n d , 4 Richard 11. 1381. Regulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; d u t y advanced, 1797; again, J u n e , 1801; a n d since. I t was m a d e capital to counterfeit bills of e x c h a n g e in 1734. In 1825, t h e year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of e x c h a n g e and promissory notes. T h e present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. T h e m a n y statutes r e g a r d i n g bills of e x change were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act r e g u l a t i n g bills of e x c h a n g e passed 3 Vict. J u l y , 1839. Great alterations were made in the l a w on t h e subject by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 83 (1854), and in 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855). D a y s of grace were abolished ill the case of bills of e x c h a n g e payable on sight in Aug. 1871. Forgery of bills to obtain discount was detected by the b a n k of E n g l a n d , 28 Feb., after 102,217/. b a d been paid. T h e culprits (Americans) were tried and condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. 1873; see Trials, A u g . 1873.

B i m e t a l l i s m , t h e system of h a v i n g two standard metallic currencies in a country—gold and silver—much advocated b y J I M . II. Cernuschi and E . Lavellye, and others since 1867. B y 56 Geo. I I I . c. 68 (1816)j it w a s enacted t h a t " g o l d coins only should he legal lender in all p a y m e n t s of more t h a n 40s.'' in t h i s countrv. A bimetallic currency was established in France in 1803. I t was recommended for G e r m a n y in 1879, and was discussed at t h e Monetary Conference at Paris, April, 1881. B i n a r y A r i t h m e t i c , t h a t w h i c h counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented by Leibnitz, of Leipsic, about 1703. For t h e Binary theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical.

seq.

B i l l s of M o r t a l i t y F O P . LONDON*. These bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, about 1538, 30 H e n . V I I I . , but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1603, after the great plague of t h a t year. No complete series of thein has been preserved. They have been superseded by the weekly returns of the registrargeneral since 1837; see Public Health. T h e following show t h e numbers for London at decennial periods: Christenings. 16,634 18.9,SO 19.176 19.930 26.158 27.028 30.387 39,973

B i n o m i a l R o o t , in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected w i t h t h e sign plus or minus; a term first used by Rccorda about 1550, when lie published liis "Algebra.' 1 T h e celebrated binomial theorem of N e w t o n is said to have been discovered in 1663.

B i o g r a p h y (from t h e Greek fiior, life, and jpaipu, I write), defined as " history t e a c h i n g b y e x a m p l e . " T h e Book of Genesis contains the biography of the p a t r i archs, and the Gospels t h a t of Christ. P l u t a r c h wrote the " L i v e s of Illustrious Men CorneliusNepos, " L i v e s of Military C o m m a n d e r s ; " and Suetonius, " L i v e s of the Twelve Ciesars " (all three in t h e first c e n t u r y after C h r i s t ) ; Diogenes Laertins, " L i v e s of the P h i l o s o p h e r s " (about 205).—Boswcll's " L i f e of J o h n s o n " (published in 1790) is t h e most remarkable E n g l i s h biography.

Burials. 20.507 18.038 2:1,008 19.892 19.348 23.524 26.774 36.947

B i o l o g y , termed the science of life and living t h i n g s by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work on P h y s i o l o g y , published 1802-22. Biology includes zoology, a n t h r o pology, and ethnology (which see'). H e r b e r t Spencer's " Principles of Biology," published 1865-7. T. II. H u x ley, " Practical Instruction in Biology," 1875.

IX ENGLAND ANI) WALES.

Births. 502.303 543.521 578,159 012.391 657.453 653.481 689,881 084.048 696,406 712.684 727.417 740.275 748,009

1840 1845 1849 1853 1856 . 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1805 ENGLAND AND WALES.

1865, 1866, 1867, 1868, 1S09, 1870, 1871. 1872^ 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880,

Birth Deaths. 748,069 490.909 753.870 500.689 768.349 471.073 786,858 480.022 773.381 494,828 792.787 515,329 797.428 514.879 825.907 492.265 829.778 492.520 854.956 526.632 850,607 546.453 887,908 510,315 888.200 500,496 891,906 539,872 882,236 528,194 880.520 528,656

Deaths. 356,634 349.361! 440.839 421.097 390.506 449.656 441.790 422,721 436.114 436.573 473.837 495.531 490.909

SCOTLAND.

Births. 113.126 113.639 114.115 115,673 11.3,395 115.423 116.127 118.873 119.738 3,795 3.693 126.749 126.824

Deaths. 70.821 71.273 69.024 09.386 75.789 74.067 74.644 75.741 76.857 80.076 81.785 74.122 73.940

126.

125,

73,329

TREL.AND.

Births. Deaths. 144.970 93.154 146.237 93.598 144.318 93.911 146,108 86.803 145.059 89.573 1,10,151 90.695 151.065 88.720 149.292 97.577 144.377 97.537 141.288 91.901 138.320 98.114 140.469 92.324 139.659 93.543 1 3 4 1 1 7 99.209 135,403 105,432

* A p p r o x i m a t i v e ; registration defective.

115,744 111,930 113,449 112.535 117,200 (53 w e e k s ) 121.100 121,394 122.871 [Females, 6 2 . 0 9 5 ) . . . 127.015 ( " 6 2 , 1 3 5 ) . . . 127.257 129.181 134.096 [Females, 6 4 , 6 5 9 ) . . . 132,173 (Females,

63 882 66.95(1 77 723 70 588 74 908 77 933 77 278 80Ì332 70.893 70 334 7fl'.606 8i:,513 77 411 77^)02 83>J5 85.540 3 9 , 4 2 6 ) . . . 81,128

B i l l s o f S a l e , an act to consolidate and a m e n d t h e law for p r e v e n t i n g frauds upon creditors by secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 Vict. c. 31) w a s passed 22 J u l y , 1878.

A Bills of E x c h a n g e Act, d e c l a r i n g t h e l a w r e l a t i n g t o a c c e p t a n c e , p a s s e d 16 April, 1878. F o r t h e v a r i o u s l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s in f o r c e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s e e H a r p e r ' s Cyclopaedia of C o m m e r c e , " p. 1G7 et

1780 1700 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850

(53 w e e k s )

Deaths. 73 697

57,786

Birch-tree. T h e black (b'etn/a nii/ra), b r o u g h t from N o r t h America, 1736. T h e b i r c h - 1 reo known as the Betula pumila, introduced into K e w gardens, l i n g land, by Mr. J a m e s Gordon, from N o r t h America, 1762. —Hardy's Annals. '

B i r d s were divided by Linnanis into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight (1805); and hv Cuvier into six (1817). T h e most, remarkable works are those published by J o h n Gould, F.R.S. ; t h e y now consist of nearly 40 folio volumes of colored plates, etc. T h e y include the birds of Europe, Asia, Australia, G r e a t Britain, and New Guinea, besides monographs of the humming-birds, etc. J o h n Gould died 3 Feb. 1881. Dr. J o h n L a t h a m ' s " S y n o p s i s of Birds," 1781-90. J o h n J a m e s Audubon's " B i r d s of America," 1826-40; see Wild Birds. " B r i t i s h O r n i t h o l o g i s t s ' U n i o n " f o u n d e d 1858; p u b l i s h . e d t h e Ibis, 1859 et s e q . A m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of b i r d s ( b a s e d o n H u x ley's). p n t forth by professors P a r k e r a n d Xewtoli ; Encvelopiedia B r i t a n n i c a ; 9th ed 1875 T h è W i l d B i r d s P r o t e c t i o n Act, 43 & 44 V i c t . c. 35, passed 7 S e p t . 1880

97

BIR

Birkbeck

L I T E R A R Y AKI> S C I E N T I F I C I S S T I T I T I O S ,

S o u t h a m p t o n b u i l d i n g s , \\\ C., t h e p r e s e n t

name of

the

m e c h a n i c s ' i n s t i t u t i o n f o u n d e d b y D r . B i r k b e c k i n 1823.

Birkenhead Mersey, opposite was

projected

(Cheshire), to

a

Liverpool.

b y Mr. John

modern The

town

great

011 t h e

dock

Laird, constructed

here

by

R e n d e l l , a n d o p e n e d i n A u g . 1817 b y l o r d M o r p e t h . 1861 B i r k e n h e a d

parliamentary

borough, l i e died

P o p u l a t i o n i n 1831, 2 0 0 : i n 1801, 5 1 -

049; in 1871,65,971;

Birman Empire, and

see H ' / w f o , 1852. o r E M P I R E OF A V A , s e e

Burmese

India.

Birmingham, megem

a

Birkenhead received a charter of incor-

p o r a t i o n i n 1878.

Empire

made

In

a n d M r . L a i r d w a s e l e c t e d first r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , 2 9 O c t . 1874.

was

Mr.

formerly

Bromwicham

and

(Warwickshire), existed in the reign

BIS Visit o f t h e p r i n c e and princess o f W a l e s 3 N o v . 1871 F o u n d a t i o n o f sir Josiali M a s o n ' s c o l l e g e laid in' h i m self a n d Mr. Bright ", 23 Feb. 1875 W i l l . D u d l e y bequeaths IOLI,000/. l'or c h a r i t a b l e purposes in B i r m i n g h a m March, 1876 A n n u a l m e e t i n g o f the R o y a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Society, 17-21 J u i v , Great Western Arcade opened 28 Sept. Mr. w . E. Gladstone addresses a b o u t 30.000 persons in B i n g l e y hall 3 1 Mav, Birmingham Liberal Federation f o r m e d M a y , June, F i r e at Mr. Delüson's, c o n f e c t i o n e r ; Mrs. Dcnison a n d 3 o t h e r s perish. 26 A u g . ; v e r d i c t at inquest, arson, c r i m inal u n k n o w n 30 Sept. Central L i b r a r y , c o m p r i s i n g the c h i e f free r e f e r e n c e lib r a r y , a n d tin- Shakespeare L i b r a r y , C e r v a n t e s Collection, etc., With priceless treasures, d e s t r o y e d b v lire, 1Î Jan. D e a t h o f sir Josiah Mason 16 June.

Births.

Brum-

of Alfred,

land, v i z . :

'•

1S77 "

1878

1879 1881

T h e b i r t h s of c h i l d r e n w e r e t a x e d in E n g birlh

o f a d u k e , 30/.; o f a c o m m o n

person,.

872; and b e l o n g e d to the B e n n c n g e h a m s , at D o m e s d a y

2s., 7 W i l l .

Survey,

in

stances of four children at a birtli are n u m e r o u s ;

but it

impor-

is r e c o r d e d ( l i â t a w o m a n o f K ö n i g s b e r g ( 3 S e p t .

1784),

1086.

There

were

"many

smythes"

t h e t i m e o f H e n r y V I I I . ( L e l a n d ) , but. i t s g r e a t t a n c e c o m m e n c e d ill t h e r e i g n o f W i l l i a m

here

III.

G r a m m a r school f o u n d e d b y E d w a r d V I 1552 Besieged and taken by prince Rupert 1613 1688 B u t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e s established S o h o w o r k s established b y M a t t h e w B o u l t o n about 1761; and steam-engine w o r k s about 1774 B i r m i n g h a m Canal o r i g i n a t e d 1767 I)r. A s h ' s hospital f o u n d e d , 1766; first B i r m i n g h a m musical f e s t i v a l f o r it 1768 R i o t s against Dr. P r i e s t l e y and o t h e r s c o m m e m o r a t i n g the French Revolution 11 July, 1791 Theatre destroyed by fire 7 Aug. 17112 T h e a t r e burned 7 .Ian. 1 8 2 0 P o l i t i c a l Union, f o r m e d b y T. A t t w o o d Feb. 1831 B i r m i n g h a m m a d e a b o r o u g h b y R e f o r m A c t (2 m e m bers). . 1832 Town-hall built 1833 P o l i t i c a l U n i o n d i s s o l v e d itself10 M a y , 1831 B i r m i n g h a m a n d L i v e r p o o l r a i l w a y o p e n e d as the Grand Junction 1 J uly, 1837 L o n d o n aud B i r m i n g h a m r a i l w a y o p e n e d its e n t i r e length, 3 7 Sept. 1833 G r e a t Chartist r i o t ; houses b u r n e d 15 J u l y , 1839 T o w n i n c o r p o r a t e d , and P o l i c e A c t passed !. Meeting of British Association 29 Aug. Q u e e n ' s College i n c o r p o r a t e d 1813 Corn E x c h a n g e o p e n e d 27 Oct. 1817 B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n ( m e e t again) 12 Sepl. 1819 Q u e e n ' s College o r g a n i z e d Ian. 1853 P u b l i c p a r k o p e n e d ( g r o u n d v i r t u a l l y g i v e n b y Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 N e w music-hall o p e n e d 3 .Sept. A n o t h e r park o p e n e d by t h e d u k e o f C a m b r i d g e . 100,000 persons preseut (ground g i v e n by lord C a l t h o r p e ) , l J u u e . D e a t h o f G. 1". M u u t z , M. P 30 J u l y .Tolm B r i g h t e l e c t e d M. P. 10 Aug. 1357, and April, T i l e queen and p r i n c e consort v i s i t B i r m i n g h a m , W a r w i c k , etc., f o r t h e first t i m e , a n d o p e n A s t o n p a r k , 11-16 June. 1858 The Free Library opened 1 April, 1861 F a c t o r y explosion, 9 killed 23 j u [ 1 0 . 1 8 6 2 P e o p l e ' s p a r k purchased b y c o r p o r a t i o n Sept. 1 8 6 1 N e w Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1815 T h e b a n k o f A t t w o o d s a n d S p o o n e r stops p a y m e n t a n d causes m u c h distress 10 March, M e e t i n g of B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n (:!'(; 6 Sept. S t o p p a g e o f the u B a n k i n g C o m p a n y " 1:3 July, F i r s t annual horse s h o w Great R e f o r m meeting V i o l e n t riots t h r o u g h the l e c t u r e s o f M u r p h y , an antip o p e r y orator, at a tabernacle 17, l y June, A n additional M. P. g i v e n to B i r m i n g h a m b y R e f o r m Act, 15 A u g . M e e t i n g o f N a t i o n a l Social S c i e n c e A s s o c i a t i o n . . . .7 Oct. 1SGS F i r s t club-bouse h e r e o p e n e d 3 M a y . 1869 E r d i n g t o n orphan houses e n d o w e d b y Josiah Mason, a m a n u f a e t u r e r o f s t e e l - p e n s ; b e g u n l 8 5 8 ; finished July, National Education League meet 12, 13 Oct. E x p l o s i o n at K y n o c h ' s c a r t r i d g e - f a c t o r y , W i t f o n ; m a n y deaths and injuries 17 N o v . 1870 E x p l o s i o n s at M -rs L u d l o w ' s c a r t r i d g e f a c t o r y at W i t ton, 17 k i l l e d and 53 injured, s e v e r a l d y i n g soon after, noon, 9 D e e . ; 33 dead up to 13 D e c . ; 51 up t o 26 Dec. P r i n c e A r t h u r opens R o y a l H o r t i c u l t u r a l E x h i b i t i o n , 25 June, 1872 S i r Josiah M a s o n ( k n i g h t e d 1872) e n d o w s a c o l l e g e Imp r a c t i c a l science 1873 C a n n o n - h i l l p a r k (presented to the t o w n b y Miss R y lands) opened 1 Sept. S p e e c h o f Mr. B r i g h t ( a f t e r re-election on r e s u m i n g office as chancellor o f d u c h y o f L a n c a s t e r ) to about "16.0UU persons in B i n g l e y hail 22 Oct. Statue o f P r i e s t l e y (in c o m m e m o r a t i o n o f h i s d i s c o v e r y o f o x y g e n ) unve'ded b y prof. H u x l e y 1 Aug.

7

III.

1695.

Taxed

a g a i n , 1783.

The

in-

and the w i f e of Nelson, a tailor, of O x f o r d M a r k e t , L o n don (Oct. 1800), had live children at a birlh.

The

queen

usually presents a small sum of m o n e y to a poor w o m a n giving

birth

to t h r e e

t i m e ; s e e Bills Bishop

or

moro

children

at

one

liegisters.

( G r e e k t—i made, in t h e disguise of a c l e r g y m a n , a t t e m p t e d to steal t h e it is said, of cantharides (which see). regal crown from t h e Jewel-office in t h e Tower, 9 M a y , B l o c k B o o k s , see Printing. 1671; yet, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these a n d o t h e r offences, h e B l o c k a d e is the closing an enemy's ports to all was not only pardoned, but h a d a pension of 500/. per commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch about a n n u m settled on him b v Charles I I . 1671. l i e died 24 1584. The principle recognized by the European pow- A u g . 1680. ers is that every blockade, in order to be binding, must " B l o o d y A s s i z e s , " held by Jeffreys in the west be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, of E n g l a n d , in A u g . 1085, after t h e defeat of t h e d u k e of 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-9" and 1864; the M o n m o u t h in t h e battle of Sedgmoor. U p w a r d s of 300 gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1854; and the ports of the persons were executed a f t e r s h o r t t r i a l s ; v e r y m a n y Southern States of North America by president Lincoln, were whipped, imprisoned, and tilled; and n e a r l y 1000 April 19, 1861. The naval force of the United States were sent as slaves to t h e A m e r i c a n plantations. then consisted of 90 vessels, of which only 42 were in commission, these latter mounting between 500 and GOO B l o o m e r C o s t u m e , see a note to article Dress. guns. The Home Squadron consisted of 12 vessels, B l o o m s b u r y G a n g , a cant term applied to an inThe institution of the blockade was a formal recognition 1 fluential political p a r t y in t h e reign of George I I I . , w h o of the belligerent rights of the Confederates. A large m e t at Bloomsbury House, t h e residence of t h e d u k e of number of vessels succeeded in running the blockade Bedford. T h e marquess of Stafford, t h e last survivor, during the war; 1143 were captured by blockading died 26 Oct. 1803. squadrons, valued at $24,500,000; and 355 destroyed, valued at $7,000,000; sec Orders in Council and Berlin. B l o r e h e a t h (Staffordshire), where, 23 Sept. 1459, B l o c k s employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by Walter Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei invented a mode of making blocks by machinery, which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 was said to have saved the country 20,000/. a year. Blois, France, the Roman Blcsum. The count Guv II. sold it with his domains to Louis duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued to the crown. The states-general were held here 1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by order of the king, Henry Iff., 23 Dec. 1588. The empress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814.

t h e carl of Salisbury and t h e Yorkists defeated the L a n castrians, whose leader, lord Audlcy, was slain w i t h m a n y Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates t h i s conflict.

Blowing-machines. T h e large cylinders used in b l o w i n g - m a c h i n e s were erected by Mr. S m e a t o n a t t h e Carroll iron-works, 1760. One equal to t h e supply of air for forty forge-tires was erected a t t h e king's dockyard, Woolwich. T h e liot-air blast, a most i m p o r t a n t i m provement, causing great e c o n o m y of fuel, was i n v e n t e d b y Mr. J a m e s B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. l i e died 18 J a n . 1805. Blow-pipe. An E g y p t i a n using one is a m o n g t h e p a i n t i n g s on t h e tombs a t Thebes. I t was employed in mineralogy b y A n t o n y von Swab, a Swede, about 1733, and i m p r o v e d b y Woilaston a n d others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of P h i l a d e l p h i a , increased t h e action of t h e blow-pipe b y t h e application of o x y g e n and h y drogen. B y t h e a g e n c y of N e w m a n ' s improved blowpipes, in 1810, D r . E. D. Clarke fused t h e earths, a l k a lies, metals, etc. A work on t h e blow-pipe b v Platt.ner and M u s p r a t t , published 1854; b y G. l ' l y m p t o n , 1874.

Blood. The circulation of the blood through the lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cicsalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves which serve for the circulation; but the honor of the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628.— B l u e was t h e favorite colour of the Scotch c o v e n a n t Freind. A memorial window in the church at Folke- ers in t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y . B l u e and orange or stone, his birthplace, was uncovered 9 April, 1874. yellow became t h e w h i g colors after t h e revolution in * James Holman, the 11 blind traveller " (born 1786, died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the world. His travels were published in i825. In April, 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, arid read the service, etc., from embossed hooks. Viscount Cranborne (bYm Oct. Grand reception of the duke of E d i n b u r g h 11 March. Sir Philip Wodchousc. governor April. Riots: M a h o m e t a n s a t t a c k Parsees for publishing purt of Washington I r v i n g ' s " L i f e o f M a h o m e t lives lost and p r o p e r t y destroyed 13-15 Feb. Culprits punished by the British The prince of Wales w a r m l y received. 8 Nov. 187Ô: sailed f r o m h e r e for h o m e 13 March, Meeting of loyal Mahometans to petition t h e queen in favor of t h e sultan 24 Sept. Dreadful famine, relieved by g o v e r n m e n t and by British subscriptions Statue of t h e prince of Wales (given by sir Albert Sassoon). uncovered 2G or 27 J u n e , Sir J a m e s Fergusson n o m i n a t e d governor Feb.' A patriotic f u n d to relieve sufferers by Afghan w a r liberally subscribed to by natives and others Aug.

104 1708 1775 1837 1853 1858 18-39 180 u

BOO W u r t e m b e r g . 12 Aug. 1807]. Made governor of t h e Invalides, 1818; and marshal. 1850; died 21 J u n e , 18(50; his children— Mathilde, born 27 Slav, 1820; m a r r i e d to prince A Demi doll'in 1811. Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822; m a r r i e d princess Clotilde of Savoy, 30 J a n . 185'J: issue, Victor, born 18 July, 1862; Louis, born 1(5 July, 18(51; Marie, born 20 Dec. 1866.

Bondage, s e e T Bones. T h e a r t

'Manage.

of s o f t e n i n g b o n e s w a s d i s c o v e r e d a b o u t 1688, a n d t h e y w e r e u s e d i n t h e c u t l e r y m a n u f a c t 1864 u r e , etc., i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d s . T h e declared value of t h e b o n e s of c a t t l e a n d of o t h e r a n i m a l s , a n d o f l i s l i ( e x c l u s i v e of w h a l e - f i n s ) , i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e U n i t e d 18'55 K i n g d o m f r o m R u s s i a , P r u s s i a , H o l l a n d , D e n m a r k , e t c . , " a m o u n t e d t o SGo,61o/. in 1851, t o 028,535/. in 3870, t o 741,809/, i n 1877, a n d t o 432,(>12/. in 1879. Bone-dust 18(57 18(58 h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y e m p l o y e d in m a n u r e s i n c e t h e p u b 1S70 l i c a t i o n of L i e b i g ' s r e s e a r c h e s i n 1840. 1872 Bonesetting c a n n o t b e s a i d t o h a v e b e e n p r a c t i s e d scientifically until 1620.—Bell. 1874 " Bonn, a t o w n 011 t h e R h i n e ( t h e R o m a n B o n n a ) , w a s in t h e e l e c t o r a t e of C o l o g n e . I t h a s been f r e q u e n t l y be1876 s i e g e d , a n d w a s a s s i g n e d t o P r u s s i a i n 1814. T h e a c a d e m y f o u n d e d b y t h e e l c c t o r in 1 7 7 7 ; m a d e a u n i v e r s i t y . 1784; abolished by N a p o l e o n ; re-established and en1877 l a r g e d , 1818. H e r e A l b e r t , o u r l a t e p r i n c e - c o n s o r t , w a s 1879 e n t e r e d a s a s t u d e n t , M a y , 1837. 1802

1880 "

B o m b s ( i r o n s h e l l s filled w i t h g u n p o w d e r ) , s a i d t o h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d a t V e n l o in 1195, a n d u s e d b y t h e T u r k s a t t h e s i e g e of K h o d e s in 1522. T h e y came into g e n e r a l use in 1034-, h a v i n g been p r e v i o u s l y u s e d o n l v b y the D u t c h and Spaniards. Bomb-vessels were inv e n t e d in F r a n c e in 1681.— Voltaire. T h e shrapnel s h e l l ( i n v e n t e d b y col. I l e n r y S h r a p n e l , w h o d i e d in 1842) is a b o m b filled w i t h balls, a n d a l i g h t e d f u s e t o m a k e i t explode before it reaches the enemy.

Bona, A l g e r i a , a n e a r l y s t a t i o n of t h e F r e n c h A f r i c a n C o m p a n y till 1789. I t w a s t a k e n b v t h e F r e n c h f r o m t h e A r a b s . G M a y , 1832. Bonaparte Family. T h e n a m e a p p e a r s a t F l o r e n c e a n d G e n o a in t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; in t h e fift e e n t h a b r a n c h s e t t l e d i n C o r s i c a ; s e e T a b l e in V i n c e n t ' s " D i c t i o n a r y of B i o g r a p h y . " CHARLES BONAPARTE, born 20 March, 1746: died 21 Feb. 1785. lie m a r r i e d , in 1757, Letitia Ramolina (born 21 Aug. 1750; died Feb. 1836} : ISSUE, 1. JOSEPH, born 7 J a n . 17GS; m a d e king of Two Sicilies. 1805; of Naples alone. 1806; of Spain. 1808; resides in Cnitcd States. 1S15; comes to England, 1832; settles in Italy, 1811: dies at Florence. 28 J u l y . 1811. 2. NAPOLEON I., emperor, born 15 Aug. 17f>0 (see Francs). 3. LREIEN, prince ofCanino. born 1775; at first aided his brother Napoleon, b u t opposed his progress towards universal m o n a r c h y . He was t a k e n by the English on his way to America, and resided in England till l.sll. H e died at Yiterbo, 30 J u n e . 1810. His son Charles (born 1803. died 1857} was an e m i n e n t naturalist. 4. L o r i s , born 2 Sept. 1778; m a d e king of Holland. 1800; died 15 J u l y . 1816. By his m a r r i a g e with Hortense Beauharnais (daughter of t h e e m p r e s s Josephine), in 1*02. h e had three s o n s : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, died 1807) ; 2. Lou is Napoleon (born 1801, died 1831) ; and ' 3. CIIARI.ES L o r IS NAPOLEON, born 20 April. 1808; educated u n d e r t h e care of his m o t h e r at Arenberg. Switzerland, and at Tliun. u n d e r gen. Dufour: took part in (he Carbonari insurrection in t h e Papal States in March, 1831. A t t e m p t e d a revolt at Strasburg, 30 Oct. 1836. Sent to America, 13 Nov. 183(5. Repairs to London, 11 Oct, 1838. Laiute at Boulogne with lift y followers. (7 Aug. 1S4Û. Condemned to i m p r i s o n m e n t for life, 6 Oct. 1810. Escapes from Ham. 25 May, 184(5. Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 1818. Elected deputy, 8 J u n e ; and takes h i s seat. 27 Aug. (see France. 1848-71); died at Chislehurst. 9 Jan. 1873. Son: Napoleon Eugène Louis J e a n J o s e p h : born 10 March, 1850-. educated at Military Aeademv. Woolwich ; killed in Zululand, 1 J u n e , 1879. 5. JEROME, born 15 Nov. 1784; king ofWestphalia, 1 Dec. 180714 [ m a r r i e d : I. Elizabeth Paterson. in America. 24 Dec. 1803 (she died, aged 94, 4 April. 1879); son Jerome, born at Camberwell, London, 7 J u l y , 1805. II, Princess Catheriue of

Bonny River, G u i n e a , "West A f r i c a , a s e a t of t h e p a l m - o i l t r a d e ; k i n g G e o r g e v i s i t u l E n g l a n d i n 1878. Boils Hommes, h e r m i t s of s i m p l e a n d g e n t l e l i v e s , a p p e a r e d in P r a n c e a b o u t 1 2 5 7 ; i n E n g l a n d a b o u t 1283. T h e p r i o r of t h e o r d e r w a s c a l l e d k bun hoi unit by Louis VI. B o o k ( A n g l o - S a x o n , J o e ; G e r m a n , buck). Books w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e of b o a r d s , or t h e i n n e r b a r k of t r e e s ; a f t e r w a r d s of s k i n s a n d p a r c h m e n t . P a p y r u s , a n indigenous plant, was adopted in E g y p t . Books with l e a v e s of v e l l u m w e r e i n v e n t e d b y A t t a l u s , k i n g of P e r g a m u s , a b o u t 198 n.c., a t w h i c h t i m e b o o k s w e r e in v o l u m e s or rolls. T h e M S S . i n H e r c u l a n e u m c o n s i s t of papyrus, rolled and charred and m a t t e d t o g e t h e r b y t h e tire, a n d a r e a b o u t n i n e i n c h e s l o n g , a n d o n e , t w o , o r t h r e e i n c h e s in d i a m e t e r , e a c h b e i n g a s e p a r a t e t r e a t i s e . T h e m o s t a n c i e n t b o o k s a r e t h e P e n t a t e u c h of M o s e s a n d t h e p o e m s of H o m e r a n d H e s i o d . T h e first PKIXTKI» BOOKS ( s e e Printing) w e r e p r i n t e d on o n e side o n l y , t h e leaves b e i n g pasted back to back. Books of a s t r o n o m y and g e o m e t r y were ordered to be destroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edw. V I . — S f o x u 1552 Anne's act, 1709. relating to t h e price of books, repealed! 1739 2032 v o l u m e s of new works and 773 of new editions w e r e published in London in 1839 3359 new works and 1159 new editions, and 908 p a m phlets. were published in 1852 3553 volumes were published in 1864 Published in Great B r i t a i n : Now NV New W o r k s . Editions. Works. Editions. 1870... . 4775 187 6 2931 1957 1871... . 3547 1288 187 7 3049 2046 1872... . 3419 1100 187 8 3730 1584 1871.. . . 3351 901 187 9 4294 1540 1875... , 3573 1331 188 0 4293 1415 The production of a Universal Catalogue of books printed in t h e United Kingdom, proposed by t h e Society of Arts, in t h e J o u r n a l 11 April 1879 In Paris. 6445 volumes were published in 1842, a n d 735Q in 1851; see Bibliography. PRICES OF BOOKS.—Jerome (who died 420) states t h a t h e had ruined himself by b u y i n g a copy of t h e w o r k s of Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book on cosmography about 872. The " Roman do hi Rose '' was sold for about 30/.| and a h o m i l y was exchanged for 200 sheep and live q u a r t e r s of wheat. Books f r e q u e n t l y fetched double or treble t h e i r weight in gold. They sold at prices v a r y i n g from 10/. to 40£. each in 1400. A copy of " M a c k i i n ' s B i b l e , " o r n a m e n t e d b y Mr. Tomkins. was declared worth 500 guineas,— Butler. A yet more s u p e r b r o p y was insured in a London office for 3000/,; see Boccaccio" s Decamerone. BOOKBINDING. —The book of Ft. Cnthbert, a v e r y early o r n a m e n t a l book, is supposed to h a v e been bound about 650

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A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards ninth century w i t h 20,000?. to lit out his polar expedition. Sir F e l i x A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, tlie book on which died at B r i g h t o n in F e b . 1850. our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an B o o t s , said to h a v e been the invention of the C a v . . . . 1100 inch thick ' rians, were mentioned b y Homer, 907 B.C., and frequentVelvet was the covering in the fourteenth century, and l y b y the R o m a n historians. A v a r i e t y o f forms m a y silk soon after. Vellum was introduced earJy in the fifteenth century, it was stamped and ornamented be seen in F a i r h o l t ' s ' ' C o s t u m e in E n g l a n d . " An inabout 1510 strument o f torture t e r m e d "the boot" was used iu S c o t Leather came into use about the same time. land upon the Covenanters about I6G6. The rolling-machine, invented by Mr. William Burr, was substituted for the beating-ha mm or, and gas-stoves beBorax (Boron), known to t h e ancients, used in solgan to take the place of the charcoal tires used to heat the gilder's finishing tools about 1830 dering, brazing, and casting gold and o t h e r metals, was Cloth binding superseded the common boards generally, called chrysoeolln. B o r a x is produced naturally in the about 1831 mountains of T h i b e t , and was brought to E u r o p e from Caoutchouc or India-rubber backs to account-books and India about 1713. R o m b e r g , in 1702, discovered in b o r a x large volumes were introduced in 1841 borneic acid, w h i c h latter, in 1S08, was decomposed b y 33ooii.-HAw.Kixa S o c i e t i e s (already in Scotland) begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram (afterwards G a y - L u s s a c , T h e n a r d , and I I . D a v y into o x y g e n and bishop of Rochester). The hawkers vend moral and the previously unknown element boron. B o r a x has latereligious books in a similar manner to the French coll y been found in S a x o n y . I t is now largely m a n u f a c t porteurs. ured from the boracic acid found b y I l o e f e r to e x i s t in Book of Common Prayer, see Common Prayer. t h e g a s arising from certain lagoons in T u s c a n y ; and an Book of Sports, see Sports. immense fortune has been made by t h e i r owner, M . L a r darel, since 1818. Book Post, see Post.

Book Society, 28 Paternoster Row, established

for t h e gratuitous distribution o f B i b l e s a n d good books. 1750. Book-keeping. T h e system b v d o u b l e - e n t r y , called originally I t a l i a n book-keeping, was t a k e n from t h e course o f algebra published b y B u r g o , in t h e fifteenth century, a t V e n i c e . J o h n Gowgne, a printer, published a treatise " on t h e k e p y n g o f t h e famouse r e c o n y n g e . . . D e b i t o r a n d Creditor," London, 1 5 4 3 . T h i s is our earliest w o r k on book-keeping. J a m e s P e e l e published h i s " B o o k - k e e p i n g " in 1 5 6 9 . J o h n Mollis published " A B r i e f e I n s t r u c t i o n and M a n n e r how t o K e e p e B o o k e s o f A c c o m p t s , " in 1588. I m p r o v e d systems were published b y B e n j a m i n B o o t h in 1789 a n d b y E d w a r d T h o m a s J o n e s in 1 8 2 1 a n d 1831. B o o k s e l l e r s , a t first m i g r a t o r y l i k e hawkers, bec a m e known a s stationarii, from t h e i r practice o f h a v i n g booths or stalls a t t h e corners o f streets and in m a r kets. T h e y were long s u b j e c t to v e x a t i o u s restrictions, from w h i c h t h e y were freed in 1758. The earliest bookseller's catalogue is said to be that published by Andrew Maunsell, o f Lothbury, dedicated to queen Elizabeth, 1595. '-Booksellers' Provident Institution,"founded 1837; " R e t r e a t , " Abbot's Langley, Herts, 1813. The Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of British and foreign literature, published in 1858; with it was incorporated Bent's Literary Advertiser, established in 1802.

Booksellers' Association.

The chief publish-

ers in London formed themselves into an association a n d fixed the a m o u n t o f discount to be allowed, 2 9 D e c . 1829, and for some y e a r s restricted t h e retail booksellers from selling copies o f works under t h e full publishing price. A dispute arose as t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e l a t t e r to dispose o f books w h i c h h a d become t h e i r s b y purchase at such less profit a s t h e y m i g h t deem sufficiently remunerative. T h e dispute was referred to lord chief-justice Campbell, a t S t r a t h e d e n House, 14 April, 1852. H i s lordship g a v e j u d g m e n t against t h e association, w h i c h led to its dissolution, 19 M a y following. B o o n e v i l l e ( M o . ) , B a t t l e o f , fought 17 J u n e , 1861. Gov. J a c k s o n o f Missouri, a Confederate s y m p a thizer, h a d abandoned Jefferson City, which was i m m e d i a t e l y occupied b y g e n . L y o n . T h e Confederate forces in t h e state were c o n c e n t r a t i n g about Booueville, 5 0 miles above Jefferson C i t y . Before t h e y could accomplish this, however, L y o n moved upon Booueville, and, w i t h 2000 men, defeated M a r m a d u k e , who offered little resistance. T h e action only lasted 20 minutes. T h e result o f Lyon's prompt m o v e m e n t compelled t h e Confederate detachments to concentrate on the southern border o f the state,

Boothia Felix, a large peninsula, N . W . point of America, discovered b y sir J o h n B o s s in 1830, and u a m e d after sir l ' e l i x B o o t h , who had presented him

Bordeaux (\Y. F r a n c e ) , the R o m a n B u r d i g a l l a , in Aquitania, was taken b y the Goths, 4 1 2 ; by Clovis, 508. I t was g a i n e d by l l e n r y I I . on his m a r r i a g e w i t h E l e a n o r of Aquitaine, 1151. E d w a r d t h e B l a c k P r i n c e brought J o h n , k i n g of F r a n c e , captive to t h i s c i t y after the b a t tle o f l'oietiers, 19 Sept. 1356, and h e r e held his court eleven y e a r s ; his son, our R i c h a r d I I . , was born at B o r deaux, 1306. A f t e r several c h a n g e s B o r d e a u x finally surrendered to Charles V I I . o f F r a n c e , 14 Oct. 1-153. T h e tine equestrian statue of L o u i s X V . was erected in K 1 3 . B o r d e a u x was entered b y t h e victorious B r i t i s h a m y after t h e battle of Orthes, fought 27 F e b . 1 8 1 1 . — T i irteen vessels were burned and others i n j u r e d in t h e port, through t h e ignition and explosion o f petroleum spirit, 28 S e p t . 1809. T h e F r e n c h delegate g o v e r n m e n t and t h e representatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, 11 Dec. 1870. M . G a m b e t t a remained lor a time with the a r m y of the Loire. B y t h e 1 ; p a e t e de B o r d e a u x , " between the different parties o f t h e national assembly, S I . T h i e r s became c h i e f o f t h e e x e c u t i v e power, 17 F e b . 1871. T h e F r e n c h Association for t h e A d v a n c e ment of Science held its first m e e t i n g here, o Sept. 1 8 7 2 ; M . Quatrefages, president. B o r n e o , an island in the I n d i a n Ocean, the largest in the world e x c e p t Australia, was discovered b y t h e Portuguese about 1518. The Butch trade liero in 1604; establish factories, 1009; abandon them, 11)23; re-establish them 1770 Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke; appointed raiah.'' 18-11 Tho pirates of Borneo chastised by the British in 181:1, and by capt. Keppel in March", 18-13 By a treaty with the sultan, through the instrumentality of sir James Brooke, tlie island of Labooan, or Labium (N.W. of Borneo), and its dependencies, inrorporated with the British empire, and formally taken P' is-ses j o n of in presence of tlie Bornean chiefs. 2 Hoc. l-lii James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (184G), governor of Labium and consul-general of Borneo, visits England and receives many honors net. 18-17 Ho destroys many of the Bornean p i r a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ls-ii) Labium made a bishopric; the bishop (F. ,J. MacDougailj consecrated at Calcutta, the first English bishop congecrated out of England ]8 Oct. 1855 The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection and massacre a number of Europeans; sir J a m e s Brooke escapes by swimming across a creek; he speedily returns with a force of Malays, etc., aud chastises the'insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed 17, 18 Feb. 1857 He comes to England to seek help from the government' without success 135$ His health being broken up, an appeal for a'subscription for him made u Deputation of merchants wails on the earl of Derby, r'ecoiuineiidiug tho purchase of Sarawak, which 'is declined .'til Nov. " Sir James Brooke returns to Borneo .20 Nov 1800 Returned to England; died .11.J line' 18G8 The rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition ot Malays anil Dyaks. dele ; ts and punishes a marauding decapitating tribe of Dyaks June, 1870 B o r n o u , all e x t e n s i v e kingdom in central Africa, e x plored by D e n l i a m and Clapperton (sent out by the B r i t -

10G

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BOS

ish government) in 1822. The population is estimated this strait when about to invade Greece, 490 B.C.; see by JJenham at 5,000,000, by Barth at 9,000,000. Constantinople. B o r o d i n o , a Russian village on the river Moskwa, B o s p o r u s (improperly Bosphorus), now called Cirnear which a sanguinary battle was fought, 7 Sept. 1812, cassia, near the Bosphorus Ciminerius, the straits of between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians Kertcli or Yenikale. The history of the kingdom is inunder Kutusoff; 240,000 men being engaged. Each volved in obscurity. It was named Cimmerian, from the party claimed the victory; but the Russians retreated, Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders about 750 b.c. leaving Moscow, which the French entered, 14 Sept.; The Archamactidai from Mitylene rule n.c. 502-480 see Mvscoic. They a r e dispossessed by S p a r U c u s I 438 B o r o n , see Borax. B o r o u g h or Burgii, anciently a company of ten families living together, now such towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry i l l . 12G5. Charters were granted to towns by Henry I., 1132; which were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, but restored in 1G88. Twenty-two new English boroughs were created in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 132G; and into the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Representation of the People in England and Wales passed 7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 18G7; and the Act for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 9 Sept. 1835; see Constituency, B o r o u g h - b r i d g e (W. R. of York). Here Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lancaster, 1G March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on a lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, and beheaded.

Seleucus, 431; S a t y r u s I j* Leucon. 393; Spartacus II., 353; P a r y s a d e s '..'..'.'.'.I E u m c l u s , a i m i n g to d e t h r o n e bis b r o t h e r S a t y r u s II., is d e f e a t e d ; b u t S a t y r u s is killed Prytanis, h i s n e x t brother, ascends t h e throne, b u t is m u r d e r e d by E u m e l u s E u m e l u s p u t s to death all his relations, 309; and is killed, The S c y t h i a n s conquer Bosporus Mithridates VI. of P o n t u s conquers Bosporus He poisons h i m s e l f ; a n d t h e R o m a n s m a k e his son, Pharnaces, k i n g Battle of Zela, gained by J u l i u s Caosar over P h a r n a c e s I I . ' (C;esar writes h o m e , r e n t , vidi, vici, " I came, I saw, I conquered '*) Asander usurps the crown Ca?ear m a k e s Mithridates of P e r g a m u s king Polemon conquers Bosporus,and. favored by Agrippa.reigns Poleinon killed by b a r b a r i a n s of the Pal us Majotis... .a.d. Polemon II. reigns Mithridates II. reigns Mithridates conducted a prisoner to R o m e by order of Claudius; Cotys I. king A list of kings given by some w r i t e r s ends with Sauromates VII

407 348

310 309 304 285 80 (j3 47 u

" 14 33 " 41 49 344

B o s t o n (Lincolnshire), a trading town, made a staB o r o u g h - E n g l i s h , an ancient tenure by which the ple for wool, 1357; St. Botolph's church, with a lofty younger son inherits, is mentioned as occurring 834. It tower, was erected about 1809. was abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 10G2. B o s t o n (Massachusetts, IT. S.), built about 2627. B o s c o b e l , near Donington, Shropshire. Charles II. Here originated that resistance to the British authori(after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 1051), disguised in ties which led to American independence. The act the clothes of the Pendrills, remained from 4 to 6 Sept. of parliament laying duties on tea, papers, colors, etc. at White Ladies; on 7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boscobel (passed Juno, 17G7), so excited the indignation of the House, near which exists an oak, said to be the scion citizens of Boston that they destroyed several hunof the Royal Oak in which the king was part of the time dreds of chests of tea,lG Dec. 1773. Population in 1880, hidden with col. Careless. — tiharpe. The u Boscobel 362,535. Tracts" were first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Manning published "Views," illustrating these tracts. Boston News Letter, first American newspaper, appeared, 24 April, 1704 W. II. Ainsworth's "Boscobel," a story with authentic Boston seaport s h u t by the English p a r l i a m e n t , until resdetails, published 1872. titution should be made to t h e E a s t I n d i a Company Cor t h e tea lost '25 March, 1774 B o s n i a , in European Turkey formerly part of Pan- The town besieged by t h e Americans, and 400 houses denonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in-law of stroyed 1775 17 J u n e , " Louis, king of Hungary, was made king, 137G. lie was Battle of Blinker's Hill The city evacuated by t h e k i n g ' s troops 17 March, 1770 defeated by the Turks in 1380, and became their vassal. Industrial Exhibition opened Oct. 1856 Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey in 1463. Many Great peace j u b i l e e ; concert of a b o u t 10,371 voices and 1094 i n s t r u m e n t s , w i t h anvils, bells, etc., begun 15 J u n e , 18G9 efforts have been made by the Bosnians to recover their independence. A rebellion, begun in 1849, was quelled International peace j u b i l e e ; chorus about 20.000; orchestra. 1000; w i t h military bands a n d o t h e r p e r f o r m e r s of by Omar Pacha in 1851. The Bosnians joined the indifferent nations,including t h e B r i t i s h grenadier g u a r d s ' surgents in Herzegovina, Sept. 1875; revolt was subb a n d ; a day allotted to each n a t i o n . . .17 J n n e - 4 J u l y , 1872 T r e m e n d o u s tire; great loss of life and p r o p e r t y ; about dued, Aug. 1877; see Turkey. About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in A u s t r ' a n territories Inly, 1S78 Proclamation of t h e emperor before his troops enter Bosnia (in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the treaty of Berlin. 13 Julv),

27 .July,

Advance of t h e Austrian?, 29 July, vigorously resisted by t h e Bosnian begs, aided by Turk? 4-0 Aug. The Bosnians defeated between Zepee and Maglai,

7, 8 Aug.

The Austrians occupy Travnik, the old capital, 11 A u g . ; slightly repulsed 10 Aug. Victories of Pliilippovich a t Han Belalovich, 10 Aug.: of Tegethoff 18 Aug. Serajevo, t h e capital, bombarded and t a k e n by storm. 19 Aug.; o t h e r successes 30 Aug.. 5 Sept. The fortress Trebinje voluntarily s u r r e n d e r s 7 Sept. Behacs firmly resists, 10 S e p t . ; taken 19 Sept.

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" "

SoJikovjcs, a stroug fortress, with arms and ammunition, taken 21 Sept. Zwornik, a stronghold, s u r r e n d e r s about 25 Sept. Livno bombarded and t a k e n 28 Sept. Other places s u r r e n d e r about 12 Oct. Resistance e n d e d ; general a m n e s t y issued about 9 Nov. A u s t r i a n loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, missing,

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t;

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80 acres of buildings burned, 959 houses (125 dwellings); 35 persons killed y. 10, 11 Nov. " Another great lire, with loss of life and p r o p e r t y . .30 May, 1873

B o s t o n , E v a c u a t i o n of, 17 March, 177G. The American army under Washington had hemmed the British army within the small area of the peninsula in which Boston stands, for several months, during which time there had been frequent skirmishing and some cannonading. At length Washington took such a commanding position upon Dorchester Heights that the British general, Howe, agreed to leave the city immediately if allowed to do so in peace. The permission was granted, and, on 17 March, gen. Howe, with 7000 soldiers, 4000 seamen, and 1500 loyalist families, sailed for Halifax. The American army then took possession, to the great joy of the remaining inhabitants. Congress gave Washington a gold medal in commemoration of the event.

B o s w o r t h F i e l d (Leicestershire), the site of the thirteenth and last battle between the houses of York The c o u n t r y settled, gradual political reform? J a n . 1880 and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when Iiichard III. was dePopulation. 1,142,147; announced Feb. feated by the earl of Richmond (afterwards Henry VIL) B o s p h o r u s , Tiiractan (now Channel of Constanti- and slain, through the desertion of sir William Stanley. nople). Darius Ilystaspis threw a bridge of boats over It is said that Henry was crowned on the spot with the Nov.

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crown of Richard, found in a hawthorn bush near the field. B o t a n y . Aristotle is considered the founder of the science (about 847 b.c.). JJistoria Plant arum of Theophrastus was written about 3*20 B.c. Authors on botany became numerous at the close of the fifteenth century. Fuehsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caisalpinus, and others wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system and arrangement of the great Linnaius was made known about 1735; and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournefort's, and called " t h e natural system," in 1758. At Li mucus's death (1778) the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. J . C.Loudon's " Encyclopaedia of Plants,'' a most comprehensive work, first appeared in 1829. De Candolle's " Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Kegni Yegetabilis " (of which Vol. I. appeared in 1818) is now complete (1870). An International Botanical congress was opened in London 23 May, 180). a n d F r a n c i s II. lost his k i n g d o m ; expelled f r o m Spain, Sept. 1868; restored b y Alfonso XII.. 31 Dee. 1874; see

BRA

B o x t e l (in D u t c h B r a b a n t ) , w h e r e t h e British and allied a r m v , c o m m a n d e d b y t h e d u k e of York, was d e feated b y t h e F r e n c h republicans, w h o took 2000 prisoners and e i g h t pieces of cannon, 17 Sept. 1794.

B o x - t r e e , indigenous to t h i s country, and e x c e e d i n g l y valuable to wood-engravers. I n 1 8 i o a l a r g e b o x tree a t B o x Hill, Surrey, was cut down, and realized a The fusion of t h e parties supporting t h e comte de Chamlarge sum. Macculloch says t h a t " t h e trees were c u t bord w i t h t h e Orleanists said to be accomplished. 5 down in 1815, and produced u p w a r d s of 10,000/." A b o u t Aug. 1873; see France. B o u r b o n , I s l e o f (in t h e I n d i a n ocean), discovered 1820 t h e c u t t i n g of trees on t h e hill produced a b o u t b y t h e P o r t u g u e s e about 1542. T h e T r e n c h arc said to G000/.—In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e tree is common f r o m Massachusetts to Florida. I t is called, indifferently, h a v e first settled here in 1612. I t surrendered to t h e boxwood or dogwood. Boxwood is now t h e only wootl British, under admiral Rowley, 21 Sept. 1809, and was used for e n g r a v i n g s , and it is e x t e n s i v e l y used also b y restored to F r a n c e in 1815.—Alison. A n a w f u l h u r r i m a t h e m a t i c a l - i n s t r u m e n t makers. cane in F e b . 1829, did much mischief. Bourbon was B o y - b i s h o p . D u r i n g t h e middle ages a choir-boy n a m e d " T i l e de la R e u n i o n " in 1848; see Mauritius, was f r e q u e n t l y elected on St. Nicholas's day, 6 Dec., a n d B o u r d e a u x , see Bordeaux. held office till t h e 28th. T h e custom was suppressed i n B o t i r i g n o n i s t s , a sect founded b y A n t o i n e t t e BouE n g l a n d in J u l y , 1542, but lingered for some t i m e a f t e r . rignon, who, in 1658, took t h e A u g u s t i n e h a b i t and t r a v B o y c o t t i n g , see Ireland, 1880. A Boycott f u n d to elled in France, Holland, E n g l a n d , and S c o t l a n d ; in t h e last she m a d e m a n y converts about 1670. S h e m a i n - assist capt. Boycott in his trouble w a s subscribed in 1880-1. tained t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y does not consist in faith and practice, b u t in i n w a r d feeling and s u p e r n a t u r a l impulse. B o y d e l l ' s L o t t e r y for b i s S h a k s p e a r e gallery of A disciple named Court left her a good estate. She died p a i n t i n g s g o t up (178(5) b y a l d e r m a n Boydell, lord m a y o r in 1680, a n d h e r works, 21 volumes 8vo, were published of London. E v e r y ticket was sold a t t h e t i m e t h e alder1686. man died, 12 Dec. 1804, before t h e decision of t h e wheel. France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, Parma, Legitimists.

Conde, and

B o u r n o u s , t h e Arabic n a m e of a hooded g a r m e n t worn in Algeria, which h a s been introduced in a modified form into E n g l a n d and F r a n c e since 1847.

B o y l e L e c t u r e s , i n s t i t u t e d by his will (18 J u l y , 1091), by Iiobert Boyle (son of t h e g r e a t earl of Cork),'a philosopher distinguished b y his genius, virtues, a n d beB o u v i n e s (ST. France), t h e site of a desperate bat- nevolence, w h o died 30 Dec. 1(591. E i g h t lectures (in tle, 27 J u l y , 1214, in "which P h i l i p A u g u s t u s of France vindication of t h e Christian religion) are to be delivwas victorious over t h e emperor O t h o and his allies, con- ered. T h e office of lecturer is tenable for t h r e e years. sisting of more t h a n 150,000 men. T h e counts of F l a n B o y n e , a river in Ireland, near w h i c h W i l l i a m I I I . ders and Boulogne were taken prisoners, and the earl of defeated his father-in-law, J a m e s II., 1 J u l y , 1690. T h e Salisbury, b r o t h e r of k i n g J o h n . l a t t e r lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men ; t h e P r o t e s t a n t a r m y B o v i l l ' s A c t , 23 & 24 Yict. c. 34, 1860, relates to lost about a t h i r d of t h a t n u m b e r (out of 36,000). J a m e s fled to Dublin, thence to W a t e r f o r d , and escaped to petitions of r i g h t . France. T h e d u k e of S c h ö m b e r g was killed b y m i s t a k e B o w S t r e e t , see Magistrates. b y his own soldiers as h e was crossing t h e river, a n d B o w l s , or B o w l i n g , an E n g l i s h g a m e as early as t h e here also ivas killed t h e rev. George Walker, w h o d e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e n r y V I I I . and Charles I. played fended Londonderry in 1689. N e a r D r o g h e d a is a splena t it, and also Charles I I . a t T i m b r i d g e . — G r a m m o n t . did obelisk, 150 feet in h e i g h t , erected in 1736 b y t h e B o w s a n d A r r o w s , see Archery. P r o t e s t a n t s of t h e empire in c o m m e m o r a t i o n of t h i s v i c B o w y e r , F o r t , near Mobile, Ala., was a t t a c k e d by tory. a British land force of 780 troops and 200 Creek I n d i a n s B o y n e , m a n - o f - w a r of 98 guns, destroyed b y fire a t 15 Sept. 1814, assisted b y a n a v a l force. T h e garrison, P o r t s m o u t h , 4 M a y , 1795, b y t h e explosion of t h e m a g a of 134 men, r a n k and file, defended it successfully. T h e y zine ; n u m b e r s perished. P o r t i o n s were recovered J u n e , lost five killed a n d four wounded. T h e British lost 162 18-10. killed a n d 70 wounded. B o y t o u ' s Swimming A p p a r a t u s ; see under LifeB o x i n g , or P r i z e - f i g i i t i n g , t h e puyilatus of t h e boat, etc. Romans, once a favorite sport w i t h t h e British, who posB r a b a n t , p a r t of Holland and Belgium, an a n c i e n t sess s t r o n g arms, g i v i n g t h e m superiority in battles de- d u c h y , p a r t of C h a r l e m a g n e ' s empire, fell to his son cided b y t h e b a y o n e t . Charles, 80G. I t became a separate d u c h y (called at first B rough t o n ' s a m p h i t h e a t r e , behind Oxford road, b u i l t . . . . 1742 Lower L o r r a i n e ) in 959. I t descended to P h i l i p I I . of Schools opened in England to teach boxing 1790 B u r g u n d y , 1429, and in r e g u l a r succession to t h e emperor Mendoza opened t h e Lyceum in t h e Strand in 1791 I n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i t was held b y Boxing was m u c h patronized from about 1820 to 1830 Charles V. Holland and Austria, as D u t c h B r a b a n t and t h e Walloon Tom Winter (nicknamed " S p r i n g " ) , besides o t h e r victories. beat L a n g a n (for 1000/.) 8 .rune, 1824 provinces, a n d u n d e r w e n t m a n y c h a n g e s t h r o u g h t h e J o h n Gully, originally a butcher, a f t e r w a r d s a prizewars of Europe. T h e Austrian division w a s t a k e n b y fighter. acquired wealth, a n d became M.P. for Pontefract in 1835; died 0 March, 1863 the F r e n c h in 1746 and 1794. I t w a s u n i t e d to t h e N e t h e r l a n d s in 1814, but South B r a b a n t was g i v e n to Desperate conflict at F a r n b o r o u g h between Thomas Savers. t h e C h a m p i o n of England, a light Sussex m a n , Belgium, 1830. T h e heir of t h e t h r o n e of Belgium is about 5 feet 8 inches high, and J o h n Heenan. the ' ; B e styled d u k e o f B r a b a n t ; see Belgium.

nicia B o y , ' ' a huge American, in height 6 feet 1 inch. Strength, however, was matched by skill; and eventually the fight was interrupted, 17 April. Both m e n received a silver belt 31 May, Tom K i n g beat Mace, and obtained t h e c h a m p i o n ' s belt, etc 2G Nov. H e beat Goss, 1 Sept., and H e e n a n (nearly to death), 10 Dec. A trial, in consequence of the last fight, e n s u e d : t h e culp r i t s were discharged on promising not to offend again, 5 April. Wormald obtained t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p a f t e r a contest with Marsden 4 Jan. Contest for c h a m p i o n s h i p between Mace and O'Baldwin, a g i a n t ; p r e v e n t e d by t h e arrest of Mace 15 Oct. Railwavs prohibited c a r r y i n g persons going to a prizefight* 30 k 31 Vict. c. 119

1860 1862 18G3

B r a c e l e t s were worii b y t h e ancients, and armillee were R o m a n m i l i t a r y rewards. T h o s e of pearls a n d gold were worn b y t h e R o m a n ladies. B r a c h y g r a p h y , see

Stenography.

B r a d f i e l d R e s e r v o i r , see Sheffield,

1864.

B r a d f o r d ( W . R i d i n g of Y o r k s h i r e ) , an ancient 1864 seat of t h e woollen m a n u f a c t u r e ; m a d e a p a r l i a m e n t a r y 1805 borough in 1832; h a s t h r i v e n since 1851; see Poisoning. 1SG7 1SG8

Xew town-hall was opened British Association m e t h e r e Statue of sir Titus Salt unveiled Statue of Richard Cobden unveiled

9 Sept. 1873 17 Sept. 1 Ahr. 1S74 25 J u l y , 1877

BRA

109

B r a d l a u g h C a s e , sec Parliament, 1880-1. B r a d s h a w ' s R a i l w a y G r u i d e was first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr.W. J . Adams, in Dec. 1841. He had previously published occasionally a " Kail way Companion." The " Continental Bradshaw " was established in 1848. B r a g a n z a , a city in Portugal, gave title to Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 1122), founder of the house of Braganza. When the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was called to the throne as John IT., and his descendants now reign over Portugal and Brazil (iwhich see).

BRA

as old as 1277; a white brass produced by Mr. P. M. Parsons, about 1875. B r a u r o n i a , festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where Diana had a temple. The most remarkable that attended these festivals were young virgins in yellow gowns, dedicated to Diana. They were about ten years of age, and not under five; and therefore their consecration was called OtKartveu', from otica, ten; 600 n.c.

B r a v o Case. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner Bravo, barrister, died suddenly and mysteriously (at Balliam, Surrey), suicide suspected, 18 April, 1876; open verdict at inquest; new inquest ordered 26 June, 1876; began 10 July. Verdict: "Wilful murder by administration of tartar emetic; but not sufficient evidence to B r a h m i n s , Hindoo priests, the highest of the four fix the guilt upon any person," 11 Aug. 1876. castes. Pythagoras is thought to have learned from B r a y , Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, Symon Sythem his doctrine of the Metempsychosis; and it is monds, was twice a papist and twice a Protestant—in affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and KlizaIndia on purpose to converse with them. The Brah- beth (¿533-1558). Upon being called a turn-coat, he mins derive their name from Brahma, one of the three said he kept to his principle, that "of living and dying beings whom God, according to their theology, created, the vicar of Bray." The modern song refers to the and with whose assistance tie formed the world. See political changes of the seventeenth and eighteenth Yedas. centuries. B r a h m o S o m a j , sec Deism. B r a y ' s A s s o c i a t e s for founding clerical libraries B r a i n t r e e C a s e (in Essex) was decided in 1842 by and supporting negro schools. This society began in Dr. Lushington, who determined that a minority in a 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of Sheldon, appointing trustees to expend 900/. bequeathed by Mr. D'Allonc for parish vestry cannot levy a church-rate. the instruction of negroes. In 1733 these trustees reB r a k e s , see under Railways. ceived their present name, and their fund was increased B r a m h a m (W. R. York): near here the earl of by legacies in 17C7 and 1768. Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated and Dr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society for slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry IV., Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted energetically as com ary in Maryland for the bishop of London, about l">9'i, 19 Feb. 1408; and Fairfax was defeated by the royalists died j'^s 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing part of his books to Si on Colunder the earl of Newcastle, 29 March, 1643. lege. and part to found a parochial library, under certain conB r a n d e n b u r g , a city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which signified Guard of the Forest, according to some; others explain the name as Burg, or city, of the Brains. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians. fortified " Brannibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of Iiingelheim, with the title of margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, of the house of Hohenzollem, ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made elector in 1417, For a list of the margraves since 1184, see Prussia. B r a n d e n b u r g H o u s e , Hammersmith, see Queen Caroline. B r a n d y (German Branntwein, burnt wine), the spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to have been known to Raymond Lully in the thirteenth century, and to have been manufactured in France early in the fourteenth. I t was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its influence. In 1852,3,959,452; in 1866, 5,621,980; in 1870, 7,942,965; in 1874, 3,378,057 ; in 1876, 7,913,092; in .1877, 2,902^97; in 1879,5,024,668 gallons were imported into the United Kingdom. It is now largely manufactured in Britain. B r a n d y w i n e , a river in N. America, near which a battle took place between the British, under Howe, and the Americans under Washington, in which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated with great loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors. B r a s s . That mentioned in the Bible was most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius burned Corinth to the ground, 146 J5.c., he found immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and, running together, formed the valuable composition described as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold and silver with copper.—I)u Fresnoy. Some of the English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be

ditio ns, complied with at M a ids tone; and also rn on ey for other religious purposes. The associates assist schools'and libraries in t h e colonies, and parochial libraries at home.

B r a z e n B u l l , said to have been contrived by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigcntum, 570 b.c. It had an opening in the side to admit the victims, and a fire was kindled underneath to roast them to death; their groans resembled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired the invention, but ordered the artist to make the first experiment. The Agrigentes revolted against Phalaris, cut his tongue out, and roasted him in the brazen bull, 549 b.c. B r a z i l , an empire in South America, was discovered by Vincent Pinzon in Feb. 1500. Pedro Alvarez de i Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the land of the Holy Cross; but it was subsequently named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is Soman Catholic; but others arc tolerated. Constitution of 25 March, 1824; modified 12 Aug. 1834, and 12 May, 1810. Population, Aug. 1872, 10,093,978 (above lj- million slaves and aborigines); see Portugal. Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci about 1501 Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal 1530 Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first European colony at San Vinceute 1531 Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil 1548 San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza 1549 French Protestants occupy bay*of Rio Janeiro 1555-00 Sebastian founded 1567 Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain 1580 J a m e s Lancaster captures Pernambuco 1593 The French establish a colony at Maranham 1594 Belem founded by Caldcria 1615 The French expelled The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1030;* and hold Pernambuco 1630 Defeated at GuararapOs. 164G; give up B r a z i l . . . . . . . . . . ! 1601 G ol d m i n i n g < -om ni e n o e s . . . 1693 Destruction of Palmares. The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro 1710-11 Diamond-mines discovered in Sezzo Frio 1729 Jesuits expelled 1758-00 Capita] transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro 1703 Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil 7 March, 1808 First printing press established "

BRA Brazil becomes a kingdom K i n g John V I . returns to Portugal, and d o m P e d r o bec o m e s regent B r a z i l declares its i n d e p e n d e n c e 7 Sept. P e d r o I. c r o w n e d e m p e r o r 1 I)ee. N e w constitution ratilied 25 M a r c h , Independence recognized by Portugal 29 A u g . R e v o l u t i o n at l i i o J a n e i r o ; a b d i c a t i o n o f d o m P e d r o 1., 7 April, R e f o r m o f tlie constitution 12 A u g . 1834, and 12 .May, P e d r o I I . declared o f age 23 Julyi S t e a m s h i p line to E u r o p e c o m m e n c e d S u p p r e s s i o n of t h e s l a v e - t r a d e ; r a i l w a y s c o m m e n c e d . . . R i o J a n e i r o lit w i t h gas T h e B r i t i s h ship I'in' of Traces w r e c k e d at Albardas, on coast o f Brazil, is p l u n d e r e d b y s o m e o f the natives, and s o m e o f t h e c r e w killed about 7 dune, R e p a r a t i o n long refused ; reprisals m a d e ; f i v e B r a z i l i a n m e r c h a n t ships being seized b y the British 31 I>ec. T h e B r a z i l i a n m i n i s t e r at L o n d o n p a y s 320i>/. as an ind e m n i t y , under protest 26 Feb. T h e B r a z i l i a n g o v e r n m e n t request the B r i t i s h to e x p r e s s t h e i r r e g r e t f o r r e p r i s a l s ; d e c l i n e d ; d i p l o m a t i c intercourse suspended 5-28 May, D i s p u t e b e t w e e n the g o v e r n m e n t s r e s p e c t i n g the arrest o f s o m e B r i t i s h otlicers at R i o J a n e i r o (17 Julie. 1302) r e f e r r e d to the arbitration o f the k i n g o f the Belgians, w h o d e c i d e s in f a v o r o f Brazil 18June, N e w m i n i s t r y f o r m e d ; F . J . 1'urtado, president ; prospect o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h Great Britain 30 Aug. U. S. w a r - s t e a m e r Wachusett seizes the c o n f e d e r a t e s t e a m e r Florida, in the port o f Bahia, w h i l e under prot e c t i o n o f Brazil, 7 'let. ; a f t e r remonstrance. Mr. Seward, r . S. f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , apologizes. [The Florida ( i n a d v e r t e n t l y ) sunk'?] 20 Dec. "War w i t h U r u g u a y ; the Brazilians take I'aysandii. and i n a r c h upon M o n t e V i d e o 2 I'eb. T h e c o m t e d ' E u and princess I s a b e l l a (on m a r r i a g e tour) land at S o u t h a m p t o n 7 Feb. L o p e z , president, o f P a r a g u a y , declares w a r against tile A r g e n t i n e Republic April, T r e a t y b e t w e e n Brazil. U r u g u a y , and t h e A r g e n t i n e R e p u b l i c against Paraguay, g o v e r n e d b y L o p e z , signed, 1 May, S c i e n t i f i c e x p e d i t i o n under A g a s s i z f a v o r e d b y t h e emperor July, A m i c a b l e relations w i t h England restored Aug. T h e e m p e r o r j o i n s the a r m y against L o p e z Aug. T h e allies under Flores defeat the P a r a g u a y a n s at Santay u l i a on t h e U r u g u a y 18 Sept. U r u g u a i a n a surrenders to the allies 18 Sept. I n d e c i s i v e battio b e t w e e n the allies a n d t h e P a r a g u a y ans at Paso de la P a t r i a about 25 Feb. P a r a g u a y a n s d e f e a t e d on t h e P a r a n a If), 17 A p r i l , V i c t o r y o f t h e allies at E s t e r o V e l l i a c o , 2 -May; indecis i v e battle t h e r e 24 M a y , B o m b a r d m e n t o f the allied c a m p on t h e Parana, 14 June, T w o d a y s ' light, at T u y n t y ; allies d e f e a t e d . ..Iti, 18 J u l y , F r u i t l e s s m e e t i n g o f president L o p e z w'ith t h e c h i e f s on proposals o f peace 12 Sept. T h e allies a t t a c k t h e fortress o f Curupaiti ; d e f e a t e d w i t h s e v e r o loss 17-19. 22 Sept. T h e allies' c a m p b o m b a r d e d , 18 Oct. ; t h e P a r a g u a y a n s repulsed at T u y u t y . . 30 (let. T h e B r a z i l i a n s t a k e Corumba 13 June, T h e d u k e o f E d i n b u r g h v i s i t s R i o dc Janeiro. 15-22 July, T h e P a r a g u a y a n s v i c t o r s . 24 Sept. ; s e v e r e l y defeated, 3 and 21 Oct. P r o p o s a l s f o r p e a c e b y L o p e z declined Oct. Severe defeat of Paraguayans before T u y u t y 3 Nov. F r e e d o m d e c r e e d to .slaves b e l o n g i n g to t h e nation w h o shall b e c o m e soldiers 0 Nov. T h r e e m o n i t o r s pass Curupaiti. on t h e P a r a g u a y , 17 Feb. ; s i x iron-clads force t h e passage o f H u m a i t a ; t h e y find A s u n c i o n abandoned 21 Feb. F i e r c e res. stance o f the P a r a g u a y a n s ; L o p e z said to h a v e a r m e d 4000 w o m e n lune, A f t e r several conflicts L o p e z is t o t a l l y d e f e a t e d at Villeta, and Hies 11 Dec. T h e c o m t e d ' E u a p p o i n t e d g e n e r a l o f t h e allied a r m y . 24 March, T h e allies surprise and capturo R o s a r i o and garrison. 8 May, L o p e z d e f e a t e d i n s e v e r ò conflicts 1 2 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 21 Aug. L o p e z d e f e a t e d and k i l l e d near the A q u i d a b a u . .1 March, Treat v o f peace w i t h P a r a g u a y quite subdued.. .'20 June, T h e count, and countess d ' E u a r r i v e in E n g l a n d . .13 Sept. N e w m i n i s t r y under v i s c o u n t St. V i n c e n t 29 Sept. T h e e m p e r o r and e m p r e s s c o m e to E u r o p e , and v i s i t p u b l i c a n d scientific institutions, m a n u f a c t o r i e s , in G r e a t B r i t a i n and other countries June-Aug. T h e e m p e r o r and empress, a f t e r v i s i t i n g t h e c o n t i n e n t . r e t u r n to Brazil 31 March, Gradual s l a v e - e m a n c i p a t i o n bill passed b y t h e s e n a t e ; great rejoicings 27, 28 Sept. T r e a t y w i t h the A r g e n t i n e r e p u b l i c Jan. Prosecution of the archbishop of Fernambuco and other p r e l a t e s f o r i n f r a c t i o n o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n . . . S e p t . - D e c . In a s e t t l e m e n t o f G e r m a n e m i g r a n t s at P o r t o A l e g r e , a n u m b e r o f fanatics, p o p u l a r l y t e r m e d Murker (hypocrites). headed b y Jacobina Maurer, a p r o p h e t e s s w h o

110

BRE

1315

c l a i m e d to b e a f e m a l e Christ, and h e r priest H a n s G e o r g Maurer, a t t e m p t to c o n v e r t t h e i r n e i g h b o r s b y 1821 force, a n d desolate the p r o p e r t y o f those w h o refuse. 1 S'J'2 She a n d n e a r l y all her band are killed a f t e r s e v e r a l " c o n f l i c t s w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , aided by the m i l i t a r y , 1824 21-20 J u l y , 1874 1825 Great b a n k - f a i l u r e s at R i o J a n e i r o M a y , 1875 14 Duko de Caixias president o f m i n i s t r y 25 June, 1831 E m p e r o r and e m p r e s s at o p e n i n g o f P h i l a d e l p h i a E x h i 1840 bition. l o M a y , 1876; t r a v e l l e d in E u r o p e , etc. ; r e t n r n e d " to R i o J a n e i r o Sept. 1877 1850 1852 EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 1854 1822. D o m P e d r o (of P o r t u g a l ) ; abdicated in f a v o r o f h i s infant son, 7 A p r i l , 1831; d i e d 24 Sept. 1834. 1831. D o m P e d r o I I . (born 2 Dec. 1825); assumed tlio g o v e r n 18G1 m e n t , 23 July, 1840; c r o w n e d , 13 J u l y , 1841; m a r r i e d , 4 Sept. 1843, princess T h e r e s a o f "Naples ( b o r n 14 18G2 M a r c h , 1822). Heiress: Isabella, born 29 J u l y , 1840; m a r r i e d (15 Oct. 1,804) 1863 L o u i s c o m t e d ' E u , son o f t h e due de N e m o u r s (born 29 A p r i l , 1842.) Heir: P e d r o , born 15 Oct. 1875. "

Breach of Promise in f a v o r of a b o l i s h i n g " 18(54

OF M A R R I A G E ;

the action

was

a

resolution

adopted

in

the

C o m m o n s ( 1 0 6 - G 5 ) C M a y , 1879.

Bread.

C h i n g - N o u n g , t h e s u c c e s s o r o f F o h i , is r e -

p u t e d to h a v e been t h e first w h o t a u g h t nese) the art of husbandry, and

men (the

the method of

Chi-

making

b r e a d f r o m w h e a t , a n d w i n e f r o m r i c e , 1 9 9 8 n.c.— " 1865 " "

IJist.

Baking

of bread w a s k n o w n

ages:

see E x o d u s x i i .

R o m e , 170 n . c .

15.

It

in

became

the

Unir.

patriarchal

a profession

at

A f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t o f M a c c d o n , 148 B.C.,

n u m b e r s o f G r e e k b a k e r s e a m e to H o m e , o b t a i n e d special p r i v i l e g e s , a n d soon o b t a i n e d a m o n o p o l y . siege

of Paris

by Henry

IV., owing

During

the

to famine, bread,

w h i c h had b e e n sold w h i l s t a n y r e m a i n e d for a c r o w n a " " il

pound, w a s at last m a d e front t h e bones o f t h e c h a r n e l house of the

Holy

the

James

time

of

I n n o c e n t s , A.D. 1 5 9 4 . — I J e v m i l t . I.,

barley-bread

w a s used

London Bread

186G

Bakers' street

Company

was once

U n t i l 1302, t h e L o n d o n

was

the

"

London

Dr. Dattglish

"

patented

which

a

mode

carbonic-acid

water and m i x e d w i t h

the

flour,

of gas

1307. bread. with

I n 1856 a n d 1857 making

" aerated

is c o m b i n e d

with

is said

possess t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f cleanliness, r a p i d i t y , a n d formity.

In

ing

1862 a c o m p a n y w a s f o r m e d t o

bakehouses w a s passed

Leuyue

meeting

encourage

A

strike

of

m e t r o p o l i s , 23 S e p t . , w a s

c o n c e s s i o n s , 9 O c t . 1872.

formed;

to

uni-

A n act for regulat-

i n J u l y , 18C3.

the j o u r n e y m a n bakers of the settled b y

"

for

and w h i c h

Stevens's bread-making machinery. 1807

market

The

in

Bread was made

y e a s t b y t h e E n g l i s h b a k e r s i n 1634. bread," in

•'

incorporated

b a k e r s w e r e n o t a l l o w e d t o sell

a n y in their o w n s h o p s . — S t o w . 11

the

p o o r ; and n o w in I c e l a n d , c o d - f i s h , beaten to p o w d e r , is m a d e i n t o b r e a d ; p o t a t o - b r e a d is n s e d i n I r e l a n d .

il

In

by

A

Bread

at t h e M a n s i o n

Reform

House,

Lon-

1800 Price. 1800 [For 4 weeks, 1805 1810 1812 A u g 1814 1820

17J«. 22}d.l 12J 151 21 j. 121 11

d o n , 17 D e c . 1880. •

18G8

'' 18G9 " 1870 '• "

1871 1872

1873 "

Quartern 1735. 1745. 1755. 1705. 1775. 1785. 1795.

Loaf

(4 ib. oz. ) . Price 5 id. H 5 Gì fir 12*

June. Four-pound 1822 . 1825. 1830. 1835. 1840. 1845 1850 1854 1855 1850 1857 1858 1859 18G0 18(11 1802

. . . . . . . . . . .

Loaf

.. .. .. .. ..

.. .. .. .. ..

(best). lOcZ. 11 101 7 9 June. Dec. 7 id. 71,/. Gì 7 10 11 lOä11 10+ 11 n 8f 7 8 71 9 8J 9 9 8 9

18G3 1804 1805 180« 1807 18G8 1809 1870 187 1 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1 8 80

Ri 10 10 8 71 9 9i 8 (medium)... 8 0

Si 'T 7 6 7

Dec. 7 8 9 10* 8i 71 R| 9 10 8 04 7 7 7 6 7 7

ASSIZE OF BREAD. T h e first statute f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e sale o f bread w a s 3 John, 1203. The chief justiciary, and

BEE

1U

BRE

and a vote in the college of imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularized and erected into a duchy, and held by Sweden till 1712, when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by whom it was sold to Hanover in 1731. I t was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810; but Bread-fruit Tree, a native of the South Sea ; its indqjendence was restored in 1813, and all its old islands. A vessel under captain Bligh was fitted out to j franchises in 1815. It became a member of the North convey some of these trees to various British colonies in German Confederation in L866. International agricult1789 (see Bounty), and again in 1791. T h e number ' ural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. Population of taken oil board at Otaheite was 1151. Some were left the province, 1871,122.402; see Ilanse Towns. For the at St. Helena, 352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for explosion at Bremerhaven, 11 Dec. 1875, see Dynamite. Kevv Gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully cultiB r e n n e v i l l e , NAV. Frauce. Here H e n r y I. of vated in French Guiana, 1802. England defeated Louis VI. of France, who supported B r e a k w a t e r s . The first stone of the Plymouth William Cliton, son of Robert, duke of Xorrnaudv, 20 breakwater was lowered 12 Aug. 1812. It stretches Aug. 1 1 1 9 . 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet in breadtli at the B r e n t f o r d , county town of Middlesex. Here E d bottom and more than 30 at the top, and consumed mund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 1016. It was 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons taken by Charles I., after a sharp tight, 12 Nov. 1642. each, up to April, 1841, and cost a million and a half B r e s c i a , N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), bccame imsterling. T h e architects were Mr. John liennie and his son sir John. T h e first stone of the light-house on its portant under the Lombards, and suffered byr the wars of the Italian republics, being attached to S e u i c e . It western extremity was laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been constructed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, was taken by the French under Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were etc. massacred. I t was retaken 26 May, 1516. It surrenB r e a s t p l a t e . One was worn by the Jewish h i g h - dered to the Austrian gen. Ilaynau, 30 March, 1849, on priest, 1491 B.C. (Exod. x x x i x . ) . Goliath u was armed severe terms. It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. with a coat of mail," 1063 B.C. (1 Sam. xvii.). BreastB r e s l a u , in Silesia, was burned by the Mongols in plates dwindled to the diminutive gorgets. Ancient 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of Prussia, Jan. breastplates are mentioned as made of gold and silver. 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the AusB r e c h i n , Scotland; sustained a siege against the trians and Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern, army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of Brechin or who was defeated 22 Nov. 1757. Breslau was t a k e n ; Huntly-hill was fought between the earls of Huntly and but was regained 21 Dec. the same year. It was beCrawford (the latter defeated), 18 May, 1452. The see of sieged by the French, and surrendered to them, Jan. Brechin was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its 1807, and again in 1813. bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when B r e s s a P r i z e . Dr. Cesare Antonio Bressa, by will but a boy, 1556. The bishopric, discontinued soon after of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property to the Royal Acadthe revolution in 1688, was revived in 1731. emy of Sciences, Turin, to give a prize every two years B r e d a , Holland, was taken from the Spaniards bv for some important discovery or valuable work published prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590; retaken by the relating to physics, natural history, geography, historv, Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 1625; and by the Dutch, statistics, etc. The lirst prize (about 1200/.) to be awardOct. 1637. The Compromise of B r e d a " was a proposal ed in 1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, ami to Philip II., deprecating his harsh measures in the so on alternately. Netherlands, presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles B r e s t , a seaport,NAV. France, was besieged by Julius I I . resided here at the time of the Restoration, and here he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 4 Ciesar, 54 B.C. ; possessed by the English, A.D. 1378; April, 1660; see IteMoration. Breda was taken bv the given up to the duke of Brittany, 1390. Lord Berkelev French in 1793. The French garrison was expelled by and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burned, to the the burgesses in 1813. value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The B r e e c h e s . Among the Greeks, this garment indimarine hospitals, with fifty galley slaves, burned, 1766. cated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, The magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1781. and other northern nations; and in Italy, it is said, was From this great depot of the French navy, numerous worn in the time of Augustus Caisar. In the reign of squadrons were equipped against England during the Ilonorius, about 394, the braccarii, or breeches-makers, late war, among them the fleet which lord Howe defeatwere expelled from Rome. The " Geneva Bible," termed ed on J June, 1794. England maintained a large blockthe " Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in Gen. iii. 7), ading squadron off the harbor from 1793 to 1815, but published 1560. with little injury to France. I t is now a chief naval B r e e c h - l o a d e r s , see under Cannon and Fire-arms. station, and is considered impregnable. The British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865.

a b a k e r c o m m i s s i o n e d , "by t h e k i n g , h a d t h e i n s p e c t i o n of t h e a s s i z e . — M a t t h e w I'aris. The assize was l'jrther regulated by s t a t u t e i n 51 H e n . I I I . 12G(>. a n d 8 A n n e , 1710. B r e a d Act. Irel a n d , p l a c i n g its s a l e o n t h e s a m e l o o t i n g as in E n g l a n d , 1 Vict. 1838. B r e a d w a s d i r e c t e d t o bo sold by w e i g h t in Lond o n in 1822; t h e s t a t u t e •'Asse.^sa l ' a n i s ' 1 w a s r e p e a l e d in 1824; a n d t h e sale of b r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y w a s regu l a t e d in 1836.

Breed's Hill, sec Bunker UiU.

B r e h o n s , ancient judges in Ireland, are said to have administered justice with religious impartiality, but in later times with a tendency to love of country. It was enacted by the statute of Kilkenny that no English subject should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III. 1365. These laws, however, were recognized by the native Irish till 1650. A translation of them was proposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The publication of the "Ancient Laws of Ireland,' 1 by the government, began 1865.

B r e i t e i l f e l d , see Leipsic.

Bretagne, see Brittany. B r e t h r e n , see Bohemian and Plymouth

Bretigny,

Brethren.

concluded with France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained Gasconv and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjon, Touraine, and Normandy; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in England. PEACE

OF,

B r e t o n , see Cope Breton.

B r e t w a l d a (wide-ruling chief), one of the king's B r e m e n (N. Germany), said to have been founded of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the others as a leader in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one of the lead- in war against their common enemies. The following ing towns of the llanseatic League, was allowed a seat arc mentioned hv Bede (492 to 042): Ella, king of Sus-

112

I3KE

s e x ; Ceawlin of W e s s e x ; E t h e l b e r t of K e n t : R e d w a l d of E a s t Anglia ; E d w i n , Oswald, and O s w y of X o r t h u m berland. T h e title was bestowed upon E g b e r t , 828; see Britain. B r e v i a r y (so called as b e i n g an a b r i d g m e n t of t h e offices used in t h e R o m a n Catholic service) contains the seven canonical hours, viz., m a t i n s about m i d n i g h t ; lauds ( w h e n not joined to matins, a b o u t o A.M.), primes (about G), tierce (about 9 ) , s e x t s (about 12), nones (about o P.M.), vespers (4 or G), complines ( a b o u t 9). Lord Bate published a translation of t h e b r e v i a r y , 1879. T h e b r e v i a r y is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. I t was first called t h e custos, and a f t e r w a r d s t h e b r e v i a r y ; came into use a m o n g t h e ecclesiastical orders about 1080; and was reformed b y t h e councils of T r e n t a n d Cologne, and b y P i u s V., U r b a n V I I I . , and o t h e r popes. T h e quali t y of t y p e in w h i c h the b r e v i a r y was first printed g a v e t h e n a m e to t h e printing-type called brevier. B r e w e r s are traced to E g y p t . B r e w i n g was known to our A n g l o - S a x o n ancestors.—Tindal. One William Murle, a rich m a l t m a n or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all trapped -with gold, 141-1."—Stoic. In Oct. 1851, t h e r e were 2305 licensed brewers in E n g l a n d , 14G in Scotland, and 97 in I r e l a n d ; total, 2548: these are exclusive of retail and i n t e r m e d i a t e brewers. There w e r e 40,418 licensed brewers in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m in 1858; t h e revenue from whom to t h e state was in t h a t y e a r 81,030/. I n 1858 in E n g l a n d t h e r e were 205 g r e a t brewers; see Ale, Porter. In 1880 the brewers' license (for sale) was made 17.; not for sale. 6s.; a d u t y was laid upon beer calculated, upon t h e specific g r a v i t y of t h e wort (43 k 44 Vict. c. 20).

B r i a r ' s C r e e k (N. America), near which t h e A m e r icans, 2000 strong, under gen. Ashe, were totally defeated b y t h e E n g l i s h under gen. Prevost, 3 March, 1779. B r i b e r y forbidden ( D e u t . x v i . 19). Samuel's sons w e r e g u i l t y of it, 1112 B.C. (1 S a m . viii. 8). Thos. de W e y l a n d , a j u d g e , was banished for bribery in 1288; h e was c h i e f - j u s t i c e of t h e common pleas. W i l l i a m de T h o r p e , chief-justice of the king's bench, was convicted of b r i b e r y in 1351. A n o t h e r j u d g e was fined 20,000/. for t h e like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretarv-atwar, was sent to t h e Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord S t r a n g f o r d was suspended from v o t i n g in the Irish house of lords for soliciting a bribe, J a n . 1784.

BRI

Beverly, Bridgewater, Sligo, a n d Cash el disfranchised for b r i b e r y and c o r r u p t i o n 1870 Much corruption d u r i n g the elections of April; m e m b e r s for Oxford, Chester. Boston, and o t h e r places, u n - e a t e d 1S80 Stringent bill against it b r o u g h t in by sir 11. J a m e s , attorney-general 7 J a n . 1881

B r i c - a - B r a c s ( F r e n c h ) , old curiosities; such as , cabinets, pieces of ironwork, etc. T h e collecting b e g a n i a b o u t t h e t i m e of q u e e n Anne, 1702-14. T h e publica| tion of Brie-a-Brae, a m o n t h l y price list, began in 18(39. I B r i c k s were used in Babylon, E g y p t , Greece, a n d j Rome ; in E n g l a n d by t h e R o m a n s about 44. Made ; under t h e direction of A l f r e d t h e Great, about 886.— Saxon Citron, T h e size r e g u l a t e d b y order of C h a r l e s I., 1G25. T a x e d , 1784. T h e n u m b e r of bricks w h i c h 1 paid d u t y in E n g l a n d in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, I above 1,100,000,000; in 1840,1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. T h e duties and d r a w b a c k s of excise on ! bricks w e r e repealed in 1850. I n 1839 Messrs. Cooke , and C u n n i n g h a m b r o u g h t o u t t h e i r m a c h i n e r y by w h i c h , I it is said, 18,000 bricks m a y be m a d e in ten hours. Messrs. D i x o n and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861, were m a k i n g bricks b y steam a t t h e r a t e of 1500 p e r j hour. T h e m a c h i n e r y is t h e i n v e n t i o n of Clayton & I Co., London. B r i d e w e l l , once a palace of k i n g J o h n , near F l e e t ditch, London, 1210, was g i v e n to t h e city for a w o r k house b y E d w a r d VI., 1553.* T h e N e w Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled down in 1864; t h a t of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in 1831, B r i d g e s w e r e first of wood. T h e r e are ancient stone bridges in C h i n a . A b y d o s is f a m o u s for t h e bridge of boats which X e r x e s b u i l t across t h e Hellespont, 480 B.C. T r a j a n ' s magnificent stone b r i d g e over t h e D a n u b e , 4770 feet in l e n g t h , was built in A.D. 105. Brotherhoods for building bridges existed in S. F r a n c e about 1180. T h e D e v i l s b r i d g e in t h e canton of U r i was built on two h i g h rocks; and m a n y stories h a v e been i n v e n t e d to account for it. A t S c h a f f h a u s e n a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y bridge was built over t h e R h i n e , 400 feet wide : t h e r e was a pier in t h e middle of t h e river, b u t it is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e b r i d g e rested upon i t ; a m a n of t h e l i g h t e s t w e i g h t felt t h e bridge t o t t e r under h i m , y e t w a g o n s h e a v i l y laden passed over w i t h o u t danger. T h e bridge was destroyed b y t h e F r e n c h in 1799; see London, Waterloo, Blackfriars, Southward,and other bridges, in separate articles. T h e chief T h a m e s bridges were f r e e d from toll 24 M a y , 1879, and 26 J u n e , 1880.

B r i b e r y AT ELECTIONS. I n 1854 an i m p o r t a n t act w a s passed consolidating and a m e n d i n g previous acts r e l a t i n g to this offence, from 7 Will. I I I . (1G95) to 5 ¿i G Triangular bridge a t Croyland abbey r e f e r r e d to in a c h a r t e r dated 94.3 Vict. c. 184. A stone bridge erected at Bow, n e a r Stratford, by q u e e n Messrs, S y k e s a n d Rumbold fined a n d imprisoned for bribery 14 March, Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping imprisoned for bribery at Uchester 28 April. Mr. Swan. M.P. fur P e n r y n , fined and imprisoned, and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of 10,Qui»/, a n d two y e a r s ' i m p r i s o n m e n t for bribery at G r a m p o u n d , Oct. The m e m b e r s for Liverpool and Dublin unseated The f r i e n d s of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, convicted of bribery 20 Feb. Elections'for Ludlow and Cambridge m a d e void S u d b u r y disfranchised, 1848; St. Albans also Elections a t Derby and o t h e r places declared void for bribery Corrupt Practices Act passed In t h e case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that the paym e n t of travelling expenses was bribery 17 April, Gross bribery practised a t Gloucester, Wakeiield, and Berwick Mr. M'm. H. L e a t h a m convicted of bribery a t Wakefield, 19 July, G o v e r n m e n t commissions of inquiry respecting bribers sat at Great Y a r m o u t h , Totncs, Lancaster, a n d Reigate; a n d disgraceful disclosures were m a d e Aug.-Nov. The b o r o u g h s were disfranchised by t h e Reform bill, passed 15 Aug. The P a r l i a m e n t a r y Elections Act enacted t h a t election petitions should" be tried by a court appointed for the purpose, passed 31 J u l v, T i r s t trials u n d e r this a c t ; Mr. Roger E y k y n (at Windsor) w a s declared duly clected, 15 J a n . ; and sir H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated 18 J a n . Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sentenced to be fined for bribery in p a r l i a m e n t a r y elections.10 May,

1776 1804

1819 1831 1835 1840 1852 1853 1854 1S58 1859 1860 18G6 18G7

Matilda about 1100-18 Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 London bridge: one existed about 978; one built of wood, 1014; one by l'eter of Coleclmrch, 1176, 1200; n e w bridge finished 1S31 The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, Shropshire 1777 Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an arch, w i t h a span of 23G feet ' 1796 The chain suspension-bridge a t Menai S t r a i t 1825 Old W e s t m i n s t e r opened, 1750; old Blackfriars, 1769; Waterloo. 1817; Southwark, 1819; Hungerford, 1845; Chelsea, 1858; Vauxhall, 1816. A slight suspension-bridge was built a t Niagara Falls in 1S48 and removed in 1854. A n e w suspension-bridge, t h e n t h e finest in the world, h a v i n g a span of 821 feet was completed in 1855. The g r e a t suspension-bridge across Niagara river, from Niagara Falls to Clifton, Canada, was opened in I860. A railway bridge 2 i miles long projected over t h e F i r t h of F o r t h (not executed) Dec. 1864 The very wide Victoria bridge over t h e T h a m e s (by w h i c h t h e London, C h a t h a m , and Dover railway e n t e r s t h e Victoria station, l'imlico) founded by lord Harris. .22 Feb. 1865 F o r details see separate articles, and also Tubular Bridge,

Newcastle, Niagara,

Victoria Bridge, etc.

N e w Y o r k a n d Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long, 1595 central span, 135 feet high 1869 et seq. Tay bridge (which see) 1871-7

18G8 18G9 1S70

* Of t h e old buildings little r e m a i n s : m e r e l y offices and a few cells for r e f r a c t o r y city apprentices. By t h e C h a r i t y Commissioners' s c h e m e (1860) t h e a n n u a l income (14,682/. in 1876) is devoted to t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of two industrial schoolsfor boys, a t Witlcy, S u r r e y ; for girls, a t St. George's fields.

BRI

113

BRI

The groat railway bridge over the Severn (above f mile made a bishopric in 1859, when the colony was conlong), connecting the Forest of Dean with Sharpness stituted. Point, the port of Gloucester (cost 1,000.000?.), was formally opened 17 Oct. 1S79 B r i s s o t i n s . see Girondists. Great railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, Saratov B r i s t o l (\V. England), built by Brennus, a British government, built 1877-80

prince, 380 e.g., is mentioned in a . p . 430 as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of B a t h ; and sometimes Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the fifth and seventh cen•turics. From the twelfth to the eighteenth century it was, next to London, the most flourishing port in E n g B r i d g e w a t e r C a n a l , the first great work of the land ; it has since been surpassed by Liverpool; see under kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridge- Orphan-houses. water. the father of canal navigation in this country, in Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence of his sister Maud, the empress, against king Stephen 1138 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. James Brindley was the engineer. I t commences at Worsley, seven miles Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of GcoiTruy, son of Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' imprisonment... 1241 from Manchester; and at Barton Bridge is an aqueduct St. Mary's church built 1292 which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III !!! 1373 Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 1542 across the river Irwell. The length of the canal is Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by Cromwell, about twenty-nine miles.

B r i d g e w a t e r , Somersetshire, was incorporated by king John, in 1200. In the war between Charles I. and the parliament, the king's forces burned part of the town, 1G43. Here stood an ancicnt castle in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when proclaimed king in 1G85. The town was disfranchised for bribery, 1870.

Bridgewater Treatises. The rev. Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, leaving by will 8000/. to be given to the author or authors, appointed by the president of the Royal Society, who should write an essay " on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, J o h n Kidd, William Buckland, William Prout, Peter M. Koget, and the revs. William Whewell and William Kirbv) were published 1833-35. " B r i e f , " a weekly newspaper, began Nov. 1877. B r i e f s are the letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public affairs, and usually written short, without preface or preamble, and on paper; in which particulars they arc distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and written on parchment. Briefs are sealed with red w a x and the seal of the fisherman, or »St. Peter in a boat, and always in the presence of the pope. The queen's letters, called " briefs," authorizing collections in churches for charitable purposes are now discontinued. A lawyer's brief is an abridgment of his client's case.

10 Sept. 1045 Edward Colston's hospital, a free school, and other charities established (his birthday, 13 Nov., kept annually), 170S Xew charter 1710 Act passed for new exchange, 1723; erected 1741 Bread riots 1753 Bridge built May 1750 Attempt to set the shipping on fire 22 Jan! 1777 Riot 011 account of a toll; the troops lire 011 the populace, and many are wounded 25 Oct. 1793 Docks built 1804-9 Riot 011 the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, tiie recorder, into the city, he being opposed to the reform bill; the mansion house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly 100 houses burned, and above 500 persons killed by the military or perished. .29-31 Oct, 1831 Trial of rioters (4 executed; 22 transported). 2 J an. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by court-martial,' 9 Jan. 1832 Meeting of British Association Aug. 1836 Railway to London completed 30 June 1841 Clifton suspension-bridge opened 8 Dec! 1804 Industrial Exhibition opened 19 Sept. 1865 British Association, 2d meeting 1^75 Proposed foundation of a college for science and literature here for the south and west of England; meeting, 13 June, 1874; opened as University College. .10 Sept 1870 Great fire; Clutterbucks, drysalters, etc., loss between 80,000/. and 100,0002 24, 25 May, " Avonmouth dock opened .',04 Feb! 1S77

B r i e n n e (N. E . France). Here the allied armies of B r i s t o l , S e e o f , one of the six bishoprics erected Russia and Prussia, under Blucher, were defeated by the by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the dissolved monFrench, 29 Jan. 1814. asteries, 1542. The cathedral was the church of the B r i g a n d a g e : for reccnt cases, see Italy, 1861 et abbey of St. Austin, founded here by Robert Fitz-Hardseq.; Greece, 1870; Spain, 1870. ing, son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, B r i g h t o n , formerly Brighthelmstone, a fishing town, 1148. The see is valued in the king's books at 338J. 8s. Sussex, was made a place of fashionable resort by the 4d. Paul Bushe, provincial of the Bons-liommes, was prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. the first bishop, in 1542—deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bristol was united by an order in At Shoreham, near Brighton. Charles II. embarked for France after the battle of Worcester IGOL council with that of Gloucester, in 1836. The cathedral Visit of the prince of Wales 17S2 (under repair since 1844) was reopened in 1861; a new He founded the Pavilion 1781 nave opened 23 Oct. 1877. It was greatly enlarged and made to resemble the Kremlin at Moscow, 1784-1823; sold to the town for 53,000Z. 1849 The Block-house swept awav 26 March, 1780 Part of the cliff fell; great damage 16 Nov. 1807 Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed 1823 Brighton made a parliamentary borough 1832 The railway to London opened 21 Sept. 1841 Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 persons killed and many wounded 25 Aug. 1861 Volunteer reviews here on Easter Mondays... 1862-G—1870-2 New pier erected 1865-G Great aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 March; and formally opened by the mayor 10 Aug. 1872 British Association meet hero 14 Aug. u Free library, museum, and picture - gallery, opened 12 Sept. 1873 Inauguration of statue of sir John Cordy Burrows, great benefactor to the town 14 Feb. 1878

1S03. 1807. 1808. 1820. 1827. 1S34.

11ISIIOPS OF URISTOJ,. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 1807. John Luxmorc, translated to Hereford. 1808. Will. Lort Mansell, died. 27 June, 1S20. John Kayo, translated to Lincoln, 1827. Kobert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. Joseph Alien, the last bishop, translated to Ely in June, 1836. (In October the diocese was united with Glou' ecstcr.)

B r i t a i n (called by the Komans Britannia,* from its Celtic name Prydhain, C'amden). The earliest records of the history of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassiterides or Brill, or B r i k l (Holland). A seaport, seized by the tin-islands by Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and Ierne expelled Dutch confederates, became the seat of their (England and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 n.c., and Polybindependence, 1572, Brill, given up to the English in * The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britannia 1585 as security for advances made by queen Elizabeth Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn); Britannia to Holland, was restored in 1616. Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia C(ssariensis (between the Thames. and Humber); Maxima Cmsariaisis (between the B r i s b a n e , capital of Queensland, on the river Bris- Severn, Humber and Tyne); and Valentia (between the Tyne and bane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, in 1823, and Firth of Forth).

114

BRI

J3RI

ins, 260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, and WEST SAXONS, [ ß irks, Hampshire. Wilts, Somerset. Devon, and part of Cornwall. ] Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain 519. Cerdic. being applied to all the islands collectively—Albion to 534. Cvnric, or ICenric, son of Cerdic. only one.—Pliny. Wales.)

( S e e Albion,

Enyland,

Scotland,

and

560. 591. 597. 611. 57 614. 643. 55 672.

Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to have supremacy over part of Britain B.C. First invasion of Britain b y the Romans, under Julius Csesar 26 Aug. Second invasion; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British general. . 54 Cymbeline {Cunobelin), king of Britain ifc Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons A.D. 43 He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain. 47 Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50; carried in chains to Rome 51 Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni; 70.U00 slain, and London burned: she is defeated by Suetonius; 80,000 slain 61 Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and overruns Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the government. 78-84 He defeats the Caledonians under G algaeus; surrenders the islands 84 The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120; and builds a wall from the Tyne to the Solway 121 Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an embassy on religious affairs to pope Eleuthorius about 181 The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by Severn; 197 Southern Britain subdued and divided by tlie Romans into two provinces 204 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum, 208; finishes his wall, and dies at York 4 Feb. 211 Carausius usurps the throne of Britain 280 He is killed by Allectus, another usurper 294 Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus 2% St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) '304 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York 25 J u 1 y, 306 British bishops at the council of Aries 311 Scots and Picts invade Britain,360; routed by Theodosius 308 Roma 11 s gradually wi thclraw fro 111 Britain 402•436 Reign of Vortigern 425 The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picls and Scots 429 The Romans quit Britain 436 The A n g l o - S a x o n invaders drive the Britons into Wales 449-455 Many Britons settle in Armorica (Iirittany) 388-457 The Saxon Heptarchy; Britain divided into seven or more kingdoms 457 Ella invades South Britain, 477; founds kingdom of Sussex 491 Supposed reigns of Vortimer, 404; Vortigern again, 471; Aureiius Ambrosius, 481; and Arthur Pendragon 500 Great Saxon invasion under Cordic 495 The renowned king Arthur said to reign 500-532 Arrival of St. August in (or Austin), and re-establishment of Christianity 597 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns (>78 Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen 794 Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually KING OF ENGLAND 827 KINGS OF TIIE HEPTARCHY. *

(See

Bretwalda.)

KENT. [The sh ire of Kent. ] 454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 488. .¿Esc. Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist; in honor of whom the kings of Kent were for some time called JEseings. 512. Oct a, son of iEsc. 542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 560. St. Ethelbert; first Christian king {styled Rex Anglorum). 616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 640. Ereenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ereenbert. 673. Lot liar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 685. Edric; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to various leaders. ] 694. Willtred, or Wihgtred. 725. Eadbert,' ) 748. Ethelbert II., > sons of Wihtrcd, succeeding each other. 760. Alric. ) 794. Edbert, or Ethelbert P r y n ; deposed. 796. Cut bred, or Guthred. 805. Baldred; who lost his life and kingdom to 823. EGBERT, king of Wessex. SOI-TJJ SAXONS. [Sussex and Surrey. ] 491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded b y 514. Cissa, his son, whoso reign was long and peaceful, exceeding 70 years. [The South Saxons then fell into an almost total dependence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwacli, or Etlielwach. 686. Authun and Berthun, brothers; reigned j o i n t l y ; vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 6»9; kingdom conquered in 725.

674. 676. 685. 688. 728. 740. 754. 755. 784. 800.

Dorset

Ceawlin, son of Cynric; banished; dies in 593. Cenlric, nephew to Ceawlin. Ceolwulf. ) Cynegils, and in ) Cwichehn, his son, reigned jointly. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of l l e r c i a ; of great qualities; probably deposed. Esewine, with Cent wine; on his death, Ceil twine rules alone. Cfcdwallo: went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of blood, and died there. Ina or luas, a brave and wise ruler; journeyed to R o m e , left an excellent code of laws. Ethel heard, or Etheiard related to Ina. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend Cumbran. governor of Hampshire, was slain by one of his victim's retainers. Cynewulf. or Kenwulf, or Ccnulpc, a noble j'outh of t h e line of Cerdic; murdered. Bertric, or Beorbtric; poisoned by drinking of a cup his queen had prepared for another. EGBERT, afterwards sole monarch of England, and Bretwalda.

EAST SAXONS. [.ETER, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 527, or 530, Erclienwin, or Ercliwine. Sled da; his ¡? on. St.Sebert, or Sabert; son; first Christian king. Sax red or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert and Seward; all slain. 623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little; son of Seward. 655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good; brother of Sebert: put to death. 661. Swithelm (or Suidlielm). son of Sexbald. 663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi. or Sebba. who became a monk. 693. Sigcnard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 700. Otia; became a monk at Rome. 709. Suebricht. or Selred. 738. Swithred, or Swithed; a long reign. 792. Sigoric; died 111 a pilgrimage to Rome. 799. Sigered. 823. Kingdom seized by EGBERT of Wessex.

526, 587. 597. 614.

XORTHOIBRIA. ***

547. 560. lk

567. 572. 573. 580. 588. 593. 617. 634. 635. 642. 670. 685. 7U5. 716. 718. 729. 737. 757. 759. 765. 774. 778. 789. 790. 794. 80(5. 808. 809.

841.

[Lancqtc r, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, and Northumberland.] Xorthumbria was at first divided into two governments, litmieia and Deira; the former stretching from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the Tyne to the ¡lumber. Ida, a valiant Saxon. Adda, his eldest son; king of Bernicia. Ella, king of Deira; afterwards the sole king of North umbria (to 587). Gluppa. Clappa, or Elapea; Bernicia. Heodwulf; Bernicia. Freodwulf; Bernicia. Theodoric; Bernicia. Etlielric; Bernicia. Ethel frith, surnamed the Fierce. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590 a great prince, Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. Eanfrid rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira both put to death. Oswald slain in battle. Osweo, or Oswy; a reign of great renown. Erfrid, or Egfrid, king of Xorthumbria. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. Osred, or Ealdferth. Cenric; sprung from Ida. Osric, son of Alcfrid. Ceolwulf; died a monk. Eadbert, or Egbert; retired to a monastery. Oswulf, or Osulf; slain in a sedition. Edilwald. or Mollo; slain by Aired. Aired. Ailred, or Alured; deposed. Ethelred, son of Mollo; expelled. Elwald, or Celwold; deposed and slain. Osred, son of Aired; fled. Ethelred restored; afterwards slain. Erdulf, or Ardulf; deposed. Alfwold. Erdulf restored. KAN red. Kingdom annexed by EGBERT.

EAST ANGLES. [Norfolk, Suffolk, CambridgeEly.] 526. Uffa lands. 571 or 575. Uifa, a German, said to be first king. 578. Titilus. or Titulus; son of Uffa. 599. Redwalrl, son of Titilus; the greatest prince of the East Angles. * The t e r m " O c t a r c h y " is sometimes used; Xorthumbria 624. Erpwald, Eorpwald. or Eordwald. being divided into Bernicia and Deira. separate kingdoms. 627. Richbert.

Ilo

C M

S i g e b e r t , h a l f - b r o t h e r to E r p w a l d . E g f r i d , o r E g r i c ; c o u s i n to S i g e b e r t . A n n a , o r A n n a s ; a just, r u l e r ; k i l l e d . E t h e l r i c , o r E t h e l h e r e ; s l a i n in b a t t l e . Etbclwald; his brother. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. Selred, o r E t h e l r e d . Alphwuld. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. B e o r n a alone. Ethelred. E t h e l b e r t , or E t h e l b r y g l i t ; t r e a c h e r o u s l y p u t to d e a t h in M e r c i a i n 792, w h e n Otta, k i n g of M e r c i a , o v e r r a n t h e c o u n t r y , w h i c h w a s t i n a l l y s u b d u e d b y EGBERT. 870. St, E d m u n d (vassal k i n g ) s l a i n b y tlio D a n e s . 629. 032. 035. 051. 655. 064. 713. 746. 749. 758. 761. 7'JO.

MERCIA. [Gloucester, Hertford, Chester, Stafford, Ox/ord, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicter, Bucks, ton, Notts. Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, of Herts.} 586. 593. 597. 615. 626. G55. 656. 675. 704. 709. 716. 755. •• 794. " 819. " 821. 823. 825. 838. 852. 874.

Worcester, Northampand part

Crida, o r C r i d d a , a n o b l e c h i e f t a i n . [Interregnum—Ceolric.] Wibba, a v a l i a n t p r i n c e , h i s son. Ceorl, o r C h e o r l ; n e p h e w of Wibba. P e n d a ; fierce a n d c r u e l ; k i l l e d in b a t t l e . 1'eada, s o n of P e n d a ; k i l l e d t o m a k e w a y f o r W u l f h c r e ( b r o t h e r ) ; s l e w h i s t w o sons. Ethelred; became a monk. Cenrcd, or Cendred; b e c a m e a m o n k at Home. Ceolred, C e l r e d , or C h o i r e d ; s o n of E t h e l r e d . E t h e l b a l d ; s l a i n in a m u t i n y b y h i s s u c c e s s o r , B e o r n r e d , o r B e r n r e d ; h i m s e l f slain. Offa; f o r m e d t h e g r e a t d y k e n e a r Wales. E g f r i d , o r E g f e r t h , son of O l f a ; d i e d s u d d e n l y . C c n u l p b , C e n w u l f , o r K e n u l p h ; slain. K c n c l m , o r C e n e l m , a m i n o r ; r e i g n e d live m o n t h s ; k i l l e d b y his sister Queildreda. Coolwulf, u n c l e t o K e n e l m ; e x p e l l e d . Beornwulf; killed by his own subjects. Lmleean; a valiant ruler; slain. W i t h l a f e , o r Wiglaf. B e r t h u l f , 01' B e r t u l f . Burlired, or Burdred. C e o l w u l p h ; d e p o s e d b y t h e D a n e s , 877. [ T h e k i n g d o m m e r g e d i n t o t h a t of E n g l a n d . ]

Britannia Tubular Bridge, see Tubular Bridge. Britanny, see Brittany, B r i t i s h , s e e Architects; stock;

Guiana,

Honduras,

Antiquaries; National,

Banks, Medical,

York Meeting Oxford Cambridge Edinburgh Dublin . ! Bristol Liverpool Newcastle.... Birmingham.. Glasgow Plymouth Manchester Cork Y o r k (2d t i m e ) C a m b r i d g e (2d) Southampton O x f o r d (2d) Swansea B i r m i n g h a m (2d) E d i n b u r g h (2d) Ipswich Belfast Hull L i v e r p o o l (2d) G l a s g o w (2d) Cheltenham

1831 1332 1 K ji3 h :,;5 :„'I0

;8t ¡JO ¡¡\A v s a e .

B r u c e ' s T r a v e l s . James Bruce, the " Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to discover the source Second Branch. of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the 1634. A u g u s t u s (son of H e n r y of L u n e b u r g ) . 1666. B o d o l p h A u g u s t u s; who associated his next brother Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, A n t l i o u y - U l r i c , i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t , f r o m 1685; d i e d ' and, arriving at Jedda, passed some months in Arabia 1704.

BKU

118

1704. Aiitiiuiiy - Ulric. now ruled alone ; became a Roman Catholic in 1710; died in 171-1. 1714. Augustus-William (son). 1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis-Rodolph, and succeeded him. 1735. Charles (son). 1780. Charles - William - Ferdinand (son); a great general (served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven Years' AYar, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta of England; was mortally wounded at the battle of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Nov. 1805; succeeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being blind, abdicated). 1S0G. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from the battle of Leipsic in Oct. 1813; fell at Quatre-ISns, commanding the avantgarde under the duke of Wellington, Ifi June, 1815; succeeded by his eldest son. 1815. Charles-Frederick-William ( very eccentric ); assumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at Brunswick; the duke (declared incapable of reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 7 Sept. 1830; died at Geneva, bequeathing his immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.] 1830. William (brother); born 25 April, 180G; succeeded provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830; and, on the demand of the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 18L!1; the PRESENT duke; unmarried. (His magnificent palace was destroyed by lire, 24Feb. 1805.) Hisjubilee celebrated 25 April, 1881. D U K E S OP

BRL-NSWICK-LR.VEBCRG.

1400. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick; see above). 1434. Otko and Frederic (his sons). 1478. Henry (son of Otho). 1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 1540. Henry (founder of seeond branch of Iirunswick-Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast lots to determine who should marry. The lot fell on GEORGE, sixth sou. Four of the brothers reigned, v i z . : 1592. Ernest II. 1 1611. Christian. lno s 1633. Augustus. novelese. Frederic II. J 1648. Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-mentioned). 1G65. George-William (brother of Christian - Lewis), dies in 1705; leaving as heiress SOPIIIA-DOROTHEA, his daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince GEORGELEWIS of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest son of tlie abovementioned George). (See Hanover and England.) B r u n s w i c k T h e a t r e , W e l l Street, East L o n d o n , b u i l t to replace t h e l i o y a l t y ( b u r n e d d o w n 11 A p r i l , 1826), w a s opened 25 F e b . 1828. O n the 29th the b u i l d i n g w a s destroyed b y t h e f a l l i n g in o f the walls, too m u c h w e i g h t b e i n g attached to t h e h e a v y iron roof. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e catastrophe h a p p e n e d in t h e d a y - t i m e ( d u r i n g a rehearsal of " G u y M a n n e r i n g " ) , and o n l y t w e l v e persons perished. B r u s s e l s , once capital of A u s t r i a n Brabant, n o w of B e l g i u m ( s i n c e 1831), was founded b y St. G e r v , of C a m b r a v , in t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . I t is celebrated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. T h e Hotel de Yille has a turret 364 feet i n h e i g h t ; and oil its top is a copper figure of St. M i c h a e l , 17 f e e t h i g h , w h i c h turns w i t h the w i n d ; see Belgium. Cathedral of St. Gudule (began 1010?) completed 1273 Made capital of the Low Countries 1507 Ruled tyrannically by Alva 1567 " Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards 1577-78 Bombarded by marshal Yilleroi; 14 churches and 10.000 houses destroyed Aug. 1695 Taken by the French, 1701; by Marlborough, 1706; by Saxe, iG Feb. 1746; and by Dumouricz Nov. 1792 The revolution commences 25 Aug. 1830 The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in consequence of a display of attachment to the house of Orange 5 April, 1834 Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteorological observations held here 1853 International philanthropic congress Sept. 1 International association for social sciences meet, 22-25 Sept. 1862 Biitssels Conference. The Society for the Amelioration of the conditions of prisoners of war sent circulars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. On 17 April Russia issued a programme for consideration at tho conference, consisting of 71 articles, embracing all tho usages of w a r . " Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, declined the discussion of international law, 4 July. General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for Great Britain without active powers: reserv-

BUC

ing liberty of action. The congress was opened 27 July; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. The United States not represented. The sittings were secret. The conference closcd without important results. 28 Aug. 1874. British Report published in London Gazette 24 Oct. 1874 Belgian Industrial exhibition opened 5 Sept. " International exhibition of objects relating to public health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June; a congress met ." 27 Sept.-2 Oct, 1876 International congress of commerce and industrv, 6-10 Sept. 1880 B r u t t i u m ( n o w C a l a b r i a O l t a ) , S. I t a l y . The Bruttians and Lucanians d e f e a t e d and slew A l e x a n d e r of E p i r u s at Pandosia, 320 B.C. T h e y w e r e conquered b y K o m e , 277. B u b b l e C o m p a n i e s , see Companies, and Suitth Sea Bubble.

Law's

Bubble,

B u c c a n e e r s , cruel, piratical adventurers, F r e n c h , E n g l i s h , and D u t c h , w h o c o m m e n c e d t h e i r depredations on the Spaniards of A m e r i c a soon a f t e r t h e l a t t e r h a d taken possession of t h a t c o n t i n e n t and the W e s t Indies. T h e i r numbers w e r e m u c h increased b y a t w e l v e y e a r s ' truce b e t w e e n the Spaniards and D u t c h ill 1C09, w h e n m a n y o f the discharged sailors j o i n e d t h e buccaneers. T h e first l e v y of s h i p - m o n e y ill E n g l a n d , in 1635, w a s t o d e f r a y the e x p e n s e of c h a s t i s i n g these pirates. The principal c o m m a n d e r s of the first buccaneers w e r e M o n t bar, L o l o n o i s , Basco, and M o r g a n . V a n H o r n , of Ostend, captured V e r a Cruz, 1603; M o r g a n took P a n a m a , 1670; Grarnont seized C a m p e a c h y , 1 6 8 5 ; and P o i n t i s took C a r t h a g e n a , 1697; all g a i n e d enormous b o o t y . The buccaneer c o n f e d e r a c y w a s broken up t h r o u g h t h e p e a c e of R y s w i c k , 10 Sept. 1697. " B u c e n t a u r , " t h e vessel in w h i c h t h e d o g e of V e n i c e used to proceed to w e d t h e A d r i a t i c , f r o m t h e twelfth to the eighteenth century. B u c h a n i t e s ( i l l S c o t l a n d ) : f o l l o w e r s of M r s . B u chan, w h o about 1779 p r e t e n d e d t o be t h e w o m a n o f R e v . x i i . , and promised to conduct t h e m to t h e n e w Jerusalem, etc. S h e died i n 1791, and h e r f o l l o w e r s dispersed. B u c h a r e s t (in W a l l a c h i a ) . P r e l i m i n a r i e s o f peace w e r e ratified at this place b e t w e e n Russia and T u r k e y , i t b e i n g stipulated that t h e P r u t b should be t h e f r o n t i e r of t h e t w o empires, s i g n e d 28 M a y , 1812. T h e subseq u e n t w a r b e t w e e n these p o w e r s altered m a n y of t h e provisions of this t r e a t y . B u c h a r e s t was o c c u p i e d b y the Russians, T u r k s , and Austrians, successively, in t h e Crimean war. T h e last q u i t t e d i t in 185C. I t is n o w capital of t h e k i n g d o m of R o u m a n i a , established 26 M a r c h , 1881.

Buckhurst Peerage, see Trials, 1876. Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the s o v e r e i g n .

Old Buckingham

H o u s e w a s built oil

the " M u l b e r r y Gardens," b y John Sheffield, duke B u c k i n g h a m , in 1703.

of

I n 1761 i t was b o u g h t b y G e o r g e

I I I . , w h o in 1775 settled i t on his queen, C h a r l o t t e . m a d e i t her t o w n r e s i d e n c e ; e x c e p t t h e eldest, w e r e born.

She

and here all h e r children, H e r e were married the

duke of Y o r k and princess F r e d e r i c a o f Prussia, in 1791; t h e duke o f Gloucester and princess M a r y , 1 8 1 6 ;

the

prince of H e s s e - H o m b u r g and princess E l i z a b e t h , 1818 ; and t h e duke of C a m b r i d g e and princess o f H e s s e t h e same y e a r .

T h e house was pulled d o w n in 1825, and

t h e present palace c o m m e n c e d on its site.

A f t e r an e x -

penditure o f n e a r l y a million sterling, i t w a s c o m p l e t e d , and occupied b y queen V i c t o r i a , 13 J u l y , 1837. i m p r o v e m e n t s w e r e m a d e in 1853.

Further

T h e marble

arch,

taken d o w n f r o m t h e e x t e r i o r of this palace, w a s

re-

erected at Cumberland G a t e , H y d e P a r k , 29 M a r c h , 1851. B u c k l e r s , used in s i n g l e combat, are said to h a v e been i n v e n t e d b y Proetus and A c r i c i u s of A r g o s , about 1370 B.C. W h e n Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took f r o m t h e m bucklers of g o l d and s i l v e r , 309 B.C.

Buckles

w e r e w o r n instead of shoestrings in

the

r e i g n of Charles II., and soon became f a s h i o n a b l e and

13 C D

119

13UL

expensive; about 1791 they fell out of use. Ornamental ¡ wounded, and 23 missing. The Mexicans lost almost buckles became fashionable, 1873. i 2000. They left 500 of their comrades dead on the field; B u d a (or O f e x ) , the ancient Aquincum, on the W . j see Mexican War. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with it (termed Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799; and sacked by Solyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans delivered up to t h e fury of the soldiers, 1686. I t suffered much in 1818; was entered without resistance b y the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849; stormed, 20 M a y ; given up by Russians to Austrians, July, 18-19. Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king of H u n gary, 8 June, 1867; sec Hungary. Buda-Pesth constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. Great loss of life (about 120) and property by a storm, 26 June, 1875; another storm, 11 J u l y following. B u d d h i s m , the chief religion in Asia beyond the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, originated with Gautama Siddartha, the Salty a Muni, generally termed Buddha, or " the enlightened," a prince of K a p alivastu, in Central India, said to have been born 623, and to have died 543 u.c. In July, 594 B.C., disgusted with the behavior of the Brahmins, he retired from the world for a time, and, on coming forth, preached a new religion so successfully that it predominated in India till the tenth century, A.T>.* Buddhism inculcates strict morality; it forbids killing, stealing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every shade of these vices, and declares charity or love to be the source of all virtues. Some writers assort that Buddhism includes belief in the transmigration of souls, and the absorption of good souls into God himself, from whom they have emanated; others reckon annihilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) among Buddhist tenets. A form of Buddhism, termed the religion of Fo, exists in China, besides the system of Confucius and Laot-se. It is said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, a.d. 68-81.

B u e n o s A y r e s , a province of S. America, now part of the Argentine republic. The country was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the capital, Buenos Ay res, founded by don Pedro dc Meudoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and recolonized; and made a bishopric, 1620; and a viceroy ally, 1775. Population of the province in 18G8, 550,000; see A rgentine Confederation. A British fleet and army, under sir Home Popliam and gen. 13 ores ford, take the city with slight resistance, 27 June; it is retaken by the Spaniards, 12 Aug.; bv the British 29 Oct. 180u Montevideo taken by storm by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 3 Feb.; evacuated 7 July, 1807 Gen. Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos Ay res; severely repulsed 5 July, a Independence of the province declared 19 July, 1816 Recognized as forming part of the Argentine confederation Feb. 1822 [A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many years.] Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional dictator 1851 Oribe defeated by gen. Urquiza, to whom Buenos Ay res capitulates 3 Feb. 1852 Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth 25 April, Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept.; invests the city; after some succcsses he retires Dee. Constitution voted 23 May, 1853 Buenos Ay res secedes from the Argentine confederation, and is recognized as an independent state; the llrst governor. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected 12 Oct. Dr. Valentin Alsina elect.cd governor May, 1857 War breaks out; Urquiza, general of the forces of the Argentine confederation, lias an indecisive conilict with the Buenos Avres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ay res is reunited with th o Ar ge n t i n e confede rat i o n 11 No v. Fiesii contests: Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost bloodless contest at Pa von; Urquiza retires 17 Sept. 1861 National congress at Buenos Ay res 25 May, 1862 Mitre installed president 12 Oct. Jesuits' college and archbishop's palace burned down, and several priests killed, by a great mob; martial la w p rocla i in od 28 Feb. 1871 (See Argentine Republic.)

" L e Bouddba ct ses Religions," by M. J. B. St. Hilaire. was publislied in 1860. Mr. T. Rhvl bavids's " Buddhism.'' in B u f f o o n s were originally mountebanks in the Ro1878. man theatres. Their shows were discouraged by DomiThe Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. tian, and abolished by Trajan, 98; see Jestzrs. Bucle L i g h t (so named from Bude in Cornwall, B u i l d i n g . In early times men dwelt in caves: the residence of Mr.—afterwards sir Golds worthy—Gurney, its inventor) consists of two or more concentric wood and clay were the first building materials. Building with stone was early among the Tynans. In Ireargand gas-burners, one rising above another, which produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a rose. land a castle was built oi' stone at Tuam by the king of The illuminating powers were increased by subjecting Oonnanght in 1101; and it was so new and uncommon Building with manganese, etc., to the action of the flame, in order to as to be called the Wonderful Castle" produce oxygen and hydrogen gas. This light was brick was introduced by the Iiomans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it in England in 886. It was patented 1839 and 1811. adopted by the earl of Arundel about 1598, London being B u d g e t (from the French bougette, Latin bulga, a then almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. small bag), a term applied to the English chancellor of Building acte were passed Ijy Elizabeth in 15i>2, 1580, and exchequer's annual statement of the finances of the coun1502; a n d by Charles II. in 16117. Recent acts are v e r y n u try, from the documents having been formerly presented merous. The Building Act for the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict, e. 84 (1841), was a m e n d e d in 1855, 1800, 18(1«, 1871. anil 1878. in a leather bag. The budgets of sir Eobert Peel in 1842 (including the income-tax) and 184G (free trade), and of Building societies, formed to enable a person to p u r c h a s e a house by p a y i n g m o n e y periodically to a society for a cerMr. Gladstone in I860 (in connection with the treaty tain n u m b e r of years, instead of p a y i n g rent to a landlord, with France), are the most important in recent times. began about 183(5, when an act was passed for their regulat i o n ; a new act was passed 30 J ulv, 1874. A surplus of about 6,000,000?. was announced by sir Stafford Northcote, 16 April, 1874; since then there has been B u l g a r i a , the ancient Mcesia Inferior, a principality a deficiency; see Revenue. tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a Slavonian B u e n a V i s t a , B a t t l e o f . This important con- tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italv from flict took place on 22 and 23 Feb. 1847. Taylor, with 499 to 678, when they established a kingdom. " They only about 5000 men (500 of them regulars), was com- defeated Justinian II., 687 ; but were subdued, after sevpelled to confront a Mexican army of 20,000, under gen. eral conflicts, by the emperor Basil, in 1918. After deSanta Anna, not far from San Luis Potosi. There was feating them ill 1914, and taking 15,099 Bulgarian prisslight skirmishing on the 22d, but on the morning of the oners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye 23d a terrible battle opened. The conflict was a fierce only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct and bloody one. The Americans held the field, and that his countrymen home. T h e kingdom was t night the Mexicans withdrew, leaving their dead and in 1186; but after several changes was conquered by wounded behind. The Americans lost 267 killed, 456 Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Eusso-Turkish war (which see), 1877-8. * Mr. Edwin Arnold's " Light of Asia," a poem, in 1879.

BUL

120

The Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Herzegovina {which see) 1875-G Insurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with great cruelty ('• Bulgarian Horrors,'' see England, 18761; see Turkey May-Sept. 1870 Zancoff and Bulabanow, Bulgarian delegates, received in London ' 9 Oct. " Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, tributary to tlio sultan, bv the Berlin treaty (which ser), 13 July, 1878 First parliament opened at Tlrnova by princo DondoukoiT Korsakoff; the new constitution brought forward, 22 Feb. 1879 Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alexander I. 29 April, " Visits tlio European courts; received by queen Victoria, 5 June, " Takes tlio oaths to the constitution at Tirnova.. ..9 July, " Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July, " u Ministerial difficulties; parliament dissolved.... 18 Dec. The prince announces the summoning a national assembly, and threatens to resign. 9 May, 1881 Zancoft'and other liberal ministers arrested for insulting the princc in their election addresses (soon released), 21 Juno, Elections for national assembly; voters said to be coerced 27 June, ct seq. Meeting of the assembly; tlio prince's proposals unanimously accepted; lio promises reforms and adlierenco to the constitution 13 July. " The lato liberal ministers, Zancolf and SlaviekoiT, arrested about 23 July, ' 1 PRINCE.

Alexander (Joseph) I. (son of princc Alexander, undo of Louis IV., grandduko of Hesse), born 5 April, 1857; elected 29 April, 1879

BL'R

into gold. This principle has been adopted in British monetary arrangements; see Bunk of England. VALUE OF llULLIOX I.AIl'ORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN*.

1853 1868 1870 1874 187 6 187 7 187 8 187 9

Gold. £22,793,120 17,136.177 18,806,728 18,081.019 23,475,975 15,4411985 20,87lj410 13,368,675

B u l l - r u n B a t t l e s , see

Silver. £0,700.064 7,716,418 10,648^940 12,298,169 13,578,269 21,710.814 11.551.545 10,786,863

Manassas.

B u l w e r - C l a y t o n T r e a t y , concluded 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir Ilcnry Lvtton Bulwer for the British, and Mr. Clayton for the American government, declared that neither should obtain exclusive control over the proposed ship-canal through Central America, or erect any fortification on any part of the country. Disputes afterwards arose with respect to this treaty, and the connection of Great Britain with the Mosquito territory (which see), which were settled in 1857. Its abrogation was proposed by tlie Americans in 1880. on account of De Lesseps's plan for a canal in Central America.

B u i l d s c l i u h , see Jacquerie. B u n h i l l - f i e l d s (originally Bonhill-field), a burialground near Finsbury Square, E. London, termed by Southey " t h e Campo Santo of the Dissenters;'' first used in 1665. Here were interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), Isaac Watts (1748), John Bunyan (1688), George Fox, the Quaker (1690), gen. Fleetwood, son-in-law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731).—Cunningham. An act for the preservation of the ground as an open space was passed 15 July, 1867, and it was reopened by the lord mayor 14 Oct. 1869; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed for by boys and girls, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870.

Bull, or E d i c t o f t h e P o p e . The bulla is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or wax. On one side are tlie heads of Peter and Paul, and on the other the name of the pope and year of his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued by Gregory I X . in 1231. Pius Y. published a bull against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) against the Jansenista was issued by Clement XI., 1713; confirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called from its golden seal, was Bunker Hill, B a t t l e o f (near Boston ), was an made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the engagement between American and British troops on 17 diet of Nuremberg, 1356; see Brazen Hull. Pius I X . June, 1775. The former were commanded by col. Prespublished an encyclical letter censuring modern errors, cott and gen. Putnam, and the latter by gen. AVilliam 8 Dec. 1SG4; see under Rome; see Stocks. IIo%ve. The British loss, in killed and wounded, was Bull-baiting, or B u l l - F i g i i t i x o , was an amuse- 1054; that of the Americans, 450. Although the Ameriment at Stamford in the reign of John, 1209; and at Tut- cans were driven from their position after their powder bury, 1374. In the Sports of England we read of the was exhausted, and the triumph of arms was with the " E a s t e r fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for British, the moral effect of this first battle of the Ameritheir heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited cans, and the immense loss to the enemy, made it equivwith dogs; " and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, alent to a victory for the Republicans. On the ground or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth where the hottest of the battle was fought, a granite for the exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable obelisk, 220 feet in height, has been erected in commemamusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown oration of the event at a cost of 6100,000, raised by volout in the commons, chiefly through the influence of the untary subscription. The corner-stone was laid by gen. late Mr. Windham, who made a speech in favor of the Lafayette, when the guest of the United States in 1825. custom, 24 May, 180'2. It was made illegal in 1835 ; see It was completed in July, 1842. Ralph Earnham, who Cruelty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into was present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. 1860, aged 104J Spain about 1260; abolished there, "except for pious years. H e was introduced to the prince of Wales when and patriotic purposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very in America. Centenary of the battle celebrated 17 June, common in Spain. A bull-fight at Lisbon, attended by 1875. 10,000 spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840; one took B u o n a p a r t e , see Bonaparte. place at Havre, 6 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical fights B u r f o r d C l u b , the appellation given (according to with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall, London, Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspirator; see Layer) by the were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. Pretender and his agents to a pretended Jacobite club, B u l l e t s of stone were in use, 1514. Iron ones are of which lord Orrery was chairman, and lord Strafford, mentioned in the F'adera, 1550. Leaden bullets were sir H e n r y Goring, earl Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishmade before the close of the sixteenth century. The op of Rochester, sir Constantine Phipps, gen. Webb, lord conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented by capt. Millie, about Bingley, lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord 1833; a modification of this (conoidal but without cup), Bathurst, Mr. Sliippen, and lord Gower, were members. by Mr. Pritchett (1853), is used with the Enfield rifle. This story was set aside by the solemn declarations of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list of this club Other bullets have been since devised. was published in the Weekly Journal, printed in W h i t e B u l l i o n , uncoined gold and silver. The " Bullion friars ; but when Read, the printer, was ordered to appear Report" of a parliamentary committee in 1810, princiat the bar of the house, he absconded, March, 1722.—Salpally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. (afterwards sir Rob- mon. ert) Peel, established the conclusion, that paper money is always liable to be over-issued, and consequently depreB u r g e s s e s , from the French Bourgeois, a distincciated, unless it be at all times immediately convertible tion coeval in England with corporations. They were

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BUE

Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used 1733 Burials taxed 1695 A tax enacted on burials in England—for the burial of a duke !••'. and for that of a common person 4s.—under William III. 1695, and George III 1783 Acts relating to metropolitan burials passed 1850-67 Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, about 1538. In 1732 Ebenezer

called to parliament in England, 12G5; in Scotland in 132(5 ; and in Ireland abou 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places tliey represented in parliament, 1 Hen. Y. (1413). During the colonial period the Virginia House of Representatives was called the House of Burgesses; seejBorough.

Burghers a n d Antiburgheks. —Stow. Erskine and others seceded from the church of Scotland. '' Earth to earth'' system of burial advocated by Mr. SeyDiffering in regard to the interpretation of the burgess mour lladen ; wicker coffins exhibited at Stalfordhouse 17 June, 1875 oath, they divided into two sections with the foregoing Consecrated burial-grounds in England, 13,673; closed, names in 1747. In 1820 they were reunited as the 1411.. 1877 United Associate Synod of the Secession church, which Buriats Act (permitting any Christian service in a parish churchyard) passed 7 Sept. 1880 on 13 May, 1847, joined the Relief church, together form[See IHssmkrs.) ing the United Presbyterian church. B u r k i n g , a new species of murder, committed in B u r g l a r y was a capital offence till 1829. Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted from parish Britain, thus named from Burke, the first known crimioiliccs, 1699 ; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1706, and 6 nal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate and other goods killed by pressure or other modes of suffocation, and the to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Persons having bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for dissection. He was executed at Edupon them picklock-keys, etc., to be deemed rogues and inburgh, 28 Jan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. The laws with respect apprehended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London, 5 to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Dec., with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murPeel's acts between 1823 and 1829, and by the criminal der of a poor, friendless Italian boy named Carlo Ferralaws of 1861. ri. They confessed to this and other similar murders. Burglaries in England, 1871, 614; 1873, 433; 1875, BOI; 1879, 420.

B u r l i n g a m e T r e a t y , promoted by Mr. Anson Burliugame and a Chinese embassy, and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It authorized mutual immigration. California prospered through Chinese labor; but depression in 1879-80 led to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of the treaty. Two new treaties between the United States and China, one relating to B u r g u n d y , a large province in France, derives its immigration and the other to commerce, were signed 17 name from the Burgundians, a Gothic tribe who overran Nov. 1880. Gaul in 275, and were driven out by the emperor Probus ; B u r l i n g t o n A r c a d e , Piccadilly, opened 20 March, they returned in 287, and were defeated by Maximin. 1819. In 413 they established a K i n g d o m , comprising the presBurlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibiting ent Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, etc. Gondicar, their leader, the iirst works of aat, and promoting intercourse between artists, king. I t was conquered by the Franks, 534.—The second amateurs, etc., founded 1867. kingdom, consisting of a part of the iirst, began with B u r l i n g t o n H e i g h t s . After a fierce contest here Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 561. The king- between the British and the United States forces, 6 doms of Aries, Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy were Juno, 1813, the British carried the heights. formed out of the old kingdom.—Dceii y. In 877 Charles B u r l i n g t o n H o u s e (Piccadilly, London) was built the Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first duke by Denham for lord Burlington about 1664, and rebuilt of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, by lord Burlington, the architect, about 1731. It was founder of the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His bought for 140,000?. by the government, authorized by descendant Henry, on becoming king of Francc, conferred vote of the house of commons, on 27 July, 1851. It beit on bis brother Robert, in whose family it remained till came the home of the Royal, Linneanj and Chemical the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without issue, in 1361. societies in 1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and In 1363, king John of France made his fourth son, Philip, of the Antiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical duke; see Austria and Germany. societies in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for the DUKES. University of London and the Roj^al Academy were 1363. Philip the Bold; marries Margaret, heiress of Flanders granted in the grounds of Burlington House. The en1369. 1404. John the Fearless (son); joined the English invaders of trance, colonnade, etc., were removed in 1868, and the France ; privy to the assassination of the duke of Or- exhibition of the Royal Academy was first opened here leans in 1407; himself assassinated at Montereau, in 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity-school, near here, presence of the dauphin, Sept. 1419. founded 1C99. B u r g o s (Spain), the burial-place of the Cid, 1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). The castle was besieged by the British and allied army ; but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same year. The fortiiications were blown up by the French, 12 June, 1813.

1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful dulie. 1467. Charles the Bold; married to Margaret of York, sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; invaded Franco, 147-2 ; Switzerland, 1476; killed in an engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 Jan. 1477. 1477. Mary (daughter); married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maximilian of Austria; died 27 March, 1482. 1479. Louis XI. annexed. Burgundy to France. The other dominions fell to Austria,

B u r m a h , or B u r m e s e E m p i r e , founded in the middle of the eighteenth century by Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 was amicably adjusted by gen. Erskine. Hostilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and they took Rangoon on 11 May. The fort and pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. " After a short armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same year, and pursued until the successive victories of the British led to the cession of Arracan, and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1820. For the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, see India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire 20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853.

B u r i a l s . Abraham buried Sarah at Machpelah, 1860 E.C., Gen. xxiii.. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtas I. in a.d. 210.—Eusehius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a distance from their towns ; the Romans irjar the highways ; hence the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at Rome; see Rebellion against the king suppressed by British aid, Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. about Sept. 1868

Treaties with Great Britain 1862 and 25 Oct. 1867 Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury 1075 Burmese embassy in England, 6 J u n e ; introduced to the Woollen shrouds only permitted to he used in England.. 1666 queen 21 j U ne, 1872

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BUR The k i n g M i n d o n e s u s p e c t e d of inciting C h i n e s e to a t t a c k B r i t i s h e x p e d i t i o n to West C h i n a (see India) Feb. Sir Douglas F o r s y t h ' s m i s s i o n to t h e k i n g ; a r r i v e s at Matldalay. 11 J u n e ; s u b m i s s i o n of t h e k i n g a n n o u n c e d a b o u t IS J u n o ; h e r e f u s e s p e r m i s s i o n for B r i t i s h troops t o m a r c h a s a convoy t h r o u g h h i s t e r r i t o r i e s to C h i n a ; sir I). F o r s y t h r e t i r e s June, Col. D u n c a n s r ent to M a n d a l a y a b o u t Aug. T h e k i n g e v e n t u a l l y acceded t o t h e B r i t i s h d e m a n d s ; announced Oct. T h e k i n g dies, a b o u t 5 S e p t . ; a n n o u n c e d 2 Oct. H i s successor, Tlreebau (Wongyee. p r i n c e of Theebau), kills m a n y of t h e royal f a m i l y a n d t h e i r f r i e n d s . . F e b . The BritishVesident and others quit Mandalay 8 Oct. T h e king, a t t a c k e d by small-pox, c o m m i t s f r e s h atrocities 12 April, P r i n c e N y o u n g ' s rebellion, May, J u n e , s u p p r e s s e d ; ho enters British territory 27 J u n e ,

BUT

B u r t o n C r e s c e n t (London). Ilcre Mrs. Eachael 1875 Samuel, a widow living alone, was murdered in the night 11 Dec. 1878. No robbery. Mary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and discharged, 10 Jan. 1879. B u r w e l l F i r e . A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Burwell, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle having set tire to a heap '' 1878 of straw, seventy-six individuals perished, and others died of their wounds. " "

1879

1880 "

B u r n e t t P r i z e s , to be awarded every 40 years to the authors of the two best essays on the evidence that there is a' Being all powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists, etc.," were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentleman, who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the purpose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr. W . L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, 1815; to Jiev. li. A. Thompson, and to Dr. J . Tulloch, 1855. The establishment of a Burnett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the lccturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. 1880; but opposed bv the house of lords, 24 Jan.

B u r y S t . E d m u n d ' s (Suffolk), named from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried here, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey was founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by the barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is supposed by poison. I t was almost consumed by fire in 1G08, and was desolated by plague in 1G3G.

B u r y i n g A l i v e . Ill Bceotia, Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a charge of incontinence were Minutia, 337 B.C.; Sextilla, 274 B.C.; Cornelia, A.i>. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who 1881. had been buried alive, Duns Scotus being of the numB u m h a m B e e c h e s (Bucks), the picturesque re- ber. The two assassins of Capo d'lstria, president of mains of ait ancient forest, were purenased for public use Greece, were sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied by the corporation of London in 1879. with food in this species of torture until thev died, Oct. B u r n i n g A l i v e was inflicted among the Romans, 1831. Jews, and other nations, and was couutenancod by bulls B u s a c o , or B u z a c o (Portugal). Here the British, of the pope; sec Witches. Many persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir William Sawtre, priest of under lord Wellington, repulsed the French under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one general and St. Osvth, London, suffered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men of Mary numbers were burned; s P r o t e s t a n t s . Elizawounded, and several hundred prisoners ; the loss of the beth Gaunt, ail Anabaptist, was burned at Tyburn for allies did not exceed 1300; the British retreated to the treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 Oct. lines of Torres Vedras, too strong for Massena to force, 1C85. and the armies remained in sight of each other to the Burning t h e D e a d was practised among the end of the year. Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives descriptions. It B u s h e l . This measure was ordered to contain eight was very general about 1225 B.C., and was revived by gallons of wheat, 12 lien. T i l l . 1520; the legal WinSj'lla about 78 B.c. I t is still practised in parts of the chester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1G97; the imEast Indies, and has been advocated in this country by perial corn bushel of 2218.192 cubic inches is to the the eminent surgeon, sir Henry Thompson, and others, Winchester of 2150.42 as 32 to 31. Regulated by act 1 8 7 3 ; s e e Suttees, Barro'ws. 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, which act came into operation 1 Professor L. B r u n e t t i e x h i b i t e d h i s p l a n a n d r e s u l t s a t Jan. 1820. The same in the United States.

the Vienna exhibition 1873 C r e m a t i o n societies f o u n d e d in London, V i e n n a , a n d Berlin, etc 13 J a n . 1874 T h e c o r p s e of t h e w i f e of sir Charles Dilke, w i t h eollin, i; b u r n e d a t D r e s d e n ; a s h e s a b o u t 0 ¡bs 10 Oct. T h e e r e c t i o n of a c r e m a t o r i u m a t W o k i n g s t o p p e d by authorities s u m m e r , 1879

B u s h i r e (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by sir II. Leeke, and by land by gen. Stalker, was taken 10 Dec. 185G. The place proved stronger than was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous attack on the fort at B u r n i n g - g l a s s and C o n c a v e M i r k o k s . Their Iieshire, 9 Dec. The loss of the British was four officers killed and one wounded; live men killed and thirty-five power was known to Archimedcs, and it is even asserted that by their aid he burned a fleet in the harbor of Syr- wounded. acuse, 214 b.c. Their powers were increased by SetB u s h r a n g e r s , Australian highwaymen, formerly talla; Tschirnhausen, 1G80; Buffon, 1747; and Parker escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate robber and murand others more recently. The following experiments derer, was surrounded and shot April, 18G5. The " Kelly were made about 1800 with Mr. Parker's lens or burn- g a n g " seized and pillaged the town of Jerilderie, New ing-mirror, which cost 700/., and is said to have been South Wales, 8-10 Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of the largest ever made. I t was sold to capt.. Mackenzie, his gang were captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June, 1880. who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. Substances P u r e gold

fused.

Weight. Time. 20 grains, 4 seconds.

suver....:';.::::

«>

Copper. Platina Cast-iron (a cube) Steel A topaz .. An emerald A c r y s t a l pebble Flint Cornelian Pumice-stone Green wood t a k e s fire i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ; ately; bones are calcined; and things ing at o n c c b e c o m e red-hot, like iron.

33 " 20 10 " 3 " 10 " 3 " 10 '• 12 " 3 " 45 " 2 " 25 " 7 " 6 " 10 " 30 " u 10 " 75 10 " 24 " w a t e r boils i m m e d i not capable of melt-

«

3

«

Bussorah, see

Pussorah.

B u s t s . Lvsistratus, the statuary, v a s the inventor of moulds from which he cast, w a x figures, 328 b.c.— Pliny. Busts from the face, in plaster of Paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A.D. MGG. Smaller busts and statuettes arc now accurately produced from larger ones by machinery. B u t c h e r s . Among the Romans there were three classes: the Suctrii provided hogs, the Bocrii or Pecuarii oxen and sheep, which the Lcinii or Car.rijices killed. The Butchers' Company in London is ancient, though not incorporated till 1G04.

BUT

123

CAB

B u t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . J o h n , carl of Iiute,* t u t o r ship to Romanists, was suppressed 1603. I t was callcd of prince George ( a f t e r w a r d s George III.), formed an ad- also t h e surprise plot." m i n i s t r a t i o n in M a y , 1762, w h i c h , after various changes, By-laws, or B Y E - L A W S , p r i v a t e ordinances m a d e resigned 8 April, 1763. I t was severely a t t a c k e d b y by subordinate communities, such as corporations. These J u n i u s and J o h n Wilkes. laws must not militate a g a i n s t t h e law of t h e land. B y J o h n , c a r l of l i u t e . ^ r s / lord of the treasury. 5 A' 6 Will. I V . 1831, those m a d e b y corporate bodies beS i r F r a n c i s D a s l i w o o d , chancellor of the exchequer. E a r l G r a n v i l l e , president of the council. come valid, if not disallowed b y t h e king's council w i t h D u k e of B e d f o r d , privy mil. in forty days after their e n a c t m e n t . E a r l of H a l i f a x , admiralty. E a r l of E g r e m o n t a n d G e o r g e G r a n v i l l e , secretaries of state. L o r d Ligonier, ordnance. H e n r y F o x , a f t e r w a r d s l o r d H o l l a n d , paymaster of the forces. V i s c o u n t B a r r i n g t o n , treasurer of the navy. L o r d S a n d y s , f r s t lord of trade. D u k e of M a r l b o r o u g h , e a r l Talbot, l o r d H u n t i n g d o n , l o r d Anson, l o r d N o r t h , etc.

Byng, HON-. A D M I R A L J O H N , was c h a r g e d w i t h n e g lect of d u t y in an e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t h e e n e m y oil' Slinorca, 20 M a y , 1756, condemned for an error of j u d g ment, and shot on board t h e Monarch a t S p i t h e a d , 14 March, 3 757.

B u t t e r is said to h a v e been used b y t h e Arabs in early times, but not b y t h e G r e e k s and Romans, who h a d excellent oil. I t is n o t m e n t i o n e d as food b y Galen, A.D. 130-200. I t h a s long been used b y northern n a tions. V a r i o u s s t a t u t e s h a v e passed respecting its package, w e i g h t , a n d sale; t h e principal of w h i c h are t h e 8 6 t h & 38th Geo. I I I . and 10 Geo. I V . 1829. I n Africa, v e g e t a b l e b u t t e r is made from t h e f r u i t of t h e shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, t h a n a n y b u t t e r m a d e f r o m cow's m i l k . — M u n g o Pari;. T h e i m p o r t duties of 5s. per cwt, on foreign b u t t e r (producing, in 1859, 104,587/. on 421,354 cwt.) was repealed in 1860. Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 c w t . ; 1856, 513.392 c w t . ; 1866, 1.165,081 c w t . ; 1870, 1,159,210 c w t . ; ' 1874, 1,619,808 c w t . ; 1876, 1,659,492 c w t . ; 1877, 1,637,403 c w t . ; 1879, 2,045,399 cwt. T h e e x p o r t of butter from t h e U n i t e d States, d u r i n g t h e year ended J u n e 30, 1880, a m o u n t e d to 31,061,610 lbs., valued a t $5,179,071.

t e r m i n e d on, at a m e e t i n g in London, 16 J u l y , 1875; Mr. Disraeli in t h e c h a i r . About 3000/. were subscribed. T h e statue b y R i c h a r d Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near H a m i l t o n place, H y d e 1'ark, was uncovered priv a t e l y b y lord H o u g h t o n , 24 M a y , 1880. A marble pedestal was promised b y t h e Greeks.

B u t t o n s , a n early m a n u f a c t u r e in E n g l a n d ; those covered w i t h cloth were prohibited, to encourage t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of m e t a l buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. Buttons l a r g e l y employed to o r n a m e n t ladies' dresses, 187381. B u x a r , a t o w n in B e n g a l , near which, on 23 Oct. 1764, major, a f t e r w a r d s sir H e c t o r Monro ( w i t h 857 E u ropeans a n d 6215 Sepoys) g a i n e d a g r e a t v i c t o r y over t h e troops of t h e nabob of Oude, etc., 50,000 in n u m b e r ; 6000 of these were killed, a n d 130 pieces of camion were t a k e n . T h e loss of t h e E n g l i s h was trilling. B y e P l o t , of lord G r a y of W i l t o n and others, to i m prison J a m e s I., and compel h i m to g r a n t liberty of w o r - 1'

Byron National Memorial.

Its erection de-

Byron's Voyage. Commodore B y r o n left E n g land on his v o y a g e round t h e globe, 21 J u n e , 1764, a n d returned 9 M a y , 1760. l i e discovered the populous island in t h e Pacific Ocean w h i c h bears his name, 16 A u g . 1765. T h o u g h b r a v e and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune a t sea t h a t he was called b y the sailors of t h e fleet "Foulweather Jack." B y z a n t i u m , now Constantinople, and Starnboid, in t h e a n c i e n t Thrace, founded by a colony of Megarians, under B y z a s , 667 B.C.; b u t various dates and persons are g i v e n . It was t a k e u successively b y t h e Medcs, A t h e n i a n s , and Spartans. I n 340 B.C., in alliance w i t h t h e A t h e n i a n s , t h e B y z a n t i n e s defeated t h e ileet of P h i l i p of Macedon. D u r i n g t h e wars w i t h Macedon, Syria, etc., it became an ally of t h e Romans, b y w h o m it was taken, a . d . 73. Rebelling, it was t a k e n after t w o years' siege, and laid in ruins b y Severus in 196. I t was refounded b y Constantine in 324, and dedicated on 22 M a y , 330, all t h e h e a t h e n temples b e i n g d e s t r o y e d ; and from h i m it received its n a m e ; see Constantinople. BYZANTINE ART nourished from t h e t i m e of Constantine to about 1204. T h e BYZANTINE or E a s t e r n empire really commenced in 395, w h e n Theodosius divided t h e R o m a n e m p i r e ; see East. T h e " B y z a n t i n e H i s t o r i a n s , " from 325 to 1453, were published a t Paris, 1645-1711; and at Venice, 1722-33.

c . C a a b a , a sacred black stone, k e p t in a temple a t Mecca, and venerated b y t h e Arabs, long before t h e Christian era. I t s guardians, t h e tribe of Koreish, were defeated b v M a h o m e t and t h e worship abolished, 6 2 3 030.

B e n - J o c h a i , A.D. 72-110. T h e true d a t e of t h e books c o n t a i n i n g t h e cabala is now considered to range from t h e n i n t h to t h e fourteenth century, and their origin to be t h e m i n g l i n g of T a l m u d i s m w i t h t h e Greek philosophy t e r m e d Neo-Platonism. Some of t h e i r dogmas are a k i n to Christian tenets, such as t h e trinity, t h e incarnation, etc. T h e cabala exercised m u c h influence upon t h e m e n t a l development of t h e J e w s , and even captivated t h e g r e a t e s t t h i n k e r s of t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries.

Cabal. I n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y t h e term h a s been a p plied to t h e cabinet of Charles I I . 1667-74; t h e word Cabal b e i n g formed from t h e initials of t h e i r n a m e s : sir T h o m a s , a f t e r w a r d s lord Clifford ( C ) ; t h e lord Ashley ( A ) , ( a f t e r w a r d s earl of S h a f t e s b u r y ) ; George Villiers, d u k e of B u c k i n g h a m ( B ) ; H e n r y , lord A r l i n g t o n ( A ) ; C a b b a g e s . Some new k i n d s were b r o u g h t to E n g a n d J o h n , d u k e of L a u d e r d a l e (L). land from Holland about 1510, it is said by sir A r t h u r Ashley of Dorset, and introduced i n t o Scotland by CromC a b a l a , a J e w i s h system of philosophy or theosowell's soldiers. p h y , d e r i v i n g its n a m e from a H e b r e w word s i g n i f y i n g reception or tradition, said to h a v e been g i v e n b y God C a b e i r a (Asia M i n o r ) . H e r e Mitliridates, k i n g of to A d a m , and t r a n s m i t t e d from father to son b y h i s de- l'ontus, was defeated b y Lucullns, 71 B.C. scendants. I t is said to h a v e been lost a t t h e BabyloCabinet Council. In the U. S. government the n i a n c a p t i v i t y (587 B.C.), b u t to h a v e been revealed h e a d s of t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s compose a council, again to Ezra. Its supporters assert t h a t t h e cabalistic w h i c h is k n o w n as a cabinet, " t h e y are appointed \JJ book S o h a r , " or " Splendour," a m y s t i c c o m m e n t a r y on t h e president, a n d hold office a t his will, and are, under t h e P e n t a t e u c h , was tirst c o m m i t t e d to w r i t i n g b v Simon h i m , t h e e x e c u t i v e officers of t h e general g o v e r n m e n t . * J o h n S t u a r t , c a r l of B u t e , b o r n 1713; s e c r e t a r y of s t a t e . M a r c h , 1761; p r i m e - m i n i s t e r , M a y , 1762; d i e d 10 l l i u x h , 1792.

T h e secretaries of state, treasury, mar, nary, interior, and t h e postmaster-general and attorney-general, form the cab-

BUT

123

CAB

B u t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . J o h n , carl of Iiute,* t u t o r ship to Romanists, was suppressed 1603. I t was callcd of prince George ( a f t e r w a r d s George III.), formed an ad- also t h e surprise plot." m i n i s t r a t i o n in M a y , 1762, w h i c h , after various changes, By-laws, or B Y E - L A W S , p r i v a t e ordinances m a d e resigned 8 April, 1763. I t was severely a t t a c k e d b y by subordinate communities, such as corporations. These J u n i u s and J o h n Wilkes. laws must not militate a g a i n s t t h e law of t h e land. B y J o h n , c a r l of l i u t e . ^ r s / lord of the treasury. 5 A' 6 Will. I V . 1831, those m a d e b y corporate bodies beS i r F r a n c i s D a s l i w o o d , chancellor of the exchequer. E a r l G r a n v i l l e , president of the council. come valid, if not disallowed b y t h e king's council w i t h D u k e of B e d f o r d , privy mil. in forty days after their e n a c t m e n t . E a r l of H a l i f a x , admiralty. E a r l of E g r e m o n t a n d G e o r g e G r a n v i l l e , secretaries of state. L o r d Ligonier, ordnance. H e n r y F o x , a f t e r w a r d s l o r d H o l l a n d , paymaster of the forces. V i s c o u n t B a r r i n g t o n , treasurer of the navy. L o r d S a n d y s , f r s t lord of trade. D u k e of M a r l b o r o u g h , e a r l Talbot, l o r d H u n t i n g d o n , l o r d Anson, l o r d N o r t h , etc.

Byng, HON-. A D M I R A L J O H N , was c h a r g e d w i t h n e g lect of d u t y in an e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t h e e n e m y oil' Slinorca, 20 M a y , 1756, condemned for an error of j u d g ment, and shot on board t h e Monarch a t S p i t h e a d , 14 March, 3 757.

B u t t e r is said to h a v e been used b y t h e Arabs in early times, but not b y t h e G r e e k s and Romans, who h a d excellent oil. I t is n o t m e n t i o n e d as food b y Galen, A.D. 130-200. I t h a s long been used b y northern n a tions. V a r i o u s s t a t u t e s h a v e passed respecting its package, w e i g h t , a n d sale; t h e principal of w h i c h are t h e 8 6 t h & 38th Geo. I I I . and 10 Geo. I V . 1829. I n Africa, v e g e t a b l e b u t t e r is made from t h e f r u i t of t h e shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, t h a n a n y b u t t e r m a d e f r o m cow's m i l k . — M u n g o Pari;. T h e i m p o r t duties of 5s. per cwt, on foreign b u t t e r (producing, in 1859, 104,587/. on 421,354 cwt.) was repealed in 1860. Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 c w t . ; 1856, 513.392 c w t . ; 1866, 1.165,081 c w t . ; 1870, 1,159,210 c w t . ; ' 1874, 1,619,808 c w t . ; 1876, 1,659,492 c w t . ; 1877, 1,637,403 c w t . ; 1879, 2,045,399 cwt. T h e e x p o r t of butter from t h e U n i t e d States, d u r i n g t h e year ended J u n e 30, 1880, a m o u n t e d to 31,061,610 lbs., valued a t $5,179,071.

t e r m i n e d on, at a m e e t i n g in London, 16 J u l y , 1875; Mr. Disraeli in t h e c h a i r . About 3000/. were subscribed. T h e statue b y R i c h a r d Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near H a m i l t o n place, H y d e 1'ark, was uncovered priv a t e l y b y lord H o u g h t o n , 24 M a y , 1880. A marble pedestal was promised b y t h e Greeks.

B u t t o n s , a n early m a n u f a c t u r e in E n g l a n d ; those covered w i t h cloth were prohibited, to encourage t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of m e t a l buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. Buttons l a r g e l y employed to o r n a m e n t ladies' dresses, 187381. B u x a r , a t o w n in B e n g a l , near which, on 23 Oct. 1764, major, a f t e r w a r d s sir H e c t o r Monro ( w i t h 857 E u ropeans a n d 6215 Sepoys) g a i n e d a g r e a t v i c t o r y over t h e troops of t h e nabob of Oude, etc., 50,000 in n u m b e r ; 6000 of these were killed, a n d 130 pieces of camion were t a k e n . T h e loss of t h e E n g l i s h was trilling. B y e P l o t , of lord G r a y of W i l t o n and others, to i m prison J a m e s I., and compel h i m to g r a n t liberty of w o r - 1'

Byron National Memorial.

Its erection de-

Byron's Voyage. Commodore B y r o n left E n g land on his v o y a g e round t h e globe, 21 J u n e , 1764, a n d returned 9 M a y , 1760. l i e discovered the populous island in t h e Pacific Ocean w h i c h bears his name, 16 A u g . 1765. T h o u g h b r a v e and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune a t sea t h a t he was called b y the sailors of t h e fleet "Foulweather Jack." B y z a n t i u m , now Constantinople, and Starnboid, in t h e a n c i e n t Thrace, founded by a colony of Megarians, under B y z a s , 667 B.C.; b u t various dates and persons are g i v e n . It was t a k e u successively b y t h e Medcs, A t h e n i a n s , and Spartans. I n 340 B.C., in alliance w i t h t h e A t h e n i a n s , t h e B y z a n t i n e s defeated t h e ileet of P h i l i p of Macedon. D u r i n g t h e wars w i t h Macedon, Syria, etc., it became an ally of t h e Romans, b y w h o m it was taken, a . d . 73. Rebelling, it was t a k e n after t w o years' siege, and laid in ruins b y Severus in 196. I t was refounded b y Constantine in 324, and dedicated on 22 M a y , 330, all t h e h e a t h e n temples b e i n g d e s t r o y e d ; and from h i m it received its n a m e ; see Constantinople. BYZANTINE ART nourished from t h e t i m e of Constantine to about 1204. T h e BYZANTINE or E a s t e r n empire really commenced in 395, w h e n Theodosius divided t h e R o m a n e m p i r e ; see East. T h e " B y z a n t i n e H i s t o r i a n s , " from 325 to 1453, were published a t Paris, 1645-1711; and at Venice, 1722-33.

c . C a a b a , a sacred black stone, k e p t in a temple a t Mecca, and venerated b y t h e Arabs, long before t h e Christian era. I t s guardians, t h e tribe of Koreish, were defeated b v M a h o m e t and t h e worship abolished, 6 2 3 030.

B e n - J o c h a i , A.D. 72-110. T h e true d a t e of t h e books c o n t a i n i n g t h e cabala is now considered to range from t h e n i n t h to t h e fourteenth century, and their origin to be t h e m i n g l i n g of T a l m u d i s m w i t h t h e Greek philosophy t e r m e d Neo-Platonism. Some of t h e i r dogmas are a k i n to Christian tenets, such as t h e trinity, t h e incarnation, etc. T h e cabala exercised m u c h influence upon t h e m e n t a l development of t h e J e w s , and even captivated t h e g r e a t e s t t h i n k e r s of t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries.

Cabal. I n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y t h e term h a s been a p plied to t h e cabinet of Charles I I . 1667-74; t h e word Cabal b e i n g formed from t h e initials of t h e i r n a m e s : sir T h o m a s , a f t e r w a r d s lord Clifford ( C ) ; t h e lord Ashley ( A ) , ( a f t e r w a r d s earl of S h a f t e s b u r y ) ; George Villiers, d u k e of B u c k i n g h a m ( B ) ; H e n r y , lord A r l i n g t o n ( A ) ; C a b b a g e s . Some new k i n d s were b r o u g h t to E n g a n d J o h n , d u k e of L a u d e r d a l e (L). land from Holland about 1510, it is said by sir A r t h u r Ashley of Dorset, and introduced i n t o Scotland by CromC a b a l a , a J e w i s h system of philosophy or theosowell's soldiers. p h y , d e r i v i n g its n a m e from a H e b r e w word s i g n i f y i n g reception or tradition, said to h a v e been g i v e n b y God C a b e i r a (Asia M i n o r ) . H e r e Mitliridates, k i n g of to A d a m , and t r a n s m i t t e d from father to son b y h i s de- l'ontus, was defeated b y Lucullns, 71 B.C. scendants. I t is said to h a v e been lost a t t h e BabyloCabinet Council. In the U. S. government the n i a n c a p t i v i t y (587 B.C.), b u t to h a v e been revealed h e a d s of t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s compose a council, again to Ezra. Its supporters assert t h a t t h e cabalistic w h i c h is k n o w n as a cabinet, " t h e y are appointed \JJ book S o h a r , " or " Splendour," a m y s t i c c o m m e n t a r y on t h e president, a n d hold office a t his will, and are, under t h e P e n t a t e u c h , was tirst c o m m i t t e d to w r i t i n g b v Simon h i m , t h e e x e c u t i v e officers of t h e general g o v e r n m e n t . * J o h n S t u a r t , c a r l of B u t e , b o r n 1713; s e c r e t a r y of s t a t e . M a r c h , 1761; p r i m e - m i n i s t e r , M a y , 1762; d i e d 10 l l i u x h , 1792.

T h e secretaries of state, treasury, mar, nary, interior, and t h e postmaster-general and attorney-general, form the cab-

CAB

124

OES

inet. T h e r e were councils in E n g l a n d as early as t h e I about 20,000 K e n t i s h men, w h o a r m e d " to p u n i s h evil reign of Ina, k i n g of t h e W e s t Saxons, GOO; Offa, k i n g ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." l i e deof t h e Mercians, 758; and in other reigns of t h e H c p - | feated a n d slew sir H u m p h r y Stafford, a t Sevenoaks, 27 t a r c h y . S t a t e councils are referred to Alfred t h e Great. J u n e ; entered London in t r i u m p h , and b e h e a d e d t h e —Spehnan; see Administrations. CABIXET NOIR, o r lord treasurer, lord Saye, and several other persons of " D a r k Closet," t h e c h a m b e r in w h i c h letters i n t r u s t e d consequence, 3 J u l y . W h e n t h e insurgents lost g r o u n d , t o t h e F r e n c h post were opened for state purposes. T h e a g e n e r a l pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, deserted b y system, w h i c h b e g a n w i t h Lonis X I . , was organized u n - his followers, fled. A reward h a v i n g been offered for his der Louis X V . ; a n d is said to h a v e been discontinued apprehension, h e was discovered, and, r e f u s i n g to s u r in 1868. render, was slain b y A l e x a n d e r Iden, sheriff of K e n t , 1 1 July. Cables. A m a c h i n e was i n v e n t e d in 1792 for m a k i n g them, b y w h i c h h u m a n labor was reduced nine Cadet's College, see Sandhurst. tenths. Chain cables were introduced into t h e British C a d i z ( W . S p a i n ) , anciently Gadiz, t h e R o m a n n a v y about 1812; directions for testing t h e m enacted, G a d e s ; said to h a v e been built bv t h e Phoenicians about 1864 a n d 1874. 1100 B.C.

C a b o c h i e n s , an a r m e d B u r g u n d i a n faction, includi n g 500 butchers, n a m e d from t h e i r leader Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. T h e y ruled P a r i s w i t h violence, and constrained t h e doctors of the Sorbonne to become t h e i r allies and t h e d a u p h i n to recognize t h e m as t h e " W h i t e floods," a n d reformers. T h e y were e x t e r m i n a t e d b y t h e citizens in 1418.

One h u n d r e d vessels of the Spanish a r m a d a destroyed in t h e p o r t by sir F r a n c i s Drake 1587 Cadiz was t a k e n by t h e Englisli u n d e r t h e carl of Essex, a n d plundered 15 Sept. 159(5 Vainly a t t a c k e d b y sir George Rooko 1702 Bombarded by t h e British J u l y , 1797 Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two y e a r s 1797-9 Again b o m b a r d e d b y t h e British Oct. 1800 A F r e n c h squadron of five ships of t h e line a n d a frigate s u r r e n d e r to t h e Spanish and British 14 J u n e , 180S Besieged by t h e French, b u t t h e siege w a s raised a f t e r t h e battle of Salamanca J u l y , 1812 Insurrection, 1819; massacre of m a n y i n h a b i t a n t s by t h e soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 Taken by t h e F r e n c h in Oct, 1823, a n d held till 1828 Declared a free port 1829 Insurrection against the q u e e n began w i t h t h e fleet h e r e (see Spain) 17 Sept. 1868 Republican insurrection suppressed w i t h bloodshed, 5-13 Dec. "

C a b r i o l e t s (yulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into t h e streets of London in 1822, w h e n t h e n u m b e r p l y i n g was twelve. In 1831 t h e y h a d increased to 165, a n d t h e n t h e licenses were t h r o w n open. The n u m b e r in 18G2 r u n n i n g in t h e metropolis exceeded 6000 (of w h i c h about 1800 only plied on S u n d a y ) . P r e vious to t h r o w i n g open t h e trade, t h e n u m b e r of h a c k ney-carriages was limited to 1200, w h e n t h e r e were few o m n i b u s e s ; see Hackney-coaches. Cab Strike.—On 28 June, 1853, an act (called Mr. FitzRov's act} was passed for 11 the better regulation of metC a d m i u m , a metal, discovered b y S t r o m e y e r and ropolitan stage and hackney carriages, and for proH e r m a n n in 1818. hibiting the use of advertising vehicles,'' by which Ceecilian Society, instituted in London in 1785, the cab fares were reduced to 11'/. a mile. Tt came into for t h e performance of sacred music, especially H a n operation 11 July, and on t h e 27tli a general strike of del's. A t first it m e t a t p r i v a t e houses, a f t e r w a r d s a t t h e Loudon c a b m e n took place. Much inconvenicnce was felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to various c i t y c o m p a n y halls, a n d finally a t Albion Hall, s u p p l y tlie deficiency. Some alterations h a v i n g been Moorfields, till its dissolution in 18(51. Mr. Z. W . Y i n m a d e in the act, t h e cabs reappeared on t h e s t a n d s on cent, t h e first conductor, held t h e office for u p w a r d s of the 30th. t h i r t y years. O u t of this society, w h i c h was t h e predeC a b m a n ' s clubs began a t Paddington in Feb. 1850 cessor of t h e Sacred H a r m o n i c Society, came m a n y e m i A London General Cab Company published its prospectus, professing a reformed system July, 1802 n e n t professional musicians.

Cabs r u n n i n g in London: ill 1855, 32(JG; in 1807, G119; in C a e n ( X . F r a n c e ) , a place of i m p o r t a n c e before 912, 1874, 78(31; in 1877, about 8000. Cab Tragedy.—S. II. Hunt, a servant of B u t l e r and Mcw h e n it became t h e capital of t h e possessions of t h e N o r Cullocli's, seedsmen, Covcnt Garden, London, poisoned mans, under w h o m it flourished. I t w a s t a k e n b y t h e his wife and children in a cab, ou 7 Nov. 1803 ; a n d E n g l i s h in 134G a n d 1417; b u t wras finally recovered b y himself on 9 Nov., at his own house, j u s t before his apprehension. t h e F r e n c h 1 J u l y , 1450. H e r e were buried W i l l i a m t h e The cabmen in Paris strike against a c o m p a n y ; above Conqueror (1087) and his q u e e n (1083). 3000 vehicles stopped, 16 J u l i e ; fierce a t t a c k on m e n C a e r l e o n , M o n m o u t h s h i r e , a R o m a n station, a n d w h o give i n ; s t r i k e subsides 23 J u n e , 1865 Second Cab Strike.— Sletropolitan Streets Act, 30 & 31 m a d e t h e scat of an archbishopric b y D u b r i t i u s . His Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.), required hackney-carriages disciple and successor, St. D a v i d (522), r e m o v e d it to to carry l a m p s ; and changed lowest fare from M. to Menevia, now St. David's, 577. Is. The cab proprietors and drivers s t r u c k at i P.M., 3 Dec.; but, by t h e intervention of lord Elclio, an arC a e r n a r v o n (N. Wales). I n the castle (founded in r a n g e m e n t was m a d e w i t h Mr. G a t h o r u e Hardy, t h e h o m e secretary, and t h e strike ceased 4 Dec. 1867 1282) E d w a r d I I . was born, 25 April, 1284; and t h e t o w n was t h e n c h a r t e r e d b y E d w a r d I. T h e t o w n suffered b v Third Cab Strike to compel railway c o m p a n i e s to discont i n u e privileged cabs; unsuccessful 5-9 Sept. 18G8 t h e civil w a r of Charles, b u t was finally r e t a i n e d for t h e Licenses ou cabs reduced f r o m 19Z. a n d 17/. to 42s. by act parliament. of 1869 1 J a n . 1870 Cab-drivers' Benevolent Association founded " C e e s a r e a , t h e R o m a n capital of Judcea, built b y H e r F i r s t Cabmen's Shelter opened b y hon. A. K i n n a i r d at St. od t h e G r e a t 10 B.C. Eusebius t h e historian w a s bishop J o h n ' s Wood, 0 Feb. 1875; others soon after. Cababout 315. men's Mission Halt, K i n g ' s Cross, London, N., opened, 12 Nov. 1875

C s e s a r e a n S e c t i o n , w h i c h , it is said, first g a v e t h e n a m e of Caesar to t h e R o m a n family, is performed b y or CABOOL, on t h e r i v e r Cabul, about 1774, c u t t i n g t h e child out of t h e w o m b . * b y T i m s u r S h a h , was m a d e capital of A f g h a n i s t a n C a e s a r s , see Borne, Emperors, T h e E r a of t h e {which see).

Cabul,

C a c h e t , see Leitres

de Cachet.

Caddee,

or LEAGCK OF GOD'S HOUSE, t h e league of independence in Switzerland, formed b y t h e Grisons to resist domestic t y r a n n y , 1400 to 1419. A second league of t h e Grisons was called t h e Grise or G r a y L e a g u e (Graubllndten), 1424. A t h i r d league, t h e L e a g u e of T e n Jurisdictions, was formed ill 1 4 3 6 ; see Grisons. T h e y united in 1471.

Cade's Insurrection.

In May, 1450, Jack Cade,

an I r i s h m a n , assumed t h e n a m e of Mortimer, and h e a d e d

* The case of Alicc O'Neal, a n I r i s h w o m a n , w h o survived t h e section, w h i c h was p e r f o r m e d b y a female, is a u t h e n t i cated by Dr. Gabriel King, of A r m a g h , a n d surgeon D u n c a n Stewart of Dungannon. I n J a n . 1847, t h e operation was performed in St. B a r t h o l o m e w ' s hospital, London, on a y o u n g w o m a n of d i m i n u t i v e stature, u n d e r t h e influence of e t h e r ; b u t she died t h e n e x t day. On 9 Dec. 18G0, a similar operation was successfully p e r f o r m e d b y Dr. J a m e s E d m u n d s a t B e t h n a l Green. On t h e continent t h e operation is said to h a v e been m o r e f r e q u e n t and m o r e successful. Cooper's " S u r gical D i c t i o n a r y " (ed. 1801) contains a table, which, out of 2009 eases, gives a mortality of 55.4 p e r cent, of the m o t h e r s and 29.45 p e r cent, of t h e children.

125 Carat's, or Spanish Era, is reckoned from 1 Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Aragon abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1-122. The months and days of this era are identical with the J Lilian calendar; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. C c e s i u m (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen in 1801, by means of the " spectrum analysis " {which see).

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machines to calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invented one (about 1650). The construction of 3Ir. C. Babbage's differential machine was commenced at the expense of government in 1821, and continued till 1833, when the work was suspended after an expenditure of above 15,000/. The portion completed was placed in the library of King's College, London; it is now at South Kensington. Professor Clifford, in his lecture at the Koyal Institution, 24 May, 1872, stated that Babbage expended 20,000?. upon his machines, and that the analytical machine was nearly finished and would eventually be much used. In 1857 Messrs. E. and G. Sclieutz, two Swedish engineers, published in London specimen tables, calculated and printed by machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. It was bought for 1000/. by Mr. J. F. Kathbone, an American merchant, to bo presented to Dudley observatory, in his own city, Albany. In 1857 Messrs. Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British government, which is now completed. Mr. AYiberg's machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much commended. Tables constructed by means of Scbeutz's machine, and edited by Dr. W. Farre, were published by the government in 1864. The arithmometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 1822 (?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, 1851 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance offices. George B. Grant described a simpler machine in the A merican Journal of Science, Oct. 1874.

C a f e i n e , an alkaline body, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and in tea (and named théine) by Otidry in 1827. The identity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder in 1828. Caffraria, A N D C A F F R E W A R , see Kaffraria. C a g l i a r i , see Naples, note. C a g o t s , an outcast race in the Pyrenees, supposed to be descendants of the ancient Goths. They have been subjected to superstitious persecution so lately as 1755. C a i - f o n g , the old capital of China, was besieged by 100,000 rebels in 1642. The commander of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments. All the besiegers and 300,000 of the citizens perished. C a l c u t t a , capital of Bengal and British India; the C a I r a ! the burden of a popular song during the first settlement of the English here was made in 1689, French revolution, first heard at Paris 5 Oct. 1789 : Population, 1876, 776,579. 1 " A h ! ça ira, pa ira, ç a i r a ! Malgré les mutins, t o u t réussira. ' An after-addition was " Les aristocrates à la l a n t e r n e ! " ( " I t will proceed! etc. I n spite of mutineers, all will succeed. " " H a n g the aristocrats ! ")

Cairo, or G R A N D CAIRO, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques and the sepulchres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt. Partially built by t h e Saracens Taken b y t h e T u r k s f r o m t h e Egyptian sultans R u i n e d by a n e a r t h q u a k e a n d a great fire, w h e n 40,000 persons perished Jane, Taken by t h e F r e n c h u n d e r Napoleon B o n a p a r t e ; t h e y enter t h e city 23 J u l y , Taken by t h e British and Turks, w h e n 6000 F r e n c h capitulated 27 J u n e , Massacre of t h e Mamelukes 1 March, Visit of t h e prince o f W a l e s March, Riots against N u b a r P a c h a a n d t h e British ministers, 18 Feb.

969 1517 1754 1793 1801 1811 1862 1879

Purchased as a zemindary, and F o r t William built Made tile h e a d of a separate presidency The fort a t t a c k e d and t a k e n by an a r m y of 70,000 h o r s e and foot, a n d 400 elephants (146 of the British c r a m m e d into t h e " Black-hole p r i s o n , " a dungeon a b o u t 18 i'eet square, f r o m whence 23 only c a m e lbrtli t h e n e x t m o r n i n g alive) 20 J u n e , Calcutta r e t a k e n by Clivo 2 Jan. S u p r e m e court of j u d i c a t u r e established Asiatic Societv founded College founded Bishopric of Calcutta instituted b y act Inly, B i s h o p ' s College founded Cathedral founded An industrial exhibition opened 25 J a n . Great cyclone, followed by a " b o r e " o r s p r i n g tide in t h e Hooghly; w a t e r rises 30 feet h i g h ; i m m e n s e d a m age done to shipping and houses (see Cyclone).. .5 Oct. A n o t h e r cyclone; about 30,000 small houses u n r o o f e d ; m u c h small shipping i n j u r e d ; a u d t h e crops in Lower Bengal destroyed {about 90,000 persons d r o w n e d ; 75,000 die of cholera) 1 Nov. Visited b y t h e king of Siam Jan. Visited by t h e prince of Wales 25 Dec. 1875-3 J a n . Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by h i m 1 Jan. Statue of t h e queen, given by t h e m a h a r a j a l i of Burdw a u , unveiled 1 Jan.

1698 1707

1756 1757 1773 1784 1801 1813 1820 1840 1855 1864

1807

C a l a b r i a (the ancient Messapia of S.E. Italy) was 1872 conquered by the liomans 266 B.C. It formed part of 1876 " the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, A.D. 493 ; was reconquered (for the Eastern empire) by Beli1878 sarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined to the (See Btngal and India.) duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was C a l e d o n i a (now Scotland). The name is supposed conquered by Bobert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually by some to be derived from Gael, or Gaelmen or Gadeidoine, corrupted by the Komans. Tacitus, who died 99, that of king of Naples ; see Naples. distinguishes this portion of Britain by the appellation C a l a i s (N.W. France), fortified by Baldwin IV., of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it retained this count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. after a name until 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Irevear's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by the duke land and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 1558, and its loss so to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the deeply touched the queen's heart as to cause some to Celts, who passed over from the opposite coast of GauL say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon after- About the beginning of the fourth century of the Chriswards, 17 Nov. same year. "When I am dead," said tian era they were invaded (as stated by some authorithe queen, " Calais will be found written on my heart." ties) by the Scuyths or Scvthins (since called Scots), I t was taken by the Spaniards, April, 1596; restored, who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in 1598. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile the Lowlands, and gave tlieir name to the whole country ; see Scotlaiul. from France, April, 1814; see Tunnels. C a l a t r a v a , see Knighthood. Caledonian m o n a r c h y , said to h a v e boon founded by Fer-

gus I C a l c i u m , the metallic base of lime, was discovered The Picts f r o m England settle in t h e south at the Koyal Institution, London, by Humphry D a w , in Agricola, t h e Roman, invades Caledonia 1808.

C a l c u l a t i n g - m a c h i n e s . To avoid errors in computing and printing logarithms and tables of figures,

about R.o. 330 140 A.D. 79 He defeats Galgacus, aud builds a wall between t h e Forth and Clyde 84 Wall of Antoninus built 140 Ulpius Marcellus repels t h e i r incursions 184

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126

Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald T 201 •The Caledonians invade South Britain. '207: repelled by the emperor Severus. who advances to the Moray Frith, 200 Caledonia invaded by the Souths, or Scotti, from Ireland. about 306 404 Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II Kenneth II., king of the Scotti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, named Scotland. S38-843

C a l e d o n i a n A s y l u m , for children of indigent respectable Scotch parents, Islington, London, established in 1818. C a l e d o n i a n C a n a l , from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construction received the royal assent 27 July, 1803; and the works were commenced same year. The nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic is shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time; and safe navigation for ships was opened 1 Nov. 182*2. It has not been successful commercially. Annual income from tonnage, 1 May, 1859, 5080/.; expenditure, 6951/.; annual income, 1866-7, G54N.; expenditure, 6698/.

CAL

first brought to England by the East India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the Dutch loom-engine were first used in 1076, when a Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near London.—Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700; and again in 1721 a penalty of 51. was laid on the wearer, and 20/. on the seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and others, the consolidated duty of on the square yard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1831, the manufacture has been greatly increased by the applications of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved by galvanism, and many new dyes have been introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, Hofmann, Perkin, etc.; see Cot* ton and Dyeing.

C a l i Y u g a , the Hindoo era of the Deluge, dates from 3101 n.c. (according to some, 3102), and begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, now on 11 April, N.S. In 1600 the year began on 7 April, x.s., from which it has now advanced four days, and from the precession of the equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 3102 from an3' given year of C a l e n d a r , see Jewish Era and Calendar. The Ro- the Cali Yuga era will be the Christian year in which man calendar was introduced by Komulus, who divided the given year begins. the year into ten months, comprising 804 days, 788 B.C. C a l i c u t (now Kolikod), SAV. India, the first Indian This year was of fifty days less duration than the lunar port visited by Yasco da Gam a, 20 May, 1198. It was year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its seized by Hvder All, 1766, taken by the English, 1782; commencement did not correspond with any fixed seadestroved by Tippoo Saib, 1789; ceded to the English, son. Numa Pompilius,713 B.C.,added two months; and 1792. " Julius Gesar, 45 B.C., to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being C a l i f o r n i a (from the Spanish Caliente FornaUa, hot bissextile, or leap-year; see Leap-year, This calendar furnace, in allusion to the climate), was discovered by was defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 Cortcz in 1537; others say by Cabrillo in 1,542; and vishours, 49 minutes, and not of 865 days 6 hours. This ited by sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion, in difference, in the sixteenth century, amounted to 10 en- 1579, California was a province of Mexico, after the tire days, the vernal equinox falling on lltli instead of revolution in 1824. Its coasts were explored by the 21st March. To obviate this error, pope Gregory XIII. United States naval expedition under commander Wilkes ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 355 in 1841-3, co-operating with a land expedition under days only (5 Oct.became 15 Oct.); and, to prevent fur- capt. Fremont. It was again explored by Fremont in ther irregularity, it was determined that a year ending a 1845-6. In July, 1846, San Francisco was taken possescentury should not be bissextile, with the exception of sion of by com. Montgomery. During that summer a that ending each fourth century; thus 1700 and 1800 military government was established there by American have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so; but the commanders on the coast. The treaty of Guadalupe year 2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three Hidalgo (/chick see) secured California to the United days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of States in 1848. A state constitution was framed by a eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. convention held at Monterey in Aug. 1849; in Dec. it The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possi- was adopted by a popular vote, and P. II. Burnet was ble to correspond with the true solar year, and future chosen the first governor. California was admitted into errors of chronology are avoided; see Xeio Style and the Union in Sept. 1850. It is advancing rapidly in French Revolutionary Calendar. wealth and importance. The population in 1856 was 506,067; in 1880,864,686. CORRESPONDENCE OP CALENDARS WITII A.D. 1881.

.Julian period 6594 The Spanish establish missionary and military stations. 1698 California becomes subject to Mexico 1824 Year of the world (Jewish year) 6 Sept. 1880—23 Sept. 1881 5 0 4 1 After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually independent 1836 Hegira {4 Dec. 1880, to 2 Nov. 1881) 1298 1846 2634 Occupied by the a r m y of the United States Foundation of Rome (Varro) United States' Independence 105-106 Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter and Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 Year of Queen Victoria 44-45 Ceded to the United States 1848 Comtc, in his t ; S y s t e m e de Politique P o s i t i v e " (instituting Made a sovereign state 1850 the Religion of H u m a n i t y " ) , published a calendar of 13 Numerous m u r d e r s in San Francisco—Lynch law premonths, dedicated successively to J roses. Homer, Aristotle, vailing 1853-60 Archimedes. Caesar. Paul. Charlemagne, Dante, Guttenberg, Adhered to the Union during the war 1861-4 Shakespeare, Descartes, Frederic, and Bichat; a n eminent Suffered nuich damage by an earthquake 21 Sept. 1868 person was commemorated every day. Bank of California, long very prosperous, stops through unsuccessful speculations, suspected suicide of " t h e C a l e n d e r , a machine used in glazing various kinds p r i n c e , " Wm, C. Ralston, manager about 25 Aug. 1875 of cloth, was introduced into Kngland by the Huguenots, Great opposition to increasing Chinese immigration, March, 1876 who were driven bv persecution from France, Holland, agitation led by Dennis Kearney Aug. 1878 And the "Netherlands to these countries, about 1G85.— Political New constitution (excluding Chinese from citizenship; A nderson. altering taxation to favor the working-classes; restricting companies, etc.) promoted by Dennis Kearney, C a l e n d s were the first days of the Roman months. the agitator; passed 8 May, 1870 The Xom §f March, May, July, and Oct. fell on the 7th, Political disorders; Mr. de Young, an editor, dangerously and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the wounds rev. Mr. Kallocli, the elected mayor. Aug. £: * 1880 Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the loth. As the De Young murdered by Kalloch's son Violent reaction against Kearney July,

Greeks had no Calends, "on the Greek Calends," ad Grcecas Calendas, meant never. C a l i p e r C o m p a s s , whereby the bore of cannon, C a l i c o , cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a city of small-arms, etc., is measured, is said to have been inIndia, visited bv the Portuguese in 1498. Calico was vented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540.

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127

C a l i p h (Arabic), Yicar, or Lieutenant, the title assumed by the soplii of Persia, as successor of All, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet and sovereign of Mccca and Medina. The caliphat began with Abubeker, the lather of the prophet's second wife. The Fatimite caliphs ruled in Egypt, 908-1171. CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 632. A b u b e k e r . 634. O m a r I. 044. O t h m a n . 655. Ali. 601. H a s s a n . Tlie OHHIAOES r u l e d 681-750. T h e AHIIASSIDES r u l e d 750-1258. I n 775 t h e y w e r e s t y l e d c a l i p h s of B a g d a d . H a r o u n - a l - K a s c h i d r u l e d 786-809. {See Ommiades a n d Abbassides.)

C a l i p p i c P e r i o d , invented by Calippus, about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, consists of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he incorrectly imagined the new and full moons return to the same day of the solar year. This period began about the end of June, third year or 112th Olympiad, year of Rome 421, and 330 B.C. C a l i x t i n s . 1. A sect derived from the Hussites, about 1420 demanded the cup (Greek, KeikvS,) in the Lord's supper. They were also called Utraquists, as partaking of both elements. They were reconciled to the Roman church at the council of Basle, 1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in 1656. H e wrote against the celibacy of the priesthood, and proposed a reunion of Catholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' Creed.

CAM

C a l p e e , India. Sir H u g h Rose defeated the mutineers here, and took the town, 22,23 May, 18,18. Calvary, M O U N T , the place where the Redeemer suffered death, 5 April, A.n. 30 (Unlit, 31 ; Clinton, 29; others, 38); see Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his persecution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis oil the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The crnpr -- Helena built a church here about 326; see Holy Plao C a l v e s ' H e a d C l u b , noblemen and gentlemen, who arc said to have exposed raw calves' heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, the anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An incensed mob was dispersed, and the club was suppressed. C a l v i (Corsica). The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty-nine days, it surrendered on ]0 Aug. I t surrendered to the French in 179G. C a l v i n i s t s , named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines, he tied to Angouletne, where lie composed his " Institutio Christiana 1 Keligionis" in 1533 ; published in 1530. H e retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in burning Servetns for denying the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the Calvinists and Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former expressly rejected the tenth and other articles of the Confession of Augsburg, and took the name of Calvinists. Iu France (see Huguenots) they took up arms against their persecutors. Henry IV.. originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, se-

C a l l a o (Peru). After an earthquake, the sea retired j c u r e d t h e i r l i b e r t y b y t h e Edict of Ximtes i n 1 5 9 8 (which from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, see). Calvinistic doctrines appear in the articles of the which destroyed the city in 1087, and on 28 Oct. 174G. church of England anil in the confession of the church The attempt of the Spanish admiral Nunez to bombard of Scotland, and are held by many Protestant sects. Callao, 2 May, 1866, was defeated by the Peruvians; Camaldules, or C A 3 I A U > O M T ( . ; s , a religious order blockaded by Chilians, April, 1880; see Chili. founded at Camaldoli, near Florence, bv Romuald about C a l l i g r a p h y (beautiful writing). Callierates is 1022. said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum C a m b i u m Regis, see Hoi/al Exchange. seed, 472 B.C. In the sixteenth century Peter Bales wrote C a m b o d i a (central Asia), a kingdom divided bethe Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short Latin tween the emperor of Annam and the king of Siam, prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of 1820. our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom C a m b r a y (N.France),the ancient Camaracum,was he presented them at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a silver penny, encliased in a ring and border in the middle ages the capital of a prince bishop subject of gold, and covered with crystal, so accurately done as to the emperor. It gives its name to cambric. Councils hold here 1064,1303,1383, 1565. to be plainly legible.—Ilolinsked.

Calmar, U N I O N O F . The treaty whereby Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were united under one sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, " the .Semiramis of the North," June, 1397; see Sweden. The union was dissolved by Gustavus Yasa in 1523. Calmucks, see

Tartanj.

C a l o m e l (" beautiful black "), a compound of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, first mentioned by Crollius early in the seventeenth centurv. The first directions given for its preparation were by Beguin in 1G08. Calorescence. Ill Jan. 1865, professor Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum of the electric light visible by causing a focus of them to impinge on a plate of platinum, which they raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon Calorescence; see Fluorescence.

H e l d b y L o u i s XI. of F r a n c e 1477-8 Til k e n b y C h a r l e s V 1544 By t h e S p a n i a r d s 15'J5 'y the F r e n c h and annexed 1007 Fenelon made archbishop ' ' . . * 10'J5 Tlie F r e n c h w e r e d e f e a t e d a t C a i s a r ' s c a m p , in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d , by t h e allied a r m y u n d e r t h e d u k e of Y o r k , 21 April, 1794 I t w a s i n v e s t e d by t h e A u s t r i a n s , 8 A u g . , w h e n t h e rcp u b l i e . n i g e n e r a l , Dcclay. r e p l i e d t o tlie s u m m o n s t o s u r r e n d e r , t h a t " h e k n e w n o t h o w t o do that, b u t h i s s o l d i e r s k n e w h o w t o f i g h t . " I t w a s t a k e n bv Clairfa it, tlie A u s t r i a n g e n e r a l ii) s , . p t . 1798 C a m b r a y s e i z e d b y tlie B r i t i s h , u n d e r s i r C h a r l e s Colvillc 24 J u n e , 181E League of Cambray a g a i n s t tlie r e p u b l i c of V e n i c e , c o m prising pope J u l i u s II., t h e e m p e r o r Maximilian, a n d L o u i s X I I . of F r a n c e , a n d F e r d i n a n d of S p a i n , e n t e r e d into j5Qg T r e a t y b e t w e e n F r a n c i s I. of F r a n c o a n d c i u r l e s v . of G e r m a n y (called Pair. eles Dames, b e c a u s e n e g o t i a t e d b y L o u i s a of Savoy, m o t h e r of t h e F r e n c h k i n g , a n d M a r g a r e t of A u s t r i a , a u n t of t in e m p e r o r l 1529 T r e a t y b e t w e e n t h e e m p e r o r C h a r l e s VI. a n d P h i l i p ' v ' of S p a i n 1724-5

Caloric, see TIeut. C a l o t y p e P r o c e s s (from the Greek /caXor, beauCambria, ancient name of Wales ( ¡ c h i c k see). tiful), by which negative photographs are produced on C a m b r i c first made at Cambray; worn in England, paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about and accounted a great luxury, 1580.—Stmr. Its im1840. A l s o called T A L B O T I T E ; sec Photography. portation restricted in 1745; prohibited iu 1758; readC a l o y e r s (meaning good old men). The monks of mitted, 1786; prohibited, 1795. the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. Their most Cambridge, the Roman Camborieum and tlie Saxcelebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed on Oranta briesir, frequently mentioned by the earliest by Justinian (died 5G5); the European one is at Mount Iiritisli historians, was burned by the Danes in 870 and Athos. 1010.

CAM

128

Plundered by the Barons 1088 The university, said to h a v e been c o m m e n c e d b y Si go be rt, k i n g of t h e East Angles, a b o u t A.I>. 030; w a s neglected d u r i n g t h e Danish invasions, f r o m w h i c h it suffered m u c h ; was restored by E d w a r d t h e elder in 915; a n d began to r e v i v e about 1110 H e n r y 1. bestows m a n y privileges " H e n r y III. g r a n t e d a c h a r t e r to t h e u n i v e r s i t y . . .1230 or 1231 I n Wat T y l e r ' s a n d J a c k S t r a w ' s rebellion, t h e rebels e n t e r t h e town, seize t h e u n i v e r s i t y records a n d b u m t h e m in t h e m a r k e t - p l a c e 1381 University p r e s s w a s set u p 153-i L e t t e r s - p a t e n t g r a n t e d by H e n r y VIII " I n c o r p o r a t e d bv Elizabeth 1571 The u n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i z e d to send two m e m b e r s to parliament 1003 Garrisoned b y Cromwell 1012 The u n i v e r s i t y r e f u s e s t h e degree of M. A. to F a t h e r F r a n cis. a Benedictine m o n k , r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e k i n g ; a n d t h e p r e s i d e n c y of Magdalene College to F a r m e r , a R o m a n Catholic, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e k i n g ' s m a n d a t e . 10S7 M a t h e m a t i c a l t r i p o s instituted 1717 Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, a n d chartered 1832 R a i l w a y to L o n d o n opened J u n e , 1H15 F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m , endowed 1816; f o u n d e d 1837; completed 1817 C o m m i s s i o n e r s w e r e appointed f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d e x t e n s i o n of t h i s u n i v e r s i t y a n d E t o n College, b y 19 & 20 Vict. c. 88 1856 1858 N e w s t a t u t e s confirmed b y t h e q u e e n B r i t i s h Association m e t h e r e 1833. 1815,18G2 Visit of p r i n c e a n d princess of Wales 2 - 1 J u n e , 1S61 U n i v e r s i t y Tests Act passed 10 J u n e , 1S70 Royal c o m m i s s i o n of i n q u i r y respecting u n i v e r s i t y prope r t y appointed 0 J a n . Ib72 R e p o r t e d income in 1871: university, 31,050/. 17s. 3c?.; colleges and halls, 300,511/. l i s . total, 310,502/. 8s. 7 id Oct. 1871 Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y bill i n t r o d u c e d ; w i t h d r a w n . . July, 1876 Cavendish College opened b y t h e d u k e of Devonshire, 20 Oct. " Universities a c t passed 10 Aug. 1^77 Proposed n e w s t a t u t e s issued (important) Dcc. 1879 FOURTEEN COLLEGES.

P e t e r h o u s c College, b y Hugo de Balsliam, b i s h o p of Ely, founded P e m b r o k e College, f o u n d e d by t h e countess of P e m b r o k e , Gonville a n d Caius, b y E d m u n d Gonville E n l a r g e d b y Dr. J o h n Caius Corpus Cliristi, or B e n e t K i n g ' s College, b y H e n r y V I Q u e e n ' s College, b y Margaret of Arijou, 1118; a n d Elizab e t h Woodville J e s u s College, b y J o h n Alcock, b i s h o p of Ely Christ's College, f o u n d e d 1442; e n d o w e d b y Margaret, countess of R i c h m o n d , m o t h e r of H e n r y VII St. J o h n ' s College, endowed b y Margaret, c o u n t e s s of Richmond Magdalene College, b y Thomas, b a r o n Audley T r i n i t y College, by H e n r y V I I I E m m a n u e l College, b y sir W a l t e r Mildinay S i d n e y - S u s s e x College, founded b y F r a n c e s Sidney, c o u n t e s s of Sussex Downing College, b y sir George Downing, by will, in 1717; its c h a r t e r Ridley Hall (theological), foundation-stono laid.. .17 Oct. S e l w v n College, f o u n d e d 1 June,

1257 1317 1318 1558 1352 1411 1119 1196

CAM

C a m b r i d g e ( M a s s . ) , t h e s e a t of H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y a n d a p r i n c i p a l c e n t r e of A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y . T h e t o w n w a s f o u n d e d b y g o v e r n o r W i n t h r o p i n 1630, a n d called N e w t o w n . I n 1 6 3 6 t h e g e n e r a l c o u r t of t h e c o l o n y a p p r o p r i a t e d 400/. t o e s t a b l i s h a s c h o o l of h i g h g r a d e a t C a m b r i d g e , and in 1038 t h e R e v . J o h n H a r v a r d f u r t h e r e n d o w e d t h i s s c h o o l , w h i c h t o o k t h e n a m e of I H a r v a r d College. T h e i n s t i t u t i o n is t h e o l d e s t a n d o n e ! of t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . D u r i n g t h e B r i t i s h o c c u p a t i o n of B o s t o n t h e A m e r i c a n a r m y occupied Cambridge, a n d t h e r e W a s h i n g t o n ass u m e d c o m m a n d i n 1775. T h e c i t y of C a m b r i d g e w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n 1846. P o p u l a t i o n i n 1880, 5 2 . 7 4 0 . C a m b u s k e n n e t h , near Stirling (central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English under W a r r e n n e and C r e s s i n g h a m , 10 S e p t . 1297. The abbey, one of t h e r i c h e s t in Scotland, w a s f o u n d e d b y k i n g David I. in 1117; was spoiled a n d t h e fabric n e a r l y des t r o y e d b y t h e r e f o r m e r s in 1559. C a m d e n (S. C.). H e r e , 1 6 A u g . 1780, l o r d C o r n wallis defeated the revolted Americans, u n d e r Gates, A t a second battle (also called I l o b k i r k ' s Ilill), b e t w e e n g e n . G r e e n e a n d lord R a w d o n , t h e A m e r i c a n s w e r e a g a i n d e f e a t e d , 2 5 A p r i l , 1781. Camden was evacuated a n d b u r n e d b y t h e B r i t i s h , 13 M a y , 1 7 8 1 . C a m d e n S o c i e t y , e s t a b l i s h e d 1838, p u b l i s h e s B r i t ish historical documents. 134 v o l u m e s h a d b e e n i s s u e d J u l y , 1881. C a m d e n T o w n , N. \V. London, b e g u n b y land let for b u i l d i n g 1400 houses b y earl C a m d e n in 1 7 9 1 ; r e ceived his n a m e a few years after.

Camel, D A Y O F T I I E , 4 N o v . 6 5 6 ( a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e , 6 5 8 or 0 5 9 ) , w h e n T a l h a a n d Z o b e i r , r e b e l A r a b c h i e f s , w e r e d e f e a t e d a n d slain b y t h e c a l i p h Ali. A y e s h a , M a h o m e t ' s w i d o w , f r i e n d of t h e c h i e f s , w a s p r e s e n t i n a l i t ter, on a c a m e l ; hence t h e n a m e . C a m e r a - l u c i d a , invented by Dr. Hooke 1 6 7 4 ; a n o t h e r b y D r . W o l l a s t o n i n 1807.

about

Camera-obscura, o r D A R K C H A M B E R , c o n s t r u c t e d , i t is s a i d , b y R o g e r B a c o n i n 1 2 9 7 ; i m p r o v e d b y B a p t i s t a P o r t a , a b o u t 1500; a n d remodelled b y sir I s a a c N e w t o n , B y t h e i n v e n t i o n of M . D a g u e r r e , i n 1839, t h e p i c t u r e s of t h e c a m e r a a r e fixed; s e e Photography.

1505 Cameron's Act, DR., s e e Debtors, 1 8 8 0 . 1511 C a m e r o n i a n s , a name frequently given to t h e R e 1519 f o r m e d P r e s b y t e r i a n c h u r c h of S c o t l a n d , t h e d e s c e n d a n t s 1510 1581 of t h e C o v e n a n t e r s of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e e s tablished church, 1638-50.* Charles II. signed the 1598 L e a g u e a n d C o v e n a n t i n 1650, i n h o p e s of r e c o v e r i n g h i s 1800 k i n g d o m s , b u t r e n o u n c e d i t i n 1661, a n d r e v i v e d e p i s c o A r e v o l t e n s u e d i n 1666, w h e n m a n y C o v e n a n t 1879 p a c y . 1881 e r s w e r e s l a i n i n b a t t l e ( i n t h e P e n t l a n d h i l l s , e t c . ) ; a n d T H R E E HALLS. many, refusing to take the oaths required, and declining Clare Hall, o r College, first founded b y Dr. R i c h a r d Bat o a c c e p t t h e k i n g ' s indulgence, d i e d o n t h e s c a f f o l d , a f t e r d e n in 1320; d e s t r o y e d by Arc and re-established b y undergoing cruel tortures. T h e n a m e Cameraman is E l i z a b e t h de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, earl of Clare, a b o u t 1312 d e r i v e d f r o m R i c h a r d C a m e r o n , o n e of t h e i r m i n i s t e r s , T r i n i t y Hall, b y William B a t e m a n . bishop of N o r w i c h . . . 1350 w h o w a s k i l l e d i n a s k i r m i s h i n 1680. O n 22 J u n e i n St. C a t h e r i n e ' s College or Hall, founded 1173 t h a t y e a r h e a n d o t h e r s i s s u e d a t S a n q u a t h a r a d e c l a r a [Cambridge University Calendar.] tion for religious liberty. T h e bi-centenary was kept in CHANCELLORS. 1880. I n 1 6 8 9 t h e y r a i s e d a b o d y of s o l d i e r s t o s u p p o r t Charles, d u k e of Somerset, elected 1688 "William I I I . , w h o e n r o l l e d t h e m u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of T h o m a s , d u k e of N e w c a s t l e 1748 In A u g u s t u s H e n r y , d u k e of G r a f t o n 1708 l o r d A n g u s , a s t h e 2 6 t h r e g i m e n t , s i n c e so f a m o u s . H. R. H. W i l l i a m F r e d e r i c k , d u k e of Gloucester 1811 1712 t h e y r e n e w e d t h e i r p u b l i c c o v e n a n t s , a n d a r e d o John, marquess Camden 1834 s c r i b e d i n o n e of t h e i r t r a c t s a s " t h e s u f f e r i n g a n t i Hugh, d u k e of N o r t h u m b e r l a n d 1810 popish, a n d anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true P r e s b y t e The P r i n c e Consort (died Dec. 11,1861) 28 Feb. 1817 T h e y have now between William, d u k e of D e v o n s h i r e 31 Dec. 1801 r i a n c h u r c h of S c o t l a n d . " PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. founded t h i r t y a n d f o r t y c o n g r e g a t i o n s i n S c o t l a n d . — T h e 7 9 i h r e g i m e n t ( C a m e r o n Highlanders), raised in 1793 b y Allan Divinity (Margaret), 1502; Regius 1510 Laws. H e b r e w , Greek, and P h y s i c " C a m e r o n , h a s no connection w i t h t h e C a m e r o n i a n s . Arabic 1632 M a t h e m a t i c s (Lucasian) 1603 * They w e r e f r e q u e n t l y called hill-men or mountain men, Music 1 R e a p p e a r a n c e of c a t t l e - p i a g u e ' in E n g l a n d ; r e s t r i c t i o n s Texas and South America. In 1611 and 1621, cattle in L o n d o n a n d o t h e r p l a c e s ; m u c h c a t t l e k i l l e d , were imported into Virginia and Massachusetts. In | „ . J a n . - M a y , 1877 Great Britain and in the United States they have been t a t t l e - p l a g u e c o m m i s s i o n e n l a r g e d , 3 M a y ; p l a g u e s a i d t o be s t a m p e d o u t ; r e s t r i c t i o n s removed,"26 J u n e ; f r e s h vastly improved, both in the weight of carcass, the qual- | c a s e s i n L o n d o n ; r e s t r i c t i o n s r e s u m e d 13 J u l y ; re-

C a t h o l i c M a j e s t y . This title was given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 739, and to Ferdi- , naml V. and his queen in 1474 by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion and their establishment of the Inquisition.

ity of the beef, and the abundance of the milk, by the I ,moved 33 July, " 16 Aug. 1878 extraordinary attention that 4rias been given to the se- I N e w C a t t l e C o n t a g i o u s D i s e a s e s A c t p a s s e d O r d e r in c o u n c i l p r o h i b i t i n g i m p o r t a t i o n of l i v i ng catlection and crossing of the best breeds, according to the .! tle f r o m e a s t e r n h a l f of E u r o p e a f t e r 1 Jan., 1879; imobjects in view. This sort of improvement began about i p o r t s p e r m i t t e d f r o m s o m e e o u n t r ' n ^ , c a t t l e t o s l a u g h t e r e d (no r e s t r i c t i o n r e s p e c t i n g s o m e c o u n t r i es), the middle of last century, or rather later. The export, G Dec. " trade of the United States in neat cattle for the eight j months ending 31 Aug. 1880 amounted to $12,462,837; * S a l e of t h i r t y of d u k e of D e v o n s h i r e ' s s h o r t - h o r n b u l l s for for the year ending 30 June, 1881, the exports of live j 19,92k, about 18 Sept. 1878.

CAT

.142

CATTLE AND SHEEP IN T E E UNITED KINGDOM AND ISLANDS.

1866. 1867. 1868. 1869.. 1870.. 1871.. 1872..

Cattle. Sheep. Cattle. 26,380.000 1873 10.153,670 8,570.000 33,817.951 1874. 10,281,036 8.731,173 35,607.812 1875.. 10.162.787 9.083,416 34,250.272 1876.. 9,997,1S9 9,078,282 32,786,783 1877.. 9.731,537 9.235,052 31.403,500 1878. 9.761,288 9.316,216 9,718,505 32,246,642 1879.. 9,961,536 Maximum, 1874; decrease since.

Sheep. 33.982,404 34,857^597 33.491,948 32.252.579 32,220,067 32.571.018 32,237,958

C a t t l e S h o w , see Smithjield. Caubul, see Cabul. C a u c a s u s , a lofty mountain, a continuation o f the ridge of jMount Taurus, between the E u x i n e and Caspian seas. I n m y t h o l o g y , P r o m e t h e u s was said to h a v e been tied on the top of Caucasus by J u p i t e r , and continually devoured b y vultures ( 1 5 4 8 B.C.). T h e passes near t h e mountain were called Caucasia; Porta;, and it is supposed t h a t through t h e m the S a r m a t i a n s or H u n s invaded the provinces of Rome, A.D. 447 ; see Circassia.

CEL

admitted at o t h e r colleges, and l e a v i n g earlier), was inaugurated b y t h e duke of Devonshire, 2G O c t . 187G.

Cavendish Experiment.

In 1798 the Hon.

I l c n r y Cavendish described his e x p e r i m e n t for determ i n i n g t h e mean density of the earth, b y comparing the force of terrestrial attraction n ith t h a t of t h e attraction of leaden spheres of known m a g n i t u d e and density, b y means of the torsion balance Brande. T h e Cavendish Society, for t h e publication of c h e m i c a l works, which ceased with Gmelin's C h e m i s t r y (1848-G7), wras established 184G.

C a v e s are frequently mentioned in t h e B i b l e as dwellings, refuges, and burying-places. M r . W . B . D a w kins's ' • C a v e - h u n t i n g ; R e s e a r c h e s 011 t h e E v i d e n c e of Caves respecting the E a r l y I n h a b i t a n t s of E u r o p e , " was published 1874. T h e M a m m o t h Cave, in K e n t u c k y , w h i c h is t h e largest in t h e world, discovered 1 8 0 9 ; W e y e r ' s Cave, V i r g i n i a , 1 8 0 4 ; W y a n d o t t e Cave, I n d i a n a ; Oreston Cave, Devon, 181G ; K i r k d a l e , Y o r k s h i r e , Caucus. An American term applied to a private 1 8 2 1 ; K e n t ' s Hole, T o r q u a y , 1 8 2 5 ; B r i x h a m Cave, 1 8 5 8 ; m e e t i n g of t h e leading politicians of a p a r t y to agree W o o k e v Hole, Somerset, 1 8 5 9 ; and m a n y others, h a v e upon the plans to be pursued during an election or ses- been well explored. sion o f congress. T h e word is now applied to private C a w n p o r e , a town in India, on the Doab, a peninm e e t i n g s of all t h e members of congress, or of a legisDuring the mulature, belonging to one political party, for t h e purpose sula between the G a n g e s and J u m n a . of determining in advance t h e course to be pursued b y tiny in J u n e , 1857, i t was garrisoned b y n a t i v e troops T h e s e broke out into revolt. t h e party, and of compelling individual members to yield under sir H u g h W h e e l e r . to the will of t h e m a j o r i t y of the caucus. T h e word is A n adopted son of t h e old P e i s h w a B a j e e R a o , N a n a said to be derived from u ship "-caulkers' meetings. A S a h i b , who had long lived on friendly t e r m s w i t h t h e " c a u c u s c l u b " is mentioned by J o h n Adams, in 1763. B r i t i s h , c a m e apparently to t h e i r assistance, but j o i n e d —Bartlett. S i m i l a r m e e t i n g s are occasionally held in the rebels. H e took the place after three weeks' siege, London b y conservatives and liberals; one was held b y 2G J u n e ; and, in spite of a treaty, massacred g r e a t n u m Mr. Gladstone respecting t h e ballot bill, 6 J u l y , 1871. bers of t h e B r i t i s h , without respect to age or s e x , in t h e most cruel manner. Gen. Havelock defeated N a n a S a J e a l o u s y respecting the system was aroused in 1878. hib, 1G J u l y , at F u t t e h p o r e , and retook Cawnpore, 17 C a u d i n e F o r k s , according to Livy, the Furculm J u l y . Sir Colin Campbell defeated t h e rebels here on Caudina; ( i n S a m n i u m , S . I t a l y ) , were two narrow defiles G Dec. following. A column was erected here, ill m e m or gorges, united b y a range of mountains on each side. ory of the sufferers, b y their relatives of t h e 32d regiT h e Romans went through the first pass, but found the ment. I11 D e c . 1860, N a n a was said to be l i v i n g at second blocked u p ; on returning t h e y found the first T h i b e t ; and in D e c . 1 8 5 1 was incorrectly said to h a v e similarly obstructed. B e i n g thus h e m m e d in b y t h e been captured at K t i r r a c l i e e ; see India, 1857. Samnites, under t h e command of C. Pontus, t h e y surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, C a x t o n S o c i e t y , established for the publication according to Cicero). T h e R o m a n senate broke t h e of chronicles and literature of the middle ages, published treaty. s i x t e e n volumes, 1 8 4 4 - 5 4 . Caxton Celebration, see u n der Printing, 1877. C a u l i f l o w e r , said to h a v e been brought from C y C a y e n n e , F r e n c h G u i a n a ( S o u t h A m e r i c a ) , settled prus to E n g l a n d about 1603. b y the F r e n c h , 1 6 0 4 - 3 5 . I t afterwards c a m e successively Caustic, I N P A I N T I N G , a method of burning colors into the hands of the E n g l i s h (1654), F r e n c h , and D u t c h . into wood or ivory, invented b y Gausias of Sicyon. lie T h e last were expelled b y the F r e n c h in 1677. C a y e n n e painted his mistress Glvcere s i t t i n g oil the ground m a k - was taken b y the British, 12 J a n . 18n9, but was restored i n g garlands with flowers; the picture was hence named to t h e F r e n c h in 1814. H e r e is produced the Capsicum Stephanoplocon. I t was bought by Lucullus for two t a l - baccatum, or cayenne pepper. M a n y F r e n c h political ents, 3 3 5 B.C.—Pliny. prisoners were sent here in 1848. C a u t i o n a r y T o w n s (Holland), ( t h e Briel, F l u s h ing, R a m m e k i n s , and W a l c h e r e n ) , were given to queen E l i z a b e t h in 1585 as security for their repaying lier for assistance ill t h e i r struggle with Spain. T l i c y were restored to t h e D u t c h republic b y J a m e s I. in 161G. Cavalier. T h e appellation given to the supporters of t h e k i n g during t h e civil war, from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a body-guard for the k i n g in 1G41. T h e y were opposed to t h e Roundheads, or parliamentarians.

C e c i l i a n S o c i e t y , see Cce.ciUan. C e d a r C r e e k AND M o u n t a i n (Virginia, U. S.).

On 19 O c t . 1864, gen. Sheridan converted t h e defeat of the Federals b y t h e Confederates under L o n g s t r e e t into a complete v i c t o r y . A t CEDAR MOUNTAIN g e n . S t o n e wall J a c k s o n defeated B a n k s , 9 A u g . 1862.

Viryiniana) C e d a r - t r e e . T h e red cedar ( J u n i p e r u s c a m e from N o r t h A m e r i c a before 1 6 6 4 ; t h e B e r m u d a s cedar from B e r m u d a s before 1 6 8 3 ; the Cedar of Lebanon (I'inus Cedrus) from the L e v a n t before 1683. I n 1850 a Cavalry. Used b y t h e Canaanites in war, 1450 b . c . grove of venerable cedars, about 40 feet h i g h , remained (Josh. ix. 4). A t t a c h e d to each R o m a n legion was a on Lebanon. T h e cedar of Goa (Cupressus lusitauica) body of 3 0 0 horse, in ten turmse; the commander always was b r o u g h t to E u r o p e b y the Portuguese about 1 6 8 3 ; a v e t e r a n . — T h e Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, see Cypress. 4 9 0 B.C.; and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at t h e b a t C e l e r y is said to have been introduced into E n g l a n d tle of Issus, 333 B . C . — P l u t a r c h . I n the wars with Napoleon I. the B r i t i s h c a v a l r y reached to 31,000 men. Our b y t h e F r e n c h marshal, Tallard, during his c a p t i v i t y in c a v a l r y force, in 1840, was 10,733. In 18G7, horse guards, E n g l a n d , after his defeat at B l e n h e i m b y Marlborough. 1 3 1 7 ; c a v a l r y o f the line, 1 0 , 0 2 3 ; in depots, 8 3 8 ; in 2 A u g . 1704. India, 5 4 2 1 ; total, 1 7 , 5 9 9 ; Horse Guards, etc.

in 1880, total 1 7 , 2 4 5 ;

see

C a v e n d i s h C o l l e g e , Cambridge (founded to g i v e cheap university education to youths younger t h a n those

C e l e s t i a l Globe, see Globes.

C e l i b a c y (from codebs, unmarried) was preached b y S t . A n t h o n y in E g y p t about 3 0 5 . His e a r l y converts lived in caves, etc., till monasteries were founded. The

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143

doctrine was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in England, 958-978. T h e Romish clergy generally were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Marriage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. T h e marriage of the clergy was proposed, but negatived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a conference of the Old Catholics at Bonn, June, 1870. Sir Bartle Erere termed the Zulu army " a celibate man-slaying macliinc," 1878.

Cell Theory (propounded by Schwann in 1839) supposes t h a t the ultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the germinal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant.

C e l t i b e r i , see Numantine War.

Celts, or

a group of the Aryan f a m i l y ; see Gauls. Above 8000^. subscribed to found a Celtic professorship at the university of Edinburgh, Oct. 1870 ; 11,937/. subscribed April, 1879. One was established at Oxford in 1876. Cemeteries. T h e b u r y i n g - p l a c e s of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns (Matt, xxvii. CO). M a n y public cemeteries resembling " P e r e La Chaise,"* at Paris, have been opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see Catacombs, Bunhill-fidds. T h e United States government has established national cemeteries in various parts of the country for the burial of men who died in the naval or military service. In 1878 there were 78 of these cemeteries, in which 310,356 men had been buried. KELTS,

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quires that a new census shall be made every ten years. The latest census year was 1-S80. For the latest census of other countries, see Table facing page 1. C e n t a l , a new name given to the 100 lbs. weight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879.

C e n t e n n i a l E x h i b i t i o n , an international exhibition, in celebration of the hundredth year of American independence, was held in Philadelphia, 187G. T h i r t y three foreign countries were represented by their products. Five principal buildings, w i t h " annexes," or supplementary buildings, were erected ; and, including foreign and state buildings, the total number of structures was 199. T h e main building covered 21 acres, and the live principal buildings, with their annexes, covered 75 acres. Number of persons admitted to the exhibition, 9,910,966. Largest number admitted on one day, 274,9.19. F i r s t bill p r o v i d i n g for t h e e x h i b i t i o n signed b y t h e president 3 March, 1871 Centennial commission formed 24 M a r c h , 1872 C e n t e n n i a l b o a r d of f i n a n c e c r e a t e d by act of congress, 1 June, " Exhibition opened by president Grant 10 May, 1876 E x h i b i t i o n closed 10 Nov. "

C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , see A merica. A large American steamer of this name was wrecked during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. Of abont 550 persons only 152 were saved; several of these after drifting 011 rafts above 600 miles. The loss of about 2-1 million dollars in specie aggravated the commercial panic in New York shortly after. The captain and crew behaved heroically.

Central Criminal Court, established in 1834. Commissions are issued to the fifteen judges of E n g l a n d (of whom three attend in rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical delivery of the jail of Newgate, and the trial of offences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new district is considered as one county.

M o u n t A u b u r n c e m e t e r y , C a m b r i d g e , Mass., c o n s e c r a t e d 1831 K e n s a l Green c e m e t e r y , 53 a c r e s ; consecrated. 2 Nov. 1832 L a u r e l Hill c e m e t e r y , P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pa., c o n s e c r a t e d 1835 S o u t h M e t r o p o l i t a n a n d N o r w o o d c e m e t e r y , 40 a c r c s ; consecrated G Dec. 1837 H i g h g a t c a n d K e n t i s h t o w n c e m e t e r y , 22 a c r e s ; o p e n e d and consecrated 20 May, 1839 G r e e n w o o d c e m e t e r y , B r o o k l y n , X. Y., c o n s e c r a t e d Central Hall of Sciences, see under A Ibert. A b n c v P a r k c e m e t e r y , S t o k e Nevvington, 30 a c r e s ; o p e n e d C e n t u r i o n , the captain, head, or commander of a b y t h e lord m a y o r 20 May, 1810 W e s t m i n s t e r o r "West L o n d o n c e m e t e r y , K e n s i n g t o n subdivision of a Roman legion, which consisted of 100 Road; consecrated 15 J u n e " men, and was called a centuria. By the Roman census N u n h e a d c e m e t e r y ; a b o u t 5 0 a c r e s ; c o n s e c r a t e d . 2 9 July', " each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 556 City of L o n d o n a n d T o w e r H a m l e t s c e m e t e r y , 30 acres, consecrated 1841 B.C*. London Necropolis and Xational Mausoleum, at Woking, C e n t u r y . The Greeks computed time by the OlymS u r r e y , 2000 a c r e s ; t h e c o m p a n y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n J u l y , 1852; o p e n e d j a b.' 1855 piads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman church by I n C i t y of L o n d o n c e m e t e r y , I l f o r d ; o p e n e d 24 J u n e , 1856 ductions, the lirst of which began 24 Sept., A.D. 312. The A c t s r e s p e c t i n g burials p a s s e d . 1850-57 method of computing time by centuries commenced from N a t i o n a l c e m e t e r i e s first p r o v i d e d f o r b v a c t of congress ; 17 J u l y . 18G2 the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted iu chronologAct of c o n g r e s s a l l o w i n g all soldiers a n d s a i l o r s h o n o r a ical history first in France.—D it pin. bly d i s c h a r g e d f r o m service, d y i n g d e s t i t u t e , to be C e n t u r y , a New York club, founded 1817. b u r i e d in n a t i o n a l c e m e t e r i e s 1 J u n e , 1872

Cenis,

M O U N T , see under Alps. C e n s o r s , Roman magistrates, to survey and rate the property, and correct the manners of the people. The two first censors were appointed, 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were lirst appointed, 131 B.C. T h e office, abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, A.D. 251; see Press.

C e n s u s . T h e Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 B.C.; and by David, 1017B.C.; Demetrius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius enacted t h a t a general estimate of every Roman's estate and personal effects should be delivered to the government upon oath every live years, 566 B.C. T h e proposal for a census in 1753 was opposed as profane. Iu the United Kingdom the census is now taken at decennial periods since 1801; 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April), 1881 (3 April); act passed 7 Sept. 1880; see Population. The first United States census was made in 1790. The constitution re-

C e p h a l o n i a , one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the „Etolians by the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Iladrian, A.D. 135; see Ionian ¡sles. C e p h i s u s , a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain bj r (lie Catalans, 1311. " C e r b e r e , " a French gun-brig, with a crew of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbor of L'Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by two boats, one of which was commanded by midshipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, 20 July, 1800.—Nicolas.

Ceremonies, M A S T E R O F T H E , an office instituted for the more honorable reception of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 J a m e s 1.1603. T h e order maintained by the master of the ceremonies at Bath, " Beau Nash," the " ELu\g of Bath," led to t h e adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th * POre L a Chaise w a s t h e f a v o r i t e a n d c o n f e s s o r of L o u i s X I V . . w h o m a d e h i m s u p e r i o r of a g r e a t e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e year, 1761.—Ashe.

J e s u i t s on t h i s spot, t h e n n a m e d M o n t Louis. T h e h o u s e a n d g r o u n d s w e r e b o u g h t f o r a n a t i o n a l c e m e t e r y , w h i c h w a s laid o u t b y M. l i r o n g n i a r t , a n d first u s e d o n 21 Slay, 1804.

C e r e s , a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jail. 1801; he named it

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after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicil- and sale of chain-cables and anchors were passed in 1864,1871, and 1874.—CHAIN-SHOT, to destroy the rigians. C e r e s u o l a (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, ging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the Dutch count d'Fnghien, defeated the imperialists under the admiral, De Witt, in 1666. — CHAIN-PUJIPS were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787, marquess de Guasto, 14 April, 1541. C e r i g n o l a (S.Italy). Here the great, captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 28 April, 1503. C e r i n t h i a n s , followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about A.D. 80, are said to have combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. C e r i u m , a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803.

Cerro Gordo, B A T T L E OF. W i t h about 8 5 0 0 men, gen. Scott, after capturing-Vera Cruz (which see), marched towards the Mexican capital. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass at the foot of the eastern chain of the Cordilleras, he found Santa Anna strongly posted and fortified, with 12,000 men. Scott attacked him 18 April, 1847, drove him from his position, and dispersed his army. Santa Anna narrowly escaped on the back of a mule. More than 1000 Mexicans were killed or wounded, and 3000 were made prisoners. The Americans lost in killed and wounded 431. Scott pushed on towards the Mexican capital. See Contreras, Cherubu$co. El MoJino del Rey, Chapnltepec. \ C e u t a (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abvla, the southern pillar of Hercules. I t was taken from the • Vandals by Iklisarius for Justinian, 534; by the Goths, 618; by the Moors about 709, from whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 1415. "With Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which power still retains it.

Chains, HANGING IN. By 25 Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should direct the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomized, or hung in chains. The custom of hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. C h a l c e d o n , Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Megarians, about 684 B.C. I t was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans. 74; plundered by t h e Goths, A.D. 259; taken by Chosrocs, the Persian, (309; by 0 rch an, the Turk, 1338. Here was held the " Synod of the Oak," 403; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the " Robber Svnod," 8 Oct, 451. C h a l c i s , see Eiibcea. C h a l d c e a , the ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S.W. portion. The Chaldceans were devoted to astronomy and astrology; see Dan. ii. e t c . — T h e CIIALDJEAN REGISTERS of c e l e s t i a l o b s e r v a -

tions, said to have commenced 2231 B.C., were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). These registers w< re sent to Aristotle by C a l i s t h e n e s . — C H A L D E A N CHARACTERS: t h e B i b l e w a s

transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 B.C. C h a l g r o v e (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert. 18 June, 1643, John Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, and died 24 June. A column was erected to his memory, IS June, 1843.

" C h a l l e n g e r , 1 ' see Deep-sea Soundings. C e y l o i l (the ancient Taprobane), an island in the ' C h a l o n s - s u r - M a r n e (N".E. France). Here the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat of paradise, j emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus. the last of the preI t became a seat of Buddhism, 307 B.C., and was known tenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274: to the Romans about A.L>. 41. Population 1873, "2,323,700. . and here in 451 Act ins defeated Attila the Hun, comIiivtided h v t h e Portuguese Almeyda 1505 pelling him to retire into Pan noma.

The D u t c h landed in Ceylon, 1002; and captured t h e capital, Colombo 1003 ! C h a m , see Charivari. F r e q u e n t conflicts; peaceful commercial relations esi C h a m b e r l a i n , early a high court officer ill France, tabl i shed 1664 I I n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e British begun IT Germany, and England. The office of chamberlain of A large portion of t h e country t a k e n by t h e m in 17tt2; the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. was restored 1783 T h e Dutch s e t t l e m e n t s seized by t h e B r i t i s h ; TrineoHEREDITARY LORD GREAT CHAMHEUI,UN OF ENGLAND.—The rtialee. '20 Aug.; Jaflnapatam Sept. 1795 | sixth {ireat officer of state, whoso d u t i e s a m o n g others, relate Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by t h e peace of Amiens ltt02 to coronations and public solemnities. The office w a s long B r ' t i s h troops treacherously massacred or imprisoned ' held by t h e I)e Veres, earls of Oxford, g r a n t e d by H e n r y L b v t h e adigar of Candy, a t Colombo (see Candy), \ in 1101. On t h e death of J o h n De Yere, tlic s i x t e e n t h earl, '2(5 J u n e . 1803 I Mary, h i s sole daughter, m a r r y i n g lore Willoughby De KresComplete sovereignty of the island a s s u m e d by England 1*15 I by. t h e right w a s established in t h a t r m b l e m a n ' s f a m i l y b y a Bishopric of Colombo founded 1*45 j u d g m e n t of t h e house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1025. On t h e The gov., lord Torrington. absolved f r o m a charge of death of his descendant, u n m a r r i e d , in J u l y 1770, t h e h o u s e u n d u e severity in suppressing a s gebcUion May, 1851 j of lords a n d twelve j u d g e s concurred t h a t t h e olfn e devolved Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increa d under t h e adminto lady Willotighby De Eresby. a n d her sister lady Georg'na istration of sir H. W a r d 1855-60 Chariot ta Bertie, as h e i r s t o t h e i r In o t h e r Robert, d u k e of Sir J. E. T c n n e n t ' s work, 41 Ceylon. 1 ' appeared 1859 : An caster, deceased; and t h a t t h e y L;id p o w e r s to appoint a Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed g o v e r n o r . .7 March, 1805 i d e p u t y to act for t h e m , not u n d e r t h e degree of a k n i g h t , The d u k e of E d i n b u r g h visited Ceylon April. 1*70 who, if his m a j e s t y approved of h i m , might officiate accordWm. H. Gregorv, M.B.. appointed governor 9 J a n . 1872 j ingly. — Heat ami. T h i s dignity w a s for some t i m e lie Id joint! y Visit of t h e prince of Wales 1 Dec. 1875 i by t h e lord Willoughby De Eresby and t h e m a r q u i s of CholSir J . II. Longden appointed governor Nov. 187G | mondelev, descendants of J o h n De Yere. earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby De Eresby died w i t h o u t issue, 27 Aug. 1870. a n d C h e e r o n e a (Hoeotia). Here Greeee was ruined by I lord Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. LORD CHAMBERLAIN OP THE HOTSEIIOU).—AN a n c i e n t office. Philip; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, The title is from t h e F r e n c h ChambeUau. in Latin Cameraritts. Athenians, etc., G or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, Sir William Stanley, kilt., a f t e r w a r d s beheaded, w a s lord lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and chamberlain, 1 H e n r y VII. 1485. A rice chamberlain a c t s in t h e absence of t h e chief; t h e offices are coexistent,—Bcatson. 110,000 Cappadociaus were slain, 86 15.0.; see Coronea. The chamberlain of London is a n ancient office.

C h a i n - b r i d g e s . The largest and oldest chainC h a m b e r s , see Commerce, A fjriculliirc. bridge in the world is said to be that at Kiugtung, in C h a m b e r s ' s J o u r n a l was first published at E d i n China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the top of another. Mr. Telford constructed burgh in Feb. 1832. the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England, over C l i a m b r e A r d e n t e (fiery chamber), an extraorthe strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, dinary French tribunal so named from the punishment 1818-25; see Menai ¿»traits. frequently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535, and H e n Chain-cables. P U M P S , A N D SNOT. Iron chain- ry IT. in 1519, employed it for the extirpation of heresy, cables were in use by the Teneti, a people intimately which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in 1560; connected with the Belgue of Britain in the time of and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate Caesar, 57 B.C. These cables came into use, generally the poisoning* cases which arose after the execution of in the navy of England, in 1812. Acts for the proving the marchioness Brinvilliers.

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C h a m b r e I n t r o u v a b l e , a name g i v e n to the 1591. 1592. chamber of deputies elected in France in 1815, on ac- j 1596. count of its ignorance, incapacity, and bigoted reaction- \ 1603. a r y spirit. I 1617. 1618. C h a m p d e M a r s , an open square in front of the 1621. military school at Paris, with artificial embankments 011 | 1625.

CHA

The great seal in commission. Sir Juh 11 Puckering. 1 ord keeper. Sir Thomas Fgerton, lord keeper. Sir T. Egerton, lord Ell mere, chancellor. Sir Francis Bacon, lord deeper. Sir Francis Bacon, or. lord Verulam, lord chancellor. The great seal in commission. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, lord each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. The keeper. ancient assemblies of the Frankish people, the germ of 1 3640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. parliaments, held annually in March, received this name. 1641. Sir Edward Lyitelton, afterwards lord Ly ttelton, lord keeper. I n 747 Pepin changed the month to M a y . H e r e was 1643. The great seal in the hands of commissi oners. held, 14 July, 1790 (t.lie anniversary of the capture of i 1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. the Bastile), the "federation," or solemnity of swearing 1646. I. n t he ha 11 ds of co m m i ss i on e rs. fidelity to the " p a t r i o t k i n g " and new constitution: 1649. In commission for the commonwealth. 1653. Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. great rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 1654. In commission during the commonwealth. great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards created lord Hyd and earl of Clarendon. clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country,"' j 1667. Sir - '.o Bridgman, lord keeper. praying for the abdication of Louis X V I . A com mem- ; 1672. Antli, .,y Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chancellor. oration meeting took place, 14 July, 1792. Another ' 1673. Sir Hencage Finch, lord keeper. constitution was sworn to here, under the e v e of Napo- , 1675. He no e. now lord Finch, lord chancellor, afterwards cari x)f Nottingham. leon I., 1 M a y , 1815, at a ceremony called the Champ de . 1682, Sir Francis North, created lord Guilford, lord keeper. Mai. T h e prince president (afterwards Napoleon I I I . ) ; 1685. Francis, lord Guilford; succeeded by George, lord Jell revs, lord chancellor. had a grand review in the Champ de Mars, and distrib- j " uted eagles to the arm}-, 10 M a y , 1852. H e r e also was i 1689. J11 commission. 1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, knt.. and held the International Exhibitions opened 1 April, 1867, 1 sir George Hutch ins, knt.. commissioners or keepers. and 1 M a y , 1878; see Paris. j 1693. Sir John Somers. lord keeper. 1697. Sir John Somers, created lord Somers, chancellor. C h a m p a g n e , an ancient province, N . E . France, once 1700. Lord chief-justice Holt, sir George Trcby, chief justice, C. P.. and chief baron sir Edward Ward, lord keepers. part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was governed by " Sir Xathan Wright, lord keeper. counts from the 10th century till it was united to N a 1705. liiglit lion. William Cowper, lord keeper, afterwards lord varre, count Thibaut becoming king in 1234. The Cowper. countess Joanna married P h i l i p I Y . of France in 1284; 1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. and in 1361 Champagne was annexed by their descend- 1710. In commission. 14 Sir Simon Harcourt, created lord Harcourt, keeper. ant king John. T h e effervescing wine, termed Cham1713. S J m 0 n, lo rd Ha rco u r t, lo rd ch an ce 11 o r. pagne, became popular in the latter part of the 18th 1714. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. century. 1718. In com mission. " Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; afterwards earl C h a m p i o n OF THIS KING OF ENGLAND (most honof Macclesfield. orable), an ancient office, since 1377 has been attached 1725. In commission. Sir Peter King, created lord King, chancellor. to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. 1733. Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. T h e i r descendant, sir H e n r y Dymoke, the seventeenth 1737. Philip Yorko. lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. o f his family who held the office, died 28 April, 1865; 1756. Jn commission. succeeded by his brother John; he died, and his son 1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, last lord J.,„'PerI l e n r y Lionel succeeded, w h o died Dec, 1875. A t the coronation of the English kings, the champion used to 1761. LOJU Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of Northington. challenge any one that should deny their title. 1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 1770. H o n. Ch: ui es Yo r k e, 10 rd c hau c el lo r. C h a m p l a i n , see Lake Champlain. [Created lord Morden; died by suicide with'11 three days, and before the seals were put to h s patent of C h a n c e l l o r o f E n g l a n d , LOUD HIGII, the first peerage.] lay subject after the princes of the blood royal. A n " In commission. ciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ec- 1771. H e n ry B a t h 11 rs t, lo rd A psl ey; su c cee d e d as ea r 1 Bat h u rs t. clesiastic termed CanceUarius, or doorkeeper, who ad- 1778. Edward Tliurlow, created lord Thurlow. mitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. A r fast us or 1783. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, commissioners. Here fast, chaplain to the king ( W i l l i a m the Conqueror) 4' Edward, 10rd Thurlow, again. and bishop of Elm ham, was lord chancellor in 1007.— 1792. In commission. Hardy. Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154. 1793. Alexander Wedderburne. lord Loughborough, lord chancellor. T h e first person qualified by education to decide causes 1801. John Scott, lord Kldon. upon his own judgment was sir Thomas More, appoint- 1S06. Hon. Thomas Erskine. created lord Krskme. ed in 1529, before which time the officer was rather a 1807. John, lord Jildon, again. state functionary than a judge. Sir Christopher H a t - 1S27. Job 11'Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndhurst. ton, appointed lord chancellor in 1587, was very igno- 1830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. rant, on which account the first reference was made to a 1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, vicemaster in 1588. The great seal has been frequently put chancellor Shadwell and Mr. justice IJ. ..liquet, C. J'., commissioners. in commission; in 1813 the office of Vice-chancellor was 1S3G. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cottenbam, established; see Keeper and Vice-chancellor. — Salary, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 1875,6000/.; as speaker of house of lords, 40001. 1841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 1846. Lord Gotten ham. again lord chancellor, 6 July. LORD iriOH CHANCELLORS. [His lordship 011 signifying his intention to retire, 19 June. 1850. was created earl of Cottenliam.] 1487. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 18S0. Lord Langdalc, master of the rolls, sir Launcvlot Shad1504. William Warham, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. well. vice-chancellor of England, and sir Robert Mou1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and archbishop of York. sey llolie, B. E., commissioners of the great seal. 19 1529. Sir Thomas More. June. 1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. " Sir Thomns Wi 1 de. 1 ord Truro. 15 July. 1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, afterwards lord Audley. 1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonard's. 27 Feb. 1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. " Robert Monsey liolfe, lord Cranworth. 2S Dec. 1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. " Richard, lord Hi eh, lord chancellor. 1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June; died 23 June. 1861. 1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury. 26 June. Resigned 4 1552. The same; now lord chancellor ' July, 1865. 1553. Stephen Gardiner, b'shop of Winchester. 1865. T h o m as, lo r d C ran wo r t h, n ga in. 6 J u 1 y. Re s i g n e d Ju n e 1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 1866. ' ' 1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 1S3G. F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 Jul v. Resigned 1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. Feb. 1S6H. 3587. Sir Christopher Hatton. 1868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb.

10

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William Pago Wood, lord Hatlierley. Rouvulell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. '21 Feb. Roundell Palmer, lord ¡solborne. 28 April.

Chancellor of Ireland, L O R D H I G H . T h e earliest nomination was b y Richard I., 1L89, w h e n S t e p h e n Ridel was elevated to this rank. T h e office of vicechancellor was k n o w n in Ireland in 1*282, Geoffrey T u r villo, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named. T h e C h a n cery and Common Law Offices ( I r e l a n d ) act was passed 20 Aug. 1867. LORD H I G H CHANCELLORS OF I R E L A N D .

Patent. 1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. 1697. Sir J o h n Jeffrey son, Thomas Coote, and N e h e m i a h Donelian, lord keepers. 12 J a n . J. Metbuen. 11 March. Edward, earl of Meath. Francis, earl of Longford, and Murrough, viscount Blessmgton, lord keepers. 21 Dec. 1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart.. 6 Aug.; resigned ill 1707. 1707. Richard F r e e m a n . J u n e . 1710. Robert earl of Kildare. archbishop (Hoadley) of Dublin, and Thomas Keiglitley. commissioners. 28 Nov. 1711. Sir Constantino Phipps. ' 22 J a n . Resigned Sept. 1714. 1711. Alan Hrodrick, afterwards viscount Middle ton. 11 Oct. Resigucd May, 1725. 1725. Richard West. June. 1726. T h o m a s W y n d h a m , a f t e r w a r d s lord W y n d h a m of Finglas. 21 Dec. 1739. Robert Jocelyn, a f t e r w a r d s lord Newport a n d viscount Jocelyn. 7 S e p t . ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 1757. J o h n liowes, a f t e r w a r d s lord Bowes of Clonlvon. 22 March; died 1767. 1768. J a m e s Hewitt, a f t e r w a r d s viscount Lilford. 9 J a n . ; died 28 April, 1789. 1789. J o h n , baron Fitzgibbon, a f t e r w a r d s earl of Clare. 20 J u n e ; died 28 J a n . 1802. 1802. J o h n , baron Redesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. 1806. 1806. George l'onsonby. 25 March. Resigned April. 1807. 1807. T h o m a s Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously an English baron of t h e exchequer. May. Resigned 1 Nov. 1827. 1827. Sir Anthonv Hart, previously vice-chancellor of England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 1834. 1835. Sir Edward B u r t e n s h a w Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned April, 1835. " William, baron Plunket, a second time. 30 April. Resigned J u n e . 1841. 1841. J o h n Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. " Sir Edward Sugden. a f t e r w a r d s lord St. Leonards, a second time. Oct.' Resigned J u l y . 1846. 1846. Maziere Brad v. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 1858. J o s e p h Napier. Feb. 1859. Maziere Bradv. again. J u n e . 1866. F r a n c i s Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 1867. A b r a h a m Brewster. 24 March. 1868. Thomas, lord O'llagan. Resigned Feb. 1874. 1874. In commission. J o h n T. Ball, lord Merton. 16 Dee. 1880. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. April.

CHA

after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 M a y , w i t h g r e a t loss to both parties, t h e federals were compelled to recross the R a p p a h a n n o c k . T h e struggle was compared to t h a t at I l o u g o m o n t d u r i n g t h e battle of W a t e r l o o . Jackson died 10 M a y . Hooker's loss was 17,000 men, of w h o m 5000 were made prisoners. Lee's loss was about 13,000, of whom 3000 were prisoners. T h e result of t h i s battle h a s a l w a y s been an e n i g m a to m i l i t a r y critics. Hooker's a r m y , was composed of t h e best of material, w a s well equipped a n d full of spirit, and n u m b e r e d 120,000, while Lee's force was 62,000. H o o k e r succeeded in t u r n i n g Lee's position, and in forcing h i m out of his fortified c a m p into t h e open field, w h e r e a complete v i c t o r y for t h e national forces seemed so easy of a t t a i n m e n t as to be well-nigh certain. T h a t it was n o t won, was due s i m plj r to bad m a n a g e m e n t . F o r a careful criticism of t h e affair see " 'Hie C a m p a i g n of Chancellorsville " by lieut.col. Theodore Dodge, U . S . A.,published 1881.

Chancery, C O U I I T OF, is said to h a v e been instit u t e d e i t h e r in 605, or b y Alfred, 887 ; refounded b y W i l l i a m I., 1007 {Stow) "or 1070. T h i s court had its origin in t h e desire to render justice complete, and to m o d e r a t e t h e rigor of other courts t h a t are bound to t h e strict letter of t h e law. I t g i v e s relief to or a g a i n s t infants, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r m i n o r i t y ; and to or a g a i n s t married women, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r c o v e r t u r e ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for w h i c h t h e r e is no redress a t common-law, are rclievable here. — Blackstone; see Chancellors of En (¡land. The delays in c h a n c e r y proceedings h a v i n g long given dissatisfaction, t h e subject was b r o u g h t before p a r l i a m e n t in 1825, and f r e q u e n t l y since; which led to t h e passing of i m p o r t a n t acts in 1852, 1853, IS55, 1858, and 1867, to a m e n d t h e practice in t h e court of c h a n c e r y ; see Accountant,, County Courts, and Supreme Court. T h e Chancery division of the h i g h court of j u s t i c e now consists of t h e lord chancellor and five j u d g e s .

Chandos Clause, see Counties. Channel Steamers, see under Steam. Channel Tunnel Company, registered, 15 Jan. 1872; see

Tunnels.

C h a n t i n g the psalms was adopted b y Ambrose from t h e p a g a n ceremonies of the Romans, about 350.—Lemjlet. About G02, Gregory t h e G r e a t added tones to t h e A m brosial) c h a n t , and established s i n g i n g schools. Chanti n g was adopted by some dissenters about 1859. J o h n M a r b e c k ' s Book of Common Praier noted (1559) is t h e first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to t h e R e f o r m e d C h u r c h ; Clifford's 11 Common Tunes " for chanting. 1664.

Chantrey Legacy,

see Royal Academy, C h a n t r y , a chapel endowed w i t h revenue for priests Chancellor of Scotland, LORTJ. T h e laws of to sing mass for t h e souls of t h e d o n o r s ; see Chanting. Malcolm I i . (1001) say :—" T h e chancellar sail a t al C h a n t r i e s were abolished in E n g l a n d in 1545. t y m e s assist t h e k i n g in giving h i m counsall m a i r seChapel. T h e r e arc free chapels, chapels of ease, cretly nor t h e rest of t h e nobility. . . . T h e chancellar t h e chapel royal, etc. — Con-ell. T h e g e n t l e m e n pensail be ludgit neir unto t h e kingis grace, for keiping of sioners (formerly poor k n i g h t s of Windsor, w h o were inhis bodie, and t h e seill, and that h e may be readie, baith stituted b y t h e direction of I l e n r v V I I I . in his t e s t a m e n t , day and nicht, a t the kingis command." — Sir James 1540-7) were called k n i g h t s of t h e c h a p e l ; see Poor Balfour. E v a n was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Kuiyhts of Windso?-.—The P r i v a t e Chapels act passed Canmore. 1057; and J a m e s , earl of Seafiekh a f t e r w a r d s 14 A u g . 1871. T h e place of conference a m o n g printers, F i n d l a t e r , was t h e last lord chancellor of Scotland, t h e and t h e conference itself, are by t h e m called a chapel, it is office h a v i n g been abolished in 1708; see Keeper. said, because the first work printed iu E n g l a n d by Caxton was executed in a ruined chapel iu W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y .

Chancellor of the Exchequer, see Exchequer. Chancellor's Augmentation Act, passed 18G3,

C h a p l a i n , a clergyman w h o performs divine service in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About s e v e n t y chaplains are attached to t h e chapel royal. T h e chief personages invested with t h e privilege of r e t a i n i n g chapC h a n c e l l o r s v i l l e , Virginia, U . S., a large brick lains are t h e following, with t h e n u m b e r t h a t was origihotel, once k e p t b y a M r . Chancellor, was t h e site of senally allotted to each rank, by 21 H e n . V I I I . c. ID (1529) : vere s a n g u i n a r y conflicts between t h e A m e r i c a n federal V, 8 Knight of t h e Garter a r m y of t h e P o t o m a c under gen. Hooker, and t h e con- Archbishop Duke 6 Duchess 2 federates under gen. Lee. On 29 April. 1803, the federal Bishop 6 Marchioness 2 5 Countess a r m y crossed t h e R a p p a h a n n o c k ; on 2 May, g e n . " Stone- Marquess 2 5 Baroness '1 w a l l " J a c k s o n furiously attacked and routed t h e r i g h t Earl Viscount 4 Master of t h e Rolls 2 wing, b u t was mortally wounded by his own p a r t y firing Baron '. square, in m o s t p l a c e s so soft a s to be i n c a p a b l e of s u p A n c i e n t A n g l o - S a x o n c h a r t e r s are p r i n t e d in K e t n b i e ' s p o r t i n g a m a n or horse, over w h i c h G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n , t h e r a i l w a y e n g i n e e r , carried t h e L i v e r p o o l a n d M a n " C o d e x D i p l o r n a t i c u s , " 1829. c h e s t e r r a i l w a y , a f t e r o v e r c o m i n g difficulties considered C h a r t i s t s , t h e n a m e a s s u m e d b y l a r g e bodies of i n v i n c i b l e . T h e road ( l i t e r a l l y a i i o a t i n g o n e ) w a s t h e l o w e r classes, s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e p a s s i n g of t h e l i e c o m p l e t e d b y 1 J a n . 1830, w h e n t h e i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m Bill in 1832. f r o m t h e i r d e m a n d i n g t h e people's t r a i n , d r a w n by t h e R o c k e t l o c o m o t i v e , passed o v e r i t ; Charter.* t h e s i x p o i n t s of w h i c h w e r e Universal Sufsee Boys. frage. Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of the J/'-wbws, the AbuHfion of (he Property QuaHjication C h â t e a u d u n , a n old c i t y , N. C. F r a n c e , t h e resi( w h i c h w a s e n a c t e d , .Tune. 1858), a n d Equal Electoral d e n c e of t lie h e r o i c D u n o i s , w h o died 1468. H e r e w e r e histrieta. I n 1838 t h e c h a r t i s t s a s s e m b l e d in v a r i o u s m a s s a c r e d , 20 J u l y , 1183, a b o u t 7000 B r a b a n ç o n s , f a n a t i c p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , a r m e d w i t h g u n s , pikes, a n d o t h e r m e r c e n a r i e s w h o h a d been h i r e d to e x i e r m i n a t e t h e A l w e a p o n s , a n d c a r r y i n g t o r c h e s a n d flags. A p r o c l a m a - b i g e n s e s by t h e c a r d i n a l H e n r y , a b b o t of C l a i r v a u x , in tion w a s issued a g a i n s t t h e m , 12 Dec. T h e i r p e t i t i o n 1181. T h e y h a d b e c o m e t h e s c o u r g e of t h e c o u n t r y , ( a g r e e d to a t B i r m i n g h a m , 0 A u g . 1838) w a s p r e s e n t e d a n d t h e C a p u c h o n s ' ' w e r e o r g a n i z e d for t h e i r d e s t r u c to p a r l i a m e n t b y M r . T . A t t w o o d , 14 J u n e , 1839. T h e y tion. C h â t e a u d u n w a s c a p t u r e d b y t h e G e r m a n s a f t e r * W m . L o v e t t , its a l l e g e d a u t h o r , d i e d A u g . 1877.

a s e v e r e conflict of a b o u t n i n e hours, 18 O c t . 1870. B a r r i c a d e s h a d been e r e c t e d in t h e t o ^ n , a n d t h e G a r d e

CHA Mobile fought bravely. the French, G Nov.

149

The town was reoccupied by

C h a t h a m (Kent), a principal station of the royal n a v y ; the dockyard, commenced by Queen Elizabeth, has been recently much extended (1872). The Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and decayed seamen, originally established here by the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins in 1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De Iiuyter, sailed up to this town, and burned several men-of-war; but the entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and additional fortifications were made at Chatham. Oil 8-11 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts was suppressed by the military, and many rioters flogged. About 1000/. worth of property was destroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. New docks and a basin, said to be the largest and finest in the world, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 June, 1871. C h a t h a m A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , * succeeded the first Rockingham administration in Aug. 1766 ; after several changes, it terminated Dec. 1767; see Grafton. Karl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. Duke of Grafton, jfirsf lord of the treasury. Lord Camden, lord chancellor. Charles Town she ml, chancellor of the exchequer. Earl of North ington, lord president. Earl of Shelburnc and general Conway, secretaries of state. Sir Clr.irlcs Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), admiralty. Marquis of Granby, ordnance. Lord H i 11 sborough, first lord of trade. Viscount Barring ton, secretary at war. Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. Duke of Ancaster, lord do Despenser, etc.

CHE

is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned cheese-making from the Komans about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make vast quantities; the last alone, annually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported from abroad about 10,000 tons; in 1855, 384,192 cwt.; in 1866,872,342 cwf.; in 1870, 1,041.281 cwt.; in 1876, 1,531,204 cwt.; in 1879, 1,789,721 cwt. The duty on foreign cheese, producing annually about 50,000^., was taken off in 1860. Large quantities arc imported from the United States. The exports of cheese from the United States for 1879 amounted to $12,569,968. C h e l s e a (Middlesex). A council held here 27 July, 816.—Nicolas. A theological college here founded by James I. in 1609 was converted by Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and superannuated soldiers. The erection was carried on by James II., and completed by William III. in 1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, grandfather of the orator C. J . F o x ; the architect was sir Christopher W r e n ; and the cost 150.000/. I n 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pensioners.—The body of the duke of Wellington lay here in state, 10-17 Nov. 1852.—The physic garden of sir I l a n s Sloane. at Chelsea, was given to the Apothecaries' Company, 1721. —The Chelsea water-works were incorporated 1722.— The first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid by Frederick, duke of Fork, 19 June, 1801.—The bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea with Battersea Park, was opened March, 1858. The Albert bridge was opened ¿1 Dec. 1872; both freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. The parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by the lieform act. 15 Aug. 1867, consists of Chelsea, Kensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. The Chelsea embankment was opened by the duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 1874; see Trials, July, 1870 and 1872. Cremorne public gardens closed, 1877.

C h a t i l l o i i (on the Seine, France). Here a congress was held by the four great powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, 4 Feb. C h e l t e n h a m (Gloucestershire). Its celebrated min3814: the negotiations for peace were broken off on 19 eral spring was discovered in 1718. The King's well was March following. sunk in 1778; and other wells by Mr. P. Thompson in C h a t t a n o o g a (Tennessee). Here generals Sher- 1806. Magnesian salt was first found in the waters in man, Thomas, and Hooker (under Grant) defeated the 1811. The theatre was erected in 1804. Grammarconfederate general Bragg, capturing Lookout Mountain school and almshouses, endowed by Richard Pates, 1574. (24 Nov.), and storming Missionary Ridge, 25 Nov. 1868. Cheltenham was incorporated, 1876. Grant had engaged about 65,000 n c n ; Bragg from 40,C h e m i c a l S o c i e t i e s . One formed in London in 000 to 45,000. The national loss was 5616; the confeder1780, did not long continue. The present Chemical Soate about 10,000, of whom 6142 were prisoners. ciety of London was established in 1841; that of Paris C h a u m o n t (on the Marne, France), I'RKA VY O F , in 1857; that of Germany at Berlin, 1867. The Instientered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and tute of Chemistry of Great Britain formed; professor Prussia, 1 March, 1814. This treaty was succeeded by Edward Frankland first president, 1877; first meeting, 1 t h a t of Paris, 11 April, by which Napoleon renounced his Feb. 1878. Chemical Industry Society founded 4 April, sovereignty; see Paris. 1881. C h a u v i n i s m , a term said to be derived from ChauC h e m i c a l " W o r k s . Royal commi ss ion appointed vin, the principal character in Scribe's " Soldat Labour- to inquire into the management of chemical works, to cur," a veteran soldier of the first empire, filled with in- ascertain the effect of gases and vapors given off, and tense admiration for Napoleon and for all that belonged the means of prevention. The commissioners are lord to him. Scribe was born 24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. Aberdare, earl Percy, professors Abel, A. Williamson, Kos1861. coe, and others, 18 July, 1876. In their report, issued C h e a p T r a i n s A c t , 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85. 1844; sec Aug. 1878, they recommend increased inspection, and more stringent regulations; see Alkalies. Railways. C h e a t s were punishable by pillory, imprisonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than 10?. or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711.—Blackstone. C h e e - f o o C o n v e n t i o n , see China, 1876. C h e e s e is mentioned by Aristotle, about 350 B.C. I t * William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the il (treat commoner "). born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 17.35; became secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devonshire administration, Nov. 1756; secretary in the Newcastle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed the taxation of the American colonies, but protested against the recognition of their independence, 7 April, 1778, and died 11 May following.

C h e m i s t r y was introduced into Spain by the Moors, about 1150. The Egyptians and Chinese claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The first chemists were the Alchemists (see A Ichemy); but chemistry was not a science till the seventeenth century; during which its study was promoted by Bacon, Ilooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early part of the eighteenth century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaave combined the study of chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Bergman, Stahl, Black, etc. In 1772, Priestley published his researches on air, having discovered the gases oxygen, ammonia, etc.; and thus commenced a new chemical era. Ho was ably seconded by Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and others. The nineteenth century opened with the brilliant discoveries of Davy, continued by Dal ton, Faraday, Thomson, etc. Organic Chemistry

150

CUE

CHE

has been very greatly advanced by Bcrzelius, Liebig, " C h e s a p e a k e , " an American frigate commanded by rapt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck to the Shannon. British Dumas, Laurent, Hofmann, Cahours, Frankland,* and frigate (38 guns, 330 men), commanded by enpt. Philip Yerc

o t h e r s , since 1830 ; see Pharmacy,

Electricity,

Galvanism.

Broke, after a severe action of eleven minutes. 1 J tine. 1813. Eleven minutes elapsed between tlu tiring of the iirst gun and the boarding, and in four minutes more the Chesapeake was the Shannon's prize. Capt. Lawrence died of h'.s wounds.

For the analytical processes termed " S p e c t r u m analysis invented by Kirch li off and Bun sen (1861), and "Dialysis " (1861), and "A tmolysis " (18G3), invented by Mr. T. Grah a m , see t h o s e a r t i c l e s . — T h e Royal College of Chemistry,

Oxford Street, London, was established in 1845 (now at South Kensington)—Henry Watts's great,11 Dictionary of Chemistry,'' begun 1863, has supplements. M. Ad. Wurtz's equally great "Dictionnaire de Chimie,'' 1868.

'

C h e s h u n t C o l l e g e , Herts, founded by Selina, countess of Huntingdon, for the education of ministers of herconnection," Calvinistic Methodists. The college was first opened at Trevecca House, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess and George Whitfield, 1768. It was removed to Cheshunt in 1792. The countess died 17 June, 1791. C h e s s , a game attributed to Palamedes, G80 b.c.; ITyde and sir William Jones refer the origin of chess to the Hindoos.

C h e q u e B a n k , opened in Pall Mall East, 23 July, 1873. It issued cheques for fixed sums (down to 1/.) available for paying and transmitting small sums, and is suited for persons not having a banker. The plan, due to Mr. James Hertz, a director, has been modified. He Caxton printed " t h e Game and Plave of the Chesse " . . . 1474 died 23 Feb. 1880. A chess-club formed at Slaughter's'coffee-house, St MarC h e q u e s , see Drafts. Cherbourg, the great naval fortress and arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 60 or 70 miles equidistant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in 1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of Louis XIV., some works were erected here by the great Van ban, which, with some shipping, etc., were destroyed by the British, 6,7 Aug. 1758. The works, resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and completed in 1813, forms a secure harbor, affording anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks were opened, the latter in the presence of the queen of England and court. The British fleet visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much hospitality. Presidents Grevy, Leon Say, and (iambetta visit Cherbourg; launch of a man-of-war, etc., 8-11 Aug. 1880. C h e r i t o n D o w n (Hants). Here sir Wm. Waller defeated the royalists under lord Ilopton, 29 March, 1644.

tin's Lane The automaton cliess-player (a piece of machinery) exhibited in England II. F. A. Danican, known as Phi!idor, played three matches blindfolded at the Salopian; h e died The London Chess-club founded in 1807 and St. George's. Chess congress in New York, 1857, which brought Paul Morphy, the most remarkable of chess-players, into public notice. Morphy won a match with Lowenthal in London Mor] shy played eiglit gam es si mul taneo usly, wi thout sceiug the boards, winning six of them, at Birmingham, England !>(> Aug. Morphy defeated Harrwitz in Paris Sept. Morphy defeated Andersscn 20 Dec. All efforts to induce Staunton, the English chess-player, to meet Morphy failed Herr Paulson played ten games at onre. of which he won live, and lost one; three were drawn, and one not played out. Dee. International eh ess congn ses:s 1, '2, London (winner, M. Andcrssen, of Breslau), 1851. 1802; 3, Paris (M. Kolisch), 18(57; 4. Paris (M. Andcrssen). 1870; 5, Vienna (M. Stein in etz) Aug. Automaton chess-player at the Cry still Palace (a youth concealed in box perforated with holes) exhibited Howard Staunton, a great player, died June, J. J. Lowenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died, 20 July, J. H. Zukkertort of Riga gains first p r i z e ' a t the International Chess Congress, Paris June, July, S e p t . 1849, posal t h a t t h e buildings and g r o u n d should be purchased w a s 3183; t h e o r d i n a r y a v e r a g e , 1008; a n d t h e n u m b e r by t h e Mid-London R a i l w a y C o m p a n y for 600,000/. w a s of d e a t h s bv c h o l e r a f r o m 17 J u n e t o 2 Oct. in L o n d o u a l o n e , 13.1(31. T h e m o r t a l i t y l e s s e n e d a n d t h e d i s t e m not carried out. T h e C h a r i t y Commissioners' d r a f t per disappeared a b o u t 13 Oct. 1849 scheme for t h e reformed a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e hospital Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Hexham, Tynemouth, and other n o r t h e r n towns, suffer m u c h from cholera S e p t . 1853 was issued A u g . 1880. I t r a g e s in I t a l y a n d S i c i l y ; a b o v e 10,00« a r e s a i d to h a v e d i e d a t N a p l e s ; it w a s also v e r y f a t a l t o t h e allied t r o o p s at. V a r n a autumn. C h o l e r a v e r v s e v e r e for a s h o r t t i m e in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t s of L o n d o n , a n d in S o h o a n d St. J a m e s ' s , W e s t m i n s t e r , Aug. a n d Sept. R a g i n g in A l e x a n d r i a , J u n e ; a b a t e d July, P r e v a i l i n g in A u c o u a (843 d e a t h s ) Aug.. s u b s i d i n g . . S e p t , V e r y s e v e r e in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , n e a r l y 50,000 d e a t h s , A u g . ; s u b s i d e s a f t e r t h e g r e a t fire 0 Sept. Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, a n d S o u t h a m p t o n , e n d of Sept. C h o l e r a p r e v a l e n t a t Marseilles, P a r i s , M a d r i d , a n d N a ples July-Oct. An i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e e t i n g a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , t o c o n s i d e r p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s , p r o p o s e d , Oct. 18G5. m e t 18 Feb. 18G6. At t h e l a s t s i t t i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a d o p t e d w e r e t h a t c h o l e r a m a y b e p r o p a g a t e d , a n d f r o m g r e a t dist a n c e s ; a n d a n u m b e r of p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e s w e r e recommended Sept. C h o l e r a a p p e a r s a t B r i s t o l . 24 A p r i l ; a t L i v e r p o o l , 13 M a v ; at S o u t h a m p t o n July, C h o l e r a s e v e r e in e a s t of L o n d o n ; 346 d e a t h s in w e e k ending 21 J u l y , H o u s e t o h o u s e v i s i t a t i o n ; M e t r o p o l i t a n R e l i e f Association f o r m e d ; largo subscriptions received (Queen's 500/.) July and Cholera subsides Sept. Verv severe at Naples Sept. Cholera Relief C o m m i t t e e closes 31 Oct. C h o l e r a d e c l a r e d t o be e x t i n c t in L o n d o n 1 Dec. C h o l e r a in R o m e , N a p l e s , a n d Sicily, A u g . - S e p t . ; in Switzerland Oct. A l a r m of a p p r o a c h i n g c h o l e r a , J u l y ; s a i d t o be s e v e r e in Königsberg, in Prussia Aug. C h o l e r a s e v e r e in V i e n n a , A u g . ; P a r i s Sept-

" 18fi5 "

Christ's Thorn, conjectured to be the plant of

" >c

"

I

which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came h i t h e r from t h e south of E u r o p e before 1596.

Christian Community, founded 1772, for visit-

ing and p r e a c h i n g t h e gospel in workhouses, asylums, rooms, etc., and in t h e open a i r ; and for distribution of tracts. C h r i s t i a n E r a , see A nno

fiomivi.

Christian E v i d e n c e S o c i e t y established by 18G8 u

" '' "

earl Russell, t h e bishop of London, and o t h e r s to counteract " t h e c u r r e n t forms of unbelief a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d classes," 1870. Lectures for t h i s purpose were given in S t . G e o r g e ' s Hall in 1871, b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e archbishop of York, 25 April. A public m e e t i n g was held 6 J u n e following. S i x volumes of lectures and tracts for circulation h a v e been published.

Christian K n o w l e d g e , 18C7 1871 1873

C h o r a g u s , t h e regulator of t h e chorus in Greek feasts, etc. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received this n a m e , h a v i n g first t a u g h t t h e chorus to dance to t h e lyre, 556 B.c.—Cinhitil.

Choral Harmonists' S o c i e t y , London, existed was early practised a t Athens.

S O C I E T Y REM P R O M O T I N G ,

founded 1698. 1877: income, for charitable purposes (including legacies of 16.000/.), 52,581/. Bibles, etc., g i v e n a w a y ; c h u r c h e s and schools h e l p e d ; bishopries m a i n t a i n e d , etc. Offices r e m o v e d f r o m L i n c o l n ' s I n n F i e l d s t o N o r t h u m b e r l a n d A v e n u e , o p e n e d 3 N o v . 1879.

Christian K n o w l e d g e S o c i e t y was founded in 1698 to p r o m o t e c h a r i t y schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious tracts. I t h a s an a n n u a l r e v e n u e of about 100,000/.

Christian Unity,

1833-51. Chorus-singing

W m . Gibbs, a s c h o l a r a g e d 12, s t r a n g l e d h i m s e l f w h i l e l o c k e d u p for r u n n i n g a w a y , n i g h t of 3 - 4 J u l y , 1877. A c o m m i t t e e of i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g Mr. I l u s s e l l G u r n e y , t h e r e c o r d e r ) in t h e i r r e p o r t e x o n e r a t e d t h e authorities: published 10 A u g . 1877

1854

ASSOCIATION FOR TIIK

PROMO-

TION OF, on t h e basis of t h e t h r e e creeds, formed b y

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mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the religious observances of the Druids; see A nno Domini. C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d , in the Pacific Ocean, so named by capt. Cook, who landed here on Christmas day, 1777. He had passed Christmas day at Christmas Sound, 1774. On the shore of Christmas Harbor, visited by him in 1770, a man found a piece of parchment inscribed : " Luclovico AT. Gallia nun rege, et d. Boynes re (ft a sec ret is ad res ma/*itinu.ts.amds 1772 et 1773." On the other side capt. Cook wrote: " Naves Resolution et IHscocery de rege Magnm Jlritannim, Dec. 1776," and placed it in a bottle. C h r i s t o p h e r ' s , St. (or St. Kitt's), a West India island, discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who gave it his own name. Settled by the English and French, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also 3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly all the town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost by inundations, 11, 1*2 Jan. 1880; hurricane, violent rains, etc.

thirty members of the Greek, Roman, and English churches, 8 Sept, 1857; 20th anniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meeting to promote the reunion of Christendom was held in London, 19 Jul}', 1878, the bishop of Frederic ton in the chair. C h r i s t i a n i a , the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been destroyed by tire. On 13 April, 1858, Cliristiania suffered by fire, the loss being about 250,000/. The university was established in 1811. New Storthing (parliament house) built 1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled, 7 Sept. 1875. C h r i s t i a n i s s i m u s Rex:, M O S T C H R I S T I A N K I N G , a title conferred by pope Paul II. iu 1409 on the crafty Louis XI. of France. C h r i s t i a n i t y . The name Christian was first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26; 1 Pet. iv. C). The first Christians were divided into episcopal (bishops or overseers) or pnsbyteroi (elders), dlaconoi (ministers or deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who were to be exorcised ; see Persecu- C h r o m i u m (Greek, yp&fia, color), a rare metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found combined tions. with iron and lead, and forms the coloring matter of the Christianity preached in Jerusalem, A.IX 33; Samaria, 34; Damascus, 35; Asia Minor, 41; Cyprus. 45; Maceemerald.

donia, 53; Athens, Corinth, etc., 54; E plies us. 56; C l i r o m o - L i t h o g r a p h y , see Printing in Colors. Troas, etc., GO; Koine i 63 Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 04; and C h r o n i c l e s . The earliest are those of the Jews, propagated with some success (Bede) 150 Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there are two Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in the reign of Donald I about 212 "Books of Chronicles"; see Bible. Collections of the C onstan t i ne the G reat pro f esses MJ e Ch r is ti an rel i g I o n . , . 312British chronicles have been published by Camden, Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia about 340 Introduced among the Goths by U1ftlas 370 Gale, etc., since 1602; in the present century by the English Historical Society, etc. In 1858, the publicaInto Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. Patrick 432 tion of " Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Christianity establislied in France by Clovis 490 Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin 597 Introduced into Helvetia, by Irisli missionaries 643 direction of the Master of the Bolls (still going on, 1881); in 1845 Macray's "Manual of the British Historians" Into Flanders in the seventh century. Into Saxony by Charlemagne 785 was published. Into Denmark, under Harold 827 Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi 894 C h r o n o l o g y (the science of time) has for its object Into liussia, by Swiatoslaf about 940 the arrangement and exhibition of the various events Into Poland, under Meicislaus 1 992 Into Hungary, under Geisa 994 of the history of the world in the order of their succesInto Norway and Iceland, under Olaf 1 998 sion, and the ascertaining the intervals between them; Into Sweden, between tenth and eleventh centuries. see Eras and Epochs. Valuable works on the subject Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when tliey were returning from the lioly wars 1227 are I'Art. de Verifier les Dates, compiled by the BenedicInto Lithuania; pagan ism was abolished about 1380 tines (1783-1820). Play fair's Chronology, 1781; Blair's Into Guinea. Angola, and Congo, in the lifteenth cenChronology, 1753 (new editions by sir ! I. Ellis in 1844, tury. and by Mr. Rossc in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Into China, where it made some progress (but was afterTables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicholas's Chronology of Hiswards extirpated, and tiio u san d s o f C h i n ese C li ri s t i ans were put to death) 1575 tory, 1833; new edition, 1852. IJales's Chronology, 2d Into India and America, in the sixteenth century. edition, 1830; Woodward and Cates's Encyclopaedia of Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; but the C h r i st i a ns we re ex t. er m i nate d 1038 Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti HelChristianity re-established in Greece 1028 lenic! and Fasti Romani (1824-50).

C h r i s t i n o s , supporters of the queen-regent ChrisC h r o n o m e t e r , see Clocks and Harrison. tina against the Carlists in Spain during the war, 1833C h r o n o s c o p e , an apparatus invented by professor 40. Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small intervals of time. C h r i s t m a s D a y , 25 Dec. (from Christ, and the It has been applied to the velocity of projectiles and of Saxon mcesse, signifying the mass and a feast), a festival the electric current. A chronoscope was invented by In commemoration of the nativity of Christ, said to have Pouillet, in 1814, and by others since. Capt. Andrewbeen first kept 98; and ordered to be held as a solemn Noble (engaged by sir William Armstrong) invented an feast, by pope Telesphorus, about 137.f In the eastern apparatus for determining the velocity of a projectile in church, Christmas and the Epiphany, 6 Jan. (which see), a gun; a second of time is divided into millionths, and are deemed but one and the same feast. The hollv and the electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the passage. The apparatus was exhibited at New* It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, shortly castle-on-Tvnc in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, before his elevation to the papal chair, passing through ttie slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some beautiful children 1870. set up for sale, inquired about their country, and linding they

C h r y s a n t h e m u m s were introduced into England were English pagans, he is said to have cried out. "¿Vow Angli sed AngeJi forent, si essent Christiani.;'" that is, ''They would from China, about 1790; and many varieties since. not be'English, but angels, if they wore Christians." From C h r y s o p o l i s , or S c n w u i . that time he ardently desired to convert the nation, and ordered ¡1 monk named Austin, or Augustin, and others, to unC h u n a r , or C I I U N A U G I I U R (N.W. India), taken by the dertake the mission to Britain in the year 596. British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. Here was'conf Diocletian. tire Roman emperor, keeping his court at N'icomedia, being informed that the Christians were assembled cluded a treaty between the nabob of Oude and govon this day in great multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativity, ernor Hastings, by which the nabob was relieved of his ordered the doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, debts to the East India Company, on condition of his and GOO perished in the burning pile. This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years. seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to the English, 19 303.

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11 1539 S e p t . 1781. T h i s t r e a t y e n a b l e d t h e n a b o b t o t a k e t h e | " Six Articles of Religion promulgated 1549 l a n d s of F y z o o l a K h a n , a R o h i l l a c h i e f , w h o h a d s e t t l e d First Book of Common P r a y e r issued i The clergy p e r m i t t e d to m a r r y a t R a m poor, u n d e r g u a r a n t e e of t h e E n g l i s h . T h e n a - | " F o r t y - t w o Articles of Religion " issued 1552 b o b p r e s e n t e d to M r . H a s t i n g s 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 / . ; see Hastings. Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce persecution of t h e Protestants by Mary 1553-8 Church ( p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e G r e e k KvpiaKoc, i The Protestant, forms restored by Elizabeth ; t h e P u r i t a n p e r t a i n i n g to t h e L o r d , K v p i o ^ ) s i g n i f i e s b o t h a c o l l e c t e d | dissensions begin 1558-1603 15G3 b o d y of C h r i s t i a n s a n d t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e y m e e t . I n I " T h i r t y - n i n e Articles " published 1(504 t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , it s i g n i f i e s c o n g r e g a t i o n , " in t h e I Hamilton Court conference with t h e P u r i t a n s ! New translation of the Bible published ! 1611 o r i g i n a l bKK\r)t-v>curs: these and the i n c u m b e n t s of rectories, give (m t h r e e years) 3000/., aud prince of Wales 1000/., vicarages, a n d chapelries, m a k e the n u m b e r of p r e f e r m e n t s of the established church, according to official returns, 12,327. 7 March, " The n u m b e r of benefices m England and Wales, according to 100.456/. received; 70,003?. promised 31 Dec. " p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e t u r n s , in 1844. was 11.127. and t h e n u m b e r The queen engages to give 15.000/. in ten y e a r s . . .April, 1865 of glebe-houses 5527. The n u m b e r of parishes is 11,077, a n d London Free and Open Church Assoc.ation, founded . . . of c h u r c h e s and chapels about 14,100. The n u m b e r of bene- New form of clerical subscription proposed by a commisfices iu Ireland was 1495. to which t h e r e were not m o r e t h a n sion in 1864; adopted by p a r l i a m e n t July, " about 900 glebe-liouses attached, the rest h a v i n g no glebe- Church Congress a t Norwich 3-7 Oct. " houses. An act was passed in 18(50 for t h e union of contigu- Meeting in London of t h r e e English bishops. Dr. Pusey, ous benefices. I n 1867 the beneficed clergy were estimated and nearly 80 of t h e clergy and laity, w i t h c o u n t s a t 12,888; c u r a t e s and o t h e r clergy w i t h o u t livings, about Orloll' a n d Tolstse, and t h e Russian chaplain, to con7000. E s t i m a t e d average income of the dignitaries a n d benesider on t h e practicability of uniting t h e English a n d ficed clergy (1877), 7,238,000/.—F. Martin. the Russian c h u r c h e s 15 Nov.

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Bishop Col en so publicly excommunicated at Maritzburg cathedral, by bishop Gray 5 Jan. Bishop (Jray declares himself independent, establishes synods, and calls his see • • The Church of South Africa,17 early in The Church Missionary Society refuses to support colonial bishops unless they keep within the formularies of the Church of England early in Church Congress at York 5 o u t of 1154) c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h St. Christopher's Settlement 1623 b e t w e e n colors, arid a r e t e r m e d Color-blind. T h e Cieieci s a i d St. H e l e n a Capitulated 1600 t o h a v e b e e n first d e s c r i b e d b y P r i e s t l e y . — P h i l . Trans. 1777. St. L u c i a Capitulation J u n e , 1803 I n 1859, p r o f e s s o r J . C l e r k M a x w e l l i n v e n t e d s p e c t a c l e s t o St. V i n c e n t Ceded b y F r a n c e 1763 r e m e d y t h i s d e f e c t , w h i c h is a l s o called " D a l t o n i s m , " a f t e r Swan River (See West Australia.) J o h n Dal ton, t h e c h e m i s t , t o w h o m s c a r l e t a p p e a r e d d r a b Tobago Ceded by F r a n c e 1763 color. I)r. G e o r g e W i l s o n , " R e s e a r c h e s o n C o l o r - b l i n d n e s s , " Tortola Settlement 1666 1847; Dr. J o y J e f f r i e s , " C o l o r - b l i n d n e s s , " 1879.

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sold for 40,000?. to M e s s r s . B r a l i a m a n d Y a t e s . I n 1843 C o m b s , f o u n d in P o m p e i i ; C o m b m a k e r s ' c o m p a n y i t w a s b o u g h t b y M r . D. M o n t a g u e f o r 23,000 g u i n e a s . i n c o r p o r a t e d , 1630 tir 1(500. —Timbs. A f t e r h a v i n g b e e n l o n g closed, t h e b u i l d i n g C o m b u s t i o n , see Spontaneous. w a s o p e n e d t o t h e p u b l i c a t C h r i s t m a s , 1856, a t o n e Comédie Française, P a r i s , e s t a b l i s h e d 1G80. shilling. U n d e r t h e c h a r g e of D r . B a c h h o f f n e r , i t c o n - At t h e death of Molière, in 1673, his c o m p a n y of actors, at t h e t i n u e d o p e n t i l l t h e s p r i n g of 1864, w h e n i t w a s a g a i n Palais Royal, separated into two bodies. The fusion of these c l o s e d . T h e sale of t h e s i t e w a s a n n o u n c e d 1870. It formed t h e F r e n c h National Theatre, founded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., first p e r f o r m a n c e 25 Aug. 1680; t h e w a s a n n o u n c e d i n D e c . 1871 t h a t a c o m p a n y w a s a b o u t actors. 15 m e n a n d 12 women, being the best of t h e time. to transform t h e building a n d g r o u n d s into c l u b - c h a m The t h e a t r e was m u c h depressed in t h e k i n g ' s last years, b e r s , b a t h s , a w i n t e r g a r d e n , etc. I n 1874 it w a s s o l d ; revived u n d e r Louis XV. ; ceased to exist in 1799; and w a s l a r g e m a n s i o n s to b e e r e c t e d on t h e s i t e . restored in 1803. The c o m p a n y visited London in 1879; first a p p e a r a n c e a t t h e Colossus O F R H O D E S , a b r a s s s t a t u e of A p o l l o , s e v Gaiety, 2 J u n e , 1879; e m i n e n t actors. Madame S a r a h Berne n t y c u b i t s h i g h , e s t e e m e d o n e of t h e w o n d e r s of t h e h a r d t , Mil. Got, Delaunay, and Coquelin, and Miles. B r o h a n and Favart. w o r l d , w a s e r e c t e d a t t h e p o r t of R h o d e s i n h o n o r of t h e s u n , b y C h a r e s of L i n d u s , d i s c i p l e of L y s i p p u s , 21)0 or 288 The 200th a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t celebrated 21 Oct. et seq. 1880. B.C. I t w a s t h r o w n d o w n b y a n e a r t h q u a k e a b o u t 2 2 4 B.C. T h e figure is s a i d t r a d i t i o n a l l y t o h a v e s t o o d u p o n Comedy. T h a l i a i s t h e m u s e of c o m e d y a n d l y r i c t w o moles, a l e g b e i n g e x t e n d e d on e a c h s i d e of t h e h a r - p o e t r y . S u s a r i o n a n d D o l o n , t h e i n v e n t o r s of t h e a t r i bor, so t h a t a v e s s e l in full sail c o u l d e n t e r b e t w e e n . T h e c a l e x h i b i t i o n s , 5 6 2 B.C., p e r f o r m e d t h e f i r s t c o m e d y a t s t a t u e w a s i n r u i n s f o r n e a r l y n i n e c e n t u r i e s , a n d h a d A t h e n s , on a w a g o n o r m o v a b l e s t a g e , oil f o u r w h e e l s , n e v e r b e e n r e p a i r e d ; w h e n t h e S a r a c e n s , t a k i n g R h o d e s , for w h i c h t h e y w e r e r e w a r d e d w i t h a b a s k e t of iigs a n d p u l l e d it t o p i e c e s , a n d ' s o l d t h e m e t a l , w e i g h i n g 720,900 a c a s k of w i n e ; s e e A rvndelian Marbles a n d Drama. lbs., t o a J e w , w h o is s a i d t o h a v e l o a d e d 9 0 0 c a m e l s i n Comedy, for libel, prohibited a t Athens, 440 B.C. t r a n s p o r t i n g i t to A l e x a n d r i a a b o u t 6 5 3 . — D u f r e s n o y . Aristophanes called t h e prince of ancient comedy, 434 B.C., a n d Menander t h a t of t h e new, 320 B.C. C o l s t o n D a y , N o v . 13, see Bristol. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are e x t a n t ; h e nourished 220 B.C. Statius Cœcilius w r rote u p w a r d s of 30 c o m e d i e s ; flourished a t C o l u m b i a , a f e d e r a l d i s t r i c t r o u n d t h e c i t y of W a s h R o m e 180 B.C. i n g t o n i n M a r y l a n d ; e s t a b l i s h e d 1800. S l a v e r y w a s a b o l - Comedies of Lcelius a n d Terence first acted 154 B.C. F i r s t regular comedy p e r f o r m e d in England a b o u t A.D. 1551. i s h e d in 1 8 6 2 ; see British Columbia. It was said of Sheridan t h a t b e wrote t h e best c o m e d y (The " S c h o o l for S c a u d a l ' ' ) , the best opera (The " Duenna r"), C o l u m b i a M a r k e t , Bethnal Green, E. London; and t h e best afterpiece (The " C r i t i c "), in t h e English lanerected b y Mr. Darbishire, architect, in the pointed guage (1775-9). G o t h i c style, a n d i n a u g u r a t e d by Miss (now l a d y ) B u r d e t t - C o u t t s , t h e p r o p r i e t o r , 28 A p r i l , 1869. I t cost h e r C o m e t s ( G r e e k ttófii], a h a i r ) . I t is recorded t h a t 200,000/. I t w a s opened as a wholesale fish-market, m o r e t h a n 600 h a v e b e e n s e e n . Mr. H i n d , in h i s little 2 1 F e b . 1870, b u t w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l . O n 3 N o v . 1871, ; w o r k o n c o m e t s , g i v e s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l i s t . T h e first l a d y B u r d e t t - C o u t t s p r e s e n t e d t h e m a r k e t t o t h e c o r p o - d i s c o v e r e d a n d d e s c r i b e d a c c u r a t e l y w a s b y N i c e p h o r us, r a t i o n of L o n d o n , a n d on 18 J u l y , 1872, s h e r e c e i v e d p u b - 1337. T h e r e a r e s a i d t o be 17,500,000 in t h e s o l a r s y s l i c l y t h e f r e e d o m of t h a t c i t y . t e m . A m e d e o G u i l l e m m ' s " W o r l d of C o m e t s , " l>y J . The m a r k e t did not succeed, and t h e buildings were restored to t h e donor 4 Dec. 1874 Again opened on liberal t e r m s under superintendence of Great Eastern, Great Northern, a n d Midland Railway companies 15 Dec. 1875 Reported f a i l u r e ; proposed use as a co-operative store, April, 1878 C o l u m b i u m , a m e t a l discovered b y C. I l a t c h e t t , in ' a m i n e r a l n a m e d c o l u m b i t e , in 1801. I t is i d e n t i c a l w i t l i I niobium, and not with tantalum, as supposed by some c h e m i s t s . — Watts. |

Combat, S I N G L E . T r i a l b y t h i s c o m m e n c e d b y t h e ¡ Lombards, 659.—Baronins. It was introduced into E n g l a n d f o r a c c u s a t i o n s of t r e a s o n , if n e i t h e r t h e a c c u s e r n o r t h e a c c u s e d c o u l d p r o d u c e good e v i d e n c e ; see High Constable a n d Appeal of Battle. A battle by single combat was fought before t h e king, William II.. and the peers, between Geollrey Baynard and William, earl of Eu, w h o was accused by B a y n a r d of high-treason; . and, Baynard having conquered. E u was deemed convicted, a n d blinded and mutilated, 1096'. A c o m b a t proposed between H e n r y of Bolingbroke, d u k e of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.), a n d Thomas, duke of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. A trial was appointed between the prior of K i l m a i n h a m and t h e earl of Ormond, t h e former h a v i n g impeached the latter ¡ of high-treason; quarrel taken u p by t h e king, decided with- ! out fighting, 1440. A combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr. David R a m s e y in 1631, b u t the king prevented it. In a c o m b a t in Dublin castle, before t h e lords justices and council, b e t w e e n Connor MacCormack O'Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the former had his head cut off, and presented to t h e lords, 1553. Combination. L a w s were enacted from the time of E d w a r d I . d o w n w a r d s , r e g u l a t i n g t h e p r i c e of l a b o r and the relations between masters and workmen, and p r o h i b i t i n g t h e l a t t e r f r o m combining f o r t h e i r o w n p r o tection. A l l t h e s e l a w s w e r e r e p e a l e d , 6 G e o . I Y . c. 129, in 1825, d u e p r o t e c t i o n b e i n g g i v e n t o b o t h p a r t i e s . T h e a c t w a s a m e n d e d i n 1859 b y 22 Y i c t . c. 34, w h e n t h e s u b j e c t w a s m u c h d i s c u s s e d , in c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e s t r i k e i n t h e b u i l d i n g t r a d e s ; s e e Sheffield a n d Strikes.

G l a i s h e r , p u b l i s h e d 1877. At t h e b i r t h of t h e great Mithridat.es two large c o m e t s appeared, which were seen for seventy - two days together, whose splendor eclipsed t h a t of the m i d - d a y sun, a n d occupied t h e f o u r t h p a r t of the heavens, about 135 k. c . — J u s t i n . A grand comet seen, 1264. Its tail is said to h a v e e x t e n d e d 100°. It is considered to have reappeared in 1556, w i t h dim i n i s h e d splendor; and was expected to a p p e a r again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. I860.— Hind. A r e m a r k a b l e one seen in England, J u n e , 1337.—Stow. Tyclio Braho d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c o m e t s arc e x t r a n e o u s to o u r a t m o s p h e r e , about 1577. A comet w h i c h terrified the people f r o m its n e a r approach to t h e e a r t h was visible from 3 Nov. 1G79 to 9 March, 1080. Itenabled Newton to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t comets, a s well a s planets, a r e subject to t h e law of gravitation, a n d m o s t probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. A m o s t brilliant comet appeared in 1769, w h i c h passed w i t h i n two millions of miles of the earth. This beautiful comet, m o v i n g w i t h i m m e n s e swiftness, was seen in L o n d o n ; its tail stretched across the h e a v e n s like a prodigious l u m i n o u s arch. 36,000,000 miles in length. The c o m p u t e d length of t h a t w h i c h a p p e a r e d in 1811, and which was so r e m a r k a b l y conspicuous, was, on 15 Oct. according to t h e late Dr. Herschel. u p w a r d s of 100,000.000 miles, and its a p p a r e n t greatest b r e a d t h , at t h e same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all t h e a u t u m n to t h e n a k e d eye.—Fhitos. Trans. Royal S oc. for 1812. A n o t h e r comet. Dec. 1823. HALLKY'S COMET, 1G82. Named a f t e r one of the greatest ast r o n o m e r s of England. He first proved t h a t m a n y of t h e a p p e a r a n c e s of comets were b u t t h e periodical r e t u r n s of t h e same bodies, and he d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e comet of 1682 was t h e s a m e w i t h the comet of 1456, 1531, and 1607, deducing t h i s fact from a m i n u t e observation of the first-mentioned comet, and being s t r u c k by its wonderful resemblance to t h e c o m e t s described as h a v i n g a p p e a r e d in those y e a r s : Halley, therefore, first fixed t h e i d e n t i t y of comets, and predicted t h e i r periodical returns.— Vince''s Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is p e r f o r m e d in about 75 y e a r s ; it a p p e a r e d (as he h a d predicted) in 1759, and c a m e to its perihelion on 13 M a r c h ; its last appearance was 1835; its n e x t will be 1910. ENCKE'S COMET. F i r s t discovered by M. Pons, 26 Nov. 3818, but j u s t l y n a m e d by a s t r o n o m e r s a f t e r prof. E n c k e , for h i s success in detecting its orbit, motions, and p e r t u r b a t i o n s ; it is, like t h e preceding, one of the t h r e e c o m e t s w h i c h h a v e appeared according to prediction, and its revolutions are m a d e in 3 years and weeks. T h i r t e e n t h r e t u r n observed at Copenhagen by M. d'Arrest, 20 J u l y , 1863; observed in

175

COM

E n g l a n d , 14 Oct. 1871; seen 13 ¿ p r i l , 1870; in N e w South Wales, 3 A u g . 1878. B i e l a ' s C o m e t has b e e n an o b j e c t o f f e a r to m a n y on account o f the nearness w i t h w h i c h it has a p p r o a c h e d , not the earth, but a p o i n t o f t h e e a r t h ' s p a t h ; it w a s first d i s c o v e r e d b y M. Bicla, an Austrian officer, 28 Feb. 18*26. I t is one o f t h e t h r e e c o m e t s w h o s e reappearance w a s predicted, its r e v o l u t i o n b e i n g p e r f o r m e d in 6 y e a r s a n d 38 weeks. I t s second a p p e a r a n c e w a s in 1832, w h e n the t i m e o f its p e r i h e l i o n passage w a s 27 N o v . ; its t h i r d w a s in 1839; its f o u r t h in 1845; a n d its i i f t h in 1852; it has since vanished. D o n ATI's C o m e t , so called f r o m its h a v i n g b e e n lirst o b s e r v e d b y Pr. Donal.i, o f F l o r e n c e , 2 J u n e , 1858, b e i n g then calculated to be 228,000,000 m i l e s f r o m our earth, it was very brilliant in E n g l a n d in t h e e n d o f S e p t e m b e r and October f o l l o w i n g , w h e u t h e tail w a s said to be 40,000,000 m i l e s long. On 10 Oct. it w a s nearest to t h e e a r t h ; on t h e 18th it w a s n e a r c o m i n g into collision w i t h Venus. Opinions v a r i e d as to t h i s c o m e t ' s b r i l l i a n c y c o m p a r e d w i t h that o f 1811. T h e G r e a t C o m e t o f 1861 w a s first seen b y Mr. T e b b u t t at S y d n e y , in Australia. 13 M a y ; b y M. G o l d s c h m i d t and others in F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d on 29. 30 June. T h e nucleus w a s a b o u t 400 m i l e s in d i a m e t e r , w i t h a long b u s h - l i k e tail, t r a v e l l i n g at t h e rate o f 10,000,000 m i l e s m 24 hours. On 30 J u n e it w a s suggested that w e w e r e in t h e t a i l — t h e r e b e i n g " a phosphorescent auroral g l a r e . " A tailless c o m e t w a s d i s c o v e r e d in t h e constellation Cassiopeia, b y M. Seeling, at A t h e n s , on 2 July, and by M. T e m p e l , at Marseilles, 2 and 3 J u l y , 18G2. A c o m e t d e t e c t e d at H a r v a r d b y Mr. Tuttlc, 18 July, and b y Rosa, at R o m e , on 25 J u l y , 1862. It was visible by the n a k e d e y e in A u g u s t a n d S e p t e m b e r . S i x telescopic c o m e t s w e r e o b s e r v e d in 1SG3, and several in 1864. A fine c o m e t a p p e a r e d in t h e southern h e m i s p h e r e , and w a s v i s i b l e in South A m e r i c a and Australia, in J a n . - F e b . 1865. M. "Babinet considered that c o m e t s h a d so l i t t l e d e n s i t y t h a t t h e earth m i g h t pass t h r o u g h t h e tail o f one w i t h o u t our b e i n g a w a r e o f it, 4 M a y , 1857. Schiaparelli, o f Milan, d i s c o v e r e d that t h e A u g u s t m e t e o r s m o v e round the sun in an o r b i t a l m o s t identical w i t h t h e second c o m e t o f 1862-1866. One d i s c o v e r e d at Carlsruhe b y Dr. "VVinnecke, 13 June, 1868; a b r i g h t o n e b y Paul H e n r y , 23 A u g . 1873. S e v e r a l small c o m e t s d i s c o v e r e d b y v a r i o u s astronomers, 1873-81. A b r i g h t c o m e t a p p e a r e d in the s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e , large nucleus, fan-shaped t a i l ; v i s i b l e in t h e southern h e m i s p h e r e , M a y ; in L o n d o n . 22 June ot seq. 1881 C o g g i a / s C o m e t , d i s c o v e r e d b y h i m at Marseilles, 18 A p r i l , bec a m e v i s i b l e { n e a r P o l a r star) in L o n d o n about 4 J u l y ; g r a d u a l l y increased in brightness, and passed out o f sight in a f e w w e e k s , in E u r o p e ; and appeared b r i l l i a n t at Melbourne, 1 A u g . 1874. N o less than s e v e n c o m e t s w e r e o b s e r v e d d u r i n g 1381, as follows : A . D i s c o v e r e d b y L e w i s S w i f t , o f R o c h e s t e r , N". Y . , 1 Mny. B. D i s c o v e r e d b y Dr. Gould, o f B u e n o s A y r e s , l J u n e ; b e c a m e v i s i b l e in t h e United States, 23 June. C. D i s c o v e r e d b y Schaberle, o f A n n A r b o r . Mich., 18 J u l y ; m a k i n g t w o c o m e t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y v i s i b l e w i t h t h e naked eye. D. E n c k e ' s c o m e t . E. D i s c o v e r e d b y Burnard, o f N a s h v i l l e , Tenn., 21 Sept. F . D i s c o v e r e d b y Denning, o f Bristol, England, 4 Oct, G. D i s c o v e r e d b y L e w i s S w i f t , o f R o c h e s t e r , N. Y . , 17 N o v . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t scientific result o b t a i n e d by o b s e r v a t i o n o f these c o m e t s w a s due to successful p h o t o g r a p h i n g b y Prof. H e n r y Draper, o f N e w Y o r k . T h e spectra s h o w t h e p r e s e n c e o f carbon, and it lias b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d that at least in one case the g r e a t e r part o f a c o m e t ' s l i g h t is reflected.

Commander-in-chief. continental

congress

mander-in-chief

made

On 15 June, 1775, the

George

of all " a r m i e s

f o r t h e defence of the colonies.

Washington

raised or to be

com-

raised"

W h e n the national

gov-

e r n m e n t w a s f o r m e d a clause w a s inserted in t h e

con-

stitution

making

the

commander-in-chief militia whenever States; His

president

of the

general was

the

United

States

array and navy, and of

called into

the service of the

but the president does

authority

of

is d e l e g a t e d .

not directly

The

office

command. lieutenant-

COMMAXDKRS-IN-CHIEF. Duke of M o n m o u t h . Duke of Marlborough Duke of Schömberg Duke of Ormond Earl o f Stair Field-marshal Wade Lord Ligonier Marquess o f G r a n b y L o r d A m h e r s t , general on t h e stall'. Gen. S e y m o u r C o n w a y L o r d A m h e r s t , again Frederick, duke of Y o r k 11 Feb. S i r D a v i d Dundas 25 March, Frederick, duke of Y o r k , again 29 M a y , D u k e of Wellington 2 2 J a n . - 5 M a y ; 27 A u g . L o r d Ilill, general commanding-in-ehicf 25 F e b . D u k e o f W e l l i n g t o n , again 15 A u g . V i s c o u n t H a r d i n g e (died 24 Sept 1856). g e n e r a l c o m m a n d ing in c h i e f ! 28 Sept. Duke of Cambridge, ditto 15 J u l y ,

1674 1690 1691 1711 1744 1745 1757 1766 1778 1782 1793 1795 1809 1811 1827 1828 1842 1852 1856

Commemoration, see Encomia. C o m m e n d a m ,

" a benefice or c h u r c h l i v i n g

b e i n g v o i d , is c o m m e n d e d to t h e c h a r g e cient clerk, to be supplied until it m a y be supplied w i t h a pastor."—Blount. 77

( 1 8 3 6 ) , future bishops

i n g in

the

commendam

were

suffi-

conveniently

B y 6 & 7 W i l l . I V . c. prohibited

livings

which,

of some

they

from

hold-

held when

conse-

crated. C o m m e r c e

early

flourished

in Arabia, E g y p t , and

a m o n g t h e P h o e n i c i a n s ; see t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of T y r e , 588 B.C., E z c k . x x v i i .

I n later t i m e s it w a s spread o v e r E u -

r o p e b y a c o n f e d e r a c y o f m a r i t i m e c i t i e s , 1241 ( s e e by

Towns),

the

discoveries

enterprises of the D u t c h

of

Columbus,

and Portuguese;

and

Harise

by

see

and articles connected w i t h this subject.

Imports,

T h e first treaty of commerce m a d e b y E n g l a n d w i t h a n y f o r e i g n nation w a s e n t e r e d i n t o w i t h t h e F l e m i n g s , 1 E d w . 1.1272. T h e second w a s w i t h Portugal and Spain. 2 E d w . I I . 1308.— Anderson. (See Treaties.) llertslet's Collection, in 12 vols. 8vo, published 1827-59, has a c o p i o u s index. A n important commercial treaty was concluded with F r a n c e (see French Treaty) Chambers of Commerce o r i g i n a t e d at Marseilles in the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and s i m i l a r c h a m b e r s w e r e instit u t e d in all the c h i e f cities in F r a n c e , about T h e s e c h a m b e r s suppressed in 1791; r e s t o r e d by decrees, 3 Sept. T h e c h a m b e r o f c o m m e r c e at G l a s g o w w a s established 1783; at E d i n b u r g h . 1785; Manchester, 1820; H u l l . . . . A s s o c i a t e d ( t w e n t y s e v e n ) c h a m b e r s o f c o m m e r c e (not i n c l u d i n g L i v e r p o o l . Manchester, and G l a s g o w ) m e t ut W e s t m i n s t e r f o r i n t e r c h a n g e o f o p i n i o n s on v a r i o u s questions 21 Feb. A n n u a l m e e t i n g s held s i n c e ; 46 m e t 18 Feb. 1873; 21st. 1 Feb! M e e t i n g at Paris,6 M a y . 1873; at "Newcnst.le-upon-Tvne,22 Sept, 1874; at Leeds, 5 Sept. 1875; at Bristol, 12,1.3 Sept. 1876; at Hull, 11 Sept. 1877; at H a w i c k , e t c . . . 2 4 Sept. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f C o m m e r c e at Brussels. 6-10 Sept. A m i n i s t e r o f c o m m e r c e in E n g l a n d p r o p o s e d 1880, dropped Commercial Travellerschools, P i n n e r , f o u n d e d 1845 ; B e n e v o l e n t Institution, F i n s b u r y Commission,

s e e High

Commissionnaires, Those

the

Exports,

in

London

were

Commission, street

Court

messengers

originally

1700 1851 1837

1865 1881

1880

1881 1849

of. in

pensioned

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or I n d i a ,

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appointed b y a

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until

f o u n d e d i n F e b . 1859 b y c a p t . E d w a r d W a l t e r , w h i c h

gen.

n o w under t h e patronage of the queen and the c o m m a n d -

rank in the U n i t e d States a r m y

the

rank

of general

was

G r a n t , c o m m i s s i o n e d 25 J u l y , 1866. rank

by

gen. Sherman

in

created lie was

1869.

for

succeeded The

office

er-in-chief.

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a M o n t h l y A d v e r t i s i n g Circular. were

duke

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Wellington

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the

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T h e charges are r e g u l a t e d b y a tariff.

vacant.

the

employed

250

commissionnaires

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a b o u t 3 4 0 ; i n J u n e , 1868, 877 ; i n O c t . 1872, 500.

lord Hill, became commander

J u n e , 1865, c a p t . W a l t e r r e s i g n e d , a n d a p e r m a n e n t

c o m m a n d i n g in chief.

general

In

I n M a r c h , 1864, t h e r e London ;

o f f i c e , o n b e c o m i n g p r i m e - m i n i s t e r , i n 1828, h i s s u c c e s s o r , of the forces, or

is

J a n . 1861 t h e s o c i e t y c o m m e n c e d t h e g r a t u i t o u s issue o f

o f c o i r i m a i x i c r - i n - c h i e f i n t h e B r i t i s h a r m y is f r e q u e n t l y When

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that

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1660 1678 1090 1091 1711 1714 1741 1799

This

in

i n 1798, a n d

D u k e of Albemarle D u ke o f M o n m o u t h Duke of Marlborough Schömberg, duke of Leinster Duke of Ormond D u k e o f Marlborough, a g a i n Duke of Cumberland Duke of Y o r k

c o n f e r r e d b y b r e v e t u p o n W i n f i e l d S c o t t i n 1848. 1866, w h e n

created for W a s h i n g t o n

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1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 1720. Sir Richard Levinge. 13 Oct. Common Council O F L O N D O N . I t s organization 1724. Thomas Wyndham, '27 Oct. b e g a n about 1208. T h e c h a r t e r of H e n r y I. mentions 1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. t h e folk-mote, a Saxon appellation for a court or assem- 1740. Henry Singleton, 11 May. b l y of t h e people. T h e general place of meeting of t h e 1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. folk-mote was in t h e open air a t St. Paul's-cross, St. 1761. William Aston, 5 May. P a u l ' s c h u r c h y a r d . I t was n o t discontinued till after 1765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 1770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June. H e n r y I I I . ' s r e i g n ; w h e n certain representatives were 1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards viscount Carleton. 30 April. chosen out of each ward, who, b e i n g added to t h e lord 1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury. 22 Oct.' m a y o r and aldermen, constituted t h e court of common 1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. council. A t first only two were returned for each w a r d ; 1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 Sept.; died 8 Dec. 1878. b u t t h e n u m b e r was enlarged in 1347, and since. T h i s 1876. Michael Morris, Jan. council, w h i c h meets every T h u r s d a y , is elected a n n u a l l y Common Prayer, B O O K OF, was ordered b y p a r •21 Dec., St. T h o m a s ' s D a y . A Common Hall is held occasionally. T h e common council supported t h e prince l i a m e n t to be printed in t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e on 1 .April, 1548. I t was voted out of doors b y p a r l i a m e n t , and t h e of O r a n g e in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. Directory (which see) set up in its room in 1644, a n d a Common Pleas, C O U R T O F , I N E N G L A N D , in a n - proclamation was issued against it in 1647. W i t h a few cient times followed t h e king's person, and is distinct changes, t h e E n g l i s h Common P r a y e r - b o o k is used b y from t h a t of t h e K i n g ' s B e n c h ; but on t h e g r a n t of t h e episcopal c h u r c h e s in Scotland, Ireland, and N o r t h Magna Charta by k i n g J o h n , in 1215, it was fixed at America. W e s t m i n s t e r , where it still continues. I n 1833 t h e mode 1545 of procedure in all t h e superior courts was made uniform. The King's Primer published 7 March, 1549 I n E n g l a n d , no barrister under t h e degree of sergeant First book of Edward VI. printed Second book of Edward Vt 1552 could plead in t h e Court of Common Pleas, b u t in 1816 First book of Elizabeth (revised) 1559 u t h e privilege was e x t e n d e d to barristers practising in King James's book 1604 1637 t h e superior courts a t W e s t m i n s t e r . S a t last, J u l y , 1875. Scotch book of Charles 1 1662 T h e Common Pleas division of t h e h i g h court of justice Charles II.'s hook (Savoy Conference) now in use The State services (which had never formed part of the now consists of tlie chief-justice and four j u d g e s ; see Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of every Supreme Court. reign) for 5 Nov. (gunpowder treason), 30 Jan. (Charles I. 's execution), and 29 May (Charles Il.'s restoration), were orCHIEF-JUSTICES F E n g l a n d ) . dered to be discontinued, 17 Jan. 1859. 1558. Sir Anthony Browne. Changes in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons were 1559. Sir James Dyer. recommended in the third report of I he Ritual Commis1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. sion, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for sanctioning these changes 1605. Sir Francis Gawdv. passed the house of lords, hut was dropped in the house 1606. Sir Edward Coke." of commons through want of time, Aug ; passed 1613. Sir Henry Hobart. 1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 13 July, 1871 1631. Sir Robert Heath. [The old tables might be used till 1 Jan. 1879.] 1634. Sir John Finch. The fourth report of the Ritual Commission disclosed 1639. Sir Edward Lyttlcton. great difference of opinion among the commissioners, 1640. Sir John Bankes. Aug. 1870 1618. Oliver St. John. Shortened services and other changes were authorized 1660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872 1668. Sir John Yaughan. Public Worship Regulation Act (to check ritualism) passed Aug. 1874 1675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford. The Weslovan Methodists who had used the Prayer-book 1683. Sir Francis Pemberton. u appoint a committee to revise it ' . . .Aug. " Sir Thomas Jones. 1686. Sir Henry Bedingfleld. 1687. Sir Robert Wright. Common-law O F E N G L A N D , an a n c i e n t collection Sir Edward Herbert. of u n w r i t t e n m a x i m s and customs (leges non scriptw), of 1689. Sir Henry Polloxfcn. British, Saxon, and D a n i s h origin, w h i c h has subsisted 169*2. Sir George Trcby. 1701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. immemorially in this k i n g d o m ; and, a l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t 1714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. impaired by t h e rude shock of t h e Norman conquest, h a s 1725. Sir Robert Eyre. w e a t h e r e d t h e violence of t h e times. A t t h e p a r l i a m e n t 1736. Sir Thomas Reeve. of Merlon, 1236, l i all t h e earls and barons," says t h e par1737. Sir John Willcs. 1761. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards lord chancellor Camden. liament roll, " with one voice answered t h a t t h e y would 1766. Sir John F.ardley Wilmot. not c h a n g e t h e laws of E n g l a n d , which h a v e h i t h e r t o 1771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 1780. Alexander AYedderburne, afterwards lord chancellor been used and a p p r o v e d ; " e m i n e n t l y t h e law of t h e l a n d ; Loughborough. see Bastard. T h e process, practice, and mode of plead1793. Sir James liyre. i n g ill t h e superior courts of common-law were a m e n d e d 1799. Sir John Seott. afterwards lord chancellor Eldon. in 1852 and 1854. 1801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley), 2'2 May. 1804. Sir James Mansfield, 21 April. Commons, H O U S E OF, originated w i t h Simon de 1814. Sir Vicarv Gibbs, 24 Feb. 1818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. Montfort, earl of Leicester, who, b y t h e Provisions of 1824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. (lord Gifford); afterwards mas- Oxford, ordered returns to be m a d e of two k n i g h t s from ter of the rolls. " Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, 15 every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to m e e t such of t h e barons and clergy as were his friends, w i t h a April. 1829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June; died July, 1846. view t h e r e b y to s t r e n g t h e n his own power in opposition 1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, 11 July; afterwards lord chancellor to t h a t of his sovereign H e n r y III., 1258.—Stow. See Truro. Parliament. I11 1859 Mr. Xew tnarch estimated t h e con1850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July; died 1 Nov. 1856. 1856. Sir Alex. Oonkburn. Nov. ; chief-justice Q. B. June, 1859. s t i t u e n c y of E n g l a n d and W a l e s a t 934,000. I t w a s 1859. Sir William Erie, June; retired Nov. 1866. largely increased b y t h e reform act of 1867. Registered 1866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov.; died 1 Nov. 1873. p a r l i a m e n t a r y electors, 1872 : E n g l a n d and Wales, bor1873. John Duke Coleridge, lord Coleridge, Nov.; removed to oughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. Scotland, b u r g h s , Queen's Bench, Nov. 1880. The abolition of the distinct divisions of Common Pleas and 49,025; counties, 79.919. Ireland, boroughs, 171,912; Exchequer was recommended by the judges, 30 Nov., and or- counties, 175,439. Total, 2,526,423. dered by the privy council 16 Dec, 1880. Parliamentary electors: England and Wales: 1875,2.301,266; CHIEF-JUSTICES {Ireland). 1878, 2,416,222; 1879 (May), 2,459,999. Scotland, 1875, 289,1691. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 789; 1878, 304.268; 1879, 307.941. Ireland, 1875, 230,436; 1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 1878, 231,515; 1879, 231,289. Total, 1875, 2,821,491; 1878, 2,952,005; 1879, 2,999.229. 1701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. sionnaires were first engaged as private men.

nigliL-watch-

Old

By the Reform

House.

KNGLAND.

COM

177

COM Members.

Act

ENGLAND.

202 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 40 C o u n t i e s 2 Universities

40'$ 82 4

187 40 1 2

244

489

230

Cities or b o r o u g h s Counties I s l e of W i g h t Universities

WALKS.

By the Acts o / 1 8 6 7 aid

o/1832.*

EN O LAND.

Members. 323 144 1 4

186 40 1 3

472

230

~24

Members. 286 171 1 5 463

WALES.

WALES.

12 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 12 C o u n t i e s

Cities or b o r o u g h s ! Counties Isle of W i g h t Universities

1868.

12 12

14 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 12 C o u n t i e s

14 14

14 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 12 C o u n t i e s

15 15

24

26

28

26

30 SCOTLAND.

SCOTLAND.

SCOTLAND.

15 C i t i e s o r b u r g h s 33 C o u n t i e s

15 30

21 C i t i e s o r b u r g h s 33 C o u n t i e s

23 30

22 C i t i e s o r b u r g h s 33 C o u n t i e s 4 Universities

26 32 2

48

45

54

53

59

60

IRELAND.

IRELAND.

33 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 32 C o u n t i e s 1 University

35 64 1

66 382

100 Total

33 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s 32 C o u n t i e s 1 University

39 64 2

66 Total

658 | 376

Commons. In 1085, of the 37,000,000 acres of land in England, about 18,000,000 were moorland, forest, and fen. I n 1727 about 3,000,000 acres more bad been brought into cultivation ; and from t h a t time to 1844, by means of 4000 private acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more were enclosed. Since the Inclosure Act of 1845, which established commissioners, another 1,000,000 acres have been enclosed. A c t f o r i m p r o v e m e n t , p r o t e c t i o n , a n d m a n a g e m e n t of c o m m o n s near the metropolis, passed Aug. T h e C o m m o n s P r e s e r v a t i o n S o c i e t y e l e c t e d W i l l i a m Cowper president Feb. Six Essays on C o m m o n s Preservation " were published, I t is s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e 900.000 a c r e s of c o m m o n l a n d c a p a b l e of c u l t i v a t i o n in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s Aug. A c t f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n of c o m m o n s , p a s s e d 11 Aug. Mr. De M o r g a n , a c t i v e o p p o n e n t of e n c l o s u r e s , i m p r i s o n e d f o r c o n t e m p t of c o u r t (The Rolls) .Jan. M e t r o p o l i t a n B o a r d of W o r k s a u t h o r i z e d t o s e c u r e c o m mons, etc., b y a c t passed 16 A u g .

1866 1867 " 1874 1876 1878 "

C o m m o n w e a l t h of England, the term applied to the interregnum between the death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A republic was established at the execution of Charles I., 30 Jan. 1G49 — a new oath,called the " E n g a g e m e n t , " was framed, which all officials were obliged to take. J — Salmon. Oliver Cromwell was made protector 16 Dec. 1(153; succeeded by his son Richard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored 8 May, and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 1660.

IRELAND.

33 C i t i e s o r b o r o u g h s t 32 C o m i t i e s 1 University

105

66

658

381

39 64 2 105

Total

058

C o m m u n e s , in France, are territorial divisions under a mayor. In t h e eleventh century the name was given to combinations of citizens, favored by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English invasion, vainly endeavored to establish a confederation of sovereign cities, h a v i n g Paris as the governing h e a d ; and for six months it was really governed by a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, 1789, the revolutionary committee, which replaced the city council, took the name of " Commune of Paris," Péthion being mayor. It met at the Ilôtel de Ville, and was definitively constituted 21 May, 1791. I t had great power under Kobespierre. and fell with him 17 July, 1794, being replaced by twelve municipalities. T h e commune of Paris was proclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrection, which began 18 March, and ended with the capture of the city by the government troops, 28 May following. 2245 communists were pardoned by decree issued 17 J a n . 1879; and many others afterwards. A number re-entered Paris 4 Sept. following. For the events of the communal rule in Paris, see France 1871.

C o m m u n i o n , a name given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper (1 Cor. x. 16). Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have had its rise, in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. T h e cup was first denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council (1215) decreed that every believer should receive the communion at least at Easter. T h e communion service of t h e church of England was Communalists, or C O M M U N I S T S , propose to divide set forth in 1549. France into about a thousand small thoroughly indeCommutation, see Tithes. pendent states, with councils elected by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. They declare t h a t C o m o r n , see Komorn. capital and its holders must be adapted to nobler uses, C o m p a n i e s . || Among t h e earliest commercial or cease to exist. Their creed is stated to be atheism companies in England m a y be named the Steel-yard and materialism. T h e y are iutimatcly connected with Society, established 1232. T h e second company was the t h e International Society of workmen (see Workmen"), Merchants of St. Thomas à Becket, in 1248 Stow. The and with the communists or socialists (1871-3). § third was t h e Merchant Adventurers, incorporated b y * I n 1844 S u d b u r y , a n d in 1852 St. A l l a n ' s , w e r e d i s f r a n c h i s e d f o r b r i b e r y a n d c o r r u p t i o n , e a c h h a v i n g p r e v i o u s l y ret u r n e d t w o m e m b e r s ; t h e a g g r e g a t e n u m b e r of t h e h o u s e t h e n b e c a m e 654. I n 1861 t h e f o r f e i t e d s e a t s w e r e t h u s d i s t r i b u t e d b y a c t of p a r l i a m e n t — t w o a d d i t i o n a l t o t h e W e s t R i d i n g of Y o r k , o n e a d d i t i o n a l to S o u t h L a n c a s h i r e , a n d o n e t o a n e w l y created borough, Birkenhead. t D i s f r a n c h i s e d a n d r e p l a c e d . 1867: L a n c a s t e r , Y a r m o u t h , T o t n e s , a n d R e i g a t c . — D i s f r a n c h i s e d , 1870: B e v e r l e y a n d B r i d g w a t e r , e a c h t w o m e m b e r s ; C a s h e l a n d Sligo, e a c h o n e m e m b e r : 652 m e m b e r s , 1878; 12 m e m b e r s s h o r t , t h r o u g h v o i d e l e c t i o n s , Aug. 1880. $ B y this o a t h t h e y swore to be t r u e and f a i t h f u l to t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h , w i t h o u t k i n g o r h o u s e of lords. T h e s t a t u e s of C h a r l e s w e r e n e x t d a y d e m o l i s h e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t a t t h e Royai Exchange, a n d one a t t h e w e s t e n d of St. P a u l ' s ; a n d in their room t h e following inscription w a s conspicuously set u p : '' Exit Tarannus Reg am ultimus, Anno Libertatis Angliai Restitutes Primo. Anno Dom. 1648, J a n . 3 0 . " § M. D u f a u r e , in o p p o s i n g t h e a m n e s t y , 17 M a y , 1876. a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e o u t b r e a k w a s o r g a n i z e d b y a b o u t 7000 c o m m u n i s t s

12

Elizabeth, 1564. T h e following are the city companies of London ; the first twelve are the chief, and are styled " t h e Honorable." Several companies are extinct, and many dates are doubtful. An inquiry into their affairs was resisted by them in 1835. In 18G9 the gross income of the endowed charities of the city companies was stated to be above 99,000/. A motion in the commons for i n . a n d 1500 f o r e i g n e r s ; 40,000 p e r s o n s w e r e i n c u l p a t e d 10 000 t r i e d , 25.000 d i s m i s s e d ; s e e Frame. II B u b b l e c o m p a n i e s h a v e b e e n f o r m e d , c o m m o r i l v b y d e signing persons. L a w ' s Bubble, in 1720-1 w a s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y of i t s k i n d , a n d t h e S o u t h .Sea B u b b l e in t h e s a m e y e a r , w a s scarcely less m e m o r a b l e for its r u i n ' o f t h o u s a n d s of f a m i l i e s . M a n y c o m p a n i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s in 1821 a n d 1825. a n d t u r n e d o u t to be bubbles. I m m e n s e losses w e r e incurred b y individuals, a n d t h e families of t h o u s a n d s of s p e c u l a t o r s w e r e t o t a l l y r u i n e d . M a n y r a i l w a y Bubble; e n t e r p r i s e s (1844-5) w e r e t e r m e d bubbles. See Law's South Sea; Railways; Joint-stock Companies.

COM

178

CON

C o m p o s i n g - m a c h i n e s , see Printing and Times. quiry into the revenues and other affairs of eighty-nine C o m p o s i t e Order, a mixture of the Corinthian companies, by Mr.W. H. James, withdrawn, 23 May, 1876. A commission of inquiry was appointed (the earl of Der- and Ionic, and also called the Koman order, is of uncerby, duke of Bedford, lords Coleridge and Sherbrooke, sir tain date. K. A. Cross, etc.) July, 1880. C o m p o s i t e P o r t r a i t s . By means of photogra1. Mercers 1393 40. Plasterers 1500 phy, in 1877-8, Mr. Francis Gal ton combined from two Stationers 2. Grocers 1345 47. 1550 to nine separate portraits; the result was generally an Erode rers 3. D r a p e r s , . . 1439 48. Broderers 1591 4. Fishmongers ( s a l t , 49. Upholders 1027 improvement on the features of the components. 1433; stock, 1509; 50. Musicians 1004 C o m p o u n d H o u s e h o l d e r s (in regard to the united 1530 51. Turners payment of rates) were constituted by the Small Tene5. Goldsmiths 1327 52. Basket-makers l'»37 Glaziers ments act of 1851. Their position, with regard to the 6. Skinners 53. 1038 suffrage, caused much discussion during the passing of 7. Merchant T a y l o r s . . . 1410 54. H o m e r s 1673 8. Haberdashers 1447 55. Farriers the lie form act in 1867; and their claims were rejected. 9. Salters 1558 50. Paviors 10. Ironmongers 11. Vintners 12. Cloth-workers 13. 14. 15. 10. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Dvers Brewers Leather-sellers Pewterers Barber-Surgeons.... Cutlers Bakers Wax-chandlers Tallow-chandlers.... Armorers and Braziers 23. Girdlers 24. Butchers 25. Saddlers 20. Carpenters 27. Cordwainers 28. Pai nter-stainers 29. Curriers 30. Masons 31. Plumbers 32. Inn-holders 33. Founders 34. Poulterers 35. Cooks 30. Coopers 37. Tilers and bricklayers 38. Bowyers 39. Fletchers 40. Blacksmiths 41. Joiners 42. Weavers 43. Wool men 44. Scriveners 45. Fruiterers

1488 1462 57. Loriners 1017 1430 58. Apothecaries 1010 1482 59. Shipwrights 60. Spectacle-makers... 1030 1032 1469 01. Clock-makers 1550 1438 62. Glovers 1050 1442 63. Comb-makers 1004 1474 04. Felt-makers 1308 05. F ra m e wo rk k n i t te rs 1004 1029 1417 00. Si lk-throwsters 1008 1307 07. Silk men 1030 1484 68. Pin-makers 1050 1403 09. Needle-makers 1010 70. Gardeners 1038 " 71. Soap-makers 1070 1448 72. Tin plate-workers 1004 73. "Wheelwrights 1280 74. Distillers 1344 75. H a t b a n d - m a k e r s . . . . 1038 1070 1410 7G. Patten-gaakers 1004 1580 77. Gla 3-sellers 1005 78. Tobacco - pipe m a k 1003 ers 1077 1011 79. Coach and Harnessmakers 1077 1515 1038 1014 80. Gunmakers 1503 81. Gold and Silver wiredrawers 1481 1601 82. Bowst ring- makers... 1029 83. Card-makers 1709 1568 84. Fan-makers Wood-mongers 1020 85. 1032 1530 80. Starch makers 1087 1577 87. Fishermen 1232 1564 88. Parish clerks Carmen 1104 89. 90. Porters 1550 1010 91. Watermen 1004

C o m p a n i e s ' A c t , passed 1862, was amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867 ; both amended by acts, 2 July, 1877, and 15 Aug. 1879. By the last act. unlimited banking companies were regulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit of accounts, etc. The acts of 1802. 1807, 1877, and 1879, were amended by 43 Vict. c. 19 (1880).

C o m p a s s , Mariner's, said to have been early known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C., and brought to Europe by Marco Polo, a Venetian, a.d. 1200. Flavio Gioja. of Amalti, a navigator of Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to have been known to the Swedes in the time of king Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was discovered first by Columbus, 1492; afterwards by Sebastian Cabot, 1540. The compass-box and hanging-compass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608; see Magnetism, The measuring compass was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. C o m p e t i t i v e E x a m i n a t i o n s , see Civil Service. C o m p i e g n e , a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861.

C o m p o u n d R a d i c a l , in organic chemistry, is a substance which, although containing two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances performs the part of an element. The Radical or Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, and by Liebig. 1838 ; and modified in the nucleus theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound radical isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay-Lussac, in 1815; see A my I, Ethyl, and Methyl, as other examples. C o m p r o m i s e , see Breda. C o m t e P h i l o s o p h y , see Positive Philosophy. C o n c e p t i o n , Immaculate. A festival (on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the Roman Catholic Church in honor of the Virgin Mary's having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Opposition to this doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul Y. in 1617, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander VII.—llenault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against it.—The Conckptioni s t s were an order of nuns in Itah r , established in 1488; see Santiago. C o n c e r t i n a , a musical instrument invented by professor, afterwards sir Charles, AVheatstone, about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. C o n c e r t s . The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the sixteenth century. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford iu 1665; the first in London is said to have been in 1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas Britton till his death, 1714. The Academy of Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in London, began in 1710; the Concerts of Ancient Music in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 3813 ; see others, under Music, Crystal Palace, and Ilandel. Colossal peace concerts were held at Boston, U. S., 15 June, etc., 1869; 17 June to 4 July, 1872; see Boston. Concerts Spirituals at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican Philidor, began in Passion week, 38 March. 1725: closed in 1791; re-established, 1805; replace« 1 by the Concerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828; still continued, 1881. Jullien's Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began at Drury Lane Theatre, 8 June, 1840; a farewell series, 185«. Ho greatly promoted the taste for classical music. Promenade Concerts revived at Co vent Garden Theatre, autumn, 1880.

C o n c h o l o g y , the science of shells, is mentioned by Aristotle and Plinv. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's svstem was published in 1685; and that of Laraius in 1722. Johnson's Introduction (1850) and Sower by'a Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful. Forbes and Hartley's "British Mollusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a magnificent work.

C o n c i l i a t i o n C o u n c i l s , see Councils. C o n c l a v e . A range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where the * The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the orna- cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, and also the ment of the northern point of the compass in compliment to Charles, the king of Naples at t h e t i m e of the discovery, has assembly of the cardinals shut, up for the purpose. been contradicted. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the canliC o m p l u t e n s i a n B i b l e , see Polyglot.

CON

179

CON

nals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were on the point of breaking up, when the. magistrates, by the advice of ¡St. I »on a Ventura, shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals till they agreed, 1271. C o n c o r d (Massachusetts, N . America). Near here was fought the battle of Lexington {which s?e), 19 April, 1775. C o n c o r d a n c e . A n index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words, and also a chronological account of all the transactions, in the Bible. T h e first concordance was made under the direction of H u g o de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1*247.—Abbe Lenylel. I t was based on one compiled b y Anthony of Padua. Thomas Gibson's "Concordance of the N e w Testament," published 1535. John Marbeck's " Concorda n c e " (for the whole Bible), 1550. T w o Concordances (with royal privileges), by Rob. F. Herrey, appeared in 1578. Cruden's Concordance was published in London in 1737. Dr. Robert Young's valuable -S Prince and princess o f W a l e s v i s i t C o r n w a l l J u l y , lrf-55 S t o p p a g e o f the Cornish Bank ( T w e e d v & Co.), established 1771 * 4 Jan. 1879 R e c e i p t s f r o m the d u c h y . 1866, 77,755/.; 1877, 87.895/._ p a i d to the prince of Wales, 1866, 53,403/.; 1877, 69,339/.

crowned 1773

person

H e had risen f r o m p o v e r t y

horn, p r o b a b l y in allusion to its numerous

Coronation.

CORN LAWS. T h e restrictions on the i m p o r t a t i o n o f corn felt, in conse |uerice o f the increase o f m a n u f a c t u r e s , about 1770; relaxed Mr. R o b i n s o n ' s act passed, p e r m i t t i n g i m p o r t a t i o n w h e n w h e a t is 80s. a q u a r t e r . D a r i n g t h e discussions on this bill, m o b s a s s e m b l e d in L o n d o n , and m a n y o f the houses o f its supporters w e r e d a m a g e d , 28 J a n . : a n d a r i o t in W e s t m i n s t e r continued, 6 - 9 March. A corn bill, a f t e r passing in the c o m m o n s , d e f e a t e d in the lords, b y a clause p r o p o s e d b y the d u k e o f W e l l i n g t o n , carried'by a m a j o r i t y of 4 1 June, T h e act (called the sliding scale) w h e r e b y w h e a t w a s all o w e d to b e i m p o r t e d on p a y m e n t o f a d u t y o f 1/-. 5s. 8d. p e r quarter, w h e n e v e r t h e a v e r a g e price o f all England w a s under 62s.; f r o m 62s. to 63s., 1/. 4.5. Hd.; a n d so gradually r e d u c e d to Is., w h e n the a v e r a g e p r i c e w a s 73s. and upwards, passed 15 J u l y , T h e act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second •• sliding scale a c t . ' ' regulated the d u t y on w h e a t as f o l l o w s , w i t h sliding duties, also, oil other articles o f corn, passed 29 A p r i l ,

engineering,

w e a l t h b y p a t e n t i n g his i n v e n t i o n s .

Cornwall;

" "

c o m p a n y w a s f o r m e d in 1862. Corn.

Cornell

struction in a n y study."

were Ainbrosius 1870

England. A

Ezra

Cornwall,

dance on t h e P y r e n e a u mouutains, a n d in o t h e r parts of Spain, in F r a n c e , and in t h e north of N e w

Cornell University, Ithaca, Now York: for the s t u d y o f t h e applied sciences, agriculture,

c a l l e d Kernou, 1849 1#50

Egyptians

in great

COR

Corn E x c h a n g e B e n e v o l e n t S o c i e t y , founded 1864 T h e S o c i e t y o f A r t s g a v e a p r i z e to M r . W. A. Gihbs f o r his essay on h a r v e s t i n g corn in w e t w e a t h e r . .23 N o v . 186S

e t c . ; p a r t i a l l y on a s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g s y s t e m ; f o u n d e d b y

suppressed, 20, 28 June, 30 N o v .

a species of the o a k ;

suber,

stopping bottles.

1172 1W> 1492 1621 1049

I., e m p e r o r

Leo

by Anatolius, patriarch

of

the

East,

was

of Constantinople,

be-

i n g the first instance of a C h r i s t i a n s o v e r e i g n

receiving

his c r o w n f r o m

Majorian,

emperor

the hands of a priest, 457.

o f t h e W e s t , is s a i d t o h a v e

the same y e a r in a similar

been c r o w n e d

in

manner.

C h a r l e m a g n e c r o w n e d e m p e r o r o f the W e s t b y the p o p e "

1827

1828

1842

Duty. £ s. d. n 0 10 0 (i '.) 0 n X 0 7 (1 (i (i () 0 S 0 (i 4 () H 1) 2 0 0 1 0

.»

T h e COHN IMPORTATION B ' l l ( i n t r o d u c e d b y sir R o b e r t P e e l ) , 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by w h i c h t h e duty on w h e a t w a s reduced t o 4s. w h e n i m p o r t e d at or a b o v e 53 until 1 Feb. 1849; atter w h i c h d a y the duty b e c a m e Is. p e r q u a r t e r o n l y , on all kinds o f g r a i n i m p o r t e d into the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , at a n y prices), r e c e i v e d the r o y a l assent 26 June, 1846 T h e Is. duty r e p e a l e d b y act passed 24 June, 1869 CO:*N KXCIIANUK. M a r k lane, L o n d o n , e r e c t e d at an e x pense of 90.00W. ( r e p l a c i n g o n e established in 1747), w.iS o p e n e d 24 June, 1828

L e o i l l . (using the words •'•coronato a Deo"—'-crowned by G o d " ) 25 Dec. E d w a r d L , son o f A l f r e d , c r o w n e d 16 M a y , W i l l i a m I. c r o w n e d at W e s t m i n s t e r 25 Dec. A n o i n t i n g at coronations i n t r o d u c e d into E n g l a n d 872, and Scotland C o r o n a t i o n o f H e n r y I I I . , in the first instance w i t h o u t a c r o w n , at Gloucester. A plain circle w a s used on this occasion in lieu o f [ho c r o w n , w h i c h had been lost w i t h tl 10 o t h e r j e w e l s and b a g g a g e o f k i n g John, in passing the marshes o f L y n n , or the W a s h , near Wisbeach, 28 Oct. W i l l i a m and M a r y c r o w n e d b y C o m p t o n . b i s h o p o f London, as Bancroft, archbishop o f C a n t e r b u r y , w o u l d not t a k e the oaths 11 A p r i l , George I V . crowned 19 July, W i l l i a m IV. crowned, with his queen 8 Sept. Victoria crowned. 28 June,

800 902 1006 1097

1216

1689 1821 1831 1S3S

CORONATION CHAIR. In the cathedral o f Casliel, f o r m e r l y tl:C m e t r o p o l : s o f the k i n g s o f Minister, w a s deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on w h i c h t l m y w e r e c r o w n e d . Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a p r i n c e o f the royal line, having o b t a i n e d t h e Scottish throne, p r o c u r e d t h e use o f this stone for h i s coronation at Dunstaifnage, w h e r e it continued until the t i m e o f K e n n e t h I I . . w h o r e m o v e d it to S c o n e ; and in 1296 it w a s r e m o v e d b y E d w a r d I. f r o m Scone to Westm i n s t e r ; the present chair b e i n g m a d e to r e c e i v e it. A COKONATIOX OATH was a d m i n i s t e r e d by Dunstan, archbishop o f Canterbury, t o E t h e l r e d I I . , in 978. A n oath, n e a r l y corresponding w i t h that n o w in use, w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d in 1377. T h e oath prescribed by 1 W i l l . & M a r y , c. 6 (1689). w a s m o d . f i e d in 170:5, and again in 1821 on account o f the union o f the c h u r c h e s of E n g l a n d and \nAand.

Coronea,

BATTLKS

Athenians

were

slain

battle

in

a

OF.

defeated with

C h a e r o n e a , 4 4 7 is.c.

I. (or

and

the

Chseronea).

their general,

Boeotians at

II. The

The

Tolmides,

Coronea

Athenians, Thebans,

near Ar-

188

COR

gives, and Corinthians h a v i n g entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms,from his many victories, even unto Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town of Boeotia,and achieved a great victory over them,394 B.C. C o r o n e r s , officers of the realm, mentioned in a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. —Stou\ T h e y are chosen for life by the freeholders, and their duty is to inquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon view of the body. By an act passed in 1843, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them in case of illness. Laws respecting coroners amended 1860.—20,531 coroners' inquests were held in E n g l a n d and Wales in 1859: 18(50 186 1 186 2 18611 186 4 186 5 1866 186 7

21,178 21,038 20,591 22,757 24.787 25,011 24,926 24,648

186S. 1869 .

.24,774 .24,709

(17,191 m a l e s . ) 187 0 187 1 187 2 1873

25,376 25.898 25,705 26,427

COR.

"Correlation of the Physical Forces," a

book by Mr. (afterwards Sir) W . 1«. Grove, F. 1!. S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory of Hie correlation or mutual dependence and convertibility into each other of all the forces of nature (viz. heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical affinity, and motion).

Corresponding S o c i e t y of London was form-

ed, about 1791, to spread liberal opinions and check the severity of the British government, then much alarmed by the French revolution. H o m e Tooke and other members were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794; see Trials, 1794. T h e meetings of the society at Copenhagen Fields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796, were termed treasonable.—On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley, and others were tried for corresponding with 187 4 27,184 the French directory; and J a m e s O'Coigley was exe(18,875 m a l e s . ) cuted as a traitor (protesting his innocence) on 7 J u n e .

1875 1 2S.5S7 187 6 26.815 1877 26,287 187 8 27,628 1879 27.056 (18,233 males'.)

Corrosive Sublimate, see Mercury.

C o r r u p t P r a c t i c e s A c t , respecting elections for members of parliament, was passed in 1854, and continued in following years; see Briber;/.

C o r o n e t s , caps or inferior crowns of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry I I I . ; for viscounts by Henry V I I I . ; and for barons by Charles I I . — B a k e r . But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the iirst of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled—Beatson.

C o r s i c a , an island in the Mediterranean Sea (called by the Greeks Cyrnos), held by the French. T h e ancient inhabitants had the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. Corsica was colonized by Phocoeans 564 B.C., and afterwards held by the C a r t h a ginians, from whom it was taken by the Romans, 231 ii.c. It has been held by Vandals, A.i>. 456; by Saracens, 852; by Pisans, 1077. It was dependent upon Genoa from Corporate Reunion, see Order. Corporations. Numa, in order to break the force 1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, is said D u r i n g a r e v o l t e r e c t e d i n t o a k i n g d o m u n d e r T h e o d o r e Neuhoil', i t s firsthand o n l y k i n g 1736 to have instituted separate societies of manual trades.— Plutarch.

M U N I C I P A L CORI'OKATIONS IN

ENGLAND.

Bodies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive in law any matter within t h e compass of their charter.—Cowell. Charters of rights were granted by t h e kings of England to various towns, first by Edward t h e Confessor. H e n r y I. granted charters, 1100: and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers to numerous communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions.—Black-stone. T h e Corporation and Test act, passed in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. T h e Corporation Reform act, for the regulation of municipal corporations in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (1835), was amended in 1869. T h e Irish Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended in 1861. T h e Corrupt Practices (Municipal elections) act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. T h e law relating to municipal elections amended by act passed 19 July, 1875. Royal commission on 110 unreformed municipal corporations appointed in 1876; report issued 17 Feb. 1880. Propertv qualification bill rejected in commons (173-167) 2 April,''1879.

H e c a m e t o E n g l a n d , w a s i m p r i s o n e d in t h e K i n g ' s B e n c h prison for debt, a n d long subsisted on p r i v a t e friends, b u t r e l e a s e d ; h e g a v e in h i s s c h e d u l e t h e k i n g d o m of C o r s ' e a t o h i s c r e d i t o r s , a n d d ed in S o h o 1756 T h e e a r l of O r f o r d w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g e p i t a p h f o r a t a b let n e a r h i s g r a v e in St. A n n e ' s c h u r c h . D e a n s t r e e t : " T h e grave, great t e a c h e r ! to a level brings H e r o e s a n d beggars, g a l l e y - s l a v e s a n d k i n g s . B u t Theodore this m o r a l learii'd ere d e a d ; F a t e p o u r ' d its lesson on h i s l i v i n g h e a d , Bestowed a kingdom and denied h i m bread.'' P a s c a l Paoli c h o s e n for t h e i r g e n e r a l b y t h e C o r s i c a n s . . . 1753 D e f e a t e d b y t h e c o u n t d e Y a u x , h e tied t o E n g l a n d N a p o l e o n B o n a p a r t e b o r n a t A j a c c i o (5 l-'eb. 1768, b a p t i s mal register; doubtful) 15 A u g . T h e p e o p l e a c k n o w l e d g e G e o r g e I I I . of E n g l a n d f o r k i n g , 17 J u n e , Sir Gilbert Eliott m a d e viceroy, and opened a parliament A r e v o l t s u p p r e s s e d , J u n e ; ( h e island r e l i n q u i s h e d b y t h e B r i t i s h . 22 O c t . ; t h e p e o p l e d e c l a r e lor t h e F r e n c h . . . . A s t a t u e t o N a p o l e o n I. i n a u g u r a t e d b v p r i n c e N a p o l e o n Jerome .' 15 May. Visit b y t h e e m p r e s s a n d i m p e r i a l p r i n c e 4 Sept.

1709 " 1794 1795 1796 1865 1869

C o r t e N u o v a , near Milan (N. Italy). H e r e the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese after a severe conflict, 27 Nov. 1237.

C o r t e s , the Spanish parliament, originating in the Corpulence. In Germany some fat monks have old Gothic councils. The cortes were assembled after a weighed eighteen stone.—Render. long interval of years, 24 Sept. 1810, and settled the new Mr. B r i g h t , a t a l l o w - c h a n d l e r a n d g r o c e r , of Maldon, in constitution, 16 March, 1812, which was set aside bv E s s e x , w h o d i e d in h i s 29th y e a r . S e v e n p e r s o n s of Ferdinand VII., who banished m a n y members of the t h e c o m m o n size w e r e w i t h e a s e e n c l o s e d in h i s w a i s t c o a t ; b u r i e d a t All-Saints, M a l d o n 12 N o v . 1750 assembly in May. 1814. T h e cortes were reopened bv him March, 1820; dissolved Oct. 1823 ; again assembled Daniel L a m b e r t , supposed to h a v e been the heaviest m a n April, 1834, and have since been regularly convened. t h a t e v e r l i v e d , died in h i s 4 0 t h y e a r , a t S t a m f o r d , in L i n c o l n s h i r e , w e i g h i n g 52 s t o n e 11 p o u n d s ; (10 s t o n e 4 T h e cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of dom p o u n d s m o r e t h a n Mr. Bright) 21 J u n e , 18C9 Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826; they were suppressed bv J a m e s Mansfield, died a t D e b d e n , a g e d 82, w e i g h i n g 34 stone 9 X o v . 185G dom Miguel in 1828; and restored in 1833. Mr. W i l l i a m B a n t i n g p u b l i s h e d a l e t t e r on c o r p u l e n c e , r e c o m m e n d i n g , f r o m his own experience, as a remedy, g r e a t m o d e r a t i o n in t h e use of s u g a r a n d s t a r c h in diet. 50.000 c o p i e s of t h i s l e t t e r w e r e s p e e d i l y sold o r g i v e n 1863 away

C o r p u s C h r i s t i (Fete Bieu in France), a festival ill the Roman church, in honor of transubstantiation, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday (which see). It was instituted by pope Urban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed by the council of Vienne in 1311.

Corpus Juris Civilis, see Justinian Code.

C o r u n n a (X.W. Spain). T h e British army, about 15,000 men, under the command of sir J o h n Moore, had just accomplished their retreat when they were attacked by the French, whose force exceeded 20,000; the enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was immense, 16 J a n . 1809. Sir J o h n was struck b y a cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, and he died universally lamented. The remains of the army embarked at Corunna, under sir David liaird, 17 J a n .

189

COR

C o r u s ( C o r u p e d i o n , or C y r o p c d i u m ) , a plain in P h r y g i a , A s i a M i n o r , w h e r e t h e a g e d L y si mach us was def e a t e d b y Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were t h e o n l y s u r v i v o r s o f A l e x a n d e r t h e Great's generals. C o r v é e , forced labor and s e r v i c e under the feudal s y s t e m in F r a n c e , w a s p a r t i a l l y reduced b y L o u i s X V I . , at the i n s t i g a t i o n of T u r g o t , 27 June, 1787; b y t h e c o n stituent assembly, 18 M a r c h , 1790; and t o t a l l y abolished b y the c o n v e n t i o n , 17 J u l y , 1792. C o r y p h a e u s , t h e principal person of t h e chorus in ancient t r a g e d y .

The

name was g i v e n

to T y s i a s

or

Stesichorus, w h o first instructed the chorus to dance to t h e l y r e , 556 B.C. C o s m o g r a p h y , see Astronomy "Cospatrick," Wrecks,

emigrant

and vessel,

Geography. burned ;

see

1874.

C o s s a c k s , w a r l i k e people i n h a b i t i n g the confines of P o l a n d , Russia, T a r i a r y , and

Turkey.

They

at

first

l i v e d b y p l u n d e r i n g t h e T u r k i s h g a l l e y s and the people of N a t ò l i a ; Stephen

b u t w e r e f o r m e d into a regular

B a t h o r i , about

1576, t o d e f e n d

o f Russia f r o m t h e T a r t a r s .

army

by

the frontiers

T h e y j o i n e d t h e Russians

in 1654, and in t h e g r e a t w a r against F r a n c e (1813-15) f o r m e d a valuable portion of the Russian a r m y . C o s s o v a , a plain in Se r v i a . H e r e A m u rath I. tot a l l y defeated the Christian a r m y ( S e r v i a n s , H u n g a r i a n s , e t c . ) , Sept. 1389; but was h i m s e l f k i l l e d b y an e x p i r i n g soldier. H e r e J o h n H u n n i a d e s was d e f e a t e d b y a T u r k ish a r m y four times l a r g e r than his own, 17 Oct. 1448. C o s t a R i c a , a republic in C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , part of G u a t e m a l a , established i n d e p e n d e n t l y N o v . 1848. I t has b e e n m u c h disturbed b y t h e A m e r i c a n filibusters ; see Nicaragua^ and America, Central. Constitution, 27 D e c . 1859. O n 14 A u g . 1859, t h e president Juan M o r a was suddenly deposed, a n d D r . José M o n t e a l e g r e m a d e presid e n t ; D r . J. X i m e n e s elected president 3 A p r i l , 1863 w a s succeeded b y D r . Joseph Castro, 8 M a y , 1866; deposed ; J. J i m e n e z , g o v e r n o r , N o v . 18G8 ; V i c e n t e Quadra p r o c l a i m e d president 12 M a r c h , 1871; J. M . Guardia, president, e l e c t e d 1871 f o r 1 8 7 2 - 6 ; A n i c e t o E s q u i v e l , e l e c t e d 8 M a y , 1876 ; V i c e n t e I l e r r e r a , 31 J u l y , 1876 ; res i g n e d ; succeeded b y T h o m a s Guardia, O c t . 1877. P o p ulation 1880, estimated, 185,000. C o S t e r n i Oil g e r s , i t i n e r a n t dealers in fruit, v e g e tables, fish, etc., d e r i v i n g t h e i r name, i t is said, f r o m costard, a f a v o r i t e apple. T h e L o n d o n costermongers are useful in r e l i e v i n g the m a r k e t s w h e n g l u t t e d ; and i t w a s said in 1860 t h a t 3,000.000/. passed t h r o u g h their hands annually. P r e v i o u s to f a s t i n g and t h a n k s g i v i n g days, t h e y sell t h e appointed f o r m s o f p r a y e r s in g r e a t numbers. O n 22 N o v . 1860, t h e y h e l d a m e e t i n g in order to represent t o t h e c i t y authorities t h e hardships t h e y f e l t b y t h e police r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r means of l i v e l i hood ; and t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Streets A c t w a s modified, 7 D e c . 1867.

COT

appeared in the International exhibitions—in London, IBM; in Paris 1867 (See Shaftesbury Park.) The cottager's stove., designed by c.ipt. John Grant, registered and presented by Imn to the Metropolitan Association for improving the dwellings of the iudustr.ous classes Dec. 1S49

Cottage H o s p i t a l s :

much advocated by Dr.

H o r a c e S w e t e in 1870. M a n y since t h e n h a v e been e s t a b l i s h e d : one b y t h e baroness l i u r d e t t - C o u t t s , 1878.

Cotton, a v e g e t a b l e w o o l , t h e produce of the Gossypium, a shrub i n d i g e n o u s to t h e tropical r e g i o n s of I n d i a and A m e r i c a . I n d i a n cotton cloth is m e n t i o n e d b y Herodotus, was k n o w n iu A r a b i a in the t i m e of M a h o m e t , 627, and was b r o u g h t into E u r o p e b y his followers. It does not appear to h a v e been in use a m o n g the Chinese till the t h i r t e e n t h century ; to t h e m w e are indebted for t h e c o t t o n f a b r i c t e r m e d nankeen. Cotton was the m a t e r i a l of the principal articles of c l o t h i n g a m o n g t h e A m e r i c a n Indians w h e n v i s i t e d b y Columbus. I t was g r o w n and manufactured i n Spain in the t e n t h cent u r y ; and in the fourteenth century was introduced i n t o Italy. I n d i a n muslins, chintzes, and cottons w e r e so l a r g e l y i m p o r t e d i n t o E n g l a n d iu the seventeenth c e n t u r y , t h a t i n 1700 an act of p a r l i a m e n t was passed proh i b i t i n g their introduction. C o t t o n became t h e staple c o m m o d i t y of E n g l a n d in the present c e n t u r y . About 1841 the " c o t t o n " or " M a n c h e s t e r " interest began to obtain p o l i t i c a l influence, w h i c h led to the repeal of the corn l a w s in 1846; see Calico, Mtislin, etc. Fustian and velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. Calico sheeting, etc. The lly-shuttle was invented by John Kay. of Bury, 1738; the drop-box by Robert Kay, 17(H); spinning by rollers (also attributed to John Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738; the spinning-jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767; the water-frame, by Arkwright, 1769; the powerloom. by rev. Dr. Edmund C artwright, 1785; the r political offences, s u c h c e n s u r i n g t w o of its members. as treason or sedition. T h e returns of t h i r t y - t w o y e a r s Creeds, s e c Confessions of Faith. J . E . L u m b v ' s s h o w e d t h a t c r i m e a b s o l u t e l y and r e l a t i v e l y d i m i n i s h e d (Sept. 1866) ; see Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoniny, ' ' H i s t o r y of t h e C r e e d s " appeared 1874. France, 1871, etc. Creek War. I n 1813, w h i l e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s CONVICTIONS (ISY T R I A L ) I X E N G L A N D A N D W A L E S . were at w a r w i t h Great Britain, t h e Creek I n d i a n s of Persons. Cap. O f f . Executed. Alabama were incited to hostility by Tecumseh, w h o 1847 21,542 8 v i s i t e d t h e m for t h a t purpose, a n d b y B r i t i s h a g e n t s in 1849 00 12 1860 Florida. A fierce w a r followed, i n w h i c h t h e Creeks, 49 15 1851 70 0 led b y W i l l i a m Weatlierford ( l i e d E a g l e ) , w e r e over1852 21.304 61 10 come by gen. Jackson. T h e war seriously e n d a n g e r e d 1853 20,756 55 9 t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e n a t i o n ; and, t h e Creeks b e i n g an 1854 49 8 1855 13,971 i n t e l l i g e n t a n d partly c i v i l i z e d people, m a n y w e l l - p l a n n e d 50 5 185« 14,734 09 15 a n d s t o u t l y contested battles w e r e f o u g h t ; see Battles. 1857 15,307 54 13 Indians, a n d United States, 1 8 1 3 - 1 4 . 1858 53 11 185!) 52 9 Cremation, s e e Burniny the Dead. Cremation1800 12.008 48 12 1861 13.879 h a l l s h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d at M i l a n and Got ha. 50 15 1882 29 16 Creinera, B A T T L E OF, see Fabli. 20 22 1864 14,720 32 19 C r e m o n a (N. I t a l y ) , a c i t y f o u n d e d b y t h e R o m a n s , 1865 20 8 1806 14.254 26 12 221 B.C. I t b e c a m e an i n d e p e n d e n t republic i n 1107, but 1807 27 10 w a s f r e q u e n t l y s u b j u g a t e d b y its n e i g h b o r s , M i l a n a n d 21 12 A r enice, a n d partook of t h e i r fortunes. I n N o v . 1859, it 1800 18 10 1870 became p a r t of t h e k i n g d o m of I t a l y . Cremona was 12,953 15 1871 11.946 13 4 e m i n e n t for v i o l i n - m a k e r s from about 1550 to 1750, 30 11 1873 18 11 Crescent, a s y m b o l of s o v e r e i g n t y a m o n g t h e 1874 20 16 G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s , and the d e v i c e of B y z a n t i u m , n o w 1875 33 18 C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , w h e n c e t h e T u r k s adopted it. T h e cres1876 12,195 32 22 1877 34 23 c e n t h a s g i v e n n a m e t o three orders of k n i g h t h o o d ; 1878 12.473 20 23 founded b y C h a r l e s I, of N a p l e s , 1 2 6 8 ; b y K é n é of Anjoti, 34 10 ( 3 > . in 1 4 4 8 ; b y t h e s u l t a n S e l i m , in 1801. T h e last is still Convictions in 1817 : Scotland. 3538; Ireland, IP 233 Id 1801 • in existence. Scotland, 2428; Ireland, 3271. C r e s p y (N.France). H e r e w a s s i g n e d a t r e a t y b e - Convictions in t h e United S t a t e s : 1830,26,679- 18C0 C8 8361870, 36.502. ' ' ' t w e e n C h a r l e s V . of G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c i s I. of France, Act for i m p r o v i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of criminal j u s t i c e 7 Aug. 1851. passed 18 Sept. 1544. T h e former renounced B u r g u n d y and the The Criminal J u s t i c e act a u t h o r i z e s justices, with the consent latter I t a l y . of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, instead of c o m m i t t i n g t h e m to trial, 1855. C r e s t s are ascribed to t h e Carians. R i c h a r d I, ( 1 1 8 9 ) had a crest on t h e h e l m e t r e s e m b l i n g a p l u m e of In 1856 t h e expenses for criminal prosecutions in England a n d Wales were 194,912/. 4s. Hd. ; in 1878, 148.103/. 0«. Sd. feathers. T h e English kings had generally crowns 15 persons were executed for m u r d e r in 1856 (four foreigners}, a b o v e t h e i r h e l m e t s ; t h a t of R i c h a r d I I . , 1377, w a s sur13 in 1857,11 in 1858 (four foreigners), and 9 (four for wifem u r d e r ) in 1859. 2068 persons were liberated on tic/cts-ofm o u n t e d b y a lion on a c a p of d i g n i t y ; s e e Crecy. Alexhave in 1856. ander I I I . of Scotland, 1249, h a d a p l u m e of f e a t h e r s ; On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons t h u s liberated, 58 were believed t h e h e l m e t of Robert I. w a s s u r m o u n t e d b y a crown, to be living honestly. 1 3 0 6 ; a n d t h a t of J a m e s I. b y a lion, 1424. I n t h e fif- In 1801,1862. and 1803 t h e s y s t e m was considered to h a v e failed t h r o u g h the n u m e r o u s c r i m e s c o m m i t t e d by ticket-oft e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h centuries, t h e crest w a s described leavers; it was modified by the Tonal Servitude act in 1864. to be a figure placed upon a w r e a t h , coronet, or cap of Sentences to penal servitude" in 1809. 200(3; 1870, 1788; 1879, m ain ten a n c e . — G wil lim. 1502.

fi

CRI

195

Criminal clauses in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s : e s t i m a t e d n u m b e r . lS7'>-:-{ 76 531; 1S73-4. 7«*,219; 1871-5, 73,963; 1875-6, 74.706. B y return (known) 1877-8. 41.048; 1878-9, 54/249. T h e " J u d i c i a l S t a t i s t i c s " of crime, policc, and law, w i t h a report, h a v e b e e n a n n u a l l y published b y g o v e r n m e n t ; comm e n c e d w i t h 18i>6. Statistical Criminal act passed 11 Aug. 1869 P r e v e n t i o n of Crimes act passed 21 Aug. 1B71 Great decrease in c r i m e s of v i o l e n c e in relation to t h e increase of population 1861-1871 lioported f e l o n i e s : 1 8 7 1 , 1 0 , 6 5 3 ; 1 8 7 7 , 1 2 . 5 7 3 ; burglaries, 1871, 614; 1877,1344. CRIME—International Congress for t h e p r e v e n t i o n and repression of c r i m e m e t in the Middle Temple, London, 3 J u l y , 1872 P r e v e n t i o n of Crime act passed 15 Aug. 1879

ORO

crhi) hair) is the modern name of the " fardingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone, etc., revived in France and England since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life by coming in contact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Taller, published 5 J a n . 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. C r i p p l e g a t e (London) was so called from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the year 1010. T h e gate was newly built by the brewers of London in 1244; aud was pulled down and sold for 91/. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674; see Loudon.

Crimea, or Cum T A R T A R Y , a peninsula in the E u x C r i p p l e s ' H o m e , Marvlebone Road, established inc or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Ckersonesus, colonized by t h e Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians 1851, for crippled girls to be t a u g h t suitable trades. T h e founded t h e kingdom of Bosporus, now Kerteh, which, Cripples' Nursery, Old Quebec street and Margate, was about 108 B.C., formed part of t h e dominion of Mithri- established 1862.' dates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to C r i s p i n AND C r i s p i a n u s are said to have been two rule the country, under Roman protection, till the irrup- saints, born at Rome, whence they travelled to Soissons, tion of t h e Goths, Iiuns, etc., about A.D. 258. About in France, to propagate t h e Christian religion. T h e y 1.237 it fell into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis worked as shoemakers; but the governor of the town, K h a n ; soon after the Venetians established commercial discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by beheaded, about 288. Tlieir day is 25 Oct. the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and fortify C r i t e r i o n T h e a t r e , Regent's Circus, Piccadilly, Kaffa about 1261. I n 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman opened by Spiers and Pond, 21 March, 1874. C r i t h (from the Greek tcpiO)), a barleycorn, or small yoke; permitting the government to remain in the hands of the native khans, but closing the Black Sea to weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. W . Hofmann (about Western Europe. In 1774, by the intervention of the 1864) to express the volume-weight of gases; a cube empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its inde- containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0.0896 gramme) to be pendence; but on the abdication of t h e khan in 1783 | the unit. Hydrogen being one crith, oxygen will be 16, t h e Russians took possession of the country, after a war nitrogen 14 criths. with Turkey, and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 I C r i t i c s . T h e first society of them was formed 276 J a n . 1792. T h e Crimea (now Taurida) was divided into ' B.C.—Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and Aristarehus eight governments in 1802. W a r having been declared i were ancient critics. I n modern times the Journal de.s* against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 1854, | Sgavans was the earliest periodical critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical councillarge masses of troops were sent to the East, which, after i lor in the parliament of France, and was first published remaining some time at Gallipoli and other places, sailed j at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and is still continued. Jean Le for Varna, where they disembarked 29 May. An expej Clerc's " A r s Critica," published 1696. is said to be the dition against the Crimea having been determined on, j earliest systematic treatise. T h e first work of this kind the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amount- in England was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term ing to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by lord being invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The Haglan aud marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna 3 Works of the Learned began 1710. and the Waies of LitSept., and landed on the 14th, 15tli, and 16th, without erature in 1714; discontinued in 1722; see Revieirs. opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles . The legality of fair criticism was established in the English from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Ruscourts in Feb. 1704, when an action that excited great atsians, between 40,000 and 50.000 strong (under prince j tention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supcritique upon his work, was determined in favor of the deposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Rusfendant. on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sians were totally routed; see Alma and RussoTurkish sharp, if just, and not malicious; see Trials, 1875. War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the alC r o a t i a , conquered by C. 29, Clinton; 28 Marc-h, A.i). 31, Hales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discont i n u e d b y C o n s t an l i n e , 3 3 0 . — L c v r j l t t , Cruelty to Animals,

s e e Animals,

and

Vivisec-

tion.

Crossed Checks, see Drafts.

Crown. A n A m a l e k i t e b r o u g h t D a v i d , 1056 B.C. (2 S a m . i . ) . T h e lirst a crown w a s T a r q u i n t h e Elder, 616 w a s first a fillet t i e d r o u u d t h e h e a d : f o r m e d of l e a v e s a n d f l o w e r s , a n d also w i t h j e w e l s ; see Tiara.

Crosier.

c r o s s w i t h t h e figure of C h r i s t a t t a c h e d to it, first k n o w n in t h e f o u r t h , c a m e i n t o g e n e r a l use in the eighth century.

T h e revenue arising from those

Crusades ( F r e n c h Croisades), w a r s u n d e r t a k e n t o drive t h e infidels from J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e " H o l y L a n d . " P e t e r G a u t i e r , t h e H e r m i t , a n officer of A m i e n s , on h i s r e t u r n from p i l g r i m a g e incited pope U r b a n I I . to e x pel infidels from t h e c i t y w h e r e C h r i s t h a d t a u g h t . U r b a n c o n v e n e d a c o u n c i l of 3 1 0 b i s h o p s a t C l e r m o n t i n F r a n c e , a t w h i c h t h e a m b a s s a d o r s of t h e c h i e f C h r i s t i a n potentates assisted, a n d g a v e P e t e r t h e commission to s u m m o n E u r o p e to a g e n e r a l w a r , 1094. T h e first c r u s a d e w a s p u b l i s h e d ; a n a r m y of 300,000 m e n w a s r a i s e d , of w h i c h P e t e r h a d t h e d i r e c t i o n , a n d G o d f r e y d e B o u illon t h e c o m m a n d , 1095. T h e warriors wore a red cross u p o n t h e r i g h t s h o u l d e r , a n d t h e i r m o t t o w a s Yolonte de Dieu, " G o d ' s w i l l . " — T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t h a v e p u b l i s h e d s o m e of t h e h i s t o r i a n s of t h e C r u s a d e s i n a m a g nificent form (1844-77). I. Crusade (1095) ended by J e r u s a l e m being t a k e n by assault, 15 J u l y . 105)9, and Godfrey de Bouillon m a d e king. II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by e m p e r o r Conrad II. and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders d e f e a t e d : J e rusalem lost in 1187. III. Kmperor F r e d e r i c k Barbarossa, etc., in 1188, joined b y Philip II. of F r a n c e a n d Richard I. of F.ng\and 1W0. Glorious, b u t fruitless. IV. 1195, by e m p e r o r H e n r v V I . : successful till his death in 1197. V. Proclaimed by Innocent TIL, 1198. Baldwin, count of Flandors, a t t a c k e d t h e Greeks, and look Constantinople in 1203. His c o m p a n i o n s returned. VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor F r e d e r i c k II. obtained possession of J e r u s a l e m on a truce for ten years. In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, but socn departed. VII. By Louis IX. (St, Louis), 1248, w h o was defeated a n d t a k e n prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 12C0; released by r a n s o m ; t r u c e of ten years.

CRU

197

CUB

VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of a con- Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, conductor, 1 May, 1861 tagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was at Acre. 1271. Blondin's performances on an elevated rope beg n here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates fahing, etc.), In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the Christians were driven 1. June, " out of Syria. Successfu 1 Handel festi val: a new arched roof constructC r u z , see Santa Cruz. ed for the orchestra; about 40.-0 vocal and instrumental performers 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 C r y o l i t e , a Greenland mineral, a fluoride of alumin- Successful Handel festival 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 ium and sodium, employed in procuring metallic alu- North wing, containing tropical department, the Alhambra. and other courts destroyed by fire (about lfiO.OOOi. minium in 1855. damage) 30 Dec, 1SGC C r y o p h o r u s , an instrument (invented by Dr. Wol- Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise funds to restore the palace 26 June, 1867 laston about J812) to demonstrate the relation between evaporation a t low temperatures and the production of Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500f.), July; of the sultan (gives 10UW. )....* 16 July, ' 1 cold. Conservative working-men's demonstration 11 Nov. C r y p t o g r a p h , an apparatus for writing in cipher, Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free tickets shall not be issued to admit n on-shareholders on Suninvented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and made known days 31 Dec. in 1868, in which different key-words may be employed, North wing restored and reopened to the public.. 15 Feb. 1SJ8 June, 14 and, it is said, absolute secrecy insured. A crypto- A n A or on au t i cal E xh i b i t i on op en ed Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church. .17 Aug. graphic machine was patented 1860; see Cipher. Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps July, 1870 Death of Mr. Robert K. Bowlcy, fourteen years manager A system of secret writing described in "Archiv der of the company 25 A ug. " Mathematik" 1795 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 Professor J. F. Lorcnz published a system at Magdeburg 1806 Succcss fill Handel festival Joseph Ludwig Kluber published Kryptographik " 1809 The grand-duke Wladimir of Russia entertained here by u the prinee of Wales 26 June, Messrs. Tlios. De la Rue published Mr. \Vm. Henry IiochCat - sho w, n at i v e and for e i g n 13 J u ly-2 Dec. 14 fort's system of secret writing termed '-Arcanography," Dec. " resembling Lorenz's 1836 Dividend on stock, 1| per cent Inauguration of the great aquarium by prof. Owen.. Jan. 1872 Mr. A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon this Lecture by prof. Flower 12 Jtui. " system about Oct. 1875 B i rd- s ho w opens 10 Feb. 41 C r y s t a l P a l a c e , Hyde Park, London; see Exhibi- Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince of Wales 1 May, 11 tion ofV&ol. D og - sho w o pe ns 4 June, C r y s t a l P a l a c e , New York. This building was Meeting of National Cnion of Conservative and Consti- u tutional Associations 24 June, opened 14 July, 1853, by president Pierce, for a univerNational music meetings; competition and concerts, u sal industrial exhibition« I t stood in Keservoir Square. 27 June-6 July, 4< I t s main buildings and galleries covered an area of Scottish southern gathering; highland sports...25 July, 26-29 Oct. '' 178,000 square feet. After the close of the exhibition National cat-show 22 Feb. 1873 it was used by the American Institute for its fairs and Bird-show Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; the u for meetings of various kinds. On 5 Oct. 1858, it was Paxton memorial unveiled 10 June, 44 destroyed by fire, together with a great number of arti- Visits of the shah of Persia 30 June, 3 July, 3, 5, 8,10, 12 July, l i cles sent for exhibition at the American Institute. T h e National music meetings Crystal Palace was owned by a stock company, was Resignation of Mr. George Grove, many years secretary, u announced Sept,; succeeded by capt. Flood Page. Dec. designed by Messrs. Carstensen and Gildemeister, of Visit of the czar 16 May, 1874 New York, and was considered a beautiful piece of archi- Handel festival; successful 22, 24, 26 June, 44 Visit of the sultan of Zanzibar 19 June, 1875 tecture. National music meeting 1-10 July, 44 C r y s t a l P a l a c e , Sydenham. The exhibition Visit of the king and queen of Greece and prince aud princess of Wales 19 July, 1.876 building of 1851 having been surrendered to Messrs. F o x G reat clock com pie ted Nov. 44 and Henderson oil 1 Dec. 1851, the materials were sold Handel festival 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 for 70,000^. to a company, who soou after commenced re- Handel festival; successful 21. 23, 25 June, 1880 creating the Crystal Palace on its present site, near Syd- Great damage done by bursting of a water-tank; no lives lost 30 Sept. " enham in Kent, under the direction of sir Joseph P a x - International woollen exhibition opened by the duke ton, Owen Jones, Digby W y a t t , and others. The proof Connaught 2 J une, 1881 posed capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 shares of bl. each) C r y s t a l l o g r a p h y is the science relating to the was increased in Jan. 1853 to 1,000,000/. symmetrical forms assumed by substances passing from First column raised by S. Laing, M.P. 5 Aug. 1852 the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle published During the progress of the works as many as 6400 men his " Essai de Cristallographie" in 1772; but Rene-Just. were engaged at one time. By the fall of scaffolding, 1'2 men were killed 15 Aug. 1853 Hatty is regarded as the founder of the modern school of crystallography (1801).— Whe-well. Dana, Dufresnoy. Dinner given to professor Owen and others in the interior of the model of the igi.ianodon. constructed by Mr. and Miller are eminent modern writers on this subject. Waterh o u se H aw k i n s 31 D ec. The palace opened by the queen 10 June, 1854 C t e s i p h o n (afterwards A l M a d a y n ) , o i i the Tigris, Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, u the splendid capital of Partilia, was taken bv T r a j m in 2S Oct. 116, and by Alexander Severns (who made 100.000 capThe palace visited by the emperor and empress of the 20 April, 1855 tives), 198. Its defences deterred Julian from the siege, French, etc First grand display of the great fountains, before the 363. i t was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and queen and 20,000 spectators. 18 Juue, 1856 utterly destroyed, and Cufa, near it, built with the remains. The receipts were 115,627i.; the expenditure, 87,872£, not including payments for preference shares, etc., in C u b a (itsoriginal name), an island (West Indies) disyear ending 30 April, 1857 covered by Columbus on his tirst voyage, 28 Oct. 1492; On the fast-day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. O. Spurgeon settled by Velasquez, l o l l -12. Population, 1870,765,000 preached here to 23,000 persons; 47(>Z. were collected, to which the C. P. company added '200/. 7 Oct. " whites; 250,000 colored, 368,000 slaves; in 1.877, about The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15.17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858 1.400,000. Centenary of the birth of Robert Hums celebrated: the The buccaneer Morgan look the Havana ; sec Buccadirectors awarded 50£. to a prize poem on the subject. neers which was obtained by M.es I sa Craig 25 Jan. 1859 A British expedition lands and remains.20 July-20 Nov. 1711 The Handel festival 20, 22, 24 Juno, ' 1 The Havana taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albemarle, 1762; restored at the peace of Paris 10 Feb. 176;.i Festival kept in honor of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859; of Mendelssohn 4 May. I860 il "hone Star " society {which see), for the acquisition of Lon Dec. B a s c o n e s d e f e a t s t h e m a r q u i s S a n t a L u c i a a n d 50U0 insurgents at N a r a n j o Feb. Gen. M a r t i n e z C a m p o s a p p o i n t e d g o v e r n o r , w i t h p l e n a r y powers Oct. T h e s t r u g g l e g o i n g on, b u t m o r e s u b d u e d summer, A " ' C u b a n l e a g u e " in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s a i d to b e f o r m e d t o o b t a i n r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n s u r g e n t s a s belligerents, etc Sept. E s t r a d a , t h e C u b a n p r e s i d e n t , s a i d to be c a p t u r e d . . .Oct. R e p o r t e d s u r r e n d e r of m a n y i n s u r g e n t s 23, 24 Dec. S u r r e n d e r of t h e i n s u r g e n t g o v e r n m e n t ; e n d of t h e insurrection announced 21 F e b . A m n e s t y declared, w i t h freedom to slaves p r e s e n t i n g t h e m s e l v e s b e f o r e 31 M a r c h ( s l a v e r y t o b e a b o l i s h e d gradually) March, Campos and Jovellar enter Havana triumphantly, 14 J u n o , I n s u r r e c t i o n ; s t a t e of s i e g e ; a m n e s t y p r o m i s e d . 19 S e p t . I n s u r g e n t s t o t a l l y d e f e a t e d a t P l a c c t a : a n n o u n c e d . 3 Dee. B i l l f o r g r a d u a l e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e s l a v e s p a s s e d b y t h e S p a n i s h s e n a t e , 21 Dec. 1879; b y c h a m b e r s of d e p u t i e s (230-10, 21 J a n . ) ; p r o m u l g a t e d 18 F e b . Cuba reported tranquil Sept.

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1851

skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed t h e cuirass of the Uritons until the Anglo-Saxon era. I t " was afterwards made of iron and brass. T h e cuirass was worn by cavalry in the reign oi Henry III., 1210 et 1854 seq. Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses, and most European armies have picked corps of such. C u l d e e s , said to derive their name from cultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. Andrew's. I t is said t h a t in 1185, at Tipperary, there was a Culdean abbey 1868 whose monks were " a t t a c h e d to simple truth and pure 1861) Christian worship, and had not y e t conformed to t h e reigning superstition." T h e y were eventually subjected 1870 to t h e papal yoke. "

C u l l e n ' s - w o o d ( I r e l a n d ) . An English colony from Bristol, inhabiting Dublin, went to divert t h e m selves at Cullen's-wood, when the O'Byrnes and 1871 OTooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 30 March, 1209 (on Easter, u afterwards called BlacJc. Monday). "

C u l l o d e n , near Inverness, where the English, u n der William, duke of Cumberland, defeated t h e Scotch, headed by the y o u n g Pretender, t h e last of the Stuarts, 1873 16 April, 1746. T h e Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon t h e field, or in the slaughter which occurred in t h e pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. Prince Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,000/. were offered for t a k i n g him, at length escaped from Uist to Morlaix, and died a t " Rome 3 March, 1788. 1872 k '

u

1874 1S7G 1877

C u l t u r e , according to Mr. M a t t h e w Arnold ( " T h e Apostle of Culture "), is t h e knowledge of t h e best t h a t has been t h o u g h t and said in the world " (3880).

Cultur-Kampf, see Kultur-Kampf.

C u l v e r i n , cannon so called from the French couleuvrine, said to have been introduced into E n g l a n d from a French model in 1534. I t was originally five inches and " a quarter diameter in t h e bore, and carried a bali of 1878 eighteen pounds.—Bailnj. "

" " 1879 u

1880 lt

C u m a e ( S . I t a l y ) , a Greek colony, 1050 n.c., said to have been t h e residence of t h e ancient Sibyl, was taken bv t h e Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed by the Romans 338 n.c. C u m b e r l a n d , a N . W . county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, by k i n g Edmund, " o n condition t h a t he should be his fellowworker." I t was seized by William I., but restored to Malcolm III., " w h o became his man," 1072. William t h e Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to I l e n r y II., and it was finally annexed to England in 1237.

C u b i t , a measure b y which t h e ark of Noah was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance from a man's elbow to the e x t r e m i t y of the middle finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit was a little under 22 DUKES. inches, t h e Roman cubit 17i inches, and the English 172G. W i l l i a m A u g u s t u s , s e c o n d soil o f G e o r g e I I . , d i e d 13 Oct. 1765. cubit 18 inches.

17GG. H e n r v F r e d e r i c , s o n of F r e d e r i c , p r i n c e of "Wales, d i e d

Cucking-stool (or DUCKING-STOOL), for shrews: 18 S e p t . 1790.' one a t Kingston-on-Thames was used in April, 17-15; 1799. E r n e s t A u g u s t u s , fifth son of G e o r g e I I I . ; b e c a m e k i n g of H a n o v e r , 20 J u n e , 1837; d i e d 18 N o v . 1851. and another at Cambridge in 1780.—Chamber.*. 1851. G e o r g e V . . t h e e x - k i n g of H a n o v e r ; d i e d 12 J u n e . 1878. C u c u m b e r s , noticed by Virgil and other ancient 1878. E r n e s t A u g u s t u s , s o n ; b o r n 21 S e p t . 1 8 4 5 ; m a r r i e d p r i n c e s s T l i y r a of D e n m a r k , 21 Dec. 1878. I s s u e , M a r y poets, were brought to England from t h e Netherlands L o u i s a , b o r n 11 Oct. 187«; s o n . 28 Oct. 1880. about 15o8. " C u m b e r l a n d , Tim," see Xacal Batiks, 1811. C u d d a l o r e (India), on the coast of the Carnatic, Cumulative Vote, ill parliamentary elections, was acquired by the English in 1G8J. It was reduced bv t h e French in 1758, but, recaptured in 1760 by sir proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 .July, during the deE y r e Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destruc- bates on the reform bill, and rejected 5 July, 18(17, by 314 tive siege by t h e British under gen. Stuart, in 1783, which to 173. By t h e act passed 15 Aug. 1807 (30 & 31 Vict. was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted J c. 102), it was enacted that at a contested election for any county or borough represented by three members, no to them, 1784. person shall vote for more t h a n two candidates. The C u e n c a , New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and captured 14 July, * " A t a n y contested election for a c o u n t y or borough rep1874. T h e garrison and the inhabitants were barba- r e s e n t e d b y m o r e t l i a n t w o m e m b e r s , a n d h a v i n g m o r e t h a n rously used. Gen. Lopez Pinto rescued the prisoners, 19 o n e s e a t v a c a n t , e v e r y v o t e r shall b e e n t i t l e d t o a n u m b e r of v o t e s e q u a l to t h e n u m b e r of v a c a n t s4; w i t h massacre 1823 Gen. di Cesnola, a Genoese, t h e American consul, by excavations discovers m a n y Babylonian, Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek gold and Silver o r n a m e n t s , and o t h e r relics (sold to t h e Metropolitan Museum, New York), 186 e t seq. His work, " C y p r u s : its Ancient Cities, Tombs, a n d Temp l e s . " published in London and New York Dec. 1877 The island given u p to Great Britain for a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by t h e Anglo-Turkish convention 4 J u n o , 1878 Possession taken by admiral lord J o h n Hay, 12 J u l y ; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley. as lord high commissioner, 22 J u l y , « Much sickness, w i t h deaths, reported Aug.-Sept. Orders for t h e government by a lord high commissioner, given a t court 14 S e p t Sir G. J. Wolseley's decree for compulsory labor on public works, dated 1(5 Dec. He is sent to S. Africa; succeeded by sir Robert Biddulph Juno, 1879 The British b u y t h e g o v e r n m e n t lands, except t h e Sul11 t a n ' s estates, early in Increased general prosperity reported (in lJUie Book), Aug. 18S0 Locusts dreaded May, 1881 C y r , S t . , near Versailles. H e r e a college for ladies w a s f o u n d e d b y M a d a m e d e M a i n t e n o n , i n 1G86, a n d h e r e s h e d i e d , 1 5 A p r i l , 1719. It was made a military c o l l e g e i n 1803.

Cyrenaic Sect, f o u n d e d b y A r i s t i p p u s t h e E l d e r , 3G5 b . o . T h e y t a u g h t t h a t t h e s u p r e m e g o o d of m a n i s p l e a s u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t of t h e s e n s e s \ a n d t h a t e v e n

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virtue ought to be commended only because it gave \ the Lacedaemonian ileet under the command of Mindarus, assisted by Pliarnabazus, the Persian, was encountered pleasure. the Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with Cyrene (N.W. Africa), a Greek colony. founded by by great slaughter, near Cyzicus, Mindarus being slain, Battus about 630 B.C. Aristseus, w h o was chief of the 410 B.C.—1 Hutarck. colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was C z a r (the title of the emperor of Russia), probably also called Pentapolis, on account of its five towns— namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Ar- derived from Ccesar, a title said to have been assumed sinoe. I t was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., w h o by Ivan Basilowitz after defeating the Tartars, about placcd m a n y J e w s here ("286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by 1482. The empress is termed czarina, and the eldest Ptolemy Apion to the Kornaus, 97 B.C. I t is now a son czarewitch. desert. Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the Czechs, the native race of Bohemia and Moravia British Museum in July, 1861. (which see). T h e antagonism between the Germans and C y r o p e d i u m , see Cor us. C y z i c u s (Asia Minor).

In the Peloponnesian war,

Czechs is milder in Moravia than in Bohemia. Their representatives entered the reichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct. 1879.

D. D a c c a ( N . E . I n d i a ) , a province acquired by t h e E a s t India C o m p a n y in 1765, and ruled under t h e m b y a n a w a b till its a n n e x a t i o n in 1845.—Thornton. D a c i a , a E o m a n province, p a r t of H u n g a r y , and tlie a d j o i n i n g provinces, after m a n y contests, was subdued b y T r a j a n , 10G, w h e n Deeebalus, t h e Daciau leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned to t h e G o t h s b y Aurelian, in 270; subdued b y t h e Huns, 376; by Scythians, 5 6 6 ; b y C h a r l e m a g n e , and by t h e M a g y a r s , in t h e n i n t h ceutury.

lissier, a f t e r w a r d s duke of Malakoff. T h e y h a d fired on a messenger bearing an offer of a truce. T h e massacre was condemned by m a r s h a l Soult, t h e minister of war, b u t justified by marshal B u g c a u d . D a i l y N e w s , liberal commercial newspaper, now 1. Kenewed massacres of natives ('• customs and outrages on foreigners at Wliydah; reported 20 Sept. 187S Taken by the .Saracens, 033; by the Turks in 1075; destroyed by Tamerlane j i i n 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 D a h r a (Algeria). On 18 J u n e , 1845, above 500 Taken by Ibrahim Pacha The disappearance of a Greek priest, named lather Tom' K a b y l e s a t war w i t h t h e F r e n c h were suffocated in a inaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840. led to the torture of a cave, a fire h a v i n g been kindled by order of gen. I'enumber of Jews suspected of his m u r d e r , and to a

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DAM

virtue ought to be commended only because it gave \ the Lacedaemonian ileet under the command of Mindarus, assisted by Pliarnabazus, the Persian, was encountered pleasure. the Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with Cyrene (N.W. Africa), a Greek colony. founded by by great slaughter, near Cyzicus, Mindarus being slain, Battus about 630 B.C. Aristseus, w h o was chief of the 410 B.C.—1 Hutarck. colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was C z a r (the title of the emperor of Russia), probably also called Pentapolis, on account of its five towns— namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Ar- derived from Ccesar, a title said to have been assumed sinoe. I t was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., w h o by Ivan Basilowitz after defeating the Tartars, about placcd m a n y J e w s here ("286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by 1482. The empress is termed czarina, and the eldest Ptolemy Apion to the Kornaus, 97 B.C. I t is now a son czarewitch. desert. Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the Czechs, the native race of Bohemia and Moravia British Museum in July, 1861. (which see). T h e antagonism between the Germans and C y r o p e d i u m , see Cor us. C y z i c u s (Asia Minor).

In the Peloponnesian war,

Czechs is milder in Moravia than in Bohemia. Their representatives entered the reichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct. 1879.

D. D a c c a ( N . E . I n d i a ) , a province acquired by t h e E a s t India C o m p a n y in 1765, and ruled under t h e m b y a n a w a b till its a n n e x a t i o n in 1845.—Thornton. D a c i a , a E o m a n province, p a r t of H u n g a r y , and tlie a d j o i n i n g provinces, after m a n y contests, was subdued b y T r a j a n , 10G, w h e n Deeebalus, t h e Daciau leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned to t h e G o t h s b y Aurelian, in 270; subdued b y t h e Huns, 376; by Scythians, 5 6 6 ; b y C h a r l e m a g n e , and by t h e M a g y a r s , in t h e n i n t h ceutury.

lissier, a f t e r w a r d s duke of Malakoff. T h e y h a d fired on a messenger bearing an offer of a truce. T h e massacre was condemned by m a r s h a l Soult, t h e minister of war, b u t justified by marshal B u g c a u d . D a i l y N e w s , liberal commercial newspaper, now 1. Kenewed massacres of natives ('• customs and outrages on foreigners at Wliydah; reported 20 Sept. 187S Taken by the .Saracens, 033; by the Turks in 1075; destroyed by Tamerlane j i i n 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 D a h r a (Algeria). On 18 J u n e , 1845, above 500 Taken by Ibrahim Pacha The disappearance of a Greek priest, named lather Tom' K a b y l e s a t war w i t h t h e F r e n c h were suffocated in a inaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840. led to the torture of a cave, a fire h a v i n g been kindled by order of gen. I'enumber of Jews suspected of his m u r d e r , and to a

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cruel persecution of that people, wh ; ch caused remonstrances from many stntes ot Kurope 1840 Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 In consequence of a dispute between the Druses and Maronites, the Mahometans massacred above 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and destitute; a large number were rescued by Abd-el-Kader. who held the citadel '.9, 10, 11 July. 1860 Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha: 1(50 persons executed, including the Turkish governor; and u 11,000 persons made soldiers Aug.-Sept.

DAN

seas of t h e m . T h e t a x was suppressed b y E d w a r d t h e Confessor in 1051; revived by W i l l i a m I. 1068; and formed p a r t of t h e revenue of t h e crown, u n t i l abolished b y S t e p h e n , 1136. E v e r y hide of land, i. e. as m u c h as one plough could plough, or, as Bede says, as m u c h as could maintain a family, was taxed a t first Is., a f t e r w a r d s as m u c h as 7s. Camden says t h a t once 21,360/. was raised.

Danes, or N o r t h m e n ; see Denmark. During their a t t a c k s upon B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d t h e y m a d e a descent on F r a n c e , w h e r e in 805, under Rollo, t h e y received D a m a s k Likens a s d Silks, first m a n u f a c t u r e d a t presents under the walls of Paris. T h e y r e t u r n e d and D a m a s c u s , h a v e been beautifully i m i t a t e d by t h e D u t c h r a v a g e d t h e F r e n c h territories as f a r as Ostend in 896. and F l e m i s h . T h e m a n u f a c t u r e was b r o u g h t to E n g T h e y a t t a c k e d I t a l y in 903. N e u s t r i a was g r a n t e d b y land b y a r t i s a n s w h o fled from t h e persecutions of Alva, t h e k i n g of F r a n c e to Rollo and his N o r m a n s ( N o r t h 1571-3. T h e D a m a s k Rose w a s b r o u g h t h e r e from t h e men) ; hence N o r m a n d y , in 911. T h e invasions of E n g south of E u r o p e b y Dr. Linacre, physician to I l e n r y V I I I . , land and Ireland were as follows : a b o u t 15-40.

Damiens's Attempt.

Louis XV. of France was

First hostile appearance of the Danes They land near Purbeek, Dorset

783 787

They take the Isle of Sheppey Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, bv Egbert They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Canterbury and London They descend on the north, and take York They defeat the Saxons at Merton They take Wareham and Exeter They take Chippenham; but 120 of their ships are wrecked Defeated: Gutlirum, their leader, becomes Christian, and many settle in England Alfred enters into a treaty with them Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore Defeated near Isle of Wight They invade and waste Wales Defeated by Edward the Elder They defeat the people of Leinster Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset And ravage Essex and Suffolk Said to assume the title lorddane about Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, purchased by money Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erroneously said to have been paid 16,000/. for peace) A general massacre of the Danes, by order of Ethelred II. 13 Nov. Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,000?. (as an annual tribute) to depart Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in Suffolk, 1010; sack Canterbury and kill the inhabitants, 1011; receive 48,000/. as tribute, and murder Alphege, archbishop Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) Conquest of England completed; Canute king They settle in Scotland They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much plunder to Flanders 25 Sept. Defeated by Harold II. at Stanford bridge They burn York and kill 3000 Normans. Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy; but compelled to depart

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stabbed with a knife in t h e r i g h t side b y Damiens, a n a - Descend in Northumberland: destroy the church at Lindisfarne; arc repelled, and perish by shipwreck. 8 Jan. 794 tive of Arras, 5 J a n . 1757. T h e culprit endured t h e most .795, 796 e x c r u c i a t i n g tortures, and was t h e n broken on t h e wheel, They invade Scotland and Ireland They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and possess 28 M a r c h . themselves of Dublin, Fingal, etc 798 D a m i e t t a (Lower E g y p t ) was t a k e n b y t h e crusaders, 5 N o v . 1219; lost 1221; retaken b y Louis I X . 5 J u n e , 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, 6 M a y , 1250. T h e present town was built soon after. Here, it is said, d i m i t y was first m a n u f a c t u r e d .

D a m o n a n d P y t h i a s (or Phintias), Pythagorean philosophers. D a m o n was condemned to d e a t h by t h e t y r a n t D i o n y s i u s of Syracuse, about 387 B.C. H e obt a i n e d leave to go and settle some domestic affairs, promising to r e t u r n a t t h e appointed t i m e of execution, and P y t h i a s b e c a m e liis surety. W h e n D a m o n did not a p pear, P y t h i a s surrendered and was led to execution ; b u t a t t h i s critical m o m e n t D a m o n r e t u r n e d . Dionysius rem i t t e d t h e sentence, and desired to share t h e i r friendship. D a n a i : an ancient n a m e of t h e G r e e k s derived from D a n a u s , k i n g of Argos, 1474 B.C.

D a n c e o f D e a t h . T h e t r i u m p h of d e a t h over all r a n k s of m e n was a favorite subject with t h e artists of t h e middle ages, and appears in rude c a r v i n g s and pictures in various countries. The Chorea Machabceorum or Danse Macabre, the first printed representation, published by Guyot Marchand, a bookseller of Paris 1485 Holbein s Dance of Death (concerning the authorship of which there has been much controversy), printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil 1594 Many editions have since appeared; one with an introduction and notes published by Mr. Kussell Smith 1849 The term Dance of Death was also applied to the frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, about the end of the fourteenth century. Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of mind and distortions of the body, was very prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the sixteenth century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism, and erroneously supposed to be caused bv the bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and songs employed for its cure are still preserved.

D a n c i n g was i n v e n t e d by t h e Curetes, 1531 b . c . — ' Ettsebiits. T h e Greeks combined t h e dance with t h e i r dramas, and p a n t o m i m i c dances were introduced on t h e R o m a n stage 22 b.c —Usher. D a n c i n g b y cinque paces was introduced i n t o E n g l a n d from I t a l y , a . d . 1511. D a n c i n g was t h e principal a m u s e m e n t of t h e N o r t h American Indians. T h e y had religious, martial, and social dances. I n modern times t h e F r e n c h introduced ballets analogues in t h e i r musical dramas. T h e country dance (contre-danse) is of French origin, b u t its d a t e is n o t precisely k n o w n . — Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, and Waltz, Establishment of a national training-school for dancing, by Mr. Mapleson; second annual distribution of prizes, etc 21 Sept. 1878

Dane-geld,

or D a n e g e l t , a t r i b u t e paid to t h e D a n e s to stop t h e i r r a v a g e s in E n g l a n d ; first raised b y E t h e l r e d I I . in 991, and a g a i n in 1003; and levied a f t e r t h e expulsion of t h e D a n e s to p a y fleets for clearing t h e

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