Geographers Biobibliographical Studies Volume 4 9781474231121, 9781474231107

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GEOGRAPHERS Biobibliographical Studies VOLUME 4

GEOGRAPHERS BIOBIBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES This volume forms part of the series Studies in the History of Geography planned by the International Geographical Union, Commission on the History of Geographical Thought. Chairman, Professor Philippe Pinchemel, U.E.R. de Géographie, Université de Paris, 191 rue Saint Jacques, 75005, Paris. Secretary, Professor T.W. Freeman, 1 Thurston Close, Abingdon 0X14 5RD. Ordinary Members: Professor Vladimir Annenkov, Geographical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Staromonetny per 29, Moscow V-17; Professor Jozef Babicz, Institut d'Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques, Polska Akademia Nauk, Nowy Swiat 72, Warsaw; Professor George Kish, Department of Geography, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104; Professor Jozef Schmithüsen, Universität des Saarlandes, Geographisches Institut, Universität Bau 11 IV, D-66, Saarbrücken 15, West Germany; Professor Ichiro Suitsu, Institute of Geography, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-Ku-Kyoto, Japan; Honorary Members: Mr Gerald Crone, 34 Cleveland Road, Ealing, London W13; Professor Robert E. Dickinson, 636 West Roller Coaster Road, Tucson, Arizona 85704; Professor R. Hartshorne, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.

GEOGRAPHERS Biobibliographical Studies VOLUME 4

Edited by T. W. Freeman and Philippe Pinchemel on behalf of the Commission on the History of Geographical Thought of the International Geographical Union and the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc LON DON • OX F O R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

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www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in 1980 by Mansell Publishing © International Geographical Union, 1980 T.W. Freeman and Philippe Pinchemel have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Editors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: ePDF: 978-1-4742-3110-7 ePub: 978-1-4742-3111-4  Geographers: biobibliographical studies. (Studies in the history of geography). Vol. 4: 1. Geographers – Biography - Periodicals I. Freeman, Thomas Walter II. Pinchemel, Philippe III. Commission on the History of Geographical Thought IV. International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science 910’.92’2 G67 Series: Geographers: Biobibliographical Studies, volume 4

Contents Introduction

T. W. Freeman

List of Abbreviations Al-Muqaddasî c.945-e.988

Arnhild

Henri Baulig 1877-1962

Etienne

Juillard

Constantin Bratescu 1882-1945

George

Nimigeanu

Jovan Cvijic 1865-1927

Milorad

Vasovic

Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev 1846-1903

Vasily

Ludwig von Hohnel 1857-1942

Annemarie

Llewellyn Rodwell Jones 1881-1947

Miohael J.

Immanuel Kant 1724-1804

Manfred Bûttner

Alfred Kirchhoff 1838-1907

Emil Meynen

Andrey Nikolaevich Krasnov 1862-1914

Olga Andreyevna

Jan Stanisïaw Kubary 1846-1896

VJacZaw SJLdbczynski

Hermann Lautensach 1886-1971

Philip

Joachim Lelewel 1786-1861

Zbigniew

William Vaughan Lewis 1907-1961

Cuchlaine

Georg Joachim Rheticus 1514-1574

Manfred Bûttner

Richard Joël Russell 1895-1971

H. Jesse

William Scoresby 1789-1857

Bryan Wai te s

Index

Scholten and Claude

Alexeyevich

D.

Klein

Esakov

Herrmann Wise and Karl

Hoheisel

Alexandrovskaya

Tilley Rzepa A.M. King

Walker

and Karl H.

Burmeister

Introduction

The seventeen geographers considered hère range in time over a thousand years. Of thèse the most distant in time is al-Muqaddasî (c.945-c.988), one of the many Arab geographers of whom it would be good to know more. In fact his ideas on geography seem surprisingly modem for he was eager to establish a précise terminology in a language that abounded in synonyms; he looked at the Arab world and saw that within each province there was a capital, some major cities, several subordinate smaller towns, and a number of villages (what was called later an 'urban hierarchy'); finally he checked his views by his own observations and thought, as thousands did after him, that fieldwork was essential to a geographer. Few indeed hâve held any other view except for some modem quantifiers who fear that it may préjudice their inspired statistical judgement. In his fieldwork he recognized that the physiographic and the political subdivision of areas differed in many places: this was the germ of the idea of the natural région as something other and more permanent than a political unit. If al-Muqaddasî seems to hâve had surprisingly modem ideas, one may reflect that they came from observation of conditions at his time for he saw and expressed what was there. The capacity to do this is not universal, for many people see the world through a glass darkly rather than face to face. He was eager to conform to the religious ethos of his day and he lived in an integrated Moslem world of orthodoxy. Very différent were the circumstances of the Renaissance figure considered in this volume, Rheticus (1514-1574) who always eager to bring the work of

Ptolemy up-to-date, conceived geography as 'the astronomical description of the earth as a celéstial body' and used the term 'chorography' for what would now be thought of as geography. He may hâve been the first to use the word Landschaftj so fruitful a source of contention and explanation later. Two hundred years later, Kant (1724-1804) cornes forward as a harbinger of a new âge, in which geography and cosmography need no longer be presented in a theological context and neither would the thought of Aristotle and other classical writers remain dominant; however, what influence Kant had on later geographers, particularly Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) and Cari Ritter (1779-1859), remains only partially known. It could perhaps be said that in the geography of Kant there was both an end and a beginning. Of the remaining fourteen geographers in this volume, two were primarily travellers; the Austrian von Hohnel (1857-1942), who was one of the early explorers of East Africa, and Kubary (1846-1896), the Pôle who went to Oceania and made numerous observations on ethnography, and provided many useful maps, especially of Micronesia. An élément of chance appears to hâve led von Hohnel and Kubary to such distant places, but the life of William Scoresby (1789-1857) reads as one of the strangest stories for its variety and unexpected happenings. His father took him, when he was only ten years old, to the Arctic and from then onwards until his early thirties he went whaling there repeatedly, charting the journeys made. In 1820 he published a book that remained for many years essential for ail study of the Arctic. In between thèse voyages he

viii

Introduction

acquired his school and university éducation and in 1825 he entered the ministry of the Church of England. He later became Vicar of Bradford, with a great church in the centre of the Yorkshire woollen district. While there he wrote vividly on social and industrial conditions but in his years of retirement he returned to Arctic studies. An avid writer, his publications range through Polar geography, oceanography and naturai history to scientific works on magnetism, religious tracts, and essays on social reform. Another polymath perhaps, but it must hâve been an interesting life, ending in the lush surroundings of Torquay where he still served his church with dévotion. Six geographers discussed in this volume were caught up in the great advance of natural science that swept through the universities and the learned societies from the early nineteenth century. Of thèse the two Russians are of particular interest, Dokuchaev (1846-1903) and Krasnov (1862-1914). Both of them were primarily concerned with the F.uropean area of Russia. Lacking the dramatic interplay of mountains and lowlands of western Europe, European Russia imposed on its geographers the need to regionalize a generally lowland area by a study of soils, climate and vegetation, of which the last was in time extended to include agriculture. Dokuchaev was one of the founders of modem soil science and gave his first course in any Russian university on the Quaternary epoch : this work led naturally to a study of végétation zones. Krasnov too was concerned with soils and végétation, especially with chemozems, and based his thought on the problems of the relations between the inorganic and organic éléments of the environment. Like many scientists of his day, he had a passionate interest in social welfare, first expressed in a form of utopian socialism but later in a far more practical way. He introduced subtropical plants to a botanical garden at Batumi to show that they could be successfully cultivated in Russia, as indeed they now are. Bratescu (1882-1945) in Rumania was primarily a geomorphologist, and studied with various Germans, including Albrecht Penck (1858-1945). His main published contribution was a coastal geomorphology, while from his work on physical geography he went further into more gênerai studies of an applied and régional character. In Alsace, Baulig (1877-1962) began as an historian rather than a geographer, though with the encouragement of Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918), who was working for a synthesis of geography and history splendidly shown in his earlier works, he turned to geography. When Baulig was 27 he went to America and studied with W.M. Davis (1850-1934), who was then in his prime; from that time Baulig became a devoted, though critical, advocate and interpréter of Davisian views and he also wrote the splendid two-volume work on North America in the Géographie Universelle séries. Strangely, in this volume, only one essay on an American appears: Russell (1895-1971) was a man of varied interests, initially influenced by W.M. Davis but gradually developing his own spécial interests, including work on the Mississippi river and delta, with coastal areas. He began his career in a school

of geology, later to be extended into the 'geosciences', covering geography and anthropology as well as geology. A modem, specialized career is seen in the case of Vaughan Lewis (1907-1961), a British geomorphologist who worked on coasts and on glaciation. He was gifted with the capacity to inspire others and was far less polemic or dogmatic than many other geomorphologists of his time. Ail of the geographers considered so far in this Introduction hâve in various ways been deeply conscious of the relationship of their studies to other specialisms; some indeed, such as Russell, hâve considered that without adéquate knowledge of other specialisms they could go no further. Russell, after writing twenty papers on climatology, decided that he lacked an adéquate knowledge of physics to do more. As in ail specialisms, there hâve been some historiographers, such as the Polish-born Lelewel (1786-1861) who spent most of his working years in Brussels as an historian of geography and cartography, and aiso reflected on the relation between history and geography. It now remains to consider four men who were geographers by définition and acceptance: two Germans, Kirchhoff (1838-1907) and Lautensach (1886-1971); the remarkable Serb, Cvijic (1865-1927); and the patient and diplomatie Englishman, Rodwell Jones (1881-1947). Kirchhoff was a follower of Ritter and Humboldt and also of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), whom he considered to be a great geographer. He was concerned with the inter-related phenomena of various geographical regions, and of geographical phenomena in gênerai. Much of his activity was educational and among his writings was a valued textbook on plant geography. Lautensach was above ail a student of landscape which he sought to explain in terms of complexly interwoven influences, In the life of Cvijic one may see a pattern typical of continental European geographers, for he began as a geomorphologist and turned to the human problems of the Balkans at a most crucial time in history. His work provided justification for the création of Yugoslavia at the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Rodwell Jones, like many other university geographers, was primarily concerned with the educational advance of his subject, though his work on London presaged a later growth of urban studies in Britain. Every geographer lives in some historical circumstances which may influence his work by making a particular line of xesearch seem fruitful. There is always an élément of chance and one may wonder, for example, if Cvijic, when he first began to record so many characteristics of the varied population of the Balkans, on his annual field tours lasting for several weeks, had any idea how significant they were to be by 1919. Adversity may ruin an académie as it may ruin any man, yet some geographers such as Lautensach had the courage to take arms against a sea of troubles and thereby end them. Refugees from their fatherland like Lelewel may in time find a home elsewhere in which they can be fruitful scholars. 111 health, as in the case of Krasnov, may terminate a career that appears to be reaching its most productive phase and tragic accident may hâve a similar resuit, as in the case of

Vaughan Lewis. One abiding fascination of biographical study lies in the response geographers made to the intellectual, social and political circumstances of their time, the ethos of their day and âge, and many of those studied hère had the strength of mind and heart to recognize opportunities as they came their way.

T.W. Freeman Note: Intending authors are asked to write to Professor T.W. Freeman, 1 Thurston Close, Abingdon, 0X14 5RD, England, who will send a note of information for authors of biobibliographical studies.

Correction: Professor Jean Dresch has kindly drawn attention to an error in the article, 'Augustin Bernard', vol 3, 1979, 21. The author says that 'in 1946, three new chairs of colonial geography were created in France'. In fact thèse three new chairs date from 1943, when Professor Pierre Gourou was appointed at Bordeaux and Professor Jacques Weulersse at Marseille (see Geographers vol 1, 1977, 107-12). The chair of colonial geography at Strasbourg remained unoccupied until Professor Dresch arrived there in 1946.

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviations hâve been adopted from British

4148: Part 23 1975, Word-abbreviation

list3

Standard

and refer

to abbreviations in both the bibliographical références and the chronological tables.

Abhand. Geogr.- Gesell.

Wien

Abhandlungen der Geo-

Allg. Dtsoh. Biog. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Allg. Erdkd. Allgemeine Erdkunde Alm. Osterr. Akad. Wiss. ' .Almanach Osterreichischer Akademie der Wissenschaften Am. Anthropol. Assoc. American Anthropological Association Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. American Association for the Advancément of Science Am. J. Sci. American Journal of Science

Am. Sci. American Scientist An. Dobrogei Analele Dobrogei Geogr. Antropogeogr. Antropogeografie

An. Orient. Ann.

Annuar de Geografie si

Ann. Ann.

Civilisations Geogr. Annales de Géographie

Ann. Hist. Arch.

Arch.

Soc.

Anthropol.

Congr. Geogr. Ital.

Atti del Sesto Con-

gresso Geografico Italiano

Berlin. Bibl.

Geogr. Abh.

Berliner Geografische Abhandlun-

gen

Geogr. Aràbicorum

Bibliotheca Geographorum

Annales, Economies, Sociétés,

Annales d'Histoire Sociale Archiv fur Anthropologie

Landkd. (VolksJ Prov. Sachsen

Biogr. Mem. Biographical Memoirs Bochumer Geogr. Arb. Bochumer Geographische Arbeiten Bol.

Boll.

Archiv fiir

Landeskunde (und Volkskunde) der Provinz Sachsen

Estud. Geogr. Mendoza ograficos, Mendoza

Soc. Geogr. Ital.

Boletin de Estudios Ge-

Bollettino Società Geografica

Italiana

Bonn. Geogr. Abh. Bonner Geografische Abhandlungen Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr. Buletinul Societafii Romane de Bull. Bull. Bull. Bull.

Analecta Orientalia

Assoc. Am. Geogr. Annals of the Association of American Gebgraphers Bretagne Annales de Bretagne

Ann. Econ. Soc. Civil.

Sesto

Arabicorum

graphischen Gesellschaft in Wien

An.

Atti

Bull. Bull. Bull.

Geografie

Assoc.

Geogr. Fr.

Bulletin de l'Association

des Géographes Français

Fac. Lett.

Strasbourg

Bulletin de la Faculté

de Lettres de Strasbourg

Geol. Soc. Am.

Bulletin of the Geological

Society of America

Soc. Belge Etud. Geogr.

Bulletin de la Société

Belge d'Etudes Géographiques

Soc. Belge Geol. Palêontol.

Hydrol.

Bulletin

de la Société Belge de Géologie, Paléontologie et Hydrologie

Soc. R. Gêogr. d'Egypte

Bulletin de la Société

Royale de Géographie d'Egypte Soc. Serbe Gêogr. Bulletin de la Société Serbe de Géographie

C. R. Congr. Gêol. Int.

Comptes Rendus, Congrès Gé-

ologique International

List of Abbreviations C. R. Congr. Int.

Gêogr.

Comptes Rendus, Congrès

International de Géographique

C. R. Int.

Geol. Congr.

Comptes Rendus, Inter-

national Geological Congress

C. R. Soc. Libre Econ. Càh.

Comptes Rendus, Société Libre

Economique Gêogr. Cahiers de Géographie

Coll. Geogr. Bonn Comité Trav. Hist.

Colloquium Geographicum, Bonn Soi. Bull. Sect. Gêogr. Comité

des Travaux d'Histoire Scientifique, Bulletin de la Section de Géographie

Congr. Int. D.N.B. D.S.B.

Gêogr.

Congrès International de

Géographie Dictionary of National Biography Dictionary of Scientific Biography

Denksohr.

Akad. Wiss. Wien

Denkschriften der

Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien

Diss. Abstr. Dissertation Abstracts Dtsch. Erde Deutsche Erde Dtsch. Geogr. Deutscher Geographentages Dtsch. Kolon. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung Dtsch. Kolon.-kongr. Deutscher Kolonial-kongress Dtsch. Ronds. Geogr. (Stat.) Deutsche Rundschau fur Géographie (und Statistik)

Edinburgh Encycl. Edinburgh Philos. Encycl.

Islam

Edinburgh Encyclopaedia J. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal Encyclopaedia of Islam

J. Trop. Geog. Journal of Tropical Geography Jahr. Akad. Wiss. Jahrbuch der Akademie der Wissenschaf ten

Kartog. Nachr. Kartographische Nachrichten Kwart. Hist. Kwartalnik Historyczny La Gêogr. La Géographie Làndkd. Eur. Mem. Wernerian

Mitt. Mitt. Mitt.

Landerkunde von Europa Soc. Memoirs of the Wernerian Society

Geogr. Gesell.

Hamburg

Geogr. Gesell.

Wien

Munchen. Geogr. Hefte Mîinchener Geografische Hefte Ored. Nauk. Oredownik Naukowy Petermanns Geogr. Mitt. (Erganz. ) Petermanns Philos.

Geographische Mitteilungen (Erganzungsheft) Gesch. Philosophie und Geschichte

Philos.

Trans.

R. Soc. London

Proc.

...

Int.

Geogr. Congr.

Gesellschaft Hannover, Jahrbuch

J. Geographical JournalKal. Geographischer Kalendar Rev. Geographical Review Runds. Geographische Rundschau Univ. Géographie Universelle Z. (Jahresber.) Geographische Zeitschrift

(Jahresbericht)

Geol. Bull. Geological Bulletin Geol. Mag. Geological Magazine Geol. Sci. Bull. Geological Science Bulletin Geol. Soc. Am.

Geological Society of America

Hand. Geogr. Wiss. Inf. Int. Izd. J. J. J. J. J. J. J. J.

Handbuch der Geografischen

Wissenschaft

Proceedings of the ...

International Geographical Congress

Proc. Natl.

Acad. Sci.

Proceedings of the National

Academy of Science Proc. R. Soc. Proceedings of the Royal Society

Proc. R. Zool. Soc. N.S.

Geogr. Geogr. Geogr. Geogr. Gêogr. Geogr.

Philosophical Trans-

actions of the Royal Society of London Proc. Geol. Assoc. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association

Geogr.

Geographische Abhandlungen

Mitteilungen der Geographi-

schen Gesellschaft in Wien Ver. Erdkd. Mitteilungen des Vereins fur Erdkunde

Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh

Abhand.

Mitteilungen der Ge-

ographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg

Erdkd. Erdkunde Estud. Geogr. Estudios Geogrâficos Forsch. und Fortschr. Forschungen und Fortschritte Geogr. Ann. Geografiska Annaler Geogr. Anz. Geographischer Anzeiger Geogr. Gesell. Hannover3 Jahrb. Geographische

Proceedings of the Royal

Society of Edinburgh

Wales

Proceedings of the

Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales

Przegl. Bibliot. Przeglad Biblioteczny Przegl. Geogr. Przeglad Geograficzny Przegl. Hist. Przeglad Historyczny Publ. Fac. Lett. Strasbourg Publications, Faculté de Publ.

Publ.

Lettres, Strasbourg Geogr. Publications in Geography

Inst.

Br. Geogr.

Publications, Institute of

British Geographers R.G.S. Res. Mem. Royal Geographical Society Research Memoir

Recl.

Trav. Inst.

Geôgr. Alpine

Recueil des Travaux

de l'Institut de Géographie Alpine

Rep. Br. Assoc.

Adv. Sci.

Report of the British

Association for the Advancement of Science

Rep. ...

Int.

Geol. Congr.

Report of the ... Inter-

Gêogr. L'Information Géographique Geogr. Congr. International Geographical

Rev.

national Geological Congress Gêogr. Est Revue de Géographie de l'Est

Congress

Rev. Mens. Gêogr.

Revue Mensuelle Géographique

Rev.

Port.

Revista Portugesa de Geografia

Akad. Nauk SSSR

Izdanie Akademii Nauk SSSR

Geogr. Journal of Geography Geol. Journal of Geology Geomorph. Journal of Geomorphology Glaciol. Journal of Glaciology Hist. Ideas Journal of the History of Ideas R. Afr. Soc. Journal of the Royal African Society R. Agric. Soc. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society R. Geogr. Soc. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society

xi

Geogr.

Rocz. Tow. Krol.

Warsz. Przyj.

Nauk.

Roczniki

Towarzystwa Krolewskiego Warszawskiego Przyjaciat Nauk

Scott. Geogr. Mag. Scottish Geographical Magazine Stuttgart. Geogr. Stud. Stuttgarter Geographische Studien Sudhoffs Arch. Sudhoffs Archiv filr Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften

Tijdschr.

K. Ned. Aardijksk.

Genoot.

Tijdschrift

Koninklijik Nederlands Aardijkskundig Genootschap

xii

Trans.

List

of

Abbreviations

(Pap.) Inst. Br. Geogr. Transactions (and Papers), Institute of British Geographers Tr. Pochv. Inst. V. V. Dokuchaeva Trudy Pochvennogo Instituta im. V.V. Dokuchaeva Tr. St. Petersburg 0-va Yestestvoispytateley Trudy St. Petersburg: Obshchestva Yestestvoispytateley Tr. Volnogo Ekon. 0-va Trudy Volnogo Ekonomicheskogô Obshchestva Tyg. Wil. Tygodnik Wilenski Univ. University Verh. Dtsch. Geog. Verhandlungen des Deutschen Geographentages Wiss. Verôff. Mus. Ldke. Wissenschaftliches Verôfflichungen der Muséum fur Lënderkunde, Leipzig Z. Dtsch. Morgenl'àndischen Gesell. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft , Z. Geomorph. Zeitschrift fiïr Geomorphogie Z. Geopolitik Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik Z. Gesell. Erdkd. Berlin Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Berlin Z. Gletscherkd. Zeitschrift fiïr Gletscherkunde Zap. Russkogo Geogr. Obshch. Zapiski Russkogo Geograficheskago Obshchestva

Al-Muqaddasî

c.945-c.988

ARNHILD SCHOLTEN The geographer Muqaddasî was one of the most prominent Arabie geographers of the Islamic Middle Ages, an era in which Arabie geography reached a peak that had not been attained before. Muqaddasî's book entitled Ahsan al-Taqâsîm fi Ma'arfat al-Aqâlîm (The best divisions for the study of climate) which portrays the Islamic empire of the tenth century from a variety of aspects, shows the scientific understanding of its epoch, when geography was commonly regarded as merely descriptive in character; but that is not ail for Muqaddasi realized that geography had its own theory and its own distinct relationship with other sciences. For quite a long time, the importance of Muqaddasî's scientific research was underrated since he was compared with other Arabian scientists — such as Al-Mas'ûdî — who produced (quantitatively) more than he did and accumulated an encyclopedical treasury of findings. Seen from a specifically geographical-historical view, Muqaddasî émerges as the scientist who knows how to evaluate and apply geographical field research to form a geographical theory in which the principles of descriptive geography are reconciled with the ideas on gênerai science and geographical science common among his contemporaries. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK

Of Muqaddasî's life, nothing much is known except that he tells in his book Ahsan al-Taqastm ... (The best divisions . . . ) . His grandfather was a famous architect, and Muqaddasî himself had architectural knowledge. His family lived in Jérusalem (which was also called 'bait

al-maqdis' in Arabie). It is possible that his name stems from the Arabie name of the town; besides the form 'Muqaddasî', the version of 'al-Maqdisî' is found. The latter could also be translated as 'the man of Jérusalem' ('Kleine Mitteilungen,' ['Notices'], Z. Dtsch. Morgenlandischen Gesell.3 vol 60 (1906), 404-5). The exact dates of his birth and death are not known. The only certain fact is that he was writing his book during the years from 985 to 988 A.D., according to his own statement that he did not publish it before his fortieth year. At least two décades earlier he was travelling widely through the Islamic empire, which he explored with the few exceptions of Spain, Sind and Sidjistan, collecting material for his book. To this day there is no clear information on why he left his home and the security of an established family and undertook arduous travels into remote Islamic provinces. According to his own statements, he was driven by his interest in geography to gain famé and récognition in the field of science, believing that geography, being a field of unknown properties, should be best suited to achieve his goal (Ranking/Azoo, 1897. 2; de Goeje, 1906, 1 ) . However, his statement should be accepted with some reserve, as there are no corroborators; it may be that Muqaddasî, working on his book after many years of travel could hâve inserted this statement to présent himself in a favourable light. Another view of his travels is that Muqaddasî was travelling in the service of important people to investigate the Islamic provinces, even acting as a spy (Minorski, 1951, 30). This opinion is supported by the fact that he published two versions of his book, each

2

Al-Muqaddasî

of which was based on a différent sélection of countries, with diverse political characteristics: in the first version the 'Samanid Empire' is considered and in the second the'Fatimid Empire' (Brockelmann, Supp. 1, 1937, 411). Both théories are spéculations however. The fact remains that Muqaddasî in his many years of travel gained detailed first-hand knowledge of the major part of the Islamic empire, which then extended from Spain to India. At that time, according to his statements, he earned his subsistence by working: he présents a long list of jobs he held during his travels. From this list it appears that he was in the service of kings and secretaries of state, being held in high esteem; yet on occasion he had to stoop to the occupation of begging his food (Ranking/Azoo, 1897, 73-80). This list gives information on his activities as a teacher of the Koran, a jurist, a singer and a poet, ail of which occupations indicate, by the standards of the time, a formai and traditional éducation. Muqaddasî's book exists in an Arabie version and several partial translations in English and French. The modem interest lies in the work's geographical contents and in the impact of thèse contents on contemporary geography in relation to the scientific and intellectual situation of the time. Muqaddasî's motives for writing the book are of marginal interest only. Considération must be given to the respect the author sought and gained in the contemporary intellectual world under Islamic influence. Also of interest is the merit of the work among the geographical writings of the time.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Muqaddasî's book The best divisions for the study of olimate shows the prédominant influence of Islamic scientific traditions. The book contains numerous religious formulas, praise of Mohammed the Prophet, and prayers for Divine Blessings — ail those passages of formai rhetoric which were indispensable éléments in scientific works of the time. In its contents the book also reflects the then acknowledged and Koranbased perception of the earth. For example Muqaddasî tells of the existence of only two earthly océans which again (allegedly) lead into the one (universal) océan that encircles ail the earth. The idea of several heavens is also Islam-oriented. On the other hand there is some indication of Greek influence, which was still quite marked. Muqaddasî begins with the earth's spherical shape and tries his hand at an astronomical computation of the climatic zones, which probably originated from Ptoiemy though it is strongly modified. In its formai structure, the book consists of two parts: the first part contains, besides initial theoretic rationale, the description of the Islamic provinces and a total view of the Islamic empire; the second part deals with the nonArabian provinces. Both parts are introduced by the 'Basmallah', the sacred opening phrase; this in effect demonstrates the formai individuality of each part. The book's contents show a division into the theor-

etical part which contains the basic théories on geography as a science, and the practically oriented part which describes the Islamic provinces, following the principles that are formulated in the first part.

(a) Contemplation

of Fvcndamentals

Muqaddasî begins by analysing the geographical works of his predecessors (as far as they were known to him) and cornes to the conclusion that none of them could be called satisfactory, for they were too lengthy, not systematic, or lacking adéquate information of value. He ascribes this unsatisfactory level of geographical works to the lack of 'firm rules' for the geography of his era and to the fact that 'everyone may proceed according to his own liking' (Ranking/Azoo, 1897, 8 ) . His opinion is justified in view of the actual situation of Arabian geography within the contemporary scientific System: there was a wide variety of half-developed scientific branches, ranging from mathematical-astronomical geography based on Ptolemy to the préparation of itineraries. Each of thèse branches was considered as separate; there was no such comprehensive science as 'geography', nor even an Arabie term for the Greek concept of geography. Muqaddasî concludes from this 'desolate' situation that his book will inevitably be better than those of his forerunners, for he formulâtes principles that shall be the déterminants of how to systematize. One of thèse principles is to state the sources on which he bases the research besides his own observations. He deems the mixing of self-discovered facts and data with those found by others to be unjustified and also detrimental, because of the impossibility of verifying information from foreign sources and so risking the spread of misinformation; one of the mandatory premises in his book is veracity. Another principle is the idea of précise terminology. In many examples, Muqaddasî demonstrates in what sensé he wants to apply spécifie terms and how he wants them to be understood, in order to preclude any error or misinterpretation by his readers. This is very important, since the contemporary Arabie language abounded in synonyms; for example, for the concept of a 'city', Muqaddasî wants each synonym to hâve a différent meaning, with regard to the city's size and function within its environment. The mère désignation of a place is supposed to convey to the reader what importance it possesses. The postulate of systematic treatment must be seen in close connection with this principle of terminological précision. For this purpose, Muqaddasî divides the Islamic empire into fourteen provinces, with which he deals consecutively, subdividing each province again, following this principle of proceeding from the largest units to the smallest ones. The first link in this chain is the provincial capital, followed by the major cities of importance, their subordinate small towns, and finally the villages. This hierarchical System is compréhensible to the reader only when based on unequivocal terms; which as noted earlier Muqaddasî defined. Muqaddasî, however, places still greater emphasis

Al-Muqaddasî on truth and on originality (the latter mentioned above in a différent connection). Expressly he avoids the practice, coiranon in his era, of copying the geographical work of recognized predecessors and confining his task to mère compilation, as many of his contemporaries had done. Instead, he puts his own observations made during his extensive travels in the centre of his works and contends that he cannot présent anything to his readers as fact unless he has seen it with his own eyes (Ranking/Azoo, 1S97, 75). Based on that attitude the scientist's observation had an impact unheard of in the mainly descriptive geography in contemporary Arabia. Scientific observation is the sole foundation of Muqaddasî's book; it is the sole guarantee of truth and originality. Field research, therefore, is a must for the geographer if he wants to make true observations that will stand checking by anyone else. With this reasoning, Muqaddasî advanced beyond the scope of traditional Arabie geography, which like so many other fields of science, had consisted (with few exceptions) of compilations from earlier authorities whose findings were merely listed (very often without comments) and produced without any effort to verify their accuracy. Muqaddasî, incidentally, by establishing the scientist's observation as the basis of geography, also goes beyond the gênerai scientific scope of his time, since science had been closely connected with the religious Islande ideology, which placed more value on référence to ancient authority than on the personal research carried out by individuals. The Koran was the suprême authority as the book of God's own unchangeable révélations. Theologians and contemporaries or successors of Mohammed the Prophet likewise were accepted as religious authorities, simply because they had lived at or near the time of the Prophet (Plessner, 1931, 14); as a conséquence, science proper had developed a reverential attitude to the Elders in gênerai, since their works were considered to be reliable sources. By promoting personal observation and even defining it as the only guarantee for true scientific results, Muqaddasî breaks away from the traditional System in Islamic science. The first models of similar thought, even if in a less accomplished form, are found in the socalled 'Balkhî School', which includes the geographers Al-Balkhî, Al-Istakhrî and Ibn Hauqal: on occasion, Muqaddasî is associated with that school. For example,

the book entitled Kitâb surat

al-ard

(Description

of

the earth) by Ibn Hauqal, which Muqaddasî probably knew, contains similar ideas; there too observation is given great importance and expéditions are considered indispensable. But only Muqaddasî recognized and proclaimed in full the connection between observation and fieldwork and their importance for the development of a separate and individual geographical science, and he alone used this approach for the contemplation of basic théories. It is not clear from Muqaddasî's book whether or not he was really aware of the potentiality of thèse ideas; he does not follow up the initial direction but conversely in several instances resorts to the prin-

3

ciple of authority, in order to prove his statements, even referring to the Koran and the 'Hadith' to make a point. Consequently there is a contradiction between his postulate for personal observation as a reliable proof and his actual démonstrations which on occasion are based on authoritarian précédents. It cannot be determined whether Muqaddasî uses this method of proof in order to show that he acknowledges its primary value; in fact his work does not always conform to the new ideas he advocated. It may be, on the other hand, that he is merely using the précèdent method as a device, to démonstrate how closely he adhères to the Islamic tradition in science lest his réputation as a scientist be jeopardized. Apart from the question which of thèse two reasons is right, there remains in the book a contradiction between theory and practical application, a conflict between the claim for personal observation and the tradition of révérence toward authority; this conflict was inevitably faced by ail those who wanted to proceed empirically. Tradition decreed that truth should be the alpha of the process of research and not the oméga, since truth was invariably pre-established by the Koran and by the authorities (Plessner, 1931, 14; Grunebaum, 1954, 6 ) . To sum up, it must be said that Muqaddasî, through his reflections on procédure, promotion of ideas, and systematization in his book well deserves to be considered the most eminent geographer of the Arabie Middle Ages, whose work shows the distinct articulation of theoretical premises. He created something like a book of rules for the methods in descriptive geography and attempted, by means of methodical tools, to promote geography to the rank of an autonomous science.

(b) The Practical-Regional

Work

Muqaddasî distinguishes between fourteen différent Islamic provinces which he divides into six Arabian and eight non-Arabian provinces. For each province he has drawn, as did his predecessors from the Balkhî School, a coloured map which is available for référence, together with other maps by Arabian geographers, in.a beautiful collection of maps (Miller, 1926). Expressly he disregards the exploration of non-Islamic territories (Ranking/Azoo, 1897, 12), as he deems them hardly noteworthy: this attitude was natural because of the Muslims' gênerai feeling of superiority toward other religions and foreign cultures. Before Muqaddasî goes into détail he furnishes a gênerai view of ail the Islamic provinces, naming waters, océans, rivers, lakes, and islands, partly including essential information on navigability and winds. The prominent features of the individual régions are then described, with an overview of the religious situation, followed by a description of routes and roads throughout the entire area, and finally a description of the location and extent of the individual provinces within the larger Islamic empire. Following this gênerai picture, Muqaddasî gives first a detailed description of the individual provinces, traditionally starting with the Arabian Peninsula, the realm of the Islamic holy places, then

4

Al-Muqaddasî

going on to other Arabie and non-Arabie areas. Each province is dealt with in two consécutive chapters, each flollowing a différent System. The first chapter, dealing with a province (which Muqaddasî briefly calls 'aqalim' — meaning 'province'), always follows a basic scheme. It is introduced by a eulogy of the province, enumerating its merits; this is followed by a division into districts which are again subdivided into smaller régions to which finally cities and villages are allocated. There is clear évidence of the hiérarchie principle of subdivision that has been mentioned on p.2 above. The largest areal unit, i.e., the province, is subdivided into smaller units, which are divided into subordinate still smaller units (Scholten, 1976, 100). The use of this System permits the reader to see easily the importance any particular place has for the surrounding région by simply noting its position within this hiérarchie order. In this manner, Muqaddasî analyzes each provincial district one after another, always following a particular administratively determined hierarchy which though not a natural geographical method of subdivision facilitâtes the systematic description of a territory. Muqaddasî is less systematic in dealing with data on a city, a village, or any other areal unit. They appear to be arranged at random, having corne to his attention haphazardly. By modem standards a formai arrangement of the aspects under which each part of the country could be reviewed is missing but Muqaddasî did not intend this: it is the objective of the hiérarchie System to subordinate minor areal units to major ones and to describe the latter, in order to integrate each major area within the description of the large provinces. This technique of working from the smallest unit to the largest became common practice among geographers. The second chapter of the narrative on each province, which Muqaddasî calls 'djumal' ('summary review'), follows quite a différent method. Hère Muqaddasî présents thematic highlights of view under which he scrutinizes the province as a large-scale région. In thèse chapters he suggests certain questions to be raised regarding the province. With few exceptions he undertakes a panoramic présentation beginning with the physiographical aspect (climate, water conditions), religion (famous scientists, Koran schools, Koran versions, sects and religious minorities), commerce and production (commercial relations, agricultural produce, handicrafts, measures and weights) and the culture of the inhabitants, their holy places and their administration. The chapters always conclude with an itinerary. By modem standards the order of topics seems arbitrary and even questionable, but in Muqaddasî's time it was quite a feat to devise a systematization of this type and to apply it to ail the fourteen provinces (with few exceptions), and so to deal with ail the provinces under standard subdivisions. The application, achieved by Muqaddasî, of both a hierarchical and a thematic systematization, was new, for none of his predecessors had given so logical a framework though Ibn Hauqal's book on descriptive geography

shows an attempt to achieve such a framework. But Hauqal, though the author of the most methodical book before Muqaddasî's, never succeeded in differentiating clearly between a physiographic and a political-administrative subdivision of areas, and his efforts to provide a blended présentation resulted in a loss of lucidity (Scholten, 1976, 66-82). Only Muqaddasî succeeded in effectively applying two methods of spatial grouping without c'onfusing the two, thus achieving a description of each territory from varied angles and so presenting a clear picture. Muqaddasî's high standing as an Arabie scientist rests on his accomplishment in the theoretical-scientific area, and on his experiment in in systematization in the geographical part of his book.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Even though Muqaddasî's work developed and promoted the budding ideas on theoretical and practical progress, bringing thèse ideas up to a high level of accomplishment and thus offering descriptive geography the chance to become an independent branch of science, geographers after Muqaddasî forfeited their opportunity of further promotion of methods and Systems. This attitude was mainly caused by the trends of later centuries (first noted in the eleventh century A.D.) in which Islande orthodoxy succeeded in gaining a prédominant influence, revived the traditional sciences, but refused to recognize other ways of thought such as Muqaddasî's ideas on the value of personal observation. Under the influence of such dogmatic tendencies, descriptive geography degenerated to nothing more than a collection of loosely related facts — 'compendious geography' without a scientific method spécifie to geography. Muqaddasî's concepts remained undeveloped; the geographers after him merely adopted his useful and reliable individual observations. His standing as an authority on traditional geography was great with his successors, who consulted his work readily, since it was a reliable source; but he was not given récognition as a theoretician of geographical science. Today, in retrospect, Muqaddasî is regarded as the most eminent geographer of the Arabie Middle Ages; it was he who tried to raise geography to scientific status by developing methods and Systems of logically arranged geographical information and data so as to présent an intégral picture.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON AL-MUQADDASl

Ranking, G.S.A. and Azoo, R . F . , Al-Muqaddasi3 Kitàb Ahsanu-t-taqasïm fï ma'vifati-l-aqalïm (The best divisions for the study of olimate)3 partial English t r a n s i . , The A s i a t i c Society of Bengal, new s e r . , no. 899, Bibliotheca I n d i c a , Calcutta (1897)

Al-Muqaddasî de Goeje, M.J., Al-Moqaddasi 'Descriptio Imperii Moslemici' ('Description of the Islande empire'), Bibl. Geogr. Arabicorum, vol 3, 2nd ed, Leiden (1906) Anonymous, 'Kleine Mitteilungen' ('Notices'), Z. Dtsch. Morgenlândischen Gesell. , vol 60 (1906), 404-10 Miller, K., Mappae Arabicae. Arabische Welt- und Lânderkarten des 9.-13. Jahrhunderts (Arabie maps. Arabie world- and régional maps of the 9th-13th centuries)y 6 vols, Stuttgart (1926-7) Plessner, M., 'Die Geschichte der Wissenschaften im Islam als Aufgabe der modernen Islamuissenschaft' ('The history of the sciences in Islam as a task of modem Oriental sciences'), Philos. Gesch. vol 31, Tubingen (1931) Brockelmann, C., Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (History of Arab literature), supplément, vol 1, 2nd ed, Leiden (1937) Kramers, J.H., Ibn Hauqal 'Kitàb surat al-ard' ('Description of the earth'). Opus geographicorum secondum textum et imagines cod. Const. (Topkapi Sarayi) 3346, Bibl. Geogr. Arabicorum, vol 2, 2 vols, 2nd ed, Leiden (1938-9) Minorsky, V., 'Géographes et voyageurs musulmans', Bull. Soc. R. Geogr. d'Egypte, vol 24 (1951), 19-46 Grunebaum, G.E., Studies in Islamic Culture History, Am. Anthropol. Assoc., vol 56 (no. 2, part 2 ) , memoir no. 76, Menasha (1954) Scholten, A., 'Lânderbeschreibung und Landerkunde im islamischen Kulturraum des 10.Jahrhunderts' ('Descriptive geography and régional geography in the Islamic culture realm during the lOth century'), Bochumer Geogr. Arb.3 vol 25 (1976), 136p. 2. SELECTED MUQADDASÎ EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS See (a) Ranking and Azoo (b) de Goeje under '1. Références' above, and also Miquel, A., Al-Muqaddasi, Ahsan at-taqàsîm fi ma'rifat al-aqâlîm (La meilleure répartition pour la connaissance des provinces)3 partial French transi., Damascus (1963) 3. OTHER REFERENCES Beazley, R.C., The Dawn of modem Geography3 3 vols, London (1897-1906) Carra de Vaux, B., Les penseurs de l'islam, vol 2 of Les géographes3 les sciences mathématiques et naturelles3 Paris (1921) Schoy, C., 'The Geography of the Moslems of the Middle Ages', Geogr. Rev. , vol 14 (1924), 257-69 Kramers, J.H., 'Al-Mukadassî', Encycl. Islam, vol 3, lst ed. (1936), 708-09 Ahmad, Nafis, 'Muslim Contributions to Geography during the Middle Ages', Islamic Culture, vol 17 (1943), 241-64 Kramers, J.H., 'La littérature géographique classique des musulmans', An. Orient., vol 1 (1954), 172204

5

Showket, I., 'Arab Geography till the end of the tenth century', Diss. Abstr., 14, no 10, 1679-80 (Abstracts of Dissertations and Monographs in Microfilm) , Z 5055, U 5 A 53, Clark (1954) Dr. Arnhild Scholten received her Ph.D. in geography in 1975 from the Ruhr-Universitât, Bochum, Fédéral Republic of Germany. Since 1976 she has been teaching geography and Germon at a Gymnasium in Ludenscheid. The author acknowledges the collaboration of Prof. Klaus D. Gurgel, Weber State Collège, Ogden, Utah, U.S.A., in the préparation of the English manuscript.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

c. 940

born at Jérusalem

Intellectual and religious fights between the Sunnite orthodoxy and the libéral Mu'tazilite influence during the tenth century, won by the orthodox Mus1ims

c. 960

T r a d i t i o n a l islamic science éducation

Sung Dynasty in China 960-1279

c. 960980

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL3

AL-MUQADDASI

PUBLICATIONS

Travelled through the Islamic empire

Flowering of Arab culture and science in Spain c. 975

985

First édition: Ahsan al-Taqasîm fi Ma 'arfat al-Aqalîm (The best divisions for the study of olimate) with 'The Samanid Empire' as its focus;

988

second version of first édition with 'The Fatimid Empire' as its focus

No more dates are available

C0NTEMP0RARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Henri Baulig 1877-1962

ETIENNE IUILLARD AND CLAUDE KLEIN 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK The only son in a household of modest circumstances — his father was a farm worker from the Brie who came to Paris as concierge in a factory and his mother came from a Protestant village in Alsace — Henri Baulig was regarded by his teachers as exceptionally bright. He was awarded a bursary which made possible his brilliant progress through the lycée of Louis-le-Grand (where he won a Greek prize) and then through the Sorbonne studying history and geography. There he became associated with intellectuals who were followers of Dreyfus, including Charles Péguy and Daniel Halévy. He gave courses at the Fondation Universitaire, Belleville, one of the first centres for extra-mural teaching for adults, especially for working people. He came into contact with intellectuals believing in truth and progress including Paul Desjardins, Jean Schlumberger, André Siegfried, and Jacques Bardoux. He still regarded himself as a student of history and wrote his undergraduate thesis on Anacharsis Cloots. Shortly afterwards he was attracted by the teaching of Vidal de la Blache and with his support planned to write a thesis on Paris. Suddenly ail was changed, for Baulig at 27 abandoned his idea of seeking the agrégation and, on the advice of Vidal de la Blache, went to Harvard University to work with W.M. Davis. He stayed in America for seven years, absorbing the new American geomorphology, perfecting his English and writing his first articles on the human problems of North America. There too he met his wife, Gabrielle Nepveu, a sister of the novelist Luc Durtain. Having graduated in

literature, Mme. Baulig shared ail his interests and helped her husband to write with précision and élégance. They had one son, who died at the âge of thirty from a mental illness. On his return to Paris, Baulig arranged with Vidal de la Blache to write a thesis on the Central Plateau of France and for the next three years he carried out his fieldwork, supporting hiraself by teaching first in Paris and later at Rennes. The four years of 1914-18, which he spent as a soldier in a non-combat unit, interrupted his scientific work though in December 1917 Lucien Gallois proposed him for a chair at Strasbourg after the War, to which he was appointed in 1919. He spent the first four years making the Institute of Geography the best equipped of ail those in the French provinces and studying the geography of Alsace, in both its human and physical aspects. From 1928 he was the Director of the Centre d'Etudes germaniques, an institute of the university which gave courses on German problems to Army information officers and various other students. From the beginning his life at Strasbourg was given to reading and study, with complète dedication to scholarship. The préparation of his thesis, and later of his massive work on North America, absorbed ail the time available, and except for international congresses and a field tour in Yugoslavia with Jovan Cvijic, he left France only to give a course of lectures in London in 1933. Even so, the second world war of 1939-45 roused in him the same social conscience that he had shown as a young man. His concern for just treatment of

8

Henri

Baulig

Alsatian and Jewish students who were refugees at Clermont-Ferrand, where the University of Strasbourg had been evacuated, as well as his openly expressed anti-Nazi views, resulted in several weeks of imprisonment by the Gestapo. Physically worn out but still possessing his intellectual vitality to the end, he re-established the Institute of Geography at Strasbourg after the Liberation, and after his retirement he devoted his time to scholarship and wrote a number of papers. He continued to live in Strasbourg except for meetings of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and short holidays in the Vosges, and remained in touch with the various trends of geographical thought. While critical of his earlier ideas in his Essais of 1950, he also gave advice to those who asked for it and constantly denounced what he regarded as the errors of the 'new geomorphology'. In his last years he broadened the range of his reading and with the inspiration gained from Teilhard de Chardin and Montesquieu found satisfaction in a broad humanism.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT a. Contribution

to

science

Baulig1s work as a scientist was challenging to a remarkable degree.

a) Baulig as a disciple of W.M. Davis: and polygenetic concept

the

polycyclic

Although it was A. de Lapparent, a geologist, who introduced Davisian ideas into Europe it was Baulig who was their tnost ardent and lucid exponent in France for fifty years. During his long sojourn in America, he attended Davis's major courses and worked under his direction. Nobody at the time had a closer understanding of the whole trend of Davisian thought and it is significant that his first major publication on geomorphology in 1925 (a paper presented at the I.G.U. Congress in Cairo) was on the concept of equilibrium, which is crucial in any theory dealing with the cycle of érosion. Though an ardent disciple of Davis, Baulig was not uncritical of his views. In his thesis (1928, p. 47), unlike Davis, Baulig admits that, in some circumstances 'cycles which originated one after the other may develop simultaneously.' This is particularly the case when instead of being generated by a large-scale deformation of the earth's crust they originate in a sudden change in sea level. As a resuit a landscape may show traces of several cycles (polycyclic relief), each continuing its adjustment to its own base level. This was worked out in his monograph of 1948, published by the I.G.U. Commission on Terraces. The identification of composite surfaces (first called surfaces à facettes according to his paper of 1926 on Belgium, then 'polygenetic' surfaces), removed in some ways the difficulty in the Davisian theory of a peneplanation due to long-continued stability of land and sea. According to Baulig it was quite legitimate to consider such 'polygenetic' forms to be 'the resuit of a great cycle of érosion, in the Davisian sensé'.

Thus the concept of the cycle was defined so broadly in his writings that there was no longer any need to make individual exceptions to it. By introducing thèse modifications to Davis' original more rigid schemes, Baulig was able to keep intact the essentials of his master's théories.

b) as a follower

of Eduard Suess:

diastrophic

eustatism

Davis was against ail forms of eustatism but Baulig, in his splendid thesis of 1928 on the Central Plateau of France, accepted the eustatic théories of E. Suess, to whom he in fact dedicated his work. The idea of eustatic movements of sea level appeared to provide the only possible explanation of the séries of levels he recognized along the Mediterranean border of the ancient massif of Central France. Thèse, Baulig believed, resulted from intermittent lowering of sea level from later Pliocène times, though each separate recognizable level reflected a period of stability. Having arrived at this view, Baulig distinguished the levels of thèse surfaces, not only where he first saw them but elsewhere in France, including Armorica. Major levels apparently existed at 380m, 280m, and 180m around the Mediterranean basin and also in Armorica and elsewhere. Along with observation in the field, statistical methods were employed from 1926. Faced with the observational and statistical évidence that comparable levels at the same altitude occurred in widely separated areas and under varied structural conditions, Baulig saw no other explanation but eustatism. The eustatic movements of climatic origin during the Quaternary period were merely incidental for only diastrophic movement could produce such marked results: in his 1928 thesis he said that the eustatic évolution of stable continental régions is governed basically by the intermittent déformations of unstable continental or oceanic régions (1928, 518-21). Thèse conclusions, though the resuit of long délibération, were received with considérable scepticism even in 1929 (Ann.Geogr., 38, 113-32), and still more so later {Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 55 (1944), 793-818), but at first more for their palaeogeographic implications than for questions of fact or method. Baulig remained impregnable in his views. He made a last attempt to hâve them accepted in the report of 1948 to the I.G.U. Commission on Pliocène and Pleistocene Terraces, a fine pièce of advocacy for eustatism (esp. pp. 101-07). Neither the 1948 publication nor Baulig's Changing sea level published by the Institute of British Geographers in 1935 convinced geomorphologists in gênerai though the ideas of Baulig about (diastrophic) eustatism remain challenging. They are in accord with the seafloor spreading theory. On this, and also on the significance of guyots (drowned ancient islands of the Pacific basin) the views of Baulig hâve proved to be more in accord with those held later than with the views of de Martonne. However, it has been shown that many of the areas considered by Baulig to be stable during the late Neogene period were in fact affected by movements in

Henri Baulig Pliocène and early-Pleistocene times, and thus cannot be used with any certainty to identify levels of eustatic érosion.

c) as author of 'Vocabulaire franco-anglo-allemand de géomorphologie' (1956) In Baulig's works form and essence were inseparably linked. He took extrême care with his writings and never published anything which was not in a fit state to appear in print. Even his most exacting critics praise the clarity and précision of his style while his admirers hâve stressed the élégance of his expianations. His indomitable search for the exact meaning of words made Baulig the one person in the world able to write a trilingual Vocabulaire. The introduction reveals the great labour involved in such an enterprise and the inspiration that made it possible. The reward came in the warm welcome the work received in France and other French-speaking countries. No doubt the welcome would hâve been greater still if the text had been translated into English. Nevertheless everyone will realize the disparity between what remains to be done and what, thanks to Baulig, has already been achieved.

b. Ideas on geography and other

sciences

Although Baulig was a man of wide culture in science, history and philosophy, he wrote little of a gênerai character. From choice, he used his talent almost exclusively in the service of geomorphology. Nevertheless he made great claims for geography as a science, which he defined as 'a certain manner of looking at things, a way of thought, perhaps even a new form of understanding to which the western mind, and as yet no other, has corne': in his view, geography 'is concerned with thought on terrestrial objects and events as a function of the Earth' (Ann. Geogr., 57 (1948), 1-11). The geographer, he continues, 'has the task of recognizing and understanding complexes in their spatial extension, in their internai constitution and in their relation to whole earth' and geographical work lies in the field of 'functional relations and interactions, and therefore of an interdependence in which equilibrium is achieved only by constant adjustments, for only a moving equilibrium is lasting'. In the case of human aspects it is essential to study 'the économie and social structure of a group, its contact with the outside world, its community spirit or individualism, its emphasis on tradition or innovation, in a word ail that makes up its collective mentality, for ail this will show itself in the way of life and the use of space in which any group lives' ('Géographie générale et géographie régionale', 1959). In his ideas Baulig remained faithful to the outlook of his first university teacher, Vidal de la Blache. Also in 1959, in the same revealing paper, Baulig said more on the geographical approach or way of thought. 'If each science concentrated on its natural bent,' he wrote, 'it would tend to turn in on itself, to consider only facts of the same kind with their internai relations; but the geographer is not like

9

that for he looks at one and the same time at phenomena which are markedly heterogeneous, if they occur together and hence can interact and form associations on a local, régional or even global level'. It follows therefore that the geographer must be 'adequately familiar with associated sciences, not only to understand fully their findings but also to be able to appreciate their merit'. Thus geography may be considered, not as a science as generally understood, but rather as 'a combination of diverse sciences, themselves having their own methods and autonomy' (Ann. Geogr. 3 57 (1948), 9-10). Clearly there are difficulties in preserving the unity and cohésion of such a discipline but one should perhaps be less surprised by the risk of fission by which it has been threatened since the middle of this century than by the astonishing success of those who during the earlier fifty years gave it both form and inspiration. Although his famé rests on the geomorphological work, Baulig was successful in other branches of geography as well. Some work shows his exceptional érudition, as for example 'La perche et le sillon; mots et choses', an essay on agrarian meteorology published in 1949. His famous régional text on North America, in two volumes forming Tome XIII of the Géographie Universelle (1935-6) was regarded by many people as one of the finest in the whole séries and in 1948 {Geogr. Rev., 38, 319, 662) the American Geographical Society awarded him the Charles P. Daly medal for 'the best régional geography of North America in any language'.

c. The geomorphological

philosophy

of

Baulig

Few geomorphologists hâve given deeper considération to the meaning of words and the formulation of terminology than Baulig and this aspect of his work is best considered under three headings.

a) Stability

and movement in

geomorphology

The theory of the cycle of érosion rests on the fundamental concept of equilibrium. The création and persistence of a state of equilibrium cannot be consistent with évolution based on free and continuous tectonic instability. Baulig remained faithful to the stabilist concept, which postulâtes the complète fixity of continental masses during the progress of the cycle of érosion, though he did not ignore the objections — many of them purely formai — made by various workers to this view. Walter Penck's entirely différent view was ex-

pressed in his Morphological

Analysis

of

Landforms

(1924, English translation by H. Czech and K.C. Boswell 1953). He said This state of affairs forms the substance of the fundamental law of morphology: the modelling of the earth's surface is determined by the ratio of the intensity of the endogenetic to that of the exogenetic displacement of material. Penck's anti-Davisian convictions were so dogmatically expressed that his views were regarded as extrême and

10

Henri

Baulig

Baulig greatly enjoyed denouncing the errors of his 'Piedmonttreppen' (step-like benches around mountains) theory on the ground that no continuous évolution could produce such discontinuous forms (J. Geomorph., . 2 (1939), 281-304). The fact remains that many of the planations that hâve at times been ascribed to cyclic évolution or polycyclic évolution are in fact acyclic, and therefore Penck's theory of an unstable tectonic synmorphogenesis is more in accord with the landforms observed through their évolution than the theory of W.M. Davis. b) Qualitative and quantitative geomorphology The idea of explaining landforms by dynamic processes is as old as geomorphology and by 1888 was seen in Les formes du terrain, the classic work of G. de la Noë and E. de Margerie, two authors who undertook experiments to test their théories. No 'law' came from such efforts. Davis himself chose to view the problem from another angle and instead of examining each form 'by and for itself ' he favoured the regrouping of landforms in a cohérent evolutionary séries, a 'genetic séquence'. He developed his famous idea of 'structure, process and stage', in which the idea of 'stage' came from the conviction that when a state of equilibrium — that is a 'graded condition' — is established, 'the different form-elements of a given structural mass are systematically related to one another' (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. , 33 (1922), 594-5). Processes were considered in presenting this view but with the main emphasis on their effects, the detailed analysis of the actual mechanism being relegated to the background in the generai scheme of development. This doctrinal treatment has led to reproach for Davis by the advocates of quantitative geomorphology. In theory this judgement is reasonable, though Baulig, whose support of Davis' ideas was based on a constant critical re-examination of them, was able to show that in practice things worked differently. Apart from the fact that nothing could guarantee, a priori, that 'ail could be explained, from simple processes to entire forms, by a continuing chain of mechanisms' (v.i.), the fact remains that the factors involved in the simplest geomorphological observation are so numerous that their thorough, indeed exhaustive, analysis is a hazardous enterprise. This is especially so as there are many interdependent variables, linked together by reciprocal relations 'which means that the effect has repercussions on the cause, that one variation in any variable affects ail the others', making a mobile equilibrium. If one may suppose however that with modem means of research it may eventually be possible to undertake such an analysis (impossible in Davis's time), there will still be the need to step outside the perspective of the présent to include in the reasoning and in any actual mathematical calculations the part, generally considérable, of past influences. This leads to three questions. First, is it necessary to defer any considération of a geomorphological kind until the methods of quantitative analysis can provide a solution? Secondly, is ail qualitative

geomorphology derisory, to such an extent that one may think that more harm than good was done by its advocates in endeavouring to establish a logical treatment of landforms? Or conversely should one find it scientifically more honest to agrée with Baulig that both the quantitative and qualitative approaches are justifiable, and in fact complementary? a) Necessity and contingency in geomorphology Baulig's réservations on quantitative geomorphology arose from the conviction that micro-morphology, based on micro-morphometry, did not necessarily provide a key to macro-morphology ('Morphometrie', Ann. Gêogr. 68 (1959), 385-408). In spatial analysis 'actual dimensions hâve their significance' and 'in varying degrées, possibilités appear which seem to be absent in lower orders. No doubt on a broad view a transition may appear to be continuous from one order to the next but 'seen at close range, this transition takes place in stages, each corresponding to thresholds of action, so that one cannot easily perceive how one stage passes into the next' (Ann. Gêogr. 68 (1959), 408). Consequently a question arises; are 'the detailed processes on the one hand and the gênerai form of the land on the other two différent parts of the physical reality, of so diverse a kind that knowledge of processes will not provide a law of landforms' (Essais de Géomorphologie, 1950, 42). In time Baulig went further. Although he had always defended the view that the mechanical aspects were crucial, he in time asked himself whether processes, however simple in appearance, were not in fact 'particular combinations of cause and effect which, from their particular nature, already contained something more than what is universal' (Ann. Gêogr. 68 (1959), 407). Yet, in recognizing that 'the reality is something more than the sum of its parts' (Cah. Gêogr. , 3/6 (1959) , 48) Baulig was in accord with those who believed in the contingency of natural laws, for example with the thought of E. Boutroux, De la contingence des lois de la nature, 1874,"68, 77, 158, 164. Whether the 'something more' of reality can be measured remains a matter of interest. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD 0F IDEAS Baulig was over fifty years of âge in 1928 when he defended his thesis on Central France which made him famous, though he was by no means unknown at that time. He had to wait until 1928 to be given full académie récognition. His emphasis on eustatism was met by scepticism and this was prejudicial to his réputation as a serious writer. This was particularly the case when a scholar as eminent as Emmanuel de Martonne opposed his views (Ann. Gêogr., 38 (1929), 113-32). One must not however misconstrue de Martonne's reaction: a mère différence of opinion would not hâve affected his high regard for Baulig though his views carried much weight. An agrège at 22, D. es Lettres at 29, D. es Sciences at 34, holder of Vidal de la Blache's chair at the Sorbonne from 1909, de Martonne's Traité de gêographie physique had run through four éditions by 1928.

Henri Baulig Naturally such a brilliant career entitled him to prééminence but one may regret that this delayed the récognition due to Baulig. In Strasbourg however Baulig was a man of conséquence, especially for his influence on those students (too few in numbers and including many who abandoned geomorphology) who were willing to accept an exacting teacher in their study for a diploma or their work for a thesis: among thèse he had devoted admirers. He was a man of standing in the Faculty of Arts among many eminent scholars eager to présent French thought in Alsace, returned to France after nearly fifty years; among them were historians such as Albert Grenier, Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre, Georges Lefebvre and linguists such as Fourquet. With them, and others, he held interdisciplinary seminars, from which came, in

1934, the Annales d'histoire

économique et sociale

of

Bloch and Febvre. Abroad his prestige was high, for many recognized his Cartesian attributes of clarity, rigour and concision. The Americans regarded him as a man of particular distinction though it was in Great Britain that his geomorphological views were most warmly welcomed. His lectures at London University in 1933 were published by the newly founded Institute of British Geographers as their second monograph in 1935. The emphasis on surfaces of érosion, or 'peneplanes', was strong in Britain at the time, and particularly favoured by S.W. Wooldridge and D.L. Linton. Naturally there were many controversial questions for Baulig thought that there were three main levels while the British thought there were many more: in Baulig's view the main cause of peneplanation was the érosion of continental masses while the British favoured marine abrasion. Respect for the view of Baulig came from many other workers, including Douglas Johnson, C.A. Cotton, and M.A. Lefèvre. Regrettably historical circumstances made it difficult to establish friendly scientific relations with German colleagues, for Baulig, being well versed in the German language, thoroughly familiar with the work of his German colleagues, and holding the position that he did at Strasbourg, would hâve been well placed to establish a fruitful collaboration. An indefatigable reader, a resolute adversary of mediocrity and complacency, Baulig was quick to denounce what he regarded as errors of judgement or doctrinal déviations. His criticisms were sometimes severe and gave rise to ill-feeling, particularly in France, where no real dialogue was established with the supporters of the 'new geomorphology'. Some people déplore this, though others rejoice in the controversy, which itself may be a stimulus needed to draw forth a scholar's best work. Baulig's work is unlikely to fall into oblivion, though it is a product of its own time and its own school. But it belongs to, a time now regarded as a golden âge of geography when the place of geomorphology at the heart of the subject was not contested. It belongs to a school which gave geomorphology, as one of the instruments of geographical analysis, its spirit,

11

principles, methods and vocabulary, which made it a truly scientific instrument. Perhaps instead of praising the 'new' geomorphology to the détriment of the 'classical', people would do better to emulate the dedication of Henri Baulig whose geomorphology had no label.

Bibliography and Sources A list of the main works of Henri Baulig is given in his Essais de Géomorphologie (1950), pp. v-vii. His later work is noted in Ann. Gêogr., vol 71 (1962), 566 and there is also a bibliography with ninety titles in the Bull. Fac. Lett. Strasbourg, vol 41/2 (1962), 170-3.

OBITUARIES AND REFERENCES ON H. BAULIG Thèse include assessments of the man and his work and shorter notices of which the latter group include Chabot, G., Inf. Gêogr., vol 27 (1963), 39-40

Lefèvre, M.A., Bull.

Soc. Belge Êtud. Gêogr.,

vol 32

(1963), 23-5 Studies written shortly after the death of Baulig include Gottmann, J., Geogr. Rev., vol 53 (1963), 611-12

Hanson-Lowe, J.B., Bull.

4 (1965), 277-85 Juillard, E., Ann. Gêogr.,

Bull.

Fac. Lett.

Volume jubilaire

Marthelot, P., Bull.

vol 43/

71 (1962), 561-6;

Fac. Lett.

(1962), 165-9 127-35

Strasbourg

Fac. Lett.

Strasbourg,

M.A. Lefèvre

(1964),

Strasbourg,

vol 41/2

(1962), 175-7 There are also récent studies including

Juillard, E., Comité Trav. Hist.

vol 41/2

Sci.,

Bull.

Sect.

Gêogr. 81 (for years 1968-75, pub. 1975), 119-31 Klein, C., 'La leçon de Henri Baulig', Rev. Gêogr. Est, vol 17 (1977), 191-201 This last paper was written on the centenary of Baulig's birth.

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HENRI BAULIG 1. Geomorphology a) General geomorphology 1925 'La notion de profil d'équilibre: histoire et critique', Congr. Int. Gêogr., Cairo, vol 3, 51-63

1935 The changing sea-level, Four lectures given at the University of London, Publ. Inst. Br. Geogr., no. 3, 46 p.

1939 'Sur l e s "gradins de piedmont"', J. Geomorph., vol 2, 281-304 1940 'Le p r o f i l d ' é q u i l i b r e des v e r s a n t s ' , Ann. Gêogr., vol 49, 81-97

12

Henri

Baulig

1940 'Reconstruction of stream profiles', J. Geomorph., vol 3, 3-12 1948 Problèmes des terrasses, report no. 6 of the I.G.U. Commission for the study of terraces, 109 + 16p. 1948 'Le problème des méandres', Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Gêogr., vol 17, 103-43 1950 Essais de géomorphologie, Publ. no 114, Fac. Lett. Strasbourg, 160p. 1952 'Cycle et climat en géomorphologie', Volume jubilaire (1902-1952), Laboratoire de Géographie, Rennes, 215-39 1952 'Essais d'une théorie des terrasses fluviales', Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Gêogr., vol 21, 69-96 1952 'Surfaces d'apiannissèment', Ann. Gêogr., vol 61, 161-83, 234-62 1952 Vocabulaire franco-anglo-allemand des termes relatifs aux terrasses et surfaces d'aplannissèment (with P. Macar), report no. 7 of the I.G.U. Commission for the study of terraces, Int. Geogr. Congr., Washington, 1-43 1956 'Pénéplaines et pediplaines', Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Geogr., vol 25, 25-58 (also translation by C.A. Cotton in Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., (1957), 913-30) 1956 Vocabulaire franco-anglo-allemand de géomorphologie, Publ. Fac. Lett. Strasbourg, no. 130, 230p. 1957 'Les méthodes de la géomorphologie, d'après M. Pierre Birot', Ann. Gêogr., vol 66, 95-124, 22136 1959 'Morphometrie', Ann. Gêogr., 68, 385-408 f b)

Régional geomorphology i) France 1922 'Questions de morphologie vosgienne et rhénane', Ann. Gêogr., vol 31, 132-54, 385-401 1926 'Sur une méthode altimetrique d'analyse morphologique appliquée à la Bretagne péninsulaire', Bull. Assoc. Gêogr. Fr., no. 10, 7-9 (reprinted with illustrations and additional discussion in. his thesis on the Central Plateau of France, Csee below] 1928, 499-508) 1927 'la Crau et la glaciation wurmienne', Ann. Gêogr., vol 36, 400-508 1928 Le Plateau Central de la France et sa bordure méditerranéenne, 591 + 11p. 1928 'Les hauts niveaux d'érosion eustatique dans le Bassin de Paris', Ann. Gêogr., vol 37, 289-305, 385-406 1933 'A propos du relief armoricain et de l'origine du loess breton', Bull. Assoc. Gêogr. Fr., no 67, 51-5 1934 'Sur les surfaces d'aplanissement du Bas-Rhône', Ann. Gêogr., vol 43, 636-40

ii) Europe 1926 'Le relief de la Haute-Belgique', Ann. Gêogr., vol 35, 206-35 1930 'Le littoral dalmate', Ann. Gêogr., vol 39, 30510 1939 'Deux méthodes d'analyse morphologique appliquées

à la Haute-Belgique', Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Gêogr., vol 9, 165-84 1953 'Le relief des Pays-Bas et de la Belgique d'après deux récentes cartes morphologiques', Ann. Gêogr., vol 62, 118-27 iii) North America 1910 'Ecoulement fluvial et dénudation d'après les travaux de 1'United States Geological Survey', Ann. Gêogr., vol 19, 385-411 1913 'Les plateaux de lave du Washington central et la Grand'Coulée', Ann. Gêogr., vol 22, 149-60 1932 'La genèse du relief appalachien, d'après Douglas Johnson', Ann. Gêogr., vol 41, 500-11 1932 'Une carte du déficit d'écoulement dans l'Est et le Centre des Etats-Unis', Ann. Gêogr., vol 48, 494-503 1948 'Les chaînons du Grand Bassin', Ann. Gêogr., vol 57, 258-63 1949 'La vallée et le delta du Mississippi', Ann. Gêogr., vol 58, 220-32, 325-34 2. Régional and Human Geography 1908 'Sur la distribution des moyens de transport et de circulation chez les indigènes de l'Amérique du Nord', Ann. Gêogr., vol 17, 433-56 1909 'Les ressources naturelles du Nord et du NordOuest canadien', Ann. Gêogr., vol 18, 451-62 1912 'Le développement géographique des chemins de fer aux Etats-Unis et au Canada', France-Amérique, 152-65, 209-14 1914 'La géographie politique de l'Ouest de la France d'après un ouvrage récent (d'A. Siegfried)', Ann. Bretagne, vol 29, 407-38 1921 'La population de l'Alsace et de la Lorraine en 1921', Ann. Gêogr., vol 32, 12-25 1935-6 Amérique septentrionale, Tome 13 of Géographie Universelle, 2 vols, 640p. 1946 'Le site de Strasbourg', Faculté de Lettres de Strasbourg, Mélanges 1945, 1, Etudes alsatùques, 1-18 1949 'La perche et le sillon: mots et choses', Mélanges de philologie romane ... offerts à Ernest Hoepffner, 139-49 1960 'La géographie du fer et de l'acier', Ann. Econ. Soc. Civil., vol 15, 779-88 1960 'Un contact mortel: l'extinction des Indiens de Basse-Californie', Ann. Econ. Soc. Civil., vol 15, 993-6 3. Methodology and epistemology of geography 1948 'La géographie est-elle une science?', Ann. Gêogr., vol 57, 1-11 (also in Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Gêogr., vol 17, 17-26) 1949 'Causalité et finalité en géomorphologie', Geogr. Ann. publication Glaciers and Climate, 321-4 1951 'Géomorphologie davisienne', Inf. Gêogr., vol 15, 93-100 1959 'Géographie générale et géographie régionale', Mélanges géographiques canadiens offerts à R. Blanchard. Cahiers géographiques de Québec, vol 6/3, 47-52

Henri Baulig

1959 'Contingence et nécessité en géographie humaine', Ann. Econ. Soc. Civil., vol 14, 320-24 4. Guide books and accounts of geographical excursions 1922 'La xiiie excursion géographique interuniversitaire', Ann. Gêogr.j vol 31, 59-64 1930 'La xxiie excursion géographique interuniversitaire', Ann. Geogr., vol 39, 511-15 1931 Le Sud-Est du Massif Central, Int. Geogr. Congr.s Paris, excursion A 2, 26p. 1933 'L'excursion interuniversitaire belge en Alsace' (with C. Sittig), Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Geogr., vol 3, 170-85 5. Biographical studies 1945 'Marc Bloch géographe', Ann. Hist. Soc, 5-12 1948 'L'oeuvre de William Morris Davis', Inf. Gêogr.j no 3, 101-08 1950 'W.M. Davis: inaster of method', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 40, 188-95 1951 'Isaiah Bowman (1878-1950)', Ann. Geogr., vol 60, 48-50 1954 'La vie et l'oeuvre d'Emmanuel de Margerie', Ann. Geogr., vol 63, 82-7 1957 'Lucien Febvre et la géographie', Ann. Geogr. 3 vol 66, 281-3 1958 'La leçon de Grove Karl Gilbert', Ann. Geogr., vol 67, 289-307 Etienne Juillard is Professor honoraire of the University of Strasbourg and Claude Klein professor at the University of Paris-Sorbonne. Translated by Mrs Gillian B. Freeman and T.W. Freeman.

13

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1877

Born in Paris lOeme, 17 June

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

HENRI BAULIG

PUBLICATIONS

G.K. Gilbert, Geology

At Louis-le-Grand Lycée (to 1894) A. Penck, Morphologie Erdoberflàche Student of history and geography at the Sorbonne (to 1903)

1899

ographie

Active in the Fondation Diplômé d'Etudes Universitaire de Belle- Supérieures, ville (Workers' univer- Anacharsis Cloots sity)

physique

de

gé-

W.M. Davis, 'The geographical cycle'

P. Vidal de la Blache, Tableau de la géographie de la France W.M. Davis, 'Complications of the geographical cycle'

At Harvard Univer- Research work in U.S.A. sity (to 1910) with W.M. Davis; travelled extensively in U.S.A.

E. Haug, Traité

1907 1908

de

géologie

First article 'Sur la distribution des moyens de transport et de circulation chez les indigènes de l'Amérique du Nord', Ann. Gêogr. _, 17, 433-56

1909

E. de Martonne, Traité

ographie physique. W.M. Davis, Geographical

1910

Married to G. Nepveu, 26 July

1911

Taught geography at the Sorbonne

de

Began research for his thesis W.M. Davis, Die erklârende Beschreibung der Landforme

Director, Geographical Laboratory, Rennes University

gé-

essays

E. de Martonne, 'L'érosion glaciaire et la formation des vallées alpines* (1910, 1911)

1912 1913

der

A. de Lapparent, Leçons

1903 1904

the

G. de la Noë and E. de Margerie, Les formes du terrain

1894 1896

of

Henry Moun tains

1888 1890

C0NTEMP0RARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

'Les plateaux de lave du Washington central et la Grand Coulée', Ann. Gêogr.,

22, 149-60

Henri Baulig ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

DATES

LIFE AND CAEEER

1914

Private soldier in a territorial unit to 1918

First World War

1919

Began lecturing at Strasbourg, in the Faculté des Lettres

Foundation of Institut de Géographie, Strasbourg

1922

PUBLICATIONS

Founding of Association of French Geographers by E. de Martonne. W. Penck, Die morphologisohe Analyse

1925

1930

'La notion du profil International Geographical d'équilibre', Congr. Int. Congress, Cairo Gêogr.3 Le Caire, vol 3, 4th éd., de Martonne's Traite 51-63 Doctorate: thesis on Le Plateau Central de la France

Given title of Professor at Strasbourg and became Head of the Centre d'études germaniques Attended an interuniversity excursion in Yugoslavia

'Le littoral dalmate', Ann. Gêogr. 3 39, 305-10 International Geographical Congress, Paris

1931 1933

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

'Questions de morphologie vosgienne et rhénane', Artn. Gêogr., 31, 132-54, 385-401

1924

1928

15

In U.S.A., F.D. Roosevelt became Président; beginning of the 'New Deal'

Gave lectures at London University, published in 1935 by the Institute of British Geographers as a monograph, The changing sea level

1934

Death of W.M. Davis. International Geographical Congress, Warsaw

1938

Amérique septentrionale s Tome 13 of Geogr. Univ. (2 vols)

1939

'Sur les gradins de piedmont', J. Geomorph., 2, 281-304

Second World War

16

Henri

DATES

Baulig

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

Continued h i s u n i v e r s i t y work i n S t r a s b o u r g University, evacuated to Clermont-Ferrand. Work f o r d i s t r e s s e d s t u d e n t s and f r a n k e x p r e s s i o n of h i s views l e d t o i m p r i s o n m e n t by the Gestapo in the s p r i n g of 1944

1940

PUBLICATIONS

C0NTE14P0RARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

'Le p r o f i l d ' é q u i l i b r e des v e r s a n t s ' , Ann. Géogr., 4 9 , 81-97

Death of Albrecht Penck

1945

Founded the Association géographique d'Alsace. Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur, 25 December

1947

Retired as Professor Emeritus

1948

Charles P. Daly Chairman of the I.G.U. gold medal, Commission on the study American Geographi- of terraces, 1948-52 cal Society

1949

Corresponding member of Institut, Académie des Sciences, 13 June

Problèmes des terrasses, 6th report of I.G.U. Commission

International Geographical Congress, Lisbon. P. Birot, Essais sur quelques problèmes de morphologie.

J. Tricart, La partie

orientale

du Bassin de Paris, vol 1, L'évolution morphologique du Quaternaire (1952) 1952

1954

With P. Macar, wrote report 7 for I.G.U. Commission on terraces

'Surfaces d'aplannissement', Ann. Gêogr., 61, 161-83, 234-62. 'Essai d'une théorie des terrasses fluviales', Bull. Soc. Belge Etud. Géogr., 21, 69-96

Officier de la Légion d'Honneur, 13 June P . B i r o t , Les méthodes de morphologie. Death of E. de Martonne

1955

1956

Vocabulaire anglo-allemand géomorphogie

francode

1957

' L e s méthodes de l a géomorphologie, d ' a p r è s M. P i e r r e B i r o t ' , Ann. Geogr., 6 6 , 9 5 - 1 2 4 , 221-36

M. D e r r u a u , Précis logie (1 é d . )

de

la

géomorpho-

Henri

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

17

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS lOth and last éd. of vol 2 of de Martonne's Traité

1958 'Morphomêtrie', Ann. Geogr., 68, 385-408

1959

L'atlas

1961 1962

Baulig

Died at Igwiller ,(Bas-Rhin), 8 August

His legacy to Strasbourg University was used to endow the Baulig Foundation

linguistique

de l'Alsace

Constantin Bratescu 1882-1945

GEORGE NIMIGEANU Constantin Bratescu was one of the most important Romanian geographers of the first half of the twentieth century. He is known for a large and varied range of studies of the geomorphology and human geography of Dobrogea, the Danube delta and the Black Sea. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Born in the village of Cîsla (now Minerii) in north Dobrogea, he received his secondary éducation at Tulcea and in 1901 entered the University of Bucharest as a student of classics. But like his fellowstudents, Vâlsan, Dimitrescu-Aldem and Orghidan, he was so attracted by the teaching of S. Mehedinti that he specialized in geography and became a notable figure among the first graduâtes in the subject. Having taken his degree in 1906, in 1907 he became a teacher in a secondary school at Bucharest but two years later he joined the geography department of the university as a librarian. He worked in the department for three years and in 1910 became a teaching assistant to Professor Mehedinti. From October 1910 to July 1912, aided by a bursary from the Romanian Geographical Society, he worked in Leipzig, studying ethnography, anthropology and human geography with F. von Luschan, K. Weale and others. With such expérience it seemed likely that he would become a specialist in some form of human study but on his return to Romania he became absorbed in problems of historical and — especially — physical geography. Fortunately, from October 1912 to May 1914

he was able to study geomorphology with Albrecht Penck in Germany. Less fortunately he was obliged to interrupt his académie work until after the 1914-18 war and his thesis on the geomorphology of the Danube delta, prepared with Mehedinti's guidance, was not presented until 1920 and published in 1922. From 1915 to 1924 Bratescu worked in a Collège of Education at Constanta but in 1925 he became a professor of geography at Cernauti University and from 1939 he was a professor at Bucharest University. At Constanta he was mainly concerned with major geographical problems of Dobrogea, cultural, geographical and économie, with place names as a spécial interest. Thèse varied enterprises were aided by the foundation of the Cultural Society of Dobrogea, a Régional Muséum at Constanta and the review, Analele Dobrogei, which he edited from 1920 to 1938. He became a valued adviser to many local administrators on problems that would now be regarded as applied geography. The results of his varied researches in Dobrogea and elsewhere in Romania were published in

Notes on a Danube journey (1910), The genesis and monphological évolution of the Danube delta (1922),

Lake Mangalia (1915), (which he forecast would become a gulf, as it is in fact now), Some ethnographie fea-

tures

in the Dobrogea (1915), Dobrogea in the

writings

of Ovid (1911), and others. Most of his major work in geomorphology, physical and historical geography was done while he was at Constanta and in a jubilee volume of 1928 he wrote a synthesis of his geographical researches on the Dobrogea, under the headings relief, climate, végétation, soils, population.

20

Constantin

Bratescu

Bratescu was singularly successful in combining the work of a professor with that of a man of science for he had a broad knowledge not only of his own subject but of much beyond it and his lectures, always clear and concise, stimulated eager discussion among his students. Ail his pupils, students and colleagues saw him as a major authority and respected the strength of his opinions.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Bratescu was concerned with ail branches of geography, physical, human, historical and also with ethnography, history and literature. But his geomorphological work was his main research contribution. It was chiefly founded on his study of the changes in level of the waters and of the basin forming the Black Sea during the Quaternary period: this led to his publications on the relief of Dobrogea, on the valley of the Dniestr, on the Danube delta, on the asymmetry of valleys and on criteria appropriate for determining the âge of quaternary terraces. In ail his work Bratescu followed certain definite principles; he recognized that différent causes could produce the same effect. Factors which identified the earth's crust might be varied, possibly with one or more as a major influence and others as secondary influences. Phenomena observed as happening in the past are repeated in the présent and in most cases the évolution of relief follows the stages of youth, maturity and old âge put forward by W.M. Davis. Applying thèse principles in his geomorphological work, Bratescu showed the relation between internai earth movements and surface relief. He gave as an example the effect of earth movements in the north of Moldavia on the stream pattern, including the Cernauti Gâte, with some récent tectonic movements. He was especially concerned with the interplay of isostatic and eustatic movements from the Quaternary period to the présent time.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Bratescu's ideas were expressed in numerous papers and splendidly summarized in his paper, 'Oscillations of water levels in the Black Sea basin during the Quaternary period', which explained his views in a hundredodd pages of the journal of the Romanian Geographical

Society in 1942 (Bulletin

of the Geographical

Society

of Romania3 vol 61, 1-102). At the beginning of the Quarternary period, the Giïnz advance, the Black Sea was part of a much larger Caspian Sea which during the interglacial Giinz-Mindel phase was an isolated lake. Towards the end of the Quaternary period it was connected to the Mediterranean and gradually it came to its présent level. A major resuit of the complex oscillation of levels was the formation of coastal and fluvial terraces which cover thousands of square kilomètres around the océans and seas of the world. Attempts to correlate thèse terraces hâve been made but Bratescu was sceptical about thèse as in his view individual

terraces had been subjected to a variety of epirogenetic and orogenic movements and other local influences which had depressed or elevated them. Nevertheless, Bratescu was anxious to form rules (which he was inclined to call 'laws') to explain the characteristics of terraces (thèse 'rules' were based on knowledge of the direction, amplitude and âge of epirogenetic and eustatic movements). There were three main rules: First, pebbles accumulated on the surfaces of river terraces during interglacial periods when the base level was elevated; since then the land has been depressed and with it the inter-glacial base level has been progressively lowered to the présent time. The terraces ranged in tiers above the présent sea level do not represent any geographical reality but are merely indications of epirogenetic movements. Second, différences of level between the altitude of eustatic terraces and those of the same period anywhere (except in basins of isolated seas and valleys near to glaciers) show the incidence of vertical epirogenetic movements in the place under survey at the time considered. Third, the différences of spacing between eustatic terraces and terraces of similar date along the coast or a river valley make it possible to détermine the timing or the period of epirogenetic vertical movements in the région studied. With the help of thèse rules it is possible to deduce the characteristics of relief évolution in a région, to discern whether déposition or érosion was dominant. Such knowledge is of practical value in schemes of land improvement with hydrological technology. Bratescu investigated the problems of relief forms, including plains, deltas and terraces, created during the Quaternary era. He included évidence given by fossils and altitude, some of which raised challenging difficulties. He worked out a scheme of dividing loess and fossil soils into horizons. The initial premise was that loess, transported by wind, was deposited during the glacial periods and the soils formed during interglacial periods. Therefore the number of horizons of loess represented the number of glacial periods while the number of fossil soils that of the interglacial periods. It follows that a terrace covered with a single horizon of loess must be of Wilrmian date but if a terrace is covered with two horizons of loess and a fossil soil then the terrace dates from the Riss epoch. Bratescu was critical of other geomorphologists and notably of the théories of Charles Depéret, who attempted to correlate terraces by their height above sea level, though he appears to hâve accepted some of Depéret's other views. The principles and methods used by Bratescu made it possible for him to explain the genesis and âge of the Danube delta, the relief of the eastern Romanian Plain, the région south of the Moldavian plateau, the

Constantin évolution of the Dniestr valley and of the maritime and fluvial limon deposits of Dobrogea and of the Romanian Plain. His significant work in geomorphology was only one aspect of his contribution to geographical thought. Bratescu's firm conviction was that study of the landscape (paysage) of a région could only be satisfying if ail its characteristics were adequately studied. Thèse must include not only the natural features but also the people who in past and présent times had moulded the landscape. This view explains his abiding conviction that human and historical geography matters. He cared very much about the human landscape, as he showed by writing various studies on économie, statistical, ethnographie subjects, as well as by his work on place-names. His historical interests may be seen particularly in his translation of ancient and médiéval texts, with various articles and notes, in the Arhiva Dobrogei (Archive of the Dobrogea) and the Analele Dobrogei (Annals of the Dobrogea). In his gênerai conception of geography, Bratescu was a faithful disciple of his teacher, S. Mehedinti, sharing his view that geographical research was concerned with the zone of interconnection of the four terrestrial coverings of the earth, the atmosphère, hydrosphère, lithosphère, and biosphère — (the last including man)• Ail thèse were interdependent, with reciprocal and changing relations between them. 'No one can become a geographer', he wrote, 'unless he absorbs this scientific view of geography' (in 'The history, aims and methods of geography', 1925). The object of geographical research, he constantly told his students, is to describe the action of natural agents on the one hand and of human agencies in transforming nature on the other. Research should begin with small areas in which observation could be made of the results of relations between man and nature. Only after this apprenticeship could the geographer go on to larger areas and to generalizations on a world scale. This teaching was at variance with that of Mehedinti but both master and pupil shared the belief that gênerai geography mattered. In Romania Bratescu is now regarded as the country's first applied geographer. Perhaps his most notable achievement was the construction of a canal which carried water from Lake Sutghiol northwards to Lake Tasaul. He gave valuable advice on the prévention of coastal érosion to the east of Constanta. His scholarship, his geographical research and his cultural activity in gênerai gained him the respect of geographers and geologists in Romania and abroad: he was a friend of E. de Martonne, F. Machatschek, H. Baulig and others. His methods of work were followed by later Romanian geographers, notably by writers of doctorate thèses, and he is regarded as a leading Romanian geographer of the twentieth century.

Bratescu

21

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON CONSTANTIN BRATESCU Radulescu, N.A., The life and work of C. Bratescu (1946) Nimigeanu, G., essay on 'C. Bratescu, his life and works', in Oeuvres choisis (Selected Works)3 Edition Scientifique (1967), with bibliography, éd. C. Nimigeanu Volwn festifj Constanta, issued to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Bratescu's death (1970) 2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY (a) Physical geography 1911 'Forme de relief din Mugcel' ('Relief forms in Muscel'), An. Geogr. Antropogeogr. 3 vol 1 (190910), 17-37 1916 'Lacul Mangalia' ('Lake Mangalia'), But. Soc. Rom. Geogr., vol 36 (1915), 119-30 1920 'Mi§cari epirogenetice si caractère morfologice in basinul Dunari de jos' ('Epirogenetic movements in the lower Danube basin'), But. Soc. Rom. Geogr. 3 vol 39, 81-114 (French abstract 112-14) 1921 'Contributiuni la studiul deltei dunarene evolufia morfologica §i cronologica' ('Contribution to the study of the morphological and chronological évolution of the Danube delta'), But. Soc. Rom. Geogr. 3 vol 40, 194-215 (French abstract 212-15) 1922 'Delta Dunarei, originea §i evolutia sa morfologica §i cronologica' ('The genesis and morphological évolution of the Danube Delta'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr., vol 41, 1-39 (doctorate thesis) 1922 'Lacul Tasaul' ('Lake Tasaul'), An. Dobrogei, vol 3, 522-38 1928 Dobregea Cincizeci de ani de viaiâ romànesscâ 1878-1928 (Fifty years of Romanian life), Bucharest, 794p. (includes papers by Bratescu on climate, 76-9, soils 81-105, population 201-57) 1933 'Paorta delà Cernauti' ('The Cernauti Gâte'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr.} vol 52, 1-23 (French abstract) 1933 'Profile quaternare in Falezele marie' ('Quarternary profiles in rocks of the Black sea'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr. 3 vol 52, 24-61 (French abstract 59-61) 1937 'Contributiuni la cunaosterea "Coastei de Argint" §i a "Vau-fara-lama"( 'Contributions to the knowledge of the "Silver coast" and the "Valley without winters"'), An. Dobrogei, vol 18, 22-37 1937 'Asimetria vailor' ('Asymetrical valleys'), in Festscrift to Ian C. Nistor, Cernauti, 26p. 1937 'Criterii pentru determinarea varstei teraselor quarternare' ('Criteria for determining the âge of Quaternary terraces'), in Festschrift to C.

22

Constantin

Bratescu

Kirifescu, Bucharest, 38p 1937 'Morfologia Cadrilaterului (Morphology of Quadrilater)', An. Dobrogei, vol 19/1, 48p. 1942 'Oscillatiile de nivel aie apelor si basinului Mârii Nègre in Cuaternar' ('Oscillations of water level in the Black Sea basin during the Quaternary period'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr.> vol 61, 112p. (b) Other works 1913 'Metoda geografica in cercetarile etnografica' ('Geographical method in ethnographical research'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr., vol 34, 145-75 1923 'Dacia si Moesia dupa Ptolemaeu' ('Dacia and Moesia according to Ptolemy'), Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr.3 vol 42, 145-74 1924-5 'Istoria, objectul si meoda geografiei' ('History, aims and methods of geography'), An. 'Dobrogeij vols 5-6, 1-20 1924-5 'Noile numiri de sate din Dobrogea-Veche' ('New village names in Old Dobrogea'), ibid. t 140 1928 see 'Dobrogea' under (a) for a population study George Ninrigeanu is Professor University.

of Geography at

Craiova

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1882

Born (27 September) at Cîgla (Minerii), department of Tulcea

18891900

Attended school at Cîgla and Tulcea

1901

Entered University of Bucharest

1906

Graduated in Geography

1907

Became a school teacher

1909

Librarian at the geographical section of the University

1910

Teaching assistant

1912

1915

1922

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

CONSTANTIN BRATESCU

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Simion Mehedinti attracting students in Bucharest University to the new School of Geography

Went to Leipzig to study human geography (to July 1912)

Began publication of his work on the Danube and Dobrogea in the Anuav de geografie si antropogeografie (Annals of Geography and Anthropogeography), Buletinul Societatii Romane de geografie (Bulletin of the Romanian Society of Geography)

Studied in Gerraany with Albrecht Penck (to 1914) Taught in Collège of Education at Constanta

Engaged in writing thesis but his work was impeded by the involvement of Romania in the war

First World War

Published his thesis: Delta Dunariij oviginea si evolutia sa morfologioa i cronologiaa (The Danube delta3 its origin3 morphological and chronological évolution) (in Bul. Soc. Rom. Geogr.3 vol 36, 1-39

At Constanta was a founder of the Cultural Society of Dobrogea with its review Analele Dobrogei (The Annals of Dobrogea)

24

Constantin

Bratescu

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1925

Became professor of geography at Cernauti University

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

1928

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Under his direction the festival volume of Dobrogea (800 pages in folio) appeared

1935

Travel for studies o the Bosporus, Dardanelles and Marmara

'Criterii pentru determinarea vârstei teraselor quaternare' ('Criteria for dedetermining the âge of Quaternary terraces') 'Morfologia Cadrilaterului-Dobrogea sudica' ('The morphology of Quadrilater, south Dobrogea') 'Contributiuni la cunoagterea vaii Nistrului' ('Contributions to the knowledge of the Dneister valley'). This work included in three rules on terraces 'Oscilatiile de nivel aie apelor si bazinului Marii Nègre in Cuaternar' ('Oscillations of water levels in the Black Sea basin during the Quaternary era')

1939

Became professor of geography at Bucharest University

1945

Died in Bucharest, 23 October

He was called to this chair after the retirement and on the recommendation of Prof. S. Mehedinti

Jovan Cvijic 1865-1927

MILORAD VASOVIC In the history of the southern Slavs few scientists hâve shown such distinction in so many disciplines as Jovan Cvijic. Thèse included tectonic geology, geography, ethnology, ethnie psychology and even history. The versatility of his interests and the range of his publications led him to a number of specialist studies. Of thèse several are of particular interest hère; they include the Karst, the classification of the mountain Systems of the Balkans, the origin of the great lakes of the peninsula, the discovery of its former glaciation, population distribution and migrations in the Balkans, rural and urban settlement, house types in both town and countryside, cultural zones in an historical and contemporary context and the économie life of the people. Cvijic was always aware of the mental and psychological characteristics of the Balkan people. Cvijic's work, during a period of thirtyeight years, covered 500,000 sq. km in the Balkan peninsula, the Carpathians, the Pannonian bas in, the eastern Alps and Asia Minor. He wrote voluminously on his researches. Apart from some 150 papers and other communications in journals in several countries other than his own he published several large books of which those in French and German made him widely known. He was made a member of more than thirty scientific académies and other learned societies and in ail was given nineteen medals and other awards from similar bodies. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Loznica, his birthplace in western Serbia on the right

bank of the river Drina, is a small town of historié significance partly because it was the home of Vuk KaradziÊ, who reformed the Serb language by giving it a systematic spelling in the Cyrillic alphabet. In his other great achievement, making the traditional life of the Serb people known to the rest of the civilised world, he was followed by Jovan Cvijic. Though small, Loznica in the nineteenth century was the meeting place of many migrant people, especially from Bosnia, Herzegovina and Monténégro. The newcomers differed considerably from the indigenous population and periods of struggle resulted, though in time the varied éléments of the population merged. Among the migrants in the early years of the nineteenth century, was Jovan's grandfather, Cuijo Spasojevic, a native of Durmitor in the Dinaric area. Cvijic's father married a girl from a distinguished local family and Jovan apparently combined the calmness, studious nature and capacity for assiduous work of his maternai family with the courage and enthusiasm of his father's Dinaric mountaineering stock. Ail his childhood years were passed in Loznica, where Jovan went through the grammar school, after which he went on to Sabac and then to Belgrade to continue his éducation. In his early youth he showed an interest in serious literature and at the grammar school he learned French and German. He had a spécial gift for the natural sciences but was particularly concerned with the geography and the history of his own homeland. Nevertheless after leaving the Sabac grammar school he decided to study medicine at the High School (later to become the University) in Belgrade but in

26

Jovan

Cvijic

August 1884 he met his former geography teacher from Sabac, Vladimir Karic, who showed him the great possibilités that lay in geography. This was décisive and fortunately Cvijic went forward to meet whatever came his way in expérience. Concentrated study followed and his first paper was on the geographical terminology of Serbia. The karst landscape, which in his childhood had seemed to him mysterious and impressive, now fascinated him. He then went to see the karst countryside of east Serbia. He taught for a time in a grammar school at Belgrade and published his first paper on the karst in 1889. Then,for four years until 1893, he lived in Vienna studying under the famous scholars of the time, including the glaciologist Albrecht Penck, the tectonic geologist Eduard Suess and the climatologist Julius Hann. There were other influences as well, including the work of Vladislav Tomâsek on the historical geography of the Near East and of the great Slav philologist Vatroslav Jagie who, with his many disciples, shed light on the problems facing the south Slav people. During vacations from Vienna Cvijic travelled widely in his homeland and in 1893 he was awarded the doctorate for his work on Das Karstph'ànomen. He became a professor at the Belgrade High School in the same year, at the early âge of twenty eight. Research on the Balkans continued, at first with various tours of eastern Serbia and from 1896 of Bulgaria. He visited the western Balkan mountains of Bulgaria, later the area around Sofia and particularly the Rila mountains, the highest of the peninsula where he found traces of a former glaciation. In the following years, 1897 and 1898, he concentrated on the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and also of Monténégro, studying the karst, the tectonic structure and seeking évidence for past glaciation. At the same time he developed his faculty for observing the life of the people. His travels included a slow journey by boat along the coasts of Albania and Greece to Salonika. In 1899 and 1900, with Petar JankoviÊ, he studied the lakes of Macedonia and in 1901 those of Scutari and Ianina. His continued interest in the life of the people bore fruit in the publication, in 1902, of his first work (in Serbo-Croat) on the human geography of the Balkan peninsula, a basis for a long séries of studies published by the Royal Serbian Academy by himself and his students. In addition to his publications in Belgrade, he wrote papers in French and German which made his name known to an increasing number of scholars. Year after year his field studies continued. They covered the Morava-Vardar valley, the various régions of Old Serbia and Macedonia, then under Turkish control, the Olympus mountain in Greece to study the évidence of past glaciation, the Crimea and Bulgaria, with some longer scientific tours in other countries. In 1915 Cvijic was obliged to leave Belgrade, then occupied by Austro-Hungarian and German troops. He returned four years later, in August 1919. First he went to Salonica, then to Neuchâtel in Switzerland and to the Sorbonne in Paris, on the invitation of E. de Martonne. There he gave courses based on his own work done for so many years and wrote La Péninsule Balkaniques

Paris, 1918 (in French, though it was translated into Serbo-Croat later). By this time he had corne to hope for the création of a new state in the Balkans, soon to be realized by the création of Yugoslavia. As a British historian has noted the arguments put forward at the Paris Peace Conférence of 1919 for the création of Yugoslavia were mainly ethnie: 'the ethnie argument was the strongest and most permanent élément on which the Yugoslavs could rely ... (it) bore obvious traces of the hand of M. Cvijic, the most learned and enlightened hot only of Serbian but of ail Balkan ge-

ographical experts' (H.V. Temperley, A history

of

the

Peace Conférence of Paris, London, 1961, vol 4, 207). On his return Cvijic became for the second time Rector of the University of Belgrade and in 1920 président of the Serbian Academy of Sciences.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL TH0UGHT Circumstances proved favourable to Cvijic's scientific éducation despite ail the difficulties he encountered. Little was known of the Balkans and their people in his earlier years and the need for more scientific knowledge became even clearer as the political situation grew more complex. But there were many difficulties for the fieldworker, including the hostility of the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish authorities, the dangers of travel in many of the remote areas, the lack of adéquate roads and also — for a geographer — of suitable maps. Cvijic met ail thèse difficulties calmly. His work covers a wide range of enquiry, hère discussed under five headings.

a. The

karst

By his study of the karst, so widely developed in Yugoslavia, Cvijic laid foundations that survive to the présent time. He named the various forms, such as lapiés, dolines, uvulas and poljes, formed by the dissolition of calcareous rocks by water and tectonic movements: he also added greatly to the knowledge of the subterranean forms in limestone landscapes. Many of the terms he used, such as uvula, polje, hum, ponor, hâve been absorbed into the gênerai language of science. His doctorate thesi's of 1893, Das Karstphanomen t was hailed as the first comprehensive study of karsts marked by a critical genetic approach and the use of an effective terminology. Ail through life he remained interested in karsts. His excellent study in 1918, 'Hydrographie souterraine et évolution morphologique du karst' was based on the ideas of Penck and Grund that three hydrographie zones, permanent, intermittent and dry, existed over the imperméable base. This made the récognition of the processes easier and facilitated further research. His later work of 1925, Types

morphologiques

des terrains

calcaires^

was a further

study of différent forms of karst topography.

b. Glaciation

in the Balkan

mountains

Although leading glaciologists, including Penck and Bruckner, had said there had been no Pleistocene glaciation in the Balkans, Cvijic showed this to be untrue, for he found traces of it in the Rila mountains

Jovan Cvijic of Bulgaria in 1896. His view was that there were indications of glaciation in the Riss and Wurm periods but of a différent type from the glaciation of the Alps and of central Europe. Later his studies of glaciation extended to the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, of Jakupica, Perister, Olympus in Greece, and the southern Carpathians. From 1897 he published his findings in a number of papers (listed in the bibliography), many of them in French or German. The work on glaciation had interesting corrélations with that on karsts. Cvijic identified a class of glaciers which he named karstic as on their descent they had entered dolines and uvulas, notably in the coastal mountains which rise above the Gulf of Kotor. c. Tectonic éléments in the Balkan peninsula During his seven years' travel in Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Old Serbia Cvijic worked on the tectonics of the entire Balkan mountain System. At the outset he stated that there were two mountain Systems in the west, the Dinaric Alps and the Sara and Pind System, and two in the east, the Carpathians and the Balkans. Between thèse two lay the Rhodope, an ancient continent seen both in the basins and in the massifs of the mountains. The two Systems in the west, mentioned above, were separated from each other by the tectonic dépression seen in the Gulf of Medua, the Drin valley and the Metohija basin. Similarly the two Systems in the east were separated by the vast tectonic basin of Crna Reka. His views negated an old and erroneous view that had persisted from the days of Strabo and Ptolemy to the nineteenth century that there was a chain of mountains extending from the Black Sea to the Alps. It had acquired différent names: Catena Mundi, Catena del Mondo, Zentralkette. The results of his tectonic researches appeared in papers published in French or German as well as in Serbo-Croat. d. Work on former lakes During the seven years of field work mentioned above Cvijic also studied the genesis and évolution of the numerous lakes in the central and southern parts of the Balkan peninsula. Eventually thèse were drained by the Vardar river. This research led him to an explanation of the origin of the Pannonian basin, which at one time formed a lake that, at its highest level, was connected in places with the lakes of the central area. In time the lake was drained through the défile of the Iron Gâte (Djerdap) but with periodic hait phases during which terraces were formed at lower altitudes from the Sumadija in the south to the north. Thèse observations were discussed in 'La plastique lacustre de Sumadija' of 1909, a paper which led his disciples to study water abrasion in peripheral areas of the Pannonian Basin during the inter-war years. Cvijic dealt with the problem of the reasons for the existence of the most impressive défile in Europe and the possible existence of a river in the Balkans that had existed in Pliocène times but was destroyed by the tectonic movements which formed the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The results were published in various papers including 'Die Entwicklungs-

27

geschichte des Eisernen Tores', 'Das pliocane flusstal im Siiden des Balkans'. From 1951 controversy developed among Yugoslav geographers on Cvijic's 'abrasion theory', led by Petar Jovanovic and later by his disciples. Jovanovic thought that Cvijic had overemphasized the évidence of abrasion on the southern border of the Pannonian basin and ignored the évidence of fluvial denudation during the post-lacustrine period. Cvijic had in fact regarded several of the lower terrace surfaces (below 350m O.D.) as due to abrasion rather than fluvial denudation. In the last years of his life Cvijic offered a synthesis of his research on the relif of the Balkan peninsula, the southern Carpathians, the Pannonian Basin, the Alps and various other territories, based on his geomorphological and geotechnical théories. This great work in Serbo-Croat, Geomorfologija (Morphologie terrestre) appeared in two large volumes in 1924 and 1926. It was illustrated by sketches, maps, block diagrams and panoramic views (the work of the excellent cartographer Antonije Lazic). e. Problems of the human geography of the Balkan peninsula The originality of this work gave Cvijic widespread famé. Much of its content is summarized in La Péninsule Balkanique: Géographie Humaine of 1918 and in various articles collected together in Questions Balkaniques (1916) with two summary papers in the Geographical Review, vol 5 (1918). There is also a vast amount of published material in Serbo-Croat. Cvijic classified the problem of human geography within the Balkan peninsula under six headings: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

zones of culture and civilization; distribution and migration of population; types of économie life; situation and types of buildings; classification of house types; ethnie and psychological attributes of the South Slavs.

He said that 'no historical phenomenon shows so much adaptation to geographical conditions as the distribution of ancient civilizations' and therefore his cultural zones, zones de civilisation3 were developed within areas having natural barriers. Nevertheless observation showed that one civilization might be superimposed, like one rock bed on another, though more frequently civilizations were intertwined. It was possible, however, to discern areas where one civilization had left a stronger imprint than another, giving some recognizable types such as (a) modified Byzantine civilization, the ancient Balkan civilization; (b) civilizations showing Turkish and eastern influences; (c) civilizations influences by those of Eastern or Central Europe and also by the patriarchal System. In ail this work Cvijic was fully aware of the intermingling of cultural strains as communications became easier. Some scholars thought that Cvijic saw the patriarchal way of life through rose-tinted spectacles

28

Jovan

Cvijic

when in fact it was technically, economically and socially stagnant and bound to disappear when a modem monetary economy spread through the Balkans. It is true that he did not realize that the décline of pastoralism was imminent though his work was based on the récognition that the whole human situation was dynamic for cultural influences could spread in the future as in the past and would undoubtedly do so. This is seen in the marked emphasis he gave to migration. The great migrations experienced in the Balkans from the fifteenth century, with the entry of the Turks and the movement of people from the less fruitful to the more fertile areas, had meant a gênerai movement from south to north. Using his own work together with that of various students and friends, he showed that there had been several waves of migration towards the Serb lands, coming from the Dinaric area, from Kosovo-Metohija, from the Vardar-Morava corridor and from Timok and Branicevo. Of thèse the first, from the Dinaric mountains, had been particularly important for the poverty-stricken people had descended from the high karst lands to the littoral of the Adriatic coast, the fertile area in upland valleys and the rich lands south of the Sava and Danube rivers. Some migrants had crossed thèse rivers and settled in the southern parts of the Pannonian Basin. Though the main movements were from south to north, there was also a southward movement into the new territories annexed by Serbia. The work on migration was a fine contribution to the geography of the Balkans for an apparently chaotic mixture of peoples in a land of great physical diversity presented a major problem to any research worker. Cvijic, through patient enquiry and observation, was able to pièce together the reasons for the mixture and to understand its historical causes and conséquences. As it happened his work was done before there were even greater population migrations, at a time when many old traditions were still preserved by the various ethnic groups so diverse in their origins. It is hardly surprising that the French geographer, Jules Sion, commented that migration was a human phenomenon of major significance nowhere studied with greater care and perspicacity than by Cvijic in the Balkans. Cvijic was also the first geographer to make a classification of the rural and urban settlements in the Balkan peninsula and neighbouring countries. It has been said that his major contribution was on rural settlement but in fact his work on towns was markedly original for he based his classification on the cultural zones that he had found (Mediterranean-Dalmatian, Albanian, Greco-Aegean, Turkish-Byzantine or indigenous Balkan, derived from the patriarchal system). In his work on rural agglomérations he emphasised the siting of villages, for example on the outer edges of rocks of varied résistance, beside former lakes and on platforms of lacustrine origin, on the curves of rivers, on gentle slopes with favourable exposure to the sun, on terraces of alluvial cônes. He also made a classification of types of villages, including those of Stari Vlah with the associated varieties of Sumadija, Macva and Jasenica and also the villages of the karst, of

Ibar, of Timok, with Greco-Mediterranean and TurkoOriental types. This work, however, was less successfui than his other classifications. He was also concerned with house types and in studying thèse had much of interest to say about the development of dwellings during the previous 150-200 years. Controversy has surrounded his work on the ethnie and psychological characteristics of the population (caractères ethnopsychiqu.es). Jules Sion, reviewing the second volume of the Péninsule Balkanique in which thèse characteristics are discussed, says that 'it is more original than the first volume' and of exceptional merit, while Vojislav Radovanovic" found 'no better ethnopsychological studies anywhere in the world', far in advance of those of the school of Wilhelm Wundt which were dominated by idealist impressions, determinism and metaphysical ideas. Radovanovic" added that Cvijic had been mistaken in mapping the northern limit of the Macedonian peoples and Milenko Filipovié observed that some of the types, for example the BalkanOriental and the Pannonian, had not been adequately studied. It would now seem that Cvijic' lacked adéquate understanding of the several 'varieties' of Croats and Slovènes and also that he had an idealized impression of the people from the Dinaric mountains. The présent âge of intensive urbanization, rapid industrial development and increasing cohésion of the various parts of the country through modem communications, results not only in new migrations but also in rapid changes in the ethnie and psychological character of the population. Cvijic's classifications therefore belong to the past though that in no way diminishes the significance of his work. It is only fair to judge his work by the standards of his time. A balanced judgement cornes from V. Radovanovic. His human geography was not Ratzelian, rigid, deterministic, nor possibilist, French, humanistic. Cvijic never approached human problems with readymade schemes, evolved in the study .... Rather Cvijic was an indefatigable researcher who went into the field and there, in the setting of nature and among the people, dealt with the problems as they came and worked out appropriate solutions, on the basis of the facts as he discerned them, always realising the relations between them. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Cvijic realized that the Industrial Révolution which began at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries in the Balkans had profound effects on its geography. Nor was that ail for the political units also had to change through the liberation movements, the Balkan wars and the war of 1914-18. Ail this was the geographer's concern but Cvijic knew that the adjustments would be so great that he alone could not meet the challenge presented. With this in mind he founded, as early as 1894, the Institute of Geography at Belgrade University and gathered together a fine team of workers, among whom were Petar Jankovic, Rista Nikolic, Jevto Dedijer, Mihailo Dragic, Borivoje

Jovan Cvijic Milojevic and Vojislav Radovanovic. As soon as they had completed their courses Cvijic sent them into the fields to study the unknown or little known areas of Serbia or neighbouring territories in what is now Yugoslavia. He also enlisted the aid of many people who were not geographers, including priests and schoolteachers, to collect data on settlement and buildings, the traditional local economy, life and activities: they were provided with appropriate directives. From ail this came twenty five monographs on the origin and life of the people and as a resuit Serbia became one of the best studied countries of the world. Similar work was also done in geomorphology, especially on karsts. The human and physical studies carried out from the beginning of this century gave Serbia in effect a national school of geography and in 1910 Cvijic founded the Geographical Society which Glasnik. from 1911 to the présent day has published Thèse varied activities made Cvijic famous, and he became a corresponding member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences at the âge of twenty nine and a full member five years later. In 1905, one year after the High School of Belgrade became a university he became its Rector. As Rector he improved the organisation of existing faculties and founded new ones, an arts faculty at Skoplje, law at Subotica, medicine, agriculture, theology and éducation at Belgrade. Elected Rector again in 1919 he advocated decentralization of the university with the foundation of several faculties at Novi Sad, and an important cultural centre in Vojvodina, to which the agriculture and theological faculties were transferred. After his second term as Rector, in 1919-20, he became président of the Serbian Academy of Sciences where in 1921 he gathered together eminent geologists, biologists, linguists, historians, philosophers, military experts and others to study the land and the people in co-operation with geographers and ethnologists. Congresses were held until 1939 at Sofia, Belgrade, Prague and Warsaw. Cvijic was deeply concerned with current events and wrote about them with courage and frankness. Among them were the Macedonian rébellion of 1903, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, the plébiscite of 1920 in Carinthia, and the Treaty of London of 1915 which provided that Italy should annex areas on the Adriatic coast which had 900,000 Yugoslav inhabitants. The work in which so much previous research was gathered together, La péninsule balkanique3 gave him a position of respect and influence at the Paris Peace Conférence of 1919. Altogether Cvijic's list of publications includes 1,500 items. Commemorative meetings were held in 1965, the centenary of his birth and on a much larger scale in 1977 when some forty reports were written on his research, ranging from geotechnics to the ethnie and psychological qualities of the people. Both Yugoslav and visiting scholars spoke of Cvijic as a pioneer in geography and associated sciences whose work abides. Naturally some of his methods are now obsolète but they made later progress possible, and

29

the advance of science was splendidly described by Cvijic himself in thèse words Nous montons tous, les uns sur les épaules des autres .... Les hypothèses scientifiques, qui constituent des chaînons importants dans l'évolution de la science, coulent comme un fleuve: les unes disparaissent pour être remplacées par les autres ....

Bibliography and Sources The quantity of published work by J. Cvijiê was massive, and this bibliography deals mainly with works that appeared in English, French or German. Many of Cvijic's major théories, both in physical and in human geography, were foreshadowed and developed in publications that originally appeared in Serbo-Croat. The wide respect for his work in various countries is apparent from section 1 of the bibliography. 1. REFERENCES ON JOVAN CVIJIC (a) Obituaries Geogr. Rev. 3 vol 17 (1927), 240 Gallois, L., Ann. Géogr. 3 vol 36 (1927), 181-3 Machatschek, F., Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 73 (1927), 102-03 Rev. Mens. Géogr.3 Cracow, vol 5 (1927), 81-3 (in Polish) Czasopisma Geogvaficzne3 Lwow, vol 5 (1927, 49-57 (in Polish, with bibliography) Wiadomoêci Geogvaficzne3 Cracow, vol 5 (1927), 17-20, 81-3 (in Polish) (b) Other studies Recueil de travaux offert à M. Jovan Cvijiù3 Belgrade (1924) , a présentation volume on his sixtieth birthday. Among the papers is one by J.V. Danes, in Czech with an English summary and a map of his various travels. This was republished as Publications de la Faculté des Sciences de l'Université Charles, no 46 (1925) Vlahovic, M.S., 'Jovan Cvijic — scientist and patriot', Anglo-ïugoslav Review3 vol 1/no 3-4 (1936), 55-9 Milojevic, B.Z., 'Twentieth anniversary of the death of Jovan Cvijic', Bull. Soc. Serbe Geogr. 3 vol 27 (1947), 49-53 (English summary) Jovanovic, P.S., 'Jovan Cvijic et la portée de son oeuvre', Bull. Soc. Serbe Géogr. 3 vol 29 (1949), 69-76 Freeman, T.W., 'Jovan Cvijic: a reluctant political geographer', The Geographer's Craft3 Manchester (1967), 72-100

30

Jovan

Cvijic

2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHE (a) Karsts and limestone topography 1893 'Das Karstphânomen', A. Penck's Geogv. Abhand., vol 5/3, 1-114 1918 'Hydrographie souterraine et évolution morphologique du Karst', Recl. Trav. Inst. Gêogr. Alpine, vol 6, 375-426 1924 'The évolution of lapiês ', Geogv. Rev., vol 14, 26-49 1924-6 Morphologie terrestre, 2 vols, Belgrade, 588 and 506p. 1925 Circulation des eaux et érosion karstique, Zagreb, 20p. 1960 La géographie des terrains calcaires, Académie Serbe des Sciences et des Arts, Monographs, vol 341, classe de Sciences mathématiques et naturelles, no 26, with préface by B.Z. Milojevic: manuscript revised by E. de Martonne (b) General physical geography and geology 1901 'La limnologie générale de M. Forel ', Ann. Gêogr., vol 10, 70-2 1902 'Les crypto-depressions de l'Europe', La Gêogr., vol 5, 247-54 1904 'Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel', C.R. 9 Congr. Gêol. Int. Vienne, 1903, 347-70 1908 'Die Entwicklunsgeschichte des Eisernen Tores', Erg'ànz. no 160 zu Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., 64p. 1908 'Grundlinien der Géographie und Géologie von Mazedonien und Altersbien', Erg'ànz. no 162 zu Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., 392p. 1908 'Peneplains und epeirogenetische Bewegungen der Siidkarpathen', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 54/5, 114-16 1909 'Bildung und Dislozierung der dinarischen Rumpfflâchen', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 55, 121-7, 156-63, 177-81 1909 'Un nouveau "Traite de géographie physique"',Ann. Gêogr., vol 18, 385-9 1910 'L'ancien lac Egéen', Ann. Gêogr., vol 19, 233-59 (c) Glaciation 1898 'Das Rila-Gebirge und seine ehemalige Vergletscherung', Z. Gesell. Erdkd. Berlin, vol 33, 201-53 1900 Morphologische und glaziale Studien aus Bosnien, der Herzegovina und Monténégro, Abhand. Geogr. Gesell. Wien, vol 2/6, 145-237: vol 3 (1901) no 2, 1-85 1900 'L'époque glaciaire dans la péninsule des Balkans', Ann. Gêogr., vol 9, 359-72 1904 'Neue Ergebnisse liber die Eiszeit auf der Balkanhalbinsel', Mitt. Geogr. Gesell. Wien, vol 47, 149-95 1908 'Beobachtungen iiber die Eiszeit auf der Balkanhalbinsel, in den Siidkarpathen und auf dem mysischen Olymp', Z. Gletscherkd., vol 3, 1-35 1917 'L'époque glaciaire dans la péninsule Balkanique', Ann. Gêogr., vol 26, 189-218, 273-90

(d) Human and régional geography 1906 'Remarques sur l'ethnographie de la Macédonie', Ann. Gêogr., vol 15, 115-32, 249-66 (translation of a paper originally published in Serbo-Croat: it also appeared in German and Russian and in English as Remarks on the ethnography of the Macedonia Slavs, London (1906), 36p.) 1908 'Circa il principio scientifico ed il metodo per la construzione di una carta etnografica délia Penisola balcanica', Atti Sesto Congr. Geogr. Ital., Venice, 1-7 1909 L'annexion de la Bosnie et la question serbe, Paris, 70p. 1913 'Ethnographische Abgrenzung der Balkanvôlker', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 59, 113-18, 185-9, 244-6 1916 Questions balkaniques, Paris, 80p. 1918 La péninsule balkanique, géographie humaine, Paris, 532p. 1918 'The zones of civilization of the Balkan peninsula', Geogr. Rev., vol 8, 345-61, 470-82 Milovad Vasovic is Professor of Geography at the University of Belgrade. Translated from French by T.W. Freeman.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1865

Boni at Loznica, west Serbia, October 12

1888

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

CVIJIC

PUBLICATIONS

Teacher in a grammar school

18891893

Studied in Vienna with Penck, Suess and Hann

During university vacations travelled in East Serbia and in Bulgaria

1893

Professor of Geography at Belgrade University (to 1927)

Studied the mountain areas of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Monténégro

1894

Director of the new Institute of Geography

First paper on the karst

Das Karstphânomen (in German - his doctorate thesis)

Foundation of the Institute of Geography, Belgrade University

1898

Papers on the glacial epoch in the Balkan peninsula (from 1898) Member of the Serbian Academy of Science

Worked on the lakes of Macedonia; extended his travels to Old Serbia, Macedonia, Asia Minor (to 1905)

1902

First work on human geography

1903

Papers on lakes of Sumandija

1906

Rector of Belgrade University (190607)

Publication of a geological atlas of Macedonia and old Serbia (Serbo-Croat, key in French)

Sketch of the geography and geology of Macedonia and Old Serbia 1907 1909

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

First travels in the karst régions of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Monténégro

1889

1899

JOVAN

Visited London 'L'annexion de la Bosnia et la question serbe', Paris

32

Jovan

Cvijic

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1910

Président of Serbian Geographical Society

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS Serbian Geographical Society founded

1912

Beginning of Balkan wars

1914

World War

1915

Lectured on the Balkan peninsula at the Sorbonne

1918

Became Yugoslav expert at the conférence leading to Treaty of Versailles

1919

Second term as Rector of Belgrade University

1920

Président of Serbian Academy of Sciences

La péninsule balkanique et les pays slaves du Sud

Visit to Karlovy Vary and Prague

End of war, opening of Paris Peace Conférence

Treaty of Versailles

Morphologie terrestre^ Belgrade, 2 vols, 1924, 1926

1924

Recueil de travaux offert a M. Jovan Cvijic, including an article (in Czech, English summary) by J.V. Daneâ" with a map showing the Journeys of J. Cvijic

1925

1927

In exile, first at Neuchâtel and then in Paris

Died at Belgrade, 10 January

Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev 1846-1903

VASILY ALEXEYEVICH ESAKOV Vasily Dokuchaev, the great Russian naturalist, gained renown for his work in geography, soil science, and geology. He was the founder of modem genetic soil science and one of the founders of modem physical geography. He initiated the publication of the period-

ical Soil

Science

(Pochvovedeniye)

and sponsored a

large school of soil scientists in Russia. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK V.V. Dukochaev was born in the village of Milyukovo in the Smolensk district into the family of a priest. lie received his primary éducation at an ecclesiastical school in the town of Vyazma after which he studied at the Smolensk seminary. In 1867 he graduated from the seminary with an honours diploma and was accepted at the Ecclesiastical Academy of St Petersburg (now Leningrad). But he did not relish the prospect of a comfortable career as a minister of religion. He studied for a year and left the Academy to enter the physics and mathematics department of the Natural Science faculty at St Petersburg University. The distinguished scientists D.I. Mendeleyev, A.M. Butlerov, P.L. Chebyshev, and A.N. Beketov were ail working there at the tLiie. Dokuchaev was influenced by the gênerai political ferment and the advance in natural sciences in Russia during the 1860s, and also by his elder brother, Timofei, who after graduating from the St Petersburg Ecclesiastical Academy abandoned the career of a clergyman in order to study at the University. In 1871 Dokuchaev graduated from St Petersburg University with a candidate thesis devoted to investigations

into and description of the silting deposits of the River Kachna in the Upper Volga basin, where he was born. From that time on Dokuchaev's research was associated with St Petersburg University, the Natu ralists' Society, the Free Economie Society, the Mineralogical Society and the Union of St Petersburg Landowners. He concentrated on the physical and geographical conditions, and in particular the soil, of the vast areas of the European part of Russia comprising the Russian plain and the Caucasus. In the autumn of 1872 Dokuchaev was appointed curator of the Geological Labcratory at St Petersburg University and in 1879 he began lecturing there on geology, holding the post of assistant professor. In the académie year of 1879-80 he delivered a spécial course of lectures on geology to senior students of natural sciences at St Petersburg University. This course was the first on the Quaternary deposits ever held in the history of both Russian and world science. In his lectures Dokuchaev also dwelt at length on the problems of the soil mantle, the classification of soils and the cartography associated with them. The course was his earliest attempt to summarize his investigations and outline the new trends in soil research. In 1883 he became head of the Department of Mineralogy and Crystallography and in 1887 he ran a course on soil science. Dokuchaev's gifts as a teacher, organizer and propagandist of scientific knowledge attracted the devoted support of his abler students, some of whom formed a school of soil scientists . From 1892 to 1895, while holding the post of

34

Vasily

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

professor at St Petersburg University, Dokuchaev was engagea in the reorganization of the Novo-Alexandriisk Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, now the Dokuchaev Institute in Kharkov. Later he became head of the Institute where he organized the Department of Soil Science, the first one in Russia, and the Department of Plant and Microorganism Physiology. His pupil, N.M. Sibirtsev, was invited to be head of department and later became famous for his course on soil science. This reorganization of the Novo-Alexandriisk Institute served as a model for the reorganization of the Moscow Agricultural Institute, now the Moscow K.A. Timiryazev Agricultural Academy. Dokuchaev defended his first major work entitled

Sposoby obrazovaniya Rossii (River Valley

rechnikh dolin v Evropeiskoi formation in European Russia)

as

his Master's thesis in 1878. This work was the outcome of several years of thorough study of the geological, orographie and hydrographie features of the Russian plain, particularly in the régions covered with ancient glaciers. He analyzed the various earlier hypothesis on river valley formation, especially those which treated the valleys as resulting purely from tectonic fractures or from recession of the seas. Many concepts of the widely held Murchison drift theory were proved to be wrong. Dokuchaev's theory related the origin of river valleys, boulder beds, and even the formation of chernozem soils to the océan processes. When studying river valley formation, Dokuchaev approached the problem from a wider standpoint. He gave a much more complète idea of the genesis of érosion relief than earlier workers and attributed its development to certain physical and geographical conditions of past geological epochs. His ideas on the existence of large glacial lake basins over the area of the Russian plain during the Quaternary period are highly significant: he also pointed out the stadial development of river valleys and, in this connection, of érosion relief in gênerai. He may therefore be considered one of the founders of geomorphology. Dokuchaev began his expédition work by studying modem Quaternary deposits and then proceeded to investigate the soil mantle of the area of European Russia, concentrating mainly on chernozems, the 'king of soils'. The increasing interest in soils, and particularly in chernozems, resulted from the need to make a proper land survey and use the land rationally. This attracted the attention of scientific societies. In 1875 Dokuchaev was asked to write the explanatory notes for the Soil Map of European Russia compiled by V.I. Chaslovsky. The manuscript of this map, which was exhibited at the 1875 International Geographical Congress in Paris and awarded the gold medal, took Dokuchaev several years to prépare for publication. Then followed a large-scale, planned study of chernozem soils. In 1877 Dokuchaev explored the northern border of the chernozem belt, the chernozem soils of the Ukraine, Moldavia, Central Russia, Zavolzhyie (the areas beyond the Volga), the Crimea and the northern slopes of the Caucasus. The main

outcome of his study was Russkii

chernozem

(Russian

chernozem, 1883) which earned him the gratitude of the Free Economie Society and a doctor's degree in mineralogy and geology. Dokuchaev's scientific authority and the practical value of his research attracted the attention of régional and private landowners and later of the Russian central state institutions. The Nizhnegorod and Poltava zemstvos (élective district councils) as well as the big landowners in the Saratov and Voronezh districts sponsored and financed comprehensive research into the natural conditions of vast territories. The Nizhny Novgorod (1882-6), Poltava (1888-94) and other expéditions led by Dokuchaev were comprehensive in scope. The reports, Materialy k otsenke

zemel (Materials

on land estimation)

appeared in 14

volumes for the Nizhny Novgorod and 16 for the Poltava expéditions. For each district a complète survey was given under the headings of geology, soil, water, plants and animais. An évaluation of the natural resources, especially in soils, was also made for each district and on Dokuchaev's initiative the spécimens collected were deposited in the natural history and historical muséums of Nizhny Novgorod (Gorki) and Poltava. Dokuchaev was instrumental in establishing similar muséums in other Russian towns. Dokuchaev was one of the organizers of the 8th Congress of Russian Naturalists and Physicians held in 1890. At this meeting he arranged separate geographical and agronomical sections which did useful work. He frequently argued that a Soil Science Research Institute and Muséum were needed in Russia. From 1890 to 1895 he continued to supervize régional work in St Petersburg and its environs but it proved difficult to establish the new muséum. This muséum in fact exists in Leningrad and bears his name though it was not opened until after his death. In 1891 Russia suffered a severe drought and Dokuchaev's scientific activities were directed towards combating this calamity. He suggested a number of practical measures that should be taken to control drought and raise soil productivity. On the instructions of the Ministry of Crown Domains, he assumed the leadership of the Spécial Expédition of the Forestry Department which was to work out agricultural, forestry and irrigation techniques for the steppe zone of Russia. The Expédition based on its work on the plan presented

in Dokuchaev's book, Nashi steppi steppes past and présent, 1892).

prezhde i teper (Our Preliminary geologi-

cal, soil and climatic studies were to be followed by permanent local observations and fieldwork. Three pilot plots of about 5,000 hectares each were therefore 'selected in the steppe belt: Starobelsk situated at the watershed of the rivers Don and Donets, Khrenovsk (Kamennaya steppe) between the Volga and Don rivers, and the Veliko-Abadolsk area at the watershed between the Donets and the Dnieper. In 1895 the Forestry Department undertook an expédition with the active participation of N.P. Adamov, G.J. Tan-filyev, N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, and other scientists. During this expédition detailed geological and soil maps of ail three areas and the adjacent territories were drawn up and a thorough study was made of the relief, water,

Vasily végétation, etc. The network of meteorological stations and rain gauges established throughout thèse areas was of great importance. The observations carried out at thèse places made it possible to collect data showing the influence of climatic conditions on agriculture and in particular the part played by the forests and forest-protection belts. There was widescale afforestation, control and utilization of the water resources available in the steppe, and construction of réservoirs. Dokuchaev paid much attention to the scientifically based utilization of water resources throughout the country. A detailed account of exploration carried out during the expédition, (Trudi

ekspeditsii)(Report

of the expédition,

1894-8),

sum-

marized the observations on orohydrography, geology, soils, climate, etc. Especially well known is the exploration in the Kamennaya Steppe (Stone Steppe) , an area where Dokuchaev supervized the planting of about 180 hectares of forest protection belts, and where the V.V. Dokuchaev Agricultural Research Institute of the Central Chernozem Belt has since been founded. He also worked particularly hard as head of the Soil Science Bureau under the Scientific Committee of the Ministry for Agriculture. The Bureau concentrated on compiling the new soil map of European Russia with the assistance of N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev, and A.R. Ferkhmin. Pressures of his organizational and scientific work caused Dokuchaev to suffer from extrême fatigue and nervous disease, a condition aggravated by the illness and death of Anna Yegorovna, his wife and devoted companion. As a resuit Dokuchaev resigned from St Petersburg University in 1897 after 25 years' service. However, as soon as his health improved he resumed his fruitful activities and the wide-scale dissémination of his scientific ideas. In 1898, he went on an expédition to explore the soils of Bessarabia. From 1898 to 1899 and in 1900 he studied in the Caucasus and the Transcaucasus territory, and also in 1898 and 1899 he made a trip to the Transcaspian district. When writing of his explorations in the Caucasus, Dokuchaev could not conceal his pride that he had 'not only foretold, but also actually proved irrefutably the existence of vertical soil zones, which were particularly marked throughout the entire Caucasus and Transcaucasian territory' {Works, vol 8 (1961), 331). In 1900 when in Tbilisi Dokuchaev delivered a number of lectures on soil science and the results gained from his three-year study of the soils in the Caucasus. This was his last appearance in public, reporting on his last research expédition. Already ill on his return to St Petersburg, he was taken to hospital and for the last three years of his life remained there suffering from severe mental dépression. He died at the âge of 57. Dokuchaev never spared any effort to make scientific achievements accessible to the gênerai public. He drew the attention of Russian government, public and scientific circles to the organizational problems of science, and to the need to centralize ail soil exploration work. He insisted on establishing an

Vasilyevioh

Dokuchaev

35

institute for soil science which would organize soil science departments at the universities. Jointly with A.V. Sovetov, he regularly published Materialy po

izucheniya

russkich

pochv (Materials

on

Studying

Russian Soils) from 1885. This publication was later called the Proceedings of the Soil Commission of the Free Economie Society (1889-99). In 1899, he founded the periodical Soil Science which has been the international journal of pedology since 1910.

2. SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS AND GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS V.V. Dokuchaev was among the naturalists of the latter half of the nineteenth century who shared the ideas of natural historical materialism which were based on direct observations and a spontaneous dialectical approach towards Nature's phenomena. He continued and developed the ideas of his predecessors, M. Lomonosov, A. von Humboldt, C. Lyell and C. Darwin, who considered that natural processes show change as part of global processes and phenomena which are universal and interrelated. His basic principle of synthetic approach towards research allowed him to put forward new ideas in natural science and to launch a new branch of it, genetic natural science. Dokuchaev may also be considered one of the founders of modem physical geography. He completed the foundation of the science on natural zones, and made it clear that a new synthetic branch of natural science was taking shape which was expected to reveal age-old interrelations between inorganic or non-living and organic (living) nature which could also be seen in the contemporary world. The émergence of soil science as a new branch of science was due to Dokuchaev's pioneer présentation of soil as a spécifie natural-historical body, which cornes into being as a resuit of the interaction between several soil-forming factors such as climate, parent rock, végétation and animal organisms, the âge of the territory and the relief. He borrowed this idea from geology when studying Quaternary deposits and, later, Russia's chernozem soils. According to the apt remark of F. Yu. Levinson-Lessing, chernozem study was the background whose rôle in moulding soil science was similar to that of the frog in physiology, or the common sait crystal in mineralogy. Previously there had existed several independent one-sided schools of soil science. Some of them recognized the chemistry of soil, others proceeded from the soil's physical properties, and yet others based their views upon geology and mechanical properties. Soil was identified with arable land and mistaken for loose rocks. Dokuchaev pointed out that 'very few scientists treated soils as natural-historical bodies, and nobody investigated ail the main properties of ail thèse interrelated bodies' (Works, vol 4 (1950), 318). He was the first to prove the principal différence between parent rock and soil. His earliest works had already suggested the idea that 'soil is an independent body having its own face, its own origin and its own properties' (Works, vol 2 (1950) , 245). A comprehensive approach towards soil évolution allowed Dokuchaev to reveal the entire

36

Vasily

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

complexity of the interrelated soil-forming factors, including those of time and human activities. He defined soils in this statement as surface mineral-organic formations, more or less stained with humus; each has its own origin: soils are always the resuit of the combined activities of parent rock, living and dead organisms (both plants and animais), climate, the âge of the territory and relief; similar to any other organism, soils always hâve their normal structure, normal thickness and normal position; therefore soils are affected by température, moisture and plant growth differently from their parent rocks (Works, vol 2 (1950), 260). According to Dokuchaev, soils are biological formations whose properties are intimately connected with their position on the Earth's surface. They therefore respond to geographical conditions in a regular manner. Proceeding from his définition of soil and the statement that soil is a function that is changeable due to soil-formation factors, Dokuchaev introduced a new natural-historical classification of soils. His methods of soil classification are still valid and are used as the basis for mapping soils and for their qualitative estimation. He classified the soils into three major catégories — standard, transient, and non-standard. Thèse three catégories were subdivided according to the différent soil constituents and their interrelations. Standard or climatophytic soils are most typical and most common over the Earth. They include the gréâtest number of varieties: northern light grey, intergrade grey, chernozem, chestnut, southern brown solonets and others. With time, the classification of soil become even more accurate and detailed. In the 1896 soils classification, the soil genetic types and soil belts (zones) were associated and compared with the végétation and climate zones which, as Dokuchaev aptly remarked, was of much importance for 'true and inté-

gral understanding

and estimation

of nature and its

various and complicated phenomena' (Works, (1950), 306).

vol 2

Dokuchaev established the zonal character of the soil mantle and its coincidence with climatic zones, plant and animal kingdoms. In this connection he said, 'Owing to the position of our planet with respect to the Sun and the Earth's révolution and its spherical shape, the climate, végétation and animais are distributed over the Earth's surface from the North to the South, according to a strict order and thoroughness which allows the Earth to be divided

into belts: polar,

temperate,

subtropical,

equatorial,

etc'. Since soil formers spread according to certain regular patterns and are distributed throughout thèse belts, the resuit, i.e. soil, is expected to be distributed over the Earth as definite zones which are more or less parallel (with slight déviations) to latitudinal zones (Works, vol 4 (1951), 407). Further, Dokuchaev's interprétation of nature as an interrelated whole led him to advocate horizontal and vertical zones

in nature: in effect he introduced a concept of nature's zones. Dokuchaev differentiated between five geographical zones: a boréal zone, a forest or taïga zone, a chernozem (steppe) zone, an areal zone of déserts, and a lateritic (tropical) zone. Thèse were considered to be the main zones with the transient zones, such as semi-desert, between them. Dokuchaev also pointed out that natural zones may include certain physico-geographical régions, depending on local geographical conditions. The geographical zones were also agricultural zones. He repeatedly pointed out that agriculture should be developed on a zonal basis and described the main agrotechnical problems for each particular zone. Another important theoretical achievement of Dokuchaev's was his treatment of landscape as a dynamic System of natural bodies and processes. Thèse ideas are conspicuously presented in his work Nashi steppi prezhde

i teper

(Our steppes

past and présent,

1892) which was

the earliest attempt in world geographical literature to show the geographic-genetic interprétation of soil. This attempt reflected the genetic approach not only to certain bodies and phenomena but also to the entire landscape. Dokuchaev believed that nature, diverse as it was, should be studied as an entity. This would make it possible not only to manage natural processes but also to transform them. Dokuchaev's comments on a new theory regarding the interrelation between 'non-living' and 'living' nature (which was taking shape at that time) were the greatest geographical synthesis of his scientific work.

In his work Mesto i roi sovremyonnogo pochvovedeniya v nauke i zhizni (The place and rôle of modem soil science in science and life, 1899), Dokuchaev wrote

As is known, one of the most interesting branches of modem natural science, namely the theory of those complex and diversified corrélations and interrelations as well as the regularities governing their secular changes has been developing over the last few years and quite clearly separating itself from other branches. Thèse interrelations and corrélations exist between the so called 'living' and 'non-living' nature, between (a) surface rock, (b) earth plastics, (c) soils, (d) surface and ground water, (e) country's climate, (f) plant and (g) animal organisms including mainly the most primitive ones and man who is the consummation of beings. (Works, vol 4 (1951), 416). Dokuchaev thus came close to founding an intégral science which was to embrace 'the united intégral and non-divided nature'. His ideas contributed to the suprême achievements of geographical thought in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Developing the ideas of Humboldt and other scientists, Dokuchaev raised geographical science to a new and higher level. Ail this has relevance to the task faced by the modem science of the Earth, physical geography.

Vasily 3. INFLUENCE AND THE SPREAD OF IDEAS Dokuchaev's influence was felt throughout natural sciences, and particularly in soil science, physical geography, geobotanics, and geomorphology. As the great Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky aptly pointed out, 'in the natural science of Russia during the nineteenth century there were few people who could be compared with hira from the point of view of the influence they exerted upon scientific thought, the depth and originality of their summarizing thought'. Great impetus for the development of the various branches of natural science, including geography, resulted from Dokuchaev's gênerai materialistic world outlook, his comprehensive and many-sided approach to studying the interconnections and interdependence of ail the éléments of the geographical environment and its components and practical application of his theoretical ideas. Thèse ideas assisted later générations of scientists in their explorations of nature in the vast areas of Russia (Siberia, Central Asia, etc.). Dokuchaev was an excellent organizer of scientific investigations and an ardent propagandist and this accounted for the popular response to his scientific work. He was very good at finding and leading gifted young people who accepted and developed his ideas, and his disciples did not take long to find key positions in science. The theory on the zones of geographical environment (natural zones) and landscape worked out by Dokuchaev laid the foundation for developing physical geography in its global and régional aspects. His ideas developed especially fruitfully in the U.S.S.R. What was not accomplished by him was later achievèd by his disciples, V.I. Vernadsky, S.S. Neustruev, G.N. Vysotsky, L.S. Berg, L.I. Prasolov, B.B. Polynov, A.A. Grigoryev, V.N. Sukachev, and others. Prominent physical geographers in the U.S.S.R. who had been influenced by him are A.A. Grigoryev, I.P. Gerasimov, S.V. Kalesnik and others. They dealt with the gênerai physical geography and the theory of the geographical (landscape) cover; L.S. Berg, N.A. Solntsev and others were concerned with the theory of geographical zoning and landscape studies. Ail of thèse topics are most important to the study of Soviet geography. Dokuchaev's ideas contributed greatly to the geography of plants (the studies of forest, swamps, etc.) and the launching of the theory of biogeocoenosis. Thèse problems were discussed in the works of S.S. Neustruev, M.F. Morozov, G.N. Tanfilyev, V.N. Sukachev, B.B. Polynov and others. V.I. Vernadsky, one of Dokuchaev's disciples, became the founder of geochemistry, and modem ecological science is permeated with Dokuchaev's ideas. World science has widely recognized Dokuchaev's genetic soil science and soil geography. As early as 1870 L. Grando, a well-known French agrochemist, took part in the study of chernozem samples when he was a member of Dokuchaev's expédition. The achievements of Russian soil science, demonstrated at International Congresses and exhibitions (Moscow, Chicago, St Petersburg, Paris, etc.) attracted the attention of

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

27

scientists and specialists and Dokuchaev received the highest awards at international forums. In 1897 the Soil Department of the U.S.A. asked Russia's Ministry of Agriculture and Dokuchaev himself fer the latter's publications 'for their officiai application' (Works, vol 4 (1951), 341). C.P. Marbut, an American soil scientist who introduced the Russian principle of soil classification to his country, believed that the significance of Dokuchaev's works for the history of soil science was similar to that of C. Lyell in the history of geology and of C. Linnaeus in

the history of botany (American Geography,

Inventory

and Prospect, Syracuse (1954), 385; Russian translation Moscow (1957) , 367). When speaking at the session of the Agronomical Society in Paris the French geologist G.A. Dobré suggested that soil maps of France should be made up according to Dokuchaev's method. Another French geologist, St Meunier, called Dokuchaev's investigations monumental. When revising the Soil Section of the World Exhibition held in Paris in 1900 E. de Margerie wrote on the flowering of Russian soil science due to Dokuchaev's work. He also praised the soil maps, particularly the Soil Map of European Russia which was a synthesis of and an example for ail soil maps. 'It merits the highest honour for ail the Russian scientists who took part in designing it'. Many other foreign scientists (Van den Broek, Rjeuto, E. Romman, P. Treits, Joffe and others) held Russia soil science in high esteem, and Dokuchaev's soil classification was used for making up soil maps of England, Romania, Bulgaria and other countries. Dokuchaev may justly be ranked with Humboldt, Darwin and Lyell, the world's classical natural scientists.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON V.V. DOKUCHAEV Berg, L.S., 'V.V. Dokuchaev i ucheniye o geograficheskikh zonakh' ('V.V. Dokuchaev and the theory of

geographical zones') in Ocherki po russkikh geograficheskikh otkrytiy, Nauk SSSR, (1946), 249-57.

trudy

(Selected

works),

Also in

istorii Izd. Akad. Izbrannye

vol 1, Izd. Akad. Nauk

SSSR^ (1956), 141-8

Dokuchaev, V. V. i geografiya (Dokuchaev, V. V. and geography) 1846-1946, Moscow Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR (1946), 83p. with a portrait. The collection includes papers by A.A. Grigoryev, I.P. Gerasimov, Y.A. Liverovsky, S.S. Sobolov, E.M. Larrenko and I.S. Lupinovich

Esakov, V.A., Geografia v Rossii v XIX, nachal XX .... (Geography in Russia in the late nineteenth to the early twentieth century), Moscow, 1978, 165-75 Gerasimov, I.P. 'Dokuchaevskoe uchenie o faktorakh pochvoobrazovaniya ...' ('Dokuchaev's teaching on the factors of soil formation in the présent stage of development'), Pochvovedeniye, vol 8 (1956), 1-11

38

Vasily

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

Grigoryev, A.A., 'Nauchnye idei V.V. Dokuchaeva v oblasti fizicheskoi geografii ...' ('Scientific ideas of V.V. Dokuchaev in the field of physical geography, their importance at the présent time and their possible future development'), Materialy ko Vtoromu Syezdu Geograficheskogo Obshchestva SSSR, Moscow, Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR (1954), 158-61 Grigoryev, A.A., '0 razvitii nauchnikh idei V.V. Dokuchaeva v razvitii fizicheskoi geografii' ('On the importance of V.V. Dokuchaev's ideas for the development of physical geography'), Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geogr., no 6 (1953), 5-16 Isachenko, A.G., 'Dokuchaevskoye geneticheskoye pochvovedeniye v fizicheskoi geografii ....' ('Dokuchaev's genetic soil science in physical geography and its development in the works of L.S. Berg') in Pamyati Akademika Berga, Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR (1955), 94-111 Krupenikov, I.A. and L.A., Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev 1846-1903, Moscow (1949), 288p. Morozov, G.F., 'Znachenie rabot V.V. Dokuchaevo dlya lesovodstva' ('The importance of V.V. Dokuchaev's works for forestry'), Pochvovedeniye, vol 4 (1903), 415-21 Neustruev, S.S., 'Dokuchaevskie idei v amerikanskom pochvovedenii' ('V.V. Dokuchaev's ideas in American soil science'), Tr. Pochv.Inst. V.V. Dokuchaeva, Leningrad (1927), no 2, 342-7 Polynov, B.B., Krupenikov, I.A. and Krupenikov, L.A., Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev. His Life and Work, Moscow, Izd. Akad, Nauk USSR (1956), 278p. Prasolov, L.I., 'Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev (18461903), in Lyudi Russkoi Nauki, vol 2 (1948), 73642 Sobolev, S.S., 'Razvitie idei V.V. Dokuchaeva' ('Development of V.V. Dokuchaev's Ideas') in Dokuchaev V.V. Sochineniya, vol 9 (1961), Izd. Akad. Nauk USSR, 9-39. Also in this volume, Chebatoreva, L.A., 'Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev, a story of his life', 46-152 and a bibliography including 49 titles in foreign languages, 248-322 Tanfilyev, G.I., 'Znachenie rabot V.V. Dokuchaeva dlya botanicheskoi geografii' ('The importance of Dokuchaev's works for botanical geography'), Pochvovedeniye, vol 4 (1903), 423-8 Vernadsky, V.I., 'Stranitsa iz istorii pochvovedeniya1 ('A chapter from the history of soil science') in Ocherki i rechi (Essays and speeches), part 2, Petrograd (1922), 77-92 Vilensky, D.G., Russkaya pochvenno-kartograficheskaya shkola i eyo vliyanie na razvitie mirovoi kartografii (The Russian school of soil cartography and its influence on the development of world soil cartography), Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR (1945), 143p. Yefremov, Yu. K., 'Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev, 18461903' in Otechestvennye fiziko-geografi i puteshestvenniki, Moscow, 1959, 450-62

2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 1872 '0 nanosnych obrazivaniyakh po reke Kachne Sychevskogo uezda Smolenskoi gubernii' ('The drift formations found along the Kachna River in the Sychev région of Smolensk province'), Tr. St Petersburg 0-va Yestestvoispytateley, vol 3, xxix-xxxiii 1875 'Po voprosu ob osushenii bolot voobshche i v chastnosti ob osushenii Polesyia' ('On the draining of swamps in gênerai and of Polesyia in particular'), Tr. St Petersburg 0-va Yestestvoispytateley, vol 6, 131-85 1877 'Itogi o russkom chernozeir.e' ('Results of work on the Russian Chemozem'), Tr. Volnogo Ekon. 0-va., vol 1, no 4, 415-32 1878 Sposoby obrazovaniya rechnikh dolin v Europeiskoi Rossii (Types of Valley Formation in European Russia), St Petersburg, 228p. 1878 Kartografia russkich pochv (Cartography of Russian soils. Explanation notes to the soil map of European Russia), by V.I. Chaslavsky, St Petersburg, 144p. 1879 'Tchernozeme (terre noire) de la Russie d'Europe', Ci?. Soc. Libre Econ., 66p. 1881 Khod i glavneishie resultaty preprinyatogo Volnymui ekonom. Ob.-om issledovaniya russkogo chernizema (The course and the main results of the.study of Russian chernozems undertaken by the Free Economie Society), 66p. '0 zakonnostiy izvestnogo geograficheskogo raspredeleniya nazemno-rastitelnikh pochv' ('Conformity of soils and végétation in their geographical distribution through European Russia'), Tr. St Petersburg 0-va Yestestvoispytateley, vol 12, no 1, 65-83 1882 Po voprosu o Sibirskom chemozem (On the Question of the Siberian Chemozem), St Petersburg, 33p. 1882-6 'Materialy k otsenke zemel Nizhnynovgorodskoy Gubernii' ('On land évaluation in the Nizhny Novgorod district'), Yestestvenno-Istoricheskaya chast, nos 1-14 1883 Russki Chemozem .... (Russian Chernozems. Report to the Free Economie Society), St Petersburg, 376p. 1891 'Kratkaya programma dlya issledovaniya pochv' ('Short programme for the study of soils') in Programma i nastavleniya dlya nablyudeniy, 3 ed revised, St Petersburg, 39-51 1892 Nashi steppi prezhde i teper (Our Steppes past and présent), published to assist the victims of crop failure, St Petersburg, 128p. 1893 (1) The Russian Steppes. (2) Study of the Soil in Russia in the past and présent, published by the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Crown Domains, for the World Columban Exhibition at Chicago, St Petersburg, 61p. 1895 Trudy ekspeditsii snaryazhonnei Lesnym Depàrtamentom ... (Report of the Expédition equipped by the Forestry Department under the guidance of Professor V.V. Dokuchaev), St Petersburg, 25p. (also a French édition, 28p.)

Vasily 1898 Mesto i roi sovremennogo pochvovedeniya v nauke i zhizni (Place and rôle of modem soil science), Warsaw, 11p., 1-6 in Russian, 7-11 in French 1899 K ucheniyu o zonakh prirody (On the theory of Natural Zones, Horizontal and Vertical soil zones), St Petersburg, 28p. 1949-61 Sochineniya (Works), Izd. Akad. Nauk USSR, 11 vols, Moscow, Leningrad. Vol 9 includes a complète bibliography of the works of Dokuchaev with 395 entries Vasily Alexeyevich Esakov is Prof essor of Geography in the Academy of Sciences, Institute of the History of Natural Sciences and Technology, Moscow.

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

39

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1846

Born in the village of Milyukovo in the Smolensk guberniya (district), March

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

VASILY VASILYEVICH DOKUCHAEV

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1850s1860s

Translations into Russia of A. Humboldt's Cosmos and C. Lyell's Principles of Geology

1859

Origin

1861

Serfdom abolished in Russia

1867

of Species

(C. Darwin)

Graduated from the Smolensk seminary Student at St Petersburg University (to 1871)

1871

Geological and soil explorations in European Russia (to 1878)

1872

Curator of Geological Laboratory at the University of St Petersburg (to 1888)

1874

Secretary of Geological and Mineralogical Department of the St Petersburg Naturalists' Society (to 1884) 'Itogi o ruskom chernozeme' ('On Russian chernozem')

1877

Sposoby obrazovaniya rechnikh dolin v Europeiskoi Rossii (River Valley formation in European Russia) Kartografia russkikh pochv (Cartography of Russian soils)

1878

Defended his thesis for Mas ter's Degree in mineralogy and geology

1879

Assistant Professor, St Petersburg University (to 1883)

1882

Was a candidate for the post of senior geologist at Geological Committee

In charge of the expédition to the Nizhny Novgorod province (to 1886)

'Materialy k otsenke zemel Nizhny Novgorodskoy Gubernii' ('On land évaluation in the Nizhny Novgorod district')

Foundation of the Geological Committee in Russia

Vasily

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1883

Defended Doctor's thesis (geology)

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL3 FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS Russkii

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

chernozem

Professor at St Petersburg University (to 1897) 1885

Secretary of the St Petersburg Naturalists' Society (to 1891)

1888

Headed the expédition to the Poltava guberniya (district) (to 1894)

1889

Organized the exhibition of Russian soils in Paris. Visited Berlin, Zurich, Vienna Organized a geography section at the 8th Congress of Russian Naturalists and Physicians (to 1890) Headed reorganization of Novo-Alexandriisk Institute of Agriculture and Forestry (now the Kharkov Agricultural Institute) (to 1895)

1892

Nashi steppi prezhde i teper (Our steppes past and présent)

Headed the Spécial Expédition of Forestry Department Display of Russian soils at the World Columbus Exhibition in Chicago

1893

Trudy ekspeditsii snaryazhonnei Lesnym Departamentom (Report of the expédition equipped by Forestry Department) (to 1898)

1894

1897

1898

Resigned from St Petersburg Univers ity

Delivered lectures on soil in St Petersburg, Poltava and Tbilisi (to 1900) Explored the soils in Mesto i roi sovremennogo Bessarabia and Caucasus pochvovedeniya v nauke i zhizni (Place and rôle of modem soil science)

First publication of journal Pochvovedeniye (Soil Science)

41

42

Vasily

Vasilyevich

Dokuchaev ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

1899

Made two trips to the Caucasus (to 1900)

Kacheniya o zonakh prirody (On the theory of natural zones)

1900

Displayed Soil map of European Russia etc. in Paris

DATES

1903

LIFE AND CAREER

Died in St Petersburg (Leningrad) , 8 November

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Ludwig von Hohnel 1857-1942

ANNEMARIE HERRMANN Ludwig von Hohnel belongs to those explorers who gained famé through the opening up of Africa during the second half of the nineteenth century. Fortunately he did not limit himself to the acquisition of topographical knowledge but also devoted his énergies to the scientific exploration of areas he visited. 1. EDUCATION3 LIFE AND WORK Ludwig von Hohnel was born in Pressburg (now Bratislava, Czechoslovakia) on August 6, 1857. His father, coming from an East Prussian family, had studied law in Vienna and worked for the Austrian civil service. His mother's family came from the western part of Hungary (now Burgenland, Austria). After his father's early death he attended the Austrian naval academy at Fiume (now Rijeka, Yugoslavia) from 1873-6. Subsequently he saw service aboard several vessels of the Austrian navy, mostly in the Adriatic sea. He was commissioned in 1879. Hohnel's wish to take part in a scientific voyage to Africa finally came true in 1886 through the help of Crown Prince Rudolf and Crown Princess Stefanie on whose yacht he had served for a short period. He was introduced to the Hungarian Count Samuel Teleki (18451916) who planned a journey to East Africa and was willing to take him along as his scientific assistant. In order to cope with the tasks of this expédition Hohnel had to study on his own to acquire additional knowledge because the project's aim was to gain new insight into various fields of interest, but most of ail geography.

Portrait Collection andPicture Archive, Austrian National Library, Vienna In October 1886 Hohnel left Trieste for Zanzibar and met the other members of the expédition and their native carriers there. Only after he reached the coast was he told of a hitherto unknown lake in the interior of East Africa. By the end of January 1887 the expédition, counting more than 200 men, set out from the coast. After traversing the mountainous country near the coast the East African Highlands were reached. Tours to the Meru Mountains and the Kilimanjaro were undertaken and Hohnel climbed the highest mountain of Africa up to 4,960 m (c. 15,000 feet) and Teleki even up to 5,310 m (c. 17,000 feet). Further north their march brought them to the désert and steppe area of the Njiro Basin and Mt. Kenya. Passing Lake Baringo they moved on through pathless areas previously unknown to Europeans. Soon they reached the southern shores of a lake set in a landscape of volcanic origin. It was named Lake Rudolf in honour of the Crown Prince. After arduous marches along the eastern shores they reached the inhabited and more fertile northern end of the lake. A smaller and still unknown lake to the east was explored and named after the Crown Princess, Lake Stefanie. Their way back led to Lake Baringo on a route further to the west and by the end of October 1888 the expédition had reached the coast near Mombasa. In March 1889 Hohnel and Teleki travelled to Aden and from there crossed over to the African coast to visit Harar which had become part of Abyssinia in 1886. During the following three years Hohnel was engagea in preparing and editing the material brought back from the expédition — Ostâquatorial-Afrika

zwischen

Pangani vend dem neu-entdeckten

Rudolf-See

44

Ludwig von Hohnel

(Eastem Equatorial Africa between the Pangani and the newly discovered Làke Rudolf3 with maps), 'Orographisch-hydrographische Skizze des Forschungsgebietes der Graf Samuel Teleki 'schen Expédition' ('Orographie-hydrographie treatise of the area explored by Count Samuel Teleki's expédition') and Zum Rudolf-See und Stephanie-See (Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie) — which made the importance of his notes and records apparent. In 1889 he gave a highly praised lecture on his journey at the 4th International Geographical Congress at Paris. In Vienna he associated with groups of African travellers, among them Wilhelm Junker and Oscar Baumann. Several Geographical Societies (Cairo, Naples, Rome, Neuchâtel, Amsterdam, Berlin) sent him honorary notes and letters of appréciation. After having declined invitations to participate in several expéditions to Africa he finally agreed to take part in the expédition led by the American explorer, William Astor Chanler. Their aim was to explore the areas east and north of Teleki's routes. In September 1892 Hohnel and Chanler set out from Zanzibar with 180 men and carried out studies of the hydrographie conditions of the headwaters of the Tana river, the Guasso Njiro and the Lorian swamps. During an éléphant hunt Hohnel was attacked by a rhinocéros and wounded so severely that he was unable to continue with the expédition. Chanler intended to move on but soon he was abandoned by the natives and had to give up his plans. Hohnel's research work and mapping-out were later incorporated in the Map of North

Eastern

Kenya Région

(1:750,000) accompanying

Chanler's book of travels. In 1894 he returned to naval service and five years later he was promoted to be aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Joseph, a great honour for any officer. During that period Hohnel belonged to the board of directors of the Geographical Society in Vienna and gave his support to technical innovations such as the experiments of Wilhelm Kress and his 'flying machine'. Having returned to naval service again, Hohnel was given the command of the torpedo-boat cruiser Panther and became head of a diplomatie mission empowered to sign a friendship pact and commercial treaty between the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and Ethiopia. Setting out from Djibouti his way led to Direh Dana and Harar (where they met the future Emperor Haile Selassie) and then turned to Addis Ababa where the délégation was received by Emperor Menelik II in March 1895. One of the members of this diplomatie mission was Friedrich Julius Bieber who left after its completion and started, together with Alphons von Mylius, an expédition to parts of the hitherto unexplored areas of southern Ethiopia. Having completed his mission, Hohnel continued his world trip with the Panther (1905-06), calling at several ports in Australia and the Pacific Océan. Later journeys took Hohnel to the U.S.A. and Greece. In the year 1909 Hohnel retired from the navy to lead the life of a private gentleman. In that very year the 'Ritter-kreuz des Leopoldordens' was con-

ferred on him, and in 1910 he was given the title of 'Konteradmiral ad honores d.R.'. He remained in close contact with his field in interest, i.e. geography, until he died in Vienna on March 23, 1942. 2.

SCIENTIFIC

IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL TH0UGHT

a) Cartography During his two expéditions to Eastern Equatorial Africa Hohnel mapped the visited areas and drew a great number of profile-sketches. Using this material he was able to draw exact maps — 'Original-Routen-Karte von Graf Samuel Teleki's Forschungsreise' ('Map of the route taken by Graf Samuel Teleki's expédition') and 'Map of North Eastern Kenya Région' (both 1:750,000) — thus removing some of the last large blank patches from the map of East Africa. He also illustrated both the ethnographie and geological distributions on thematic maps on a smaller scale. b) Ethnology Hohnel also directed his attention to languages and customs in the newly explored areas. He was able to distinguish three différent ethnie groups: Bantu, members of the Nilotic and the Hamitic nations. The term 'Nilotic' goes back to earlier scientists but it was Hohnel who brought it into the scientific fields of ethnology and linguistics. c) Geology On the Teleki expédition Hohnel found that the explored area was traversed by narrow and long subsidence-zones which were surrounded by volcanic table-lands with mostly extinct volcanos. With the aid of numerous samples of minerais brought to Vienna the geological structure was then determined by A. Rosival, F. Toula and E. Suess ('Beitrage zur geologischen Kenntnis des ostlichen Afrika' 1892 ('Contributions to the geological knowledge of Eastern Africa'). Thèse geographicgeologic findings were then linked with already known material by Eduard Suess and thus found their place in a rift valley System that reaches far beyond Africa. Hohnel's discovery 'that from the southern end of Lake Manjara, at the southern latitude of about 4 20', an uninterrupted line of lakes with no outlets stretches in a méridional direction to Lake Rudolf and from there follows the eastern edge of the Abyssinian highland to the Red Sea' was identified by Suess in his famous work Das Antlitz der Erde (The face of the earth) as part of a 'line of dislocation' from South Africa to Syria.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON L.v. HOHNEL Chanler, William Astor, Through

Jungle

and Desert3

New

Ludwig von Hôhnel York-London (1896) Hohnel, Ludwig von, Mein Leben zur See, auf Forschungsreisen und bei Hof, 1857-1909 (My Life at Sea, on Expéditions, and at the Covœt3 18571909), Berlin (1926) Schanzer, S t a n i s l a u s , 'Konteradmiral Ludwig R.v. Hôhnels Lebenslauf a l s Forschungsreisender und Seeoffizier 1 ('Rear Admirai Ludwig R.v. Hohnel's career as explorer and naval o f f i c e r ' ) , Mitt. Geogr. Gesell. Wien, vol 70 (1927), 193-201 Fuchs, V.E., 'Foreword to Admirai von Hohnel's manus c r i p t CThe Lake Rudolf R é g i o n ] ' , J.R. Afr. Soc, vol 37 (1938), 16-20 Oberhummer, Eugen, 'Ludwig R i t t e r von Hohnel', Petermann's Geogr. Mitt., vol 88 (1942), 183-4 (obituary) Oberhummer, Eugen, 'Ludwig R i t t e r v. Hohnel zum Gedachtnis' ( ' I n Memory of Ludwig R i t t e r v. H o h n e l ' ) , Mitt. Geogr. Gesell. Wien, vol 86 (1943), 267-70 (obituary) 2. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY L.v. HOHNEL 1890 Ostâquatorial-Afrika zwischen Pangani und dem neuent-deckten Rudolf-See. Ergebnisse der Graf S. Telekischen Expédition 1887-1888 (Eastern Equatorial Africa Betueen the Pangani and the newly discovered Lake Rudolf. Results of Count S. Teleki's Expédition, 1887-1888) (Petermann's Geogr. Mitt., Suppl. 21/99), Gotha, 44p; with 'Original-Routenkarte von Graf Samuel T e l e k i ' s Forschungsreise in den Jahren 1887 & 1888. Aufgenommen, k o n s t r u i e r t und gezeichnet von Ludwig R i t t e r von Hohnel' (1:750,000) 1892 'Orographisch-hydrographische Skizze des Forschungsgebietes der Graf Samuel Teleki'schen Expédition 1887-88' ('Orographie-Hydrographie T r e a t i s e of the Area Explored by Count Samuel . T e l e k i ' s Expédition 1887-88'), Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-naturwiss. K l . , vol 58, 447-64 1892 Zum Rudolph-See und Stephanie-See. Die Forschungsreise des Graf en Samuel Teleki in Ostâquatorial-Afrika 1887-1888, Wien, 877p. English é d i t i o n : Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie: a narrative of Count S. Teleki's exploring and hunting expédition in Eastern Equatorial Africa, London, 1894 1896 'Map of North Eastern Kenya Région, Surveyed during William Astor Chanler's Expédition in East-Africa 1892-1893 by Lieutenant Ludwig von Hohnel' (1:750,000). In: Chanler, W.A., Through Jungle and Désert, New York-London, 1896 1938 'Uber Veranderungen im Teleki-Vulkangebiet' ( ' T r e a t i s e on Changes in the Volcanic Teleki R é g i o n ' ) , Petermann's Geogr. Mitt., vol 84, 84-8 — 'The Lake Rudolf Région. I t s discovery and subséquent e x p l o r a t i o n , 1888-1909', J.R. Afr. Soc, vol 37, 21-45 and 206-26 3.

UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

Manuscript maps and geographical drawings, O s t e r r e i c h -

ische Nationalbibliothek (Austrian National L i b r a r y , Vienna), map-collection K I 112.990 Dr. Annemarie Herrmann is attached to the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Commission for the History of Natural Sciences and Geography.

45

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1857

Born in Pressburg (Bratislava), August 6

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

LUDWIG von HOHNEL

PUBLICATIONS

18721875 18731876

V.L. Cameron's African expédition Studied at the naval academy at Fiume (Rijeka)

18741877 1879

H.M. Stanley's African expédition Promotion to naval officer

1886

18871888

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

British Protectorate of East Africa established Expédition in East Africa (with S. Teleki) — discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie

1889

First ascent of Kilimanjaro by H. Meyer 4th Int. Geographical Congress in Paris

1890

Ostâquatovial-Afrika zwischen Pangani und dem neuentdeckten Rudolf-See (Eastern Equatorial Africa between the Pangani and the newly discovered Làke Rudolf)

1892

'Orographisch-hydrographische Skizze des Forschungsgebietes der S. Teleki'schen Expédition (Orographic•hydrographic t r e a t i s e o,f the area explored by S. T e l e k i ' s expédition) Zum Rudolf-See und Stefanie-See (Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie)

18921893

Expédition in East Africa with W.A. Chanler

Ludwig DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

18991903

A i d e - d e - c a m p to Emperor F r a n z Joseph Member of Board of D i r e c t o r s of the Geographical S o c i e t y i n Vienna

19051906

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Diplomatie mission to Ethiopia and voyage round the world

1909

Retirement from navy

1910

Rear Admirai ad honores

The Face of (E. S u e s s )

World War I

19141918 1938

'Ùber V e r â n d e r u n g e n im Teleki-Vulkangebiet (Thoughts a b o u t changes in the volcanic Teleki Région)' 'The Lake Rudolf

19391945 1942

von Hôhnel

Région' World War I I

Died i n V i e n n a , March 23

the

Earth>

vol 4

47

Llewellyn Rodwell Jones 1881-1947

MICHAEL J.WISE 1. EDUCATION3 LIFE AND WORK Rodwell Jones came to geography as a mature student after first taking a London B.Sc. degree at the Royal Collège of Science in 1904 in Mathematics and Chemistry. He was the son of Rev. W. Rodwell Jones and from 1892-9 was a pupil at Kingswood School, Bath, a boarding school for the sons of Methodist ministers. He spent some years as a schoolmaster and studied part-time for three years (1908-11) at the London School of Economies under Mackinder where he took the School's Geography Certificate. His teacher of économie geography was A.J. Sargent. In 1912, at the âge of 31, he was appointed Lecturer in Geography in the University of Leeds, where in addition to his normal university work he lectured to classes of trainees for clérical and managerial posts on the railways. Although he retained this post until 1919, his years of the First World War were spent in war service in the West Yorkshire Régiment. He rose to the rank of Major, was awarded the Military Cross and mentioned in despatches. In 1919 he became an Assistant in the Geography Department at the London School of Economies. In the following year he was appointed to the Cassel Lectureship in Commerce with spécial référence to Commercial Geography. His sister Hilda Rodwell Jones (afterwards Mrs. Ormsby) had been a member of staff in the Geography Department since 1912 and she remained so until her retirement in 1939. At L.S.E. the years immediately following the First World War were significant for the development of geography. Teaching for the newly established University of London honours degree in geography was

added to the existing teaching for geography as a spécial subject in the B.Sc. (Econ.) degree. In 1922 the Joint School of Geography at the London School of Economies and King's Collège, London, was fortned with Mackinder, Rodwell Jones and Hilda Ormsby responsible for teaching the économie and régional aspects of the subject. Mackinder retired from the Chair of Geography in 1925 and, as the new Professor, Rodwell Jones assumed responsibility not only for the study of geography in L.S.E. but also for the direction of geography in the Joint School, for King's Collège as yet still lacked an independent Department of Geography. L.D. Stamp and S.W. Wooldridge hâve paid tribute to the patience and wisdom which he brought to the task of developing the Joint School. Rodwell Jones, they remark, was 'indefatigable in guiding its work and maintaining its intellectual standards'. During his period as Professor of Geography at L.S.E., and acknowledged head of the Joint School, great progress was made in the development of departments of geography in both collèges and in the coordination of teaching. Good students were attracted, many of whom were later to become university teachers. Graduate studies began to flourish. Progress was interrupted during the Second World War when the L.S.E. Department was evacuated to Cambridge and King's Collège to Bristol, but Rodwell Jones was tireless in his efforts to maintain joint spirit and endeavour. He journeyed once a week from Cambridge to Bristol in war-time travelling conditions to lecture to the King's Collège students there. He retired from his Chair at the end of the war in 1945 but died in August 1947 after only a short

50

Llewellyn

Roâwell

Jones

retirement. In addition to his work for L.S.E. (which he served as a member of the Court of Governors in 192934) and for the Joint School, Rodwell Jones made important contributions to the development of improved syllabuses for geography degrees in the fédéral University of London. He was, for a time, Chairman of the Board of Examiners in Geography for university honours degrees, and the revised syllabus of 1947 owed much to his inspiration. Rodwell Jones' interests in geography lay primarily in the fields of économie and régional geography. He was an exponent of the historical approach to studies in thèse fields. As befitted a student of Mackinder, geography was for him 'a study of man's inter-relation with the physical environment'. Geography drew for its raw material on a wide variety of sciences and arts: it involved a sélection.of principally historical and physical facts and 'the récognition the examination of relationships between thèse two sets of facts'. The study of such inter-relationships could not be left to the individual disciplines involved, for the task had not been, and would not be, attempted. It was a specialist task and the core task of geography. He attached spécial importance to Historical Geography, in which lay 'the greatest field for research and the most cultural part of the subject'. Geography was an important subject in schools; the university had an important task in providing teachers trained to high intellectual standards. At a time when geography was still seeking full establishment as a university subject he had no doubt of its intellectual challenge and he argued the advantages of specialization and depth in the university teaching of geography .

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Rodwell Jones' three main books provide the principal source for a brief review of his scientific ideas.

North England: an Economie Geography (1921) is a

study of the localization of industry in which the author sought to dérive generalizations from the differing expériences of industrial districts. Rodwell Jones was concerned with the physical environments not as déterminants but as offering varying opportunities for the application of enterprise, capital and technique. Spécial emphasis was given to the construction of transport facilities which were seen as 'determining factors' in the localization of industries. The book contains no explicit theoretical statement but it is évident from the final chapter that Rodwell Jones was not uninfluenced by Weberian thinking. Location was not always well adjusted to environment; forces tending towards inertia had to be balanced against those making for change and migration. He aimed to stress the ways in which human activities constantly tnodified environments, modifying conditions and creating new situations for appréciation and for décision-making. In the early 1920s Rodwell Jones collaborated with P.W. Bryan (who had at this time been reading for his

Ph.D. degree at L.S.E.) in writing North America. First published in 1924, the book went through ten éditions and was deservedly popular with both British and American readers. W.L.J. Joerg reviewing, from a North American standpoint, the literature on the régional geography of his continent, wrote of it in thèse terms: 'With Jones and Bryan's "North America", however, we corne to a work of scientific calibre — indeed the first régional geography of the continent in English written by professional geographers from the point of view of modem geography. Although not uniform in its treatment, either topically or regionally, it marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the régional description of North America'. (W.L.G. Joerg, 'The Geography of North America: a history of its régional exposition', Geogr. Rev.s 26 (1936), 646). Rodwell Jones assumed responsibility for the sections of the book on Historical Geography and Régional Geography while the middle section in Economie Geography was shared, Rodwell Jones's contributions lying chiefly in the discussion of the influence of physical conditions. The writing reflected Rodwell Jones' insight into the ways in which the main movements of American history and settlement had been influenced by, and had in turn influenced, natural conditions. The section on Historical Geography remains an outstanding example of a successful essay in the historical approach to geography. The concluding section on Régional Geography affirmed the author's faith in the régional concept, a cardinal feature of his teaching at L.S.E., making no attempt at a complète coverage yet seeking, for chosen régions, to identify relations between man's activities and significant physical characteristics. His last major work was The Geography of London River published in 1931. He shared with his sister, Hilda Ormsby, an interest and, if one may judge from their books, a love of London. If one were to understand the great rôle of the river in the life of London, then study was necessary of the physical characteristics of the river and its estuary and of the tidal régime. He showed how through drainage schemes and embankments, through building of docks, man had controlled the river for his use. He reviewed the problems of organization and management of the river and the port, especially for the nineteenth century. This study opened pathways in économie geography which hâve been taken up by later writers, for example by F.W. Morgan and J.H. Bird in their work on ports. However despite the fine example of Rodwell Jones and Hilda Ormsby, the contributions made to the geography of London were not numerous until the renewal of interest from the mid-1950s. Rodwell Jones, in his study of the north of England and of London maintained the tradition of many schools of geography by making a spécial study of the local area. Rodwell Jones was not a prolific writer. His published work appears to hâve been carefully considered. Some of his papers, for example that on 'Some physical controls in the économie development of the Prairie Provinces' (Geography, 1928) aroused international interest and discussion. His long-standing interest in the study and teaching of climatic phenomena is represented. So, too, is work on the économie geography

Llewellyn of East Africa, especially of Kenya, which appears to hâve been based on field expérience. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS

Rodwell Jones was undoubtedly a fine teacher and, as the acknowledged head of the Joint School for twenty years, he exercized an important influence on the work and training of colleagues and students. R.O. Buchanan has spoken of his gift in the lecture-room for absorbing his audiences in his own train of thought. He was an informai lecturer who worked out his arguments as he spoke, providing rich intellectual expériences. As a teacher in the field, said S.W. Wooldridge, Rodwell Jones had few, if any equals and Wooldridge himself based a number of his field excursions, especially in North England, on routes 'which had been mapped out by Rodwell'. Wooldridge also spoke frequently of his admiation for Rodwell Jones' leadership. It was during the period of Rodwell Jones' headship of the department that L. Dudley Stamp began his great Land Utilisation Survey of Britain and Stamp acknowledged the debt he owed to his chief who cheerfully shouldered tasks of teaching and administration to leave Stamp time to dévote to the organization and conduct of the Survey. That Rodwell Jones was their leader seems never to hâve been in doubt in the minds of contemporaries such as Wooldridge and Stamp, themselves men of the highest standing in their own fields. His teaching and writing may be seen to hâve carried forward a number of the main principles of Mackinder's teaching. Geography was an important subject in éducation at ail levels. Its central problems concerned the relationship between societies and environments and the ways in which, depending upon culture and techniques, societies adapted their environments. The région was a focus for such studies. Geography was not a subject standing in isolation: it could be linked at ail points with the natural sciences, the social sciences and the arts. Finally, it must be said that when the time came, after the Second World War, for the expansion of geography teaching in British universities, those (like Stamp) who took on the direction of the Joint School found a Sound tradition of geographical study in the London School of Economies and King's Collège London on which they could build. It was Rodwell Jones, declared Stamp and Wooldridge, who had given cohérence to the Joint School.

Bibliography and Sources 1.

OBITUARIES

Two, written by S.W. Wooldridge, appeared in Geography, vol 32 (1947), 138, and Geogr. J., vol 110 (1947), 258. See also The Times, 28 August 1947 for an obituary by

Rodwell Jones

51

W.G. East and L.D. Stamp and S.W. Wooldridge (eds.), London Essays in Geography, a mémorial volume to Ll. Rodwell Jones, Longmans Green and the London School of Economies, London (1951) esp. remarks by the editors on pp. ix-xiv 2.

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

1919 'Kingston-upon-Hull, a study in port development', Scott.

Geogr.

Mag.,

vol 35, 161-74

1921 North England: an Economie Geography, London 1922 'Commodity Maps', Geography, vol 12, 223-32 1923 'Notes on the Geographical Factors which controlled the Spanish advance into Northern Mexico and Southern California', Scott.

1924

1925

1926 1928 1931 1933 1935

Geogr.

Mag.,

vol 32, 159-67 North America (with P.W. Bryan), first of ten éditions 'Railway Geography', Geography, vol 12 (1924), 290-4 'Geography and the University (Inaugural address as Professor of Geography at L.S.E.)', Economica, 5 (1925), 241-57; also in Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol 42 (1926), 65-79 'Notes on the présentation of climatic phenomena', Geography, vol 13, 176-84 'British Fisheries', Econ. Geogr., vol 2, 70-85 'Some physical controls in the économie development of the Prairie Provinces', Geography, vol 14, 284-302 The Geography of London River, London 'An outline of the geography of Kenya', Geography, vol 18, 188-201 'Some notes on run-off and stream régime in the United States', Geography, vol 20, 247-60

Michael J. Wise is Professor of Geography at the London School of Economies and Political Science, University of London.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1881

Born 28 August, Bristol

18921899

Kingswood School, Bath

1904

B.Sc. London, (Maths and Chemistry)

19041911

Schoolmaster

19081911

Part-time study at L.S.E, gained School's Geography Certificate

1912

Lecturer in Geography, University of Leeds

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

LLEWELLYN RODWELL JONES

PUBLICATIONS

World War I

Army Service, West Yorkshire Régiment, (Major, awarded M.C. and mentioned in despatches)

19141918

1919

Assistant in the Geography Department, London School of Economies

1920

Cassel Lecturer in Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society Commerce with spécial référence to Commercial Geography, London School of Economies

1921

North England: an Economie Geography

1924

First édition of

North America (with P.W. Bryan)

1925

Professor of Geography in the University of London at the London School of Economies

Ph.D. (London) Thesis: 'A Geographical study of the Localisation and Migration of Iron and Steel Manufacture in the North East of England'

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

'Geography and the University' (Inaugural Address), Economica, 5, 1925, 241-57

Llewellyn

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

1928

Led (with S.W. Wooldridge) excursion in London and Hampshire Basins on occasion of IGU Congress, Cambridge, 1928

1929

Member of Court of Governors of London School of Economies (until 1934)

PUBLICATIONS

Rodwell

Jones

53

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

World économie crisis: beginning of L.D. Stamp's Land Utilization Survey

The Geography of London

1931

River

1940

Chairman of University of London Board of Examiners in Geography B.A. (Hons) and B.Sc. (Spécial) degrees in Geography

1945

Retired from his Chair

1947

Died 15 August

(Methuen, London) During World War II, London University Collèges dispersed to the provinces

Immanuel Kant 1724-1804

MANFRED BÛTTNER AND KARL HOHEISEL Immanuel Kant not only had a remarkable impact on the history of philosophy, but was also of great importance in the development of natural science. He precipitated the end of the theological way of processing geographical or cosmological facts and data and closed the era of Aristotle which had been dominant in Lutheran Germany since Melanchthon. Furthermore, he freed geography from its tight bonds with theology. Since Kant's geographical work has been handed down to posterity in a fragmentary state, his importance was hardly recognized for a considérable time. The latest research has revealed that the history of geography should be divided into two periods: before Kant and after Kant — we are still in the latter period.

1. EDUCATIONt LIFE, AND WORK Immanuel Kant was born on 22 April 1724 in Kônigsberg, East Prussia, as the fourth child of a saddler and harness-maker of modest circumstances. His parents brought him up in strict adhérence to the pietistic creed, a way of life marked by pedantic prudishness, which was to prevail in Kônigsberg until the Russian occupation in 1758. His elementary éducation was received in the suburban hospital school. The eight following years (Easter 1732 to the autumn of 1740) were spent at the Collegium Fridericianum3 which too was run in strict compliance with pietism by its principal, Prof. Franz Albert Schultz, a doctor of theology. Kant was so enthusiastic about Latin that he made up his mind to study classical philology. In later years, he was

still renowned as a master of Latin. His flair for the natural sciences could not be satisfied at the institute; in particular, he had no high opinion of the lectures in mathematics. On 24 September 1740 Kant matriculated in the university of his native city. It is probable that he did not sign up for any particular faculty though he majored in philosophy and mathematics in the philosophical faculty. He preferred the lectures of the gifted young Martin Knutzen (1713-1751), professor extraordinary, who, having used the metaphysical théories of Leibnitz and Wolff as a foundation, introduced his students to the work of Newton. Kant's first publication, a treatise on Gedanken von der

Schâtzung évaluation

der lebendigen Kràfte (Thoughts on the true of dynamic forces) (1747) tied in the

Knutzen's which was According the basic

probationary treatise on original research, based on the mechanistic world concept. to the testimony of Johann Christian Kraus, idea of Kant's cosmological essay entitled

Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Théorie des Himmels (General natural history and theory of the heavens3

1755) had been inspired by Knutzen's 1741 essay on the Kometen (Cornets). Kant attended lectures on physics given by J.G. Teske, another disciple of Newton's natural philosophy. The only reliable information available on Kant's studies states that Kant attended theological lectures given by Professor Schultz solely out of curiosity, probably in the winter term of 17423 and (possibly) in the summer term of 1743. Even though he may hâve preached several theological sermons himself, he never really strove for the clérical office

56

Immanuel Kant

in earnest. Even his (alleged) statement that he really had wanted to become a medic was probably made in jest, and in his first work he virtually announces that his future career would be within the university. After he had finished his studies at the university he spent (as many philosophers before and after him) several years (probably from 1746 to 1755) with some well-to-do familles near Konigsberg as a private tutor. He was not firmly convinced of his qualifications for tutoring; but he used that period for further studies and eagerly abstracted books, an occupation which laid the foundations of his later famé as a man of wide reading.

league by the name of Buck. He refused an offer for a professorship in poetics at the academy in Mitau (Duchy of Courland), since he believed himself not gifted enough to make German and Latin poetry, an accomplishment required in that position. Again in order to increase his meagre income (it was necessary for him at times to sell parts of his library) he delivered private lectures in mathematics and military engineering to Russian officers (who were German in many instances) and later also to Prussian officers. In addition, he was given employaient as an assistant librarian at the Royal Library in the palace, on 14 February 1766 with a scanty salary of 62 thalers annually.

On 12 June 1755 he was awarded the doctorate degree of the philosophical faculty in Konigsberg, having qualified with the treatise De igné (On Fire)} which was highly praised by his teacher Teske. He became a recognized teacher (habilitated) with the

Even though he had no family association with the highly académie society of Konigsberg (he was the son of a craftsman) in November 1769 he refused an offer to go to Erlangen to take up a full professorship in philosophy, stating he would not accept any position elsewhere as long as he could nourish the hope for a professorship in his home town, where he could remain among his friends and associâtes. He also refused a similar offer from Jena, which would hâve been by far more lucrative than any professorship that the University of Konigsberg, poor in financial resources, would hâve been able to offer him; later it became certain that an exchange of professorial positions had been initiated which would award him the very professorship that the Russian Governor had given to Kant's competitor twelve years earlier. This exchange was made to keep Kant in Konigsberg. Shortly thereafter, King Frederick the Great, by royal order to his cabinet, appointed him to this effect. Regardless of the relatively low basic salary of 236 thalers annually, and of the very limited sphère of influence for the dissémination of ideas from a secluded university in faraway East Prussia, he could never be persuaded to leave his home town, either by an offer from the Academia Petrina in Mitau (1776) or one from the University of Halle (1777-8) to accept the first all-Prussian professorship in philosophy. Konigsberg, with its 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, though relatively isolated from Prussia and Germany, had become remarkably cosmopolitan through its lively commercial relations with Poland, England, Denmark and Sweden. Fortunately, in view of the cultural relations with the East which Konigsberg had acquired with the Russian occupation, it had become a place (as Kant observed) where one could really achieve knowledge of the world and of mankind without ever having to travel. This gave inspiration to Kant, especially in his search for a global view. In his physical geography, as in his natural science, he followed his basic philosophical hope of creating a uniform, self-contained and self-sufficient world System and world concept.

essay Principiorum primorvm cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio (New treatment'of the first prinoiples of metaphysical knowledge) which helped him to advance, at the âge of 31, to Magister legens (lecturer). The successful defence of his third treatise entitled

Disputation (Disputation

liber die Abhandlung 'Monadologia physica' on the treatise 'Monadologia physica')

on 10 April 1756 paved his way towards a professorship. In order to qualify for as many professorial chairs of the Konigsberg philosophical faculty as possible and so to supplément the scanty fées from his lectures, he lectured with formidable frequency not only in the classical fields of philosophy, physics (natural science), mechanical science (mechanics, hydrostatics, hydrokinetics, and aerometrics), but also on military engineering, such as fortification and pyrotechnies, and finally mathematics. When in later days he concentrated on philosophy proper, he still lectured on physical geography, a field which he probably introduced during his third term (1756/57) at Konigsberg. Altogether he scheduled and held 47 fourlesson lectures on physical geography during his teaching period of 82 semester terms. On the average he managed to deliver thèse lectures to relatively numerous audiences of 30 to 50 freshmen. The only four-lesson lectures which Kant gave more frequently were those in logic and metaphysics (54 aiid 49 times respectively), at which the overall attendance was even higher. His lectures in anthropology — closely related to those on geography — commenced only in 1772/73 as a separate course; during 47 terms, he scheduled those lectures 24 times and probably also delivered them. In spite of repeated efforts, Kant was not awarded a professorship until 1770. His first application for the readership that had been held by Knutzen was thwarted by a ban on new appointments which the Russian occupational force had imposed. Encouraged by the rector (vice-chancellor), he applied to the Russian empress, Elizabeth, for reinstatement of the professorship for logic and metaphysics, vacant since Prof. Kypke's death; his request was turned down, however, on the grounds of old âge, in favour of a junior col-

In philosophy, illustrated in his inaugural dissertation dedicated to Frederick the Great and entitled

Disputatio de rmmdi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis (Dissertation concerning the form and prinoiples of the sensible and intelligible worlds) — with its theory of space and time as ways of view ing — he reached the final platform of transcendental criticism, which he presented in 1781, after ten years

Immanuel Kant

of hard study, in his 1781 work on Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of pure reason). Ail the later éditions were reprints of the second édition of 1787. He developed his théories to a final form, in the following works (presented step-by-step): Prolegomena zu einer jeden kVmftigen Metaphysik, die dis Wissenschaft wird auftreten kOnnen (Prolegomena to any future metaphysio that can appear as science, 1783); Kritik der praktischen Vernunft (Critique of applied reason, 1788) ; Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of judgementj 1790). This includes the book entitled Grundlegung der Metaphysik der Sitten (Fundamental principles of the metaphysio of mordis, 1785), 2nd rev. éd. 1786. His lectures on physical geography were continued without interruption throughout those arduous years. As late as the winter semester of 1765-6 he announced an altération, with the emphasis to be shifted to culture and anthropology. In the winter semester of 1772-3 a course of lectures on anthropology appeared as a separate élément in his teaching. As that course did not originate solely from his lectures on physical geography, he announced both for the year of 1775. With the support of his treatise Von den verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen (On the différent races of mon), he directed his lectures to the objective of contemplating nature and man, the two essentials of the world, cosmologically; i.e., in their relation to the whole'... in which they stand and in which everyone must himself take his place ...' Soon after his appointment as a professor he resigned from his employment as an assistant librarian. In the year of 1780, he was appointed to the board of governors at the university; in the summer of 1786 he was elected rector of the university, which he once more became two years later. Nevertheless he was trying to avoid ail the administrative routine problems that go with a professorship; he even forfeited the lucrative rémunération given by the administrative work and preferred to be represented or even excused at meetings. A scholar following an unassuming way of life, he always looked after the well-being of his students beyond his obligations as a teacher; he did everything possible to develop their personalities, and at any time he would assist them readily with advice, very often also with practical help. He was very much interested in contemporary politics. Even though his own ideas and convictions diverged on many points from those held by the authorities he always remained a loyal subject. When, after his book on Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (Religion within the bounds of pure reason) had appeared (1793), he was rebuked by royal decree (1 October 1794) , he adhered strictly to his promise, made under duress, to refrain from writing (or lecturing in public) on religion, until after the death of Frederick William II, on 16 November 1797. Notwithstanding his moderate physical health, Kant was hardly ever really ill, and he was cruelly hit by the rapid physical and mental détérioration that beset him during the final six years of his life. He delivered his last lecture in 1796, and soon afterwards

57

resigned his seat on the university's board of governors. He died on 12 February 1804. Kant's mortal remains were entombed in 1880 in a plain neo-gothic chapel near the cathedral. On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his birth, his tomb was replaced by a classical portico. In comparison to his abundant philosophical publications (not treated hère) and also his tireless activities as a lecturer, the geographical written material he left to posterity appears scanty and as it is based on his lectures it may also appear to be dubious. His early work entitled Allgemeine Naturgeschiohte und Théorie des Himmels (General natural history and theory of the heavens, 1755), which has often been adopted for geographical studies is not a geographical work at ail but a contribution to spéculative astronomy. Even his treatises on earthquakes (which deal mostly with the earth's interior) do not belong to geography proper. Generally, the historian of geography is referred mainly to the few pages in the announcements of Kant's lecture courses on physical geography (1757, 1765 and 1775), apart from geographically relevant passages in his works on Der einzig mOgliche Beweisgrund ... (The only possible ground . . . , 1763), Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of pure reason, lst éd. 1781, 2nd éd. 1787), and Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of judgementj 1790) — in particular, the Kritik der teleologischen Urteilskraft (Critique of teleological judgement). The lectures mentioned above include the treatise Von den verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen (On the différent races of man); moreover, his essay Uber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der Philosophie (On the use of teleological principles in philosophy, 1788) can be applied to geography. Of further importance are the lectures in anthropology entitled Anthropolgie in pragmatischer Hinsicht (Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view, 1798, 2nd rev. éd. 1800), which were edited and published by Kant. His weakness in old âge prevented Kant from personally issuing his lectures on geography. When, in an annotation to the préface of his Anthropology, he said that it was hardly possible eventually to develop (by using the manuscript illegible to anyone but himself) a textbook from his second lecture — the one on physical geography — which aspires to knowledge of the world, he was not apparently contemplating an édition by another person. Nevertheless, Dr. Freidrich Theodor Rink claimed that '... his édition of the Physische Géographie (Physical geography) had been issued with Kant's approval and by using his draft'. Without trying to evaluate the various efforts to clarify this contradiction it may suffice to point out that Rink's édition is flawed by blatant and unforgivable mistakes. As Erich Adickes has proved in détail, Rink was using a notebook of lecture notes for 1775 with Kant's own annotations, when he expanded paragraphs 1 to 52. For the remainder of the first and for the entire second part, Rink is supposed to hâve used the so-called Diktattext (dictation text), as Adickes calls the draft of a lecture that was prepared by the young Kant (then

58

Immanuel Kant

a private tutor); later Kant revised the text slightly and gradually disregarded it in the course of his lectures. This 'dictation text' (or draft) exists in two versions, each covering five booklets and more, ail of them based on copies of Kant's manuscripts but not on copies from Kant's own dictation. The original form of the 'dictation text' still exists in one copy reviewed and revised by Kant himself and carrying his annotations. Kant presented this copy to Duke Frédéric of Holstein-Beck, in memory of the geographical lectures he had delivered in the Duke's- household before a mixed audience in 1772-3. The changes which Kant made to his manuscript in the years from 1773 to 1778 did not even rectify ail the gross mistakes, nor did they include any revised knowledge acquired in the meantime. Besides the notebooks that contain the 'dictation text', fully or partially, there are also about two dozen 'transcriptions' which are based on Kant's lectures. Among thèse there is (apart from Johann Gottfried Herder's 1763-4 lecture notes) in ail probability only one booklet that could be called a copy of lecture notes. Ail others are copies of miscellaneous originals, such as homework or compilations, including a few that were prepared and sold for profit. From our knowledge of the originals, and of Kant's lectures, it is clear that Rink processed Kant's manuscripts arbitrarily and ignorantly. It is a gross mistake to hâve incorporated the Rink text in the first part of the académie édition of Kant's works. Kant, in the beginning, had based his course in

Physische

Géographie

(Physical

geography)

on the cur-

rent textbooks approved by the Prussian Academical Statutes. Essentially, however, he merely followed their main classification frame and very often took the opportunity of exhibiting their inadequacy. In 1788 he was authorized by Baron Karl Abraham von Zedlik, who had been one of his students and was then the Minister of Public Education, to lecture from his own manuscripts. It might hâve been the resuit of Kant's growing famé that now everyone in and outside Kônigsberg and even Prussia was looking forward to the publication of those manuscripts. At any rate, the obviously good prospect of sales prompted the bookseller Vollmer in 1797 to urge Kant to publish his Physische Géographie; Kant however refused. When (regardless of this) Rink announced later in his booklet

entitled Mancherley zur Geschiohte der Invasion (Many remarks on the history of

metàkritischen metacritical

invasion, 1800) that he expected, in the near future, through Kant's courtesy, to publish several of his interesting works, (including the Physische Géographie), Johann Jakob Vollmer, just one year later, released the

first volume of his Physische Géographie nach Ideen (Physical geography after Kant 's ideas).

Kantischen The

three following volumes which appeared by 1805 may be regarded as contributions to an unpleasant and longstanding controversy, for they carried the label 'authorized' or 'The only authorized édition1. Since hardly one-fifth of those approximately 1,500 pages originates from Kant's booklets, the work is entirely inadéquate as a source for research on Kant. The two

volumes edited by K.G. Shelle which appeared in 1803

under the title I. Kants Physische Géographie fur Freunde der Welt- und Lânderkunde und zum Unterricht fur die erwachsene Jugend (I. Kant 's physical geography for friends of cosmology and régional geography and for the éducation of young adults), are only a compilation of Vollmer and Rink; however, this work was republished in 1807 under a new title. There is no record that yet another édition of the 'Physische Géographie' by J.G. Schall, separately advertised in 1804, ever appeared in print.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL TH0UGHTS The many works on Kant's lectures and also the copies of the so-called 'dictation text', including the copy revised and corrected with annotations by Kant himself, by no means comprise ail that Kant taught in his lectures; on the other hand, it must be taken into account (according to the current state of research) that Kant's lecture subjects were neither unique nor ahead of their time. If book reviewers had felt themselves to be taken back in time thirty years or more after the publication of the Rink text, it would not hâve been ail Rink's fault. Even Kant's Kurzer

Abriss

zur physischen

Géographie

(Brief

outline

on

physical geography) did not noticeably supersede the contemporary conception of geography, either in its choice of items or in its arrangement of the text. His main impact on the history of geography came through his ideas on the essence (Wesen) of its tasks and methodology rather than through any provision of new factual material.

a. Development of Kant 's geographical

concepts

According to his Ankundigung (Announcement) for 1757, the earth can be studied in three différent ways. The mathematical study of the earth is part of geography inasmuch as 'it sees earth as a nearly spherical celés tial body bare of any créatures; it considers its size and shape and ail imaginary circles that should be applied on its surface'. The différence between political and physical geography is only sketched out: whereas the former 'describes the peoples and sundry associations entered by mankind due to governmental Systems, doings, and mutual interests as well as religion, rites, etc.' the latter, i.e., 'the particular item called physical geography, deals (incidentally) also with people, that is not only with their habits and préférences which hâve been developed by the geographical zone in which they live but also with their numerous préjudices and ways of thinking ... with a brief évaluation of their arts and crafts, their actions, and their sciences'. When Kant wrote thèse lines he was convinced that his students had sufficient material at their disposai to be able to familiarize themselves with political and mathematical geography. On the other hand he contended that there was no adéquate textbook on physical geography suitable for académie instruction. It was the declared objective of his lectures to remedy this deficiency.

Immanuel Kant The term physische Géographie (physioal geography) is not Kant's invention. As the adjective physisch/ physica was used by German and Latin-writing authors alike to designate quite différent sciences, no unequival meaning was defined by the term geographia physica/physische Géographie. In J. Woodward's Spécimen geographicae physicae (Sample of physioal geography t 1747), for example, the term means history of the earth; on the other hand, J. Hiïbner's 1712 Curieuses Natur-,..Lexikon (Encyclopedia of nature) lists the same term besides geographia mathematioa and geographia historica (mathematical and physical geography) and employs it to mean that part of geography which 'deals with the terrestrial globe, its nature, parts, and properties in a way such as to investigate simultaneously the natural cause of ail those things'. In a similar sensé (also expressed by Kant), 'physical geography merely évaluâtes the natural composition of the terrestrial globe, and everything on it; i.e., the océans, the firm ground, the moutains, the rivers, the atmosphère, man and animal, plants, and minerais'. Portrayal by cartographie means is unimportant; according to Kant, even such maps as exist should be used merely for pedagogical purposes and for démonstration. This method of merely verbal portrayal originates in Kant's somewhat anthropological and cultural-historical viewpoint. Man is included therein not only in his function as a natural entity, but also in considération of the effect which as a species he has on the earth (meaning the concept of culture in its widest sensé) and with regard to his rôle as an agent of changes on the earth's surface. Moreover, man's use for, or pleasure in, noteworthy things of the world of plants and minerais is the essential criterion of eligibility for inclusion in the human analysis. It is probable that Kant's liking for travel literature — (his favourite reading) and faraway countries were always of gréâtest interest in his lengthy dinner conversations until his old âge — led him quite easily to this style of description. It was seen from the beginning of his lecturing on the geography of travel. From the very beginning, however, Kant wanted to advance from this more or less unmethodical conglomerate of facts to the development of a 'place', and 'system', or better, a 'science', for he noted that 'even if physical geography does not evaluate ail items with the accuracy and completeness in those respects which are part of physics and natural science, it still deals with ail the salient points of nature in a historical and philosophical manner, thus being compelled to segregate systematically and process ail empirically gathered data and to furnish the rationale therefore'. He was thinking, even in 1755, 'in agreement with Newton's principles', mainly of the theorem on cause and effect (causal mechanics). It may be assumed that this task combined with the difficulty involved in the efforts of cartographically recording continuous development, together explain why Kant lost ail interest in maps; at ail events, between the two pôles 'physics and natural history' on one side and 'the natural order of the classes' on the other

59

side, Kant had located his 'physical geography1 by 1757. For the winter term of 1765/66, Kant announced a reorganization of his geographical lectures. More and more dominated by his interest in critical évaluation of the recognizable, he now put his physical geography to the service of pure philosophy: 'geography was to counteract the adolescents' early trend for overrationalization and replace it with expérience'. With such a goal, the field of geography would indeed then expand to infinity. In physical geography, 'nature's remarkable features are still supposed to be identified by the three realms'. Since, on the other hand, 'it is also charged with evaluating the natural relations of ail countries and the océans, and also the reason for this interconnection, it truly is the real foundation of history, without which it could hardly be dis tinguished from fairy taies'. Nevertheless, physical geography should be restricted to deal with only those highlights which, either being an attractive rarity among innumerable features or having a bearing on the states' welfare in view of trade and commerce, therefore are really worthy of the gênerai public's interest; thus, there would be more time apportioned for the following parts, namely 'moral' and 'political geography'. 'Moral geography', in this sensé, 'évaluâtes man ail over the world by the variety of his inborn properties and the différence made by that part in him that is moral'. No doubt, Rousseau's influence is behind this postulate of a cultural geography and ethnology now to be developed within the frame of 'physical geography', since Herder's notes taken in the winter term of 1764-5 include the remark that 'physical geography demonstrates the uninhibited savage'. In 'political geography', the conséquences of interrelationships between nature and man, 'the condition of the nations and the peoples on the earth' is evaluated in two ways, which interpenetrate. The first way is to see how the human condition developed through incidental causes such as changes in government, annexations of territory and political intrigue. Ail this may be ephemeral but the second way deals with more permanent features such as the position and situation of countries, their products, trade, customs and population. Both ways in their inévitable relationship contribute to the whole picture. At the peak of his predeliction for empiricism Kant imagines hère, in the 'physical geography', something like a summary of the knowledge of the total world and its configuration within space; to use Herder's words, 'an excerpt from natural history and a key to theoretical physics ... a révélation of morals'. Man stands in the centre as a natural and cultural entity; the objective is to explain history from the natural state of things. It is doubtful whether Kant ever executed this plan of establishing a gênerai educational science dealing with nature and humanity; still more uncertain is the question whether he, as a représentative of a mission that was, after ail, not directed toward a simple field of science only, would ever hâve been able to exécute his plan on the elementary beginners' level.

60

Immannel Kant

In 1775, Kant finally announced his 'physical geography' together with anthropology. His course on 'physical geography' was to remain 'a preliminary exercise in the knowledge of the world' and was supposed to bridge the wide gap between school and real life. Since the world consists of two fields of action, i.e., the régions of nature and of man, two courses of lectures are required. Both evaluate their subjects in their relation to the whole in which they stand and 'in which everything occupies its place by itself (i.e., cosmologically): they never investigate what each subject contains in the way of peculiarities though this is revealed by physics and by erapirical psychology. Since, however, a science of the knowledge of man can be outlined in either its psychological or its pragmatic aspect and Kant, in his course in anthropology aimed only for 'whatever man, an independently acting créature, makes of himself (as he can and as he should)', in other words, aimed for pragmatic knowledge on man, the physiological part, that is 'how nature shapes man', will remain an intégral part of (physical) geography. In any event, 'physical geography' and 'anthropology' (in its pragmatic aspect) aim toward the overall picture (desired by Kant) not of the universe but of the earth, which is larger than the sum of its component parts. The idea of science as an entirety which is an underlying foundation appears in the systema naturae (natural System) (which then was under sharp discussion) , and also the (probably authentic) 'Introduction' to 'description of the physical earth' in the Rink text. Knowledge can be (thus Kant élaborâtes further) classified in two ways: logically or physically. The logical classification collects ail individual items in separate classes according to similarities of morphological features; it could be called something like an 'archive' and will lead, if pursued, to a 'natural System'. As distinct from the foregoing, things can be physically classified if they belong to the same time and/or space (Raum). Whereas the 'natural System' displays similar shapes, the physical classification starts with the 'place of birth' and its task is description. Geography (physical) would therefore be that field of science which describes phenomena belonging to the same place. Contrary to physics and other theoretical fields of natural science, which deal partially with the same things (material-wise) but deduce them merely as instances of a gênerai law that is beyond expérience, we hâve to conclude (in view of Kant's basic position on the theory of cognition) that geography is more interested in concrète things and their peculiarities. Since, however, it takes theoretical éléments to establish a science from a multitude of individual instances of cognition, geography, too, tries to establish laws, however confined their boundaries be; topography and its causal factors are not investigated in gênerai but merely within a closely defined area. Consequently statements in geography appear to be indistinct and even irrelevant, compared with the precisely deductive statements of theoretical physics. In Kant's opinion, though, it

is perfectly possible that geography, once it has been founded on presumptive principles, may achieve the status of an exact natural science. Geography gains its cognition from the 'exterior sensé' (âusserer Sinn); this distinguishes it from anthropology, which again is a matter of the 'interior sensé' (innerer Sinn). On the other hand, since the 'interior sensé' must sometimes fulfil its function in the natural science when, for instance, things are arranged within spatial catégories, there are no clear borderlines. There is, however, no doubt that man, as part and product of nature, belongs to geography, extending beyond geography's border only through those éléments in him which would be called spéculative, i.e., man as an individual entity conscious of himself and capable of independent décision. Nature and man, however, will corne under the jurisdiction of geography only by their appearance at the same time. Whatever happens in temporal séquence is rather the responsibility of history, which is also an empirical science and therefore subject to the 'exterior sensé'. Both sciences are closely related. In order to be able to explain their présence simultaneously in space, geography or natural description dépends on history. Conversely, history cannot do without geography, because conditions of states and nations or peoples can be drastically influenced at any time by the phenomena of nature. Even so, geography and history will remain such diametrically différent areas of research that Kant definitely disapproved of a natural history that would really deserve its name; his disapproval was not fixed and binding for ail time but relevant in his own period. Aside from various contradictions of concepts in his overall scope of work, he never countermanded his belief that the description of nature (or physical geography) becomes real natural history only because it 'displays the actual facts and conditions that hâve been évident throughout the entire nature since the beginning of time'. What Linnaeus, Buffon and other scientists had presented under that name did not meet thèse criteria in the least. As the resuit of an evidently lengthy controversy, Kant established his 'physical description of the earth', building it up, by graduai intégration of the formerly more or less independent mathematical, political, moral, commercial, and theological geography, to that universal educational science which he believed to be adéquate to render a 'gênerai brief summary of nature'. Therefore it is certain that Kant was not aiming at an expansion of the treasury of geographical knowledge. Even if there is a glimpse of the idea of a field of scientific research hère and there Kant, as the theorist of research on human cognition, was really interested in geography as a supposedly completed process of research and cognition, a scientific System of great educational value. Even the numerous pragmatic ways of utilization which he finds for geography — to provide knowledge of men and the world, to be of use for private and public conversation, to be interesting to readers of newspapers and also to politicians — were assigned mainly to his courses. Quite deliberately Kant freed geography from its

Immanuel tight bonds with theology. As a follower of Christian Wolff, who still was trying to employ the cosmological/geographical accumulation of facts in his efforts to prove God's existence, Kant at first followed the same track; but he soon realized that such a procédure was out of the question, for there is no bridge between the belief in God's immanency and transcendental philosophy. It was M. Buttner who first pointed to this change in Kant's geographical thinking. All the phases of research are not completed as yet, but the impression is growing that Kant even in his fifties was diverging in his lectures from the idea of a close relationship between geography and theology. If this is true, Kant anticipated in his geographical thinking the very idea which he could prove only later (as a philosopher) in his Critique of pure reason and Critique of teleological judgement: man looks at nature as though each élément therein has a particular purpose. If our view is right, then Heinrich Romundt's thesis (gêneraily disapproved of by professional philosphers) that geography brought Kant to a mental reorganization and led him to his highly admired évaluations, will be justified at least partially. b. The origin of Kant's geographical concept Kant gathered the data for his lectures from many sources. In his Announcement for 1757 he briefly enumerated the most important ones: Varenius, Lulofs, and Buffon, as well as travel reports and the académie référence material from Paris and Stockholm. There were other sources, which he used later including works by Linnaeus, Leibniz's Protogaea^ Woodward's and Whiston's major works on the history of the earth, P. Buache's and T. Bergman's physical geographies; but most of ail Biisching's New description of the earth (1754) which the 'Rink-Text' quotes page by page almost Verbatim from the chapters on 'Europe' and 'America'. What process of thinking and dogmatic tradition brought Kant to his concept of geography remains a subject for further systematic research. Certainly his Lutheran, pietistic éducation and the 'physikotheological' way of thinking acquired from Wolff must be taken into account. As Buttner emphasized, it was Wolff who proclaimed that nothing was more suited to train common sensé than geography! Besides a thorough knowledge of Kant's complète works and the aforementioned sources of information, intensive study of Kant's catalogue of books, the catalogue of the library in Konigsberg, and ail publishing advertisements of the second half of the eighteenth century seems mandatory. In the meantime, the overdue critical édition of his lecture texts should be awaited. One thing is now certain: Kant never showed any great interest in the methodological discussions that began during his time as a high school student. Authors such as P. Leyser (1690-1728), E.D. Hauber (1695-1765), or J.M. Franz (1700-61) did not leave any noticeable traces; the only traces that still remain are Kant's disputations with two eminent natural scientists, Buffon (1707-88) and Linnaeus (1707-78)

Kant

61

over basic scientific principles. In Linnaeus' System of living beings, he saw nothing but a 'conglomerate of nature' since it merely arrays, as ail so-called Systems do, the individual parts, placing them side by side, without any indication of the 'basic idea behind it' that would explain the variety of things. Kant thought that Linnaeus' idea of employing taxonomy as the only criterion of classification was inadéquate as a morphological basis, since this basis had been developed by the living beings themselves without a patent reason and therefore could not be of any scientific importance. Kant's physical classification of items 'by the very status which they occupy on the earth' could not and was not intended to correct the deficiencies identified. He merely used Linnaeus' System for a background against which he could best deploy his own classification System, in other words the frame of référence which he had in mind in his efforts to classify the ever-growing number of items of empirical knowledge gained. Kant would hardly hâve been able to become an expert in the large fields of contemporary natural science had he mindlessly disregarded Buffon's théories. His concept of physical geography, however, is not meant to be a correction of the flaws in Buffon's empirical, boundlessly evolutionary approach. Indeed Kant furnishes a solid scientific foundation for Buffon's amazingly comprehensive description of nature because he confines it methodically to (strictly) the présent world of sensual compréhension, mentally trying to digest only that part which is displayed in space as physically understandable. It is not detrimental to the solidity and soundness of his ideas on the mission, position, and methods of this field of science when, in the process, he develops a physical geography that includes far more than today's geography which, although spread over an extensive range of thèmes, is hardly capable of coping with ail the subjects of Kant's geography. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Whereas the impact of Kant's philosophical théories on the world beyond Prussia and even the German-speaking régions is sufficiently explored and known, to some degree it is still uncertain how great an influence Kant has had on the development of geography. We know in gênerai what an epoch-making spiritual light Kant was shedding; however, it remains a task of the future intensively to study and show his influence on the geographical concepts of his successors in particular. It seems wise to differentiate between direct and indirect influence, Beginning with the indirect influence, it must be noted that even in 1905, A. Hettner had to be advised by the Kant-scholar Kaminski of the extensive coincidences between his own ideas on the essence (fésen)j tasks and objectives of geography and Kant's ideas. It is almost certain that Hettner never studied Kant's geographical works. On the other hand, it is hardly likely that Hettner, without being influenced by the historical development of geography, could hâve arrived

62

Immanuel Kant

by mère chance at results similar to those of his great predecessor. Rather it is safer to assume (further research will hâve either to verify or réfute this working hypothesis) that there was an indirect relation between Kant and Hettner which had been brought about by mediators, borne by the gênerai mental trend of the period. It has been proved that any number of diverse versions of Kant's lectures were in existence and in use. The complex of ideas found in them may well hâve spread, being in accord with contemporary thinking, to such a degree that those ideas were considered to be the authentic geographical thinking, without anyone being aware of their provenance. Only the latest research has cast some light on this problem, by revealing Kant as the originator of revised geographical thinking. After Kaminski, it was Hartshorne who proved that Kant generally shared his ideas on geography not only with Hettner, but also with Alexander von Humboldt. Today, Beck and Biittner maintain that Kant sets a limit between two geographical eras: one before, one after Kant (the latter is still our own era). (J.A. May's dissertation of 1970 does not appear to disprove this concept). On the post-Kant era, it is relatively easy to prove that Alexander von Humboldt was influenced directly by Kant. He thoroughly knew and highly esteemed the philosophy of the great man in Konigsberg. At Berlin, in the Kantian circle around Markus Herz, which Humboldt frequented for some time soon after 1789, Kant's geographical lectures were common knowledge. Moreover, Kant's treatises on 'The employment of teleological principles in philosophy', which appeared in the Deutscher Merkur in 1788, contain ail the essential points of his geographical conception and must hâve been known to Humboldt. Regardless of Humboldt's rather deprecatory judgement on Kant as a geographer and an astronomer, Humboldt's statements on the essence and methods of geography (unchanged from 1793) must hâve been influenced by Kant, because of the distinct resemblance between them. It is more difficult to evaluate Kant's influence on Ritter's basic concepts. Aside from his préoccupation with the 'Individualities of the earth', (Erdindividualitâten) in the sensé of visual scenery, to which he was devoted, regardless of his prédominant interest in the earth as a 'cosmic individuality of peculiar organization', Ritter never reached out beyond Kant's basic geographical concepts in any of his later basic positions. Especially in his main idea of explaining the history of nations and peoples by the existing conditions of natural environment, he followed Kant, whose 1765-6 programme had set an excellent précèdent for Germany. Regardless of ail the coincidences, Ritter in his first years of study was not markedly attracted to Kant's philosophy. In his Allgemeine Erdkunde (General geography) he acknowledged the man from Konigsberg merely in his rôle of mathematician, astronomer, metaphysician, and evaluator of cognition. In view of the position of Kant — whose geographical thinking was by no means évident in the philosophical sphère only — it would reflect badly on Ritter, who was widely read

(not only in geographical works), if it were assumed that he had never heard of Kant's concept. How closely Ritter's own concepts were adopted from those of Kant's remains a question for future research. In conclusion, it can be stated that Kant's geographical concepts hâve definitely influenced, directly via Humboldt and Ritter and indirectly through Hettner, the later history of geography. Extensive research has made it clear that according to Kaminski Kant's 'methodological-geographical contemplations rate proper attention and respect, not merely in a historical sensé, but even today'. Kant has become of renewed interest for today's geographical thinking. M. Biittner recently showed, by the example of Kant's proposai for a universalistically proceeding contemplation of religion in its geographical aspects, that the modem branch of this 'geography of religion' might very well use Kant's ideas. It is about time to consolidate and extend the présent prédominant emphasis on détail in research to a macrosystem of geography of religion. The 'International Working Group on the Geography of Religion/Belief Systems' is about to adopt thèse ideas and employ them in their research. This is a spécial example of how Kant's geographical thoughts hâve maintained their influence to the présent time and even how his influence has increased in récent times.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON IMMANUEL KANT Franz, Johann Michael, Homânnische vorschlâge ... (Homann's suggestions ...), Niïrnberg (1747), 23 Dietrich, Karl, Kants Auffassung der physischen Géographie als Grundlage der Geschichte mit besonderer Beziehung auf seine Schriften BUT Natur - und Geschichtsphilosophie dargestellt (Kant's concept of physical geography as the basis of history with spécial référence to his philosophical writings on nature and history), (D. Phil. diss., Jena), Crimmitschau (1875), 33p. Erdmann, Benno, Martin Knutzen und seine Zeit. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Wolffischen Schule und insbesondere zur Entwicklungsgeschichte Kants (Martin Knutzen and his time. A contribution on the Wolffian school and especially on the development of Kant), Leipzig (1876), 148p., (reprinted, Hildesheim, 1973) Lehmann, Paul, 'Kants Bedeutung als akademischer Lehrer der Erdkunde' ('Kant's importance as académie teacher of geography'), Verh. Dtsch. Geogr. Dresden am 28.t 29. und 30. April 18863 Berlin (1886), 119-57 Unold, Johannes, die ethnologischen und anthropogeographischen Anschauungen bei Immanuel Kant und J.R. Forster (The ethnological and anthropologioal views of Immanuel Kant and J.R. Forster), (D. Phil. diss., Leipzig), Coburg (1886), 68p.

Immanuel Kant Arnoldt, Emil, 'Kants Auffassungen uber physische Géographie und i h r Verhaltnis zu seinen anthropologischen Vorlesungen' ( ' K a n t ' s conception of physical geography and i t s r e l a t i o n to h i s anthropological l e c t u r e s ' ) , Altpreussische Monatsschrift3 vol 27 (1890), 237-61 Arnoldt, Emil, 'Zut Beurteilung von Kants Kritik der reinen Vemunft und Kants Prolegomena; Anhang 3: Kants Vorlesungen ïïber physische Géographie und i h r Verhaltnis zu seinen anthropologischen Vorlesungen' ('Evaluation of Kant's Critique of pure reason and Kant's Prolegomena; Appendix 3: Kant's Lectures on physical geography and i t s r e l a t i o n to h i s anthropological l e c t u r e s ' ) , ibid.3 301-13 Wagner, Hermann, Festrede im Namen der Georg-AugustsUniversitat zur Akademischen Preisverteilung am 4. Juni 1890 gehalten (Formai address delivered in the name of the Georg-August-University on the occasion of the académie prizegiving held on 4 June 1890), Gottingen (1890), 30p. Tufts, James Hayden, The Sources and Development of Kant's Teleology (D. P h i l . d i s s . , Freiburg/ Breisgau), (Chicago), 1892, 48p. Romundt, Heinrich, 'Ein Band der G e i s t e r ' . Entwurf einer Philosophie in Briefen ('A volume of i n t e l l e c t s ' . An outline of a philosophy in letters)3 Leipzig (1895), 129p. Schone, Gustav Hermann, 'Die Stellung Kants innerhalb der geographischen Wissenschaft' ( ' K a n t ' s posi t i o n within the geographical s c i e n c e ' ) , Altpreussische Monatsschrift 3 vol 33 (1896), 217-96 Hahn, F r i e d r i c h , 'Einige Gedanken iiber Kant und Peschel' ('Some thoughts on Kant and P e s c h e l ' ) , Zur Erinnerung an Immanuel Kant. Abhandlungen ans Anlass zur 100. Widerkehr seines Todes, éd. U n i v e r s i t â t Konigsberg, Halle (1904), 21-105 Gerland, Georg, 'Immanuel Kant, seine geographischen und anthropologischen Arbeiten' ('Immanuel Kant, h i s geographical and anthropological w o r k s ' ) , Kant Studien, vol 10 (1905), 1-43, 417-547 Kaminski, Willy, Uber Immanuel Kants Schriften zur physischen Géographie. Ein Beitrag zur Methodik der Erdkunde (On Immanuel Kant's writings on physical geography. A contribution on the methodology of geography)3 (D. P h i l . d i s s . , Konigsberg), Konigsberg (1905), 77p. Adickes, Erch, Untersuchungen zu Kants physischer Géographie (Enquiry on Kant's physical geography)3 Tubingen (1911), 344p. Vorlaender, Karl, Immanuel Kants Leben (Immanuel Kant's life)j Leipzig (1911), (3rd p r i n t i n g , Hamburg, 1974), 240p. Adickes, Erich, Ein neu aufgefundenes Kollegheft nach Kants Vorlesungen uber physische Géographie (A newly found lecture notebook based on Kant's lectures on physical geography)3 Tubingen (1913), 89p. Vorlaender, Karl, Immanuel Kant3 der Mann und das Werk (Immanuel Kant3 the mon and his work)3 2 v o l s , Leipzig (1924), 2 é d . , Hamburg (1977), 430p., 512p.

63

Adickes, E r i c h , Kant als Naturwissenschaftler (Kant as a natural scientist) 3 2 v o l s , Berlin (1924-5), esp vol 2, 316-482 Hartshorne, Richard, 'The nature of geography. A c r i t i c a l survey of current thought in the l i g h t of the p a s t ' , Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr.3 vol 29 (1939), 171-658 Stavenhagen, Kurt, Kant und Konigsberg (Kant and Konigsberg)3 Gottingen (1949), 104p. Glasenapp, Helmuth von., Kant und die Religionen des Ostens (Kant and the religions of the East)3 Kitzingen/Main (1954), 193p. Fackenheim, Emil, ' K a n t ' s concept of h i s t o r y ' , Kant Studien3 vol 48 (1956-7), 381-98 Hartshorne, Richard, 'The concept of geography as a science of space, from Kant and Humboldt to H e t t n e r ' , Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr.3 vol 48 (1958), 97-108 Weyand, Klaus, 'Kants Geschichtsphilosophie. Ihre Entwicklung und i h r Verhaltnis zur Aufklarung' ( ' K a n t ' s h i s t o r y of philosophy. I t s development and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to the Enlightenment') , Kant Studien3 vol 85, Erganzungsheft, Koln (1963), 213p. Beck, Hanno, Alexander von Humboldt3 2 v o l s , Wiesbaden (1969-71), 303p., 439p. Bvittner, Manfred, 'Kant und die Geschichte der Géographie' ('Kant and the h i s t o r y of geography'), unpublished inaugural address of 8.7.1970, mimeographed, 24p. Hinske, Norbert, Kants Weg zur Transzendentalphilosophie. Der 30ig{jâhrige Kant (Kant 's path toward transcendental philosophy. Kant at âge 30)3 S t u t t g a r t / Berlin/Koln (1970), 172p. May, J . A . , Kant's concept of geography and its relation to récent geographical thought3 University of Toronto Department of Geography, Research P u b l i c a t i o n s , no 4, Toronto (1970), 281p. Beck, Hanno, Géographie. Europâische Entwicklung in Texten und Erlâuterungen (Geography. European development3 in texts and commentaries)3 Sammlung Orbis Academicus, vol 2/16, Freiburg/Miïnchen (1973), 510p. Gause, F r i t z , Kant und Konigsberg. Ein Buch der Erinnerung an Kants 250. Geburtstag am 22. April 1974 (Kant and Konigsberg. A book of remembrance on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of Kant's birth on 22 April 1974)3 Leer/Ostfriesland (1974), 187p. Biittner, Manfred, 'Kant und die Uberwindung der physikotheologischen Betrachtung der geographischkosmologischen Fakten. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Géographie in ihren Beziehungen zu Théologie und P h i l o s o p h i e ' ( ' K a n t ' s explanation of physicotheological aspects of geographico-cosmological f a c t s . A c o n t r i b u t i o n to the h i s t o r y of geography in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s to theology and p h i l o s o p h y ' ) , Erdkd.3 vol 29 (1975), 53-60 B'ûttner, Manfred, 'Kant and the physico-theological considération of geographical f a c t s . A c o n t r i bution to the h i s t o r y of geography in i t s r e l a t i o n to theology and philosophy. The geographical schools in c e n t r a l Europe before 1600', Organon

64

Immanuel Kant

(Warsaw), vol 11 (1975), 231-49 Karja, Harald, Heuristische Elemente in der 'Kritik der teleologischen Urteilskraft' (Heuristic éléments in the 'Critique of teleological Judgement'), (D. P h i l . D i s s . , Heidelberg), Heidelburg (1975), 127p. Gloy, Karen, Die Kantische Théorie der Naturwissenschaft. Eine Strukturanalyse ihrer M'ôglichkeiten, ihres Umfanges und ihrer Grenzen (The Kantian theory of natural science. A structural analysis of its possibilities, compass and boundaries), Berlin (1976), 227p. Hoheisel, Karl, 'Immanuel Kant und die Konzeption der Géographie am Ende des 18. J a h r h u n d e r t s ' ('Immanuel Kant and the conception of geography at the end of the eighteenth c e n t u r y ' ) , in Manfred Buttner ( é d . ) , Wandlungen im geographischen Denken von Aristoteles bis Kant. Abhandlungen und Quellen zur Geschichte der Géographie und Kosmologie (Changes in geographical thinking from Aristotle to Kant. Treatises and sources on the history of geography and cosmology), Paderborn, vol 1 (1979), 263-76

1798 Der Streit der Fakultàten (The strife of the faculties), KgS, vol 7, 1-16 1802 Physische Géographie. Auf Verlangen des Verfassers aus seiner Handschrift herausgegeben und zum Teil bearbeitet von D. Friedr. Theodor Rink (Physical geography. Requested by the author and based on his manuscript and partially edited by Dr. Friedrich Theodor Rink), KgS, vol 9, 151-436 Johann Jakob Wilhelm Volimer, Physische Géographie nach Kantischen Ideen (Physical geography based on Kantian ideas) , 4 vols (Mainz and Hamburg), 1801-05, 3rd ed, 1815-17 S c h e l l e , K.G., I. Kants physische Géographie fur Freunde der Welt- und Lânderkunde und zum Unterricht fur die erwachsene Jugend. Allgemein fasslich mit Benutzung des neuesten Zuwachses fur die physische Géographie bearbeitet (I. Kant's physical geography for friends of cosmology and régional geography and for the éducation of mature adults. Generally compréhensible with the utilisation of the latest additions; edited for the physical geography), 2 vols ( L e i p z i g ) , 1803, 306p. and 394p.

2. SELECTIVE BIBLI0GRAPHY 0F WORKS BY IMMANUEL KANT 1755 Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Théorie des Himmels (General natural history and theory of the heavens), in Kants gesammelte Schriften ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as KgS), published by the Kb'niglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin (now Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu B e r l i n ) , 1910-75, vol 1, 215-368 1757 Entwurf und Ankûndigung eines Collegii der physischen Géographie (Outline and announcement of a course of lectures on physical geography), KgS, vol 2, 3-10 1763 Der einzig m'ôgliche Beweisgrund zu einer Démonstration des Daseins Gottes (The only possible ground for a proof of the existence of God), KgS, vol 2, 63-163 1765 Nachricht von dar Einrichtung seiner Vorlesungen im Winterhalbjahr 1765-1766 (Report of the arrangement of the lectures for the winter session, 1765-1766), KgS, vol 2, 312-13 1775 Von den verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen, zur Ankûndigung der Vorlesungen der physischen Géographie im Sommer 1775 (On the various races of mon; announcement of the lectures on physical geography for Summer 1775), KgS, vol 2, 427-43 1781 Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of pure reason), KgS, vol 4, 1-252 ( l a t e r ed. also) 1788 Vber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der Philosophie (On the use of teleological principles in philosophy), KgS, vol 8, 157-84 1790 Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of judgement), esp p a r t 2: Kritik der teleologischen Urteilskraft (Critique of teleological judgement), KgS, vol 5, 165-485 1794 Etwas ûber den Einfluss des Mondes auf die Witterung (Remarks on the influence of the moon on the weather), KgS, vol 8, 315-24

Manfred Buttner, Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and Dr. theol., is Professor of the History of Geography and Cultural Geography at the Ruhr-Universitât, Bochum, Fédéral Republic of Germany, where he is also director of the research centre for the history of geography. Lie. theol., Dr. phil. Karl Hoheisel is professor in comparative religion at the Universitat Bonn and an assistant at the research centre for the history of geography at the Ruhr-Universitât, Bochum, Fédéral Republic of Germany. The authors acknowledge the collaboration of Prof. Klaus D. Gurgel, Weber State Collège, Ogden, Utah, U.S.A., in the préparation of the English manuscript.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1724

Born at Konigsberg, 22 April

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

IMMANUEL KANT

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1727

Death of I. Newton

1729

Birth of Johann Reinhold Forster

17321740

High School student at the Collegium Fridericianum Linnaeus' Systema naturae (System of nature)

1735 1740

Frederick II (the Great) King of Prussia (until 1786)

Matriculated at the Univ. of Konigsberg Kant's first publication Gedanken von der wahren Schâtzung der lebendigen Krâfte (Thoughts on the true évaluation of dynamic forces)

1747

Count de Buffon's Histoire naturelle générale et particulière3 36 vols, 1749-88

1749

Family tutor

17461755 1755

Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Théorie des Rimmels (General natural history and theory of the heavens)

Qualifies (promoviert) for and becomes lecturer (Privatdozent) at Univ. of Konigsberg

Begins lecturing on geography and thus introduces geography at Konigsberg

1756

Russians occupy Konigsberg during the Seven Year War 1756-63

17581762 Second application for professorship turned down

Herder studies at Konigsberg

17621764 1763

J.M. Franz professor of geography at Univ. of Gottingen (founded in 1736)

A.F. Biisching professor at Gottingen (lectured on geography)

17541761

1758

J.M. Franz's Homànnische Vorschlàge (Hornman's suggestions)

Der einzig mogliche Beweisgrund ... (The only possible ground ...)

66

Immanuel

DATES

Kant

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

1765

Announces changes in geography lectures

1766

Assistant librarian

1769

Déclines offer to go to Erlangen as ordinary professor of philosophy

1770

Receives the ordinary professorship in philosophy

1772

PUBLICATIONS

C0NTEMP0RARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Birth of Alexander von Humboldt

Disputatio de mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis (Dissertation concerning the form and principles of the sensible and intelligible world)

Biisching's Neue (New description

Erdbeschreibung of the earth)

J. Cook's 2nd voyage (until 1775) with Forster participating

Independent lectures on anthropology

First partition of Poland; Ermland territory goes to East Prussia 1777

Déclines offer to go to Halle lirth of Cari Ritter

1779 Kritik der reinen Vernimft (Critique pure reason)

1781

Prolegomena

1783

of

...

17841791

Herder's Ideen

1786

Death of Frederick II (the Great); Frederick William II becomes King of Prussia (until 1797)

1788

Kant receives permission to lecture on physical geography from his manuscript

Kritik der praktisohen Vernunft (Critique of applied reason) Beginning of French Révolution

1789 Kritik der (Critique of

1790

1794

(Ideas)

Rebuked by royal decree

Urteilskraft Judgement)

Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (Religion within the bounds of pure reason)

Immanuel DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1797

Discontinues his lectures due to ill health

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

67

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS Death of Frederick William II; his son Frederick William III becomes King of Prussia (until 1840)

Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht (Anthropology from a pragmatical point of view)

1798

Kant

Death of Forster

1799

Herder's Metakritik

17991804

Humboldt's voyage to Central and South America

18011805

Vollmer's Physische Géographie nach Kantischen Ideen . . . (Physical geography based on Kantian ideas ... )

1802

Rink's Physische Géographie . . . (Physical geography ...)

1804

Death at Kônigsberg after 6 years of chronic ill health, 12 February

(Metacritique)

Thomas Jefferson becomes Président of United States (1801-1809) Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Alfred Kirchhoff 1838-1907

EMIL MEYNEN Alfred Kirchhoff, of ail his contemporaries, followed most closely the lines laid down by C. Ritter (17791859) and A.v. Humboldt (1769-1859). His research was concerned with the interrelated phenomena of various geographical régions. He was a respected teacher, taking a broad view. He was fully occupied by the many tasks of geography, which he promoted in lectures and papers and by many other activities.

1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK He was born on 23 May 1838 in Erfurt, and was the son of a government officiai. His mother was French (Louisa, née Demonant), and in later life Kirchhoff liked to talk about her. After passing his school-leaving examination at Erfurt Gymnasium he studied first law and then natural science at Jena University. He graduated in 1861 in Bonn on the basis of his botanical study De

làbiatarum

organis

vegetativis.

In addition to taking

courses in natural science he attended lectures on history, ancient philosophy, and German, so demonstrating very early the many-sided character of his scientific personality. In addition to German he mastered French and English, making possible his wide reading and érudition. After qualifying he became a teacher, at first at Miilheim (Ruhr) then in Erfurt, and after 1865 at the Luisenstadt technical collège in Berlin. While at Erfurt he lost his right eye in an unsuccessful opération to correct a squint. His Schulbotanik appeared in 1865, followed by a study entitled Die Idée der

Pflanzenmetamorphose

bei Wolff und bei Goethe (1867).

Further work revealed the historian and fulfilled a

duty to his own town with Die âltesten Stadt Erfurt (1870) and Erfurt im 13.

Weistumer der Jahrhundert

(1870). He realized that as a teacher he had also to instruct in geography and, versatile as he was, wished to make geographical teaching more imaginative. This may hâve been the reason for his appointment to the Prussian Kriegsakademie in Berlin as geographer, successor to Cari Ritter (1859), although after a gap of several years. At this time he undertook the revision of H.A.

Daniel's (1812-71) Leitfaden fur den Geographenunterricht in den Schulen and Lehrbuch fur Erdkunde, an

undertaking which lasted for nine years. His teaching career in Berlin was however of no great duration. At Halle University the geologist Girard and the historian Dummler proposed that the example of Leipzig (where Otto Peschel (1826-75) was appointed as geographer in 1870) should be followed and a geographical lectureship established. This was first offered to Hermann Guthe (1825-74), who however accepted a post at Munich: instead Kirchhoff was appointed as the first full professor of geography (Vollordinat) in a Prussian university since the deaths of A.v. Humboldt and C. Ritter (1859). Kirchhoff took up his appointment in 1873 and remained at Halle for 31 years until 1904, when he retired because of poor health. In 1903, to mark the thirtieth year of his teaching career at Halle he was honoured with the title 'Geheimrat'. He spent his last years at Mockau near Leipzig where he died on 8 February 1907. His annual lecture courses included systematic

70

Alfred

Kirchhoff

geography, régional studies of Europe and Asia, and for a semester Australia, and North and South America. He also gave short lectures on North and South Germany, and on Palestine for theological students. One lecture, often repeated and attended by students of many faculties, was on 'Darwinism and the évolution of man'. Kirchhoff was an enthusiastic supporter of Charles Darwin (1809-82), and translated the Voyage of the Beagle into German (1893) with numerous footnotes and comments. He considered Darwin a great geographer who, like A.v. Humboldt and F.v. Richthofen (1833-1905), 'during his travels learnt to turn from the particular in nature to the gênerai'. Kirchhoff's main aim as a university teacher was the training, in Cari Ritter's sensé, of well-qualified teachers. He pursued this aim by writing methodologi-

cal school texts and Leitfàden

der Vorlesungen.

The

textbook Schulgeographie (1882), reprinted 22 times during his life, and the Didaktik und Methodik des Geographie-Unterrichts (1895), edited with Siegmund Giinther, were both highly regarded by teachers. Kirchhoff valued pédagogie skills so highly that every student in his department had to présent one or two régional seminars, and give a démonstration geographical lesson of one hour's duration as if to a secondary school class. He greeted the foundation of the Deutscher Geographentag with enthusiasm, and encouraged the establishment of a teaching section, at first unnamed. In his opening address he sketched the contemporary state of geographical teaching, underlined the individuality of geography, and its importance as a linkage of natural science with history, and the need for improved teaching methods. Thèse points were made again and again at subséquent Geographentag meetings. His scholarship took him into extra-mural activities. He was a much-admired speaker at scientific societies in many towns. His clarity of style, sharpened by a ready wit, helped him reach a wide audience so that Hermann Wagner (1840-1929) spoke of him as the most popular représentative of geography in German universities. His great powers of organization enabled him to be active in many fields. He was one of the founders of the Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde von Deutschland (1882), its chairman from 1884 to 1891, and again in 1898 to 1904 when he was given emeritus status. As editor of Forschungen zur

deutschen Landes- und Volkskunde (1887-1907) he produced some 79 articles. The Anleitungen zur deutschen

Landesund Volkskunde (1891) , inspired by von Richthofen's guide to research travel (1886) and consisting of articles by twelve leading geographers, was edited by him. He applied himself with particular energy to documentation and to the reporting of new features in the German landscape. Because of his initiative as editor there appeared in 1901-06 the three-

volume Berichte

ïïber

die neuere Literatur

zur

deutschen

Landeskunde. After Kirchhoff's retirement this séries was discontinued, but it reappeared from 1941-70 when it was published by the Institut fur Landeskunde as

Berichte

zur deutschen

Landeskunde.

When the Verein fur Erdkunde zu Halle

(founded in

1871) lost its président with the death of 0. Ule (father of W. Ule), Kirchhoff stepped into the breach. He gave the Verein a large part of his time throughout his professional life. He founded the Mitteilungen des

Vereins and in 1891 the Archiv fur Landes- und Volkskunde der Provinz Sachsen und der angrenzenden Landesteile.

In addition to his own lectures to the Verein he sought out distinguished scientists and explorers as speakers, and limited the Archiv to régional geographical contributions. His wide knowledge and national position enabled him to make observations in lectures and on paper about colonial affairs. To use his knowledge the Foreign Office, Colonial Department, made him a member of the 'Kommission Landeskundlicher Erforschung der deutschen Schutzgebiet'. If a university professor is valued only as a researcher and for his original work then a man like Kirchhoff is misjudged. This, according to E. Plewe (1907) , was the view of Alfred Hettner (1859-1941) to whom Kirchhoff was an honoured teacher. Kirchhoff's work was of wider significance, as many recognize.

2. SCIENTIFIC TH0UGHT AND GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS Kirchhoff was a self-taught geographer. His duty to teach systematic geography at the Berlin Kriegsakademie made him perforée a geographer. Open to new ideas and possessing an instinctive appréciation of geographical harmony he recognized the geographical importance of A.v. Humboldt's travels, while his scientific training led him to recognize the concept of causality as applied by Cari Ritter and A.v. Humboldt in geography. He grasped the thinking of both Ritter and Humboldt and acted as a popularizer in the dissémination of their views. Kirchhoff had no important results to présent from his own research. In his writings and lectures he laid foundations upon which others were to build. In his research and in school teaching Kirchhoff developed and stressed the idea of geographical causality. He endeavoured to break with the 'capes and bays' tradition. The reciprocal relationships of physical nature and the living world demand the attention of both académies and teachers. History is not merely the recounting of events, and geography similarly should not be content simply with external description. Kirchhoff sought to identify the inner relationships and the network of causal connections. 'Geographically determined1 is a term frequently used in his writings. Teleological thinking was alien to him. Ke described as redeeming the argument in 0. Peschel's Volkerkunde (revised by Kirchhoff for the fifth (1881) and sixth (1886) éditions) that it depended on the energy of man whether the favourable conditions at a site were exploited, and that even the value of thèse conditions varied with time. Although Kirchhoff trained as a scientist, and insisted on a grounding in natural science for his geographical students, he valued the historié éléments in studying distributions and conditions. The subject matter of geography involved both man and nature, as C. Ritter had stated. The physical-historical 'double face of

Alfred geography' was no dualism to him but in reality a global unity. He argued against an overvaluation of the historical élément during the vacuum following the death of Humboldt and Ritter. Similarly he argued against Georg Gerland (1833-1919), who emphasized the natural science élément in geography as the most important and suggested that geography was to be a pure science. Kirchhoff agreed with Gerland that geography must consider natural forces and laws, if the subject is to retain methodological sanity, but he held that account must also be taken of free will as soon as man is introduced into the équation. Kirchhoff adopted this view in his own lectures and writings and spoke in similar contexts of the Kulturboden eines Volkes. In one of his printed lectures he talks of man as creator of the cultural Landschaft. This shows how quickly he had adopted the terni proposed by Ernest Kapp (1808-96). Otto Schluter (1872-1959), Kirchhoff's student and successor, developed this thème further, dealing with the form of the Kulturlandschaft. In one of his later papers 'Die deutschen Landschaften und Stà'mme ' there is évidence of his constant careful observation during his travels, and another of his students W. Ule (1861-1940) commented that Kirchhoff's diaries revealed the same keen powers of observation. Near and far in the neighbourhood of Halle there is scarcely a place that Kirchhoff did not visit, but in his writing on distant countries Kirchhoff was an armchair geographer. Compilations from research results based on the journeys of other scholars, and extracts from foreign language papers in

Petermanns

Geographische

Mitteilungen

were his method

of work. He had travelled through Central Europe but had not undertaken any long-distance travel for study purposes. Despite this, régional geography was central to his lectures. His sensitivity and lecturing skills, and a profound knowledge of the literature, enabled him to represent other lands effectively, and he imparted to his listeners a clear picture of the distinctive character of such lands. He saw régional geography as the subject's essential aim, the compréhension of ail the phenomena of a land and an explanation of the causal relationships of which the phenomena were an expression. He argued that A.v. Humboldt and C. Ritter both taught us, each according to his ability, in many studies, to see the science of lands as the récognition of a co-ordinated unity in the pattern of effects due to the inner causal interrelationships of the uncounted individual features which constitute the essence of a land. He often returned to this thème. In the description of a région he introduced a causal séquence including site, soil, waters, climate, plant and animal world, and human population. He can therefore be considered the founder of the so-called Lânderkundliches Schéma (as such a causal séquence was described) developed later by his student A. Hettner as a method of presenting a régional geography.

In the book séries Unser Wissen von der Erde. Allgemeine Erdkunde und Lànderkunde he followed the lead given by Elisée Reclus in the Nouvelle Géographie Universelle. The aim was a rounded picture of every

Kirchhoff

71

country, the reciprocal relationships, both passive and active, between the land and the people (1896). In keeping with his view of geography as an educational subject he sought to présent geographies suitable for a wide circle of educated readers, basing his descriptions on scientific principles (1896). He used an hierarchical approach considering a continent, as a first order division composed of units of a lower order, the various countries. Kirchhoff did not write any of the régional geographies in the séries himself although the introduction to the volume on Europe dealing with its dimensions and structure could be considered in this category. Instead he prevailed upon other distinguished geographers, A. Penck — Germany, Netherlands and Belgium; A. Supan (1847-1920) — Austria and Hungary; J.J. Egli — Switzerland; Fr. Hahn (1852-1917) — British Isles, Denmark, Sweden and Norway; Paul Lehmann (1850-1930) — Romania; Th. Fischer (1846-1910) — the peninsulas of southem Europe; and Russian colleagues A.I. Krasnov (1862-1914) and A.I. Voyeikov (1842-1916) — Russia. Kirchhoff's work also led him in an entirely différent direction. In addition to his doctoral thesis and his school botany he used his knowledge of natural

history to write Die Pflanzen-

und Tierwelt

in

ihrer

Verbreitung (1899). He based his work on the plant kingdoms of Grisebach (1814-79) and of Engler (18441930), and the faunal realms of A.R. Wallace (18231913), but nevertheless he saw nature as a unity. He investigated the dependency of organisms ail over the world on climate, soil and waters, in short their dependence on site conditions. He tried also to investigate why individual taxa stayed within given distributional limits. F. Ratzel (1844-1904) described this book of Kirchhoff as the first biogeographical handbook.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD 0F IDEAS Amongst those who maintained the interest in geography as a subject after the deaths of A.v. Humboldt and C. Ritter, and induced a flowering of régional studies, A. Kirchhoff has an important place, according to J. Partsch, 1851-1925. As the most senior professor of geography in Prussia he brought in a new epoch. After Fr. Ratzel and F.v. Richthofen he was the most significant university teacher. School-educated himself, he had great influence on teaching in the schools. More than a thousand teachers in grammar schools and high schools derived their régional geography based on causal explanation from him, and to this fact can be attributed the fréquent reprinting of his school texts and their wide distribution. In later years a large number of university teachers, many of them the first appointed to the subject in their respective collèges, received their introduction to the subject from him, for example, Albrecht Bockelmann, lecturer in geography at the Technische Hochschule, Dresden; Theobald Fischer (1846-1910), professor at Giessen University; Siegmund Gvinther (1848-1923) , professor at Munich University; Kurt Hassert (1866-1947), professor at the Technische

72

Alfred

Kirchhoff

Hochschule, Dresden; Alfred Hettner, professor at Heidelberg University; Richard Lehmann, professor at the University of Munster in Westphalia; Otto Schliïter, professor at Halle University; Alexander Supan, professor at Breslau University; Willi Ule, professor at Rostock University. The explorer Sven Hedin (18651952) also liked to describe himself as a student of Kirchhoff's. Although Kirchhoff as a self-taught geographer was not strong in methodological basis, his enthusiasm and his many activities were of great effect, finding expression in the methodological contribution to the subject made later by A. Hettner. There is no question that Hettner built on the foundations established by Kirchhoff. Not only students but also colleagues benefited from Kirchhoff's work. A. Penck (1856-1945) often thanked Kirchhoff for inviting him to write the Landeskunde des Deutshen Reiches and to deal in the introduction with the section on surface form. Two of Kirchhoff's concepts Kulturboden and geographische Landgestalt were adopted by Penck. According to Supan, Kirchhoff's long selfless dévotion to régional geography gave it status in German geography notably in the Association of German university teachers, in the 'Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde fur Deutschland', the present-day 'Zentralausschuss fur deutsche Landeskunde', and in the 'Deutscher Geographentag' with a schools' section that he established. No less a person than F. von Richthofen wrote when Kirchhoff retired: 'As your colleague I look gratefully at what you hâve done to teach and inspire numerous young geographers. This cornes from the stimulus provided by your own works and those you hâve edited'.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON A. KIRCHHOFF Dtsch. Runds. Geogr. (Stat.), v o l 27 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , 230-2 ' D i e T r a u e r f e i e r im S t e r b e h a u s e zu Mockau b e i L e i p z i g ' and ' G e d à c h t n i s f e i e r i n d e r Aula d e r U n i v e r s i t â t H a l l e 2 4 . 2 . 1 9 0 7 ' , Mitt. Ver. Erdkd. Halle, v o l 31 (1907) , 123-9 Geogr. J., v o l 29 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 465-6 Bocklemann, A. v o n , Dtsch. Kolon., v o l 24 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 61-2 S c h m i d t , M.G., ' A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f a l s a k a d e m i s c h e r Lehrer. E i n n e r u n g e n an s e i n e n 1 0 0 . Geburststag ( 2 3 . 5 . 1 9 3 8 ) ' , Geogr. Anz., v o l 39 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 217-24 S c h l i ï t e r , 0 . , ' D i e E r r i c h t u n g des L e h r s t u h l s f. G é o g r a p h i e a . d . U n i v e r s i t â t H a l l e und W i t t e m b u r g und d e s s e n e r s t e r I n h a b e r A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f ' , Festschrïft zum 450-Jahrfeier der Martin-Luther Universitât Halle-Wittemberg, H a l l e (1912) , 4 6 5 73 S t e f f e n , H . , ' A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f , Geogr. J., v o l 52 ( 1 9 1 9 ) , 286-302 Supan, A . , ' A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f ' , Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.,

v o l 53 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 4 7 - 8 U l e , W., 'Dem Andenken A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f s ' , Mitt. Ver. Erdkd. Halle, v o l 31 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 119-22 ' A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f , Geogr. Anz., vol 8 (1907), 25-32 ' A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f , Geogr. Z., v o l 13 ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 537-52 Wagner, H . , ' Z u r E r i n n e r u n g an A l f r e d K i r c h h o f f , Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 1 6 , Niirnberg ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 178-81 2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY (a) Botany and plant geography 1861 Commentarium anatomico - morphologicwn scripsit A. Kirchhoff. De Labiatarum organis vegetativis. I n a u g u r a l - D i s s e r t a t i o n , Bonn, 3 1 p . 1865 Schulbotanik in methodischen Kursus bearbeitet. 1 and 2} Systematik und Morphologie; 3, Pflanzengeographie nebst einer physiologischen Einleitung, Halle 1867 Die Idée der Pflanzenmetamorphose bei Wolff und bei Goethe, B e r l i n , 35p. 1897 'Uber e i n i g e p f l a n z e n - und t i e r g e o g r a p h i s c h e P r o b l è m e ' , Die Natur, H a l l e , vol 46, 578-81 (b) Methodology and éducation 1881 ' E i n l e i t u n g zu den V e r h a n d l u n g e n iïber S c h u l g e o g r a p h i e ' , Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 1, 9 1 - 1 0 5 1882 Schulgeographie, H a l l e , 19 é d . , 1 9 0 5 , 363p. 1884 'Bemerkungen z u r Méthode l a n d e s k u n d l i c h e r F o r s c h u n g e n ' , Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 4 , 149-55 1884 Allgemeine Erdkunde. Leitfaden fur die Vorlesung, H a l l e , 57p. 1 8 9 2 - 3 Erdkunde fur Schulen nach den fur Preussen gùltigen Lehrzielen, v o l 1 , H a l l e , 1892, 6 6 p . ; v o l 2 , 1 8 9 3 , 3 9 5 p . ; 13 é d . , 1907; 15 é d . , e d i t e d F . Lampe, 1914 1893 'Uber d i e V o r b e r e i t u n g d e r G e o g r a p h i e l e h r e r f u r den B e r u f , Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 1 0 , 1 2 7 - 3 3 1895 ' S i n n und B e h a n d l u n g s w e i s e n d e r " p o l i t i s c h e n Géo g r a p h i e " im S c h u l u n t e r r i c h t ' , Geogr. Z., v o l 1, 90-100 1898 Palâstinakunde zur Erlàuterung der biblischen Geschichte. Leitfaden fur die Vorlesung, Halle, 44p. 1901 ' D i e Verknupfung d e r p h y s i s c h e n m i t d e r p o l i t i schen Landeskunde im U n t e r r i c h t ' , Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 1 3 , 111-15 1902 Europa mit Ausschluss von Mitteleuropa. Leitfaden zu Vorlesungen, L e i p z i g , 81p. (c) Régional geography 1886 ' E u r o p a im a l l g e m e i n e n ' , Lândkd. Eur., v o l 1, P r a g u e and L e i p z i g , 1-87 1895 'Die I n s e l F o r m o s a ' , Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 4 1 , 25-38 1899 'Umrisse zu einer Landeskunde der Karolinen', Geogr. Z., vol 5, 545-62 1899 'Die deutschen Landschaften und Stamme', in Meyer, H., Das deutsche Volkstum, Leipzig, 1899, 39-120;

Alfred r e p r i n t e d Leipzig, 1920, 128p. 1906 'Die Britischen Insein und die B r i t e n ' , Dtsch. Runds. Geogr., Vienna, vol 29, 1-12, 62-72 (d) Addresses and reports at the Deutscher Geographentag 1885 'Kurzer Bericht uber der Erfolg des Antrages betreffend die Verwertung der Tatigkeit deutscher Missionare auch fur geographisch-ethnologische Zwecke', Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 5, 167-71 1885-1903 'Bericht der Zentralkommission fur wissens c h a f t l i c h e Landeskunde Deutschlands', Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., vol 5 (1885), 161-6; vol 7 (1887), 11-17; vol 8 (1889), 67-74; vol 9 (1891), 65-70; vol 13 (1901), 262-9; vol 14 (1903), 264-9 (e) Thuringia and Sachs en--Anhalt province with surrounding areas 1871 Beitrage zur Bevolkerungsstatistik von Erfurt, Erfurt, 68p. 1882 Thûringen doch Hermundurenland. Ein Beitrag zur geschichtlichen Vôlkerkunde. Nebst einer Rekonstruktion der Ptolem'àus-Karte von Germanien, Leipzig, 60p. 1883 Zur Anregung werkàtiger Teilnahme an der Erforschung des Thuringerwaldes und seiner Bewohner, H a l l e , 16p. 1883 Gustav von Erfurt, E r f u r t , Leipzig, 136p. 1891 'Die t e r r i t o r i a l e Zusammensetzung der Provinz Sachsen. Begleitworte zur K a r t e ' , Arch. Landkd. Prov. Sachsen, v o l , 1-18 1895 'Die Lagenverhaltnisse von E r f u r t ' , Arch Landkd. Volks. Prov. Sachsen, vol 5, 1-12 also in Jahrb. Acad. Wiss. (1895) 1896 'Etwas von Kiffhauser', Arch. Land. Volks. Prov. Sachsen, vol 6, 60-4 1898 'Aussichtsveranderungen in Thiiringen', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 44, 86p. 1900 'Der Brocken a l s G e i s t e r b e r g ' , Arch. Land. Volks. Prov. Sachsen, vol 10, 13-72 1901 Natur und Volk der Provinz Sachsen, Berlin, 21p. 1909 'Wanderungen im Sall-und S e e k r e i s ' , Arch. Land. Volks. Prov. Sachsen, vol 19, 72-83 (f) Varied works 1901 'Das Meer im Leben der Volker', Geogr. Z., vol 7, 241-50 1901 Mensch und Erde. Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen zwischen beiden, Leipzig 1901, 4 é d . , 1914. Translated as Mon and Earth by A. Sonnenschein, London, n.d. but c. 1906 1905 Zur Verstandigung uber die Begriffe Nation und Nationalit'àt, H a l l e , 64p. 1905 'Uber t e l l u r i s c h e A u s l e s e ' , Dtsch. Runds. Geogr. Stat., vol 27, 289-99 1910 Darwinismus angewandt auf Volker und Staaten (posthumous work, éd. W. Ule), H a l l e , 89p. (g) Africa and Germon colonial territories 1890 Stanley und Emin nacH Stanley s eigenem Werk, H a l l e , 42p. 1903 'Ruckschau auf den ersten Deutschen Kolonialkong r e s s ' , Dtsch. Kolon., vol 20, 161-2

Kirohhoff

73

1906 'Die deutsche Kolonie Ak-Metschet in Khiwa', Dtsch. Erde., vol 5, 12-13 1906 ' F o r t s c h r i t t e der geographischen Erforschung der Deutschen Schutzgebiete wâhrend der 3 l e t z t e n J a h r e ' , Dtsch. Kolon.-kongr., B e r l i n , 4-16 (h) Works edited by Kirchhoff 1881 Peschel, 0 . , Vôlkerkunde (1 é d . , 1874), 5 éd. revised by Kirchhoff, 570p.; 6 éd. 1886 1883 Verh. Dtsch. Geogr., no 2, H a l l e , 12-14 April 1882 1884-1904 Arch. Land. Volks. Prov. Sachsen, Halle 1886-93 Landeskunde von Europa, 3 v o l s , Prague, Leipzig 1887-1907 Forschungen zur deutschen Landes- und Volkskunde, im Anftrage der Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde Deutschlands, vol 2, no 3-16, in a i l 58 papers 1889 Anleitungen zur deutschen Landes- und Volksforschung. Bearbeitet fur die Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde von Deutschland, by A. Penck et al, S t u t t g a r t , 680p. 1896-9 Allgemeine Erdkunde. Unser Wissen von der Erde, Allgemeine Erd-und Lànderkunde, 3 v o l s , including vol 3 (1899), Pflanzen - und Tierverbreitung by A. Kirchhoff 1898 Bibliothek der Lànderkunde (with R. F i t z n e r ) , Berlin 1901-06 Berichte uber die neuere Literatur zur Deutschen Landeskunde, in Auftrage der Zentralkommission fur wissenscahftliche Landeskunde von Deutschland, 3 v o l s , 253p., 413p., 250p. 3. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

Diaries of Alfred Kirchhoff Minutes of the 'Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde von Deutschland', 1882 onwards (at présent in Trier University, Fachgruppe Géographie) Emil Meynen is Director of the National Fédéral Institute of Geography in the Fédéral Republic of Germany and Honorary Professor of the University of Cologne. Translated by Dr. E.M. Yates, King's Collège, University of London.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1838

Born at Erfurt

1858

Studied at the University of Jena: law and natural sciences

1861

Dr.phil., University of Bonn. Teacher at the Realschule at Miïlheim a.d. Ruhr

1863

Teacher at Erfurt

1865

Teacher at the Luisenstad Technical Collège (to 1873)

1871

Appointed Lecturer in Geography at the Kriegsakademie Berlin (to 1873)

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

ALFRED KIRCHHOFF

PUBLICATIONS

De labiatarum vegetatis

CONTEMPORARÏ E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

organis

Schulbotanik

Founding of the Deutsches Reich Handbuch der Géographie by H.A. Daniel, 3. éd. newly compiled and edited Oscar Peschel appointed Prof, of Geography at Leipzig University A. Grisebach, Die Végétation Erde

1872

1873

Appointed as Professor of Geography at the University of Halle (to 1904) E. Reclus, Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, (to 1894)

1875

1876

der

A. Russel Wallace, On the geographical distribution of animais

Président of the 'Verein fur Erdkunde zu Halle' (to 1904)

First 'Deutscher Geographentag' in Berlin 1882

Chairman of the Ortsausschuss of the '2. Deutscher Geographentag zu Halle' and Chairman during the first day of the Congress

Einleitung su den Verhandlungen uber SchuIgeographie. Address to the 'Deutscher Geographentag'

The Zentralkommission flir Wiss Landeskunde Deutschlands established Oskar Peschel, Vôlkerkunde3 5th éd. newly compiled and edited

Alfred DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1884

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

Chairman of the 'Zen-

Bemerkungen

Kirchhoff

75

C0NTEMP0RARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

zur

tralkommission fur wiss. landeskundlicher3

Méthode

Fors-

Landeskunde fiir Deutsch- chungen3 paper at the land representing East 4th 'Deutscher Geoand West Prussia, with graphentag' the provinces of Sachsen and Hannover Anhalt Bremen and Oldenburg and, from 1889 also Hessen (to 1891) Albrecht Penck appointed Prof. of Geography at Vienna University

1885 1886

Editor of

Landerkimde von Europa (1886-93)

Europa im Allgemeinen (Lànderkunde von Europa)

Friedrich Ratzel appointed Prof. of Geography at Leipzig University Ferdinand v. Richthofen appointed Prof, of Physical Geography at Berlin University

F.v. Richthofen, Fuhrer Forschungsreisende 1887

fur

Editor, Forschungen zur Landes- und Volkskunde (to 1907)

1889

Editor, Anleitung en zur deutschen Landes- und Volksforschung

1892

Erdkunde fur

1893

Darwin,

Schulen

Rexse-Tagebuch,

(translated & annotated) 1894

1895

Editor, Archiv fur Landes- u. Volkskunde der Provinz Sachsen nebst angrenzenden Landesteilen 'Sinn und Behandlungsweise der "politischen Géographie" im Schulunterricht'

(Geogr.

Z.)

D-idaktik u. Methodik Geographie-Unterrichts (Baumeister Handbuch)

des

Geographische

Zeitschrift

(edited by A. Hettner) first published

76

Alfred

Kirchhoff ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1898

Chairman of the 'Zent ralkommi s s i on f. wiss. Landeskunde von Deutschland' (to 1904)

Editor, Berichte ûber die neuere Literatur ztœ Deutschen Landeskunde (to 1906)

1903

Awarded the title of 'Geheimrat Regierungsrat'

1904

Retired

1907

Died at Mockau near Leipzig, 8 February

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS Founding of Protected territories of the Deutsches Reich

Pflanzen- u. Tierverbreitung (Hccnn, Brûckner3 Kirchhoff: Allgemeine Erdkunde)

1899

1901

PUBLICATIONS

Andrey Nikolaevich Krasnov 1862-1914

OLGA ANDREYEVNA ALEXANDROVSKAYA 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK

Andrey Nikolaevich Krasnov was born in St. Petersburg into a family which included many military men. When still a child he was fond of botany and chemistry: his parents were quite often frightened by the sounds of explosions which came from the young expérimenter's room. Andrey Krasnov and V. Vernadsky, a fellow pupil from his high school, liked wandering in the environs of St. Petersburg and in Karelia, where Krasnov made his first serious and systematic observations of nature. At the âge of eighteen he wrote a book entitled A survey of the life of forty ordinary insects belonging to ail the orders which was published in 1881. The aim of the book was to acquaint young nature-lovers with the life and morphology of insects and to interest children in the observation of living insects. While still at school, Krasnov dreamed of travelling to tropical countries. Krasnov entered St. Petersburg University in the autumn of 1880. His teachers were the most prominent Russian naturalists of the time and he was a favourite student of A.N. Beketov, the father of Russian botany. Krasnov, as an impressionable young man, was greatly influenced by Beketov's revolutionary ideas. Beketov inculcated in his student a love of plant geography. Attending the lectures on soil science delivered by Dokuchaev, Krasnov became interested in the coordination and interrelation of organic and inorganic nature, the pattern governing the changes occurring over many centuries and in the geographical factor in soil science. The ideas of Krasnov's teachers, including the prominent scientists A.N. Beketov, V.V.

Dokuchaev, I.M. Sechenov, D.I. Mendeleyev and others influenced his subséquent work. After graduating from the University, Krasnov worked hard to improve his teaching qualifications. He passed his examination for a Mas ter's degree and in the winter of 1887 went abroad to study university teaching methods. He cherished the idéal of enlightenment through éducation, and like many Russian intellectuals of the 1880s he could not imagine a scientist who took no interest in the life of his country and did not participate in social work. Throughout his career Krasnov gave practical expression to his ideals in his cultural and educational work. In the mid-1880s Krasnov began to write for the Knizhki Nedeli (Weekly Books)t a literary supplément to the paper Nedelya published by P.A. Gaydeburov, a libéral thinker who supported the narodnik movement. Krasnov continued to write for this paper until it ceased publication in 1901 and his travel notes, which gave interesting and colourful descriptions of nature and everyday life in the places he visited, were widely read. In time Krasnov became disillusioned with the narodnik movement which developed from the 1870s with the support of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. It advocated a form of Utopian socialism in the expectation of a peasant revolt. As a self-styled 'movement towards the people1 it evoked little response from the masses and was taken over by terrorists whose main achievement was the assassination of the tsar, Alexander II, in 1881. Krasnov, a romantic idealist, said that 'it was only a certain degree of development of cultural and, what was still more important, individual

78

Andrey Nikolaevich

Krasnov

self-awareness that would allow the socialist dream to be attainable'. His continued research into soils and végétation led him into many villages and as he came to know the people he realized that the idealization of the peasantry, cultivated by the narodnik leaders, was misguided. Krasnov was twenty seven years old when he returned from abroad and, now a young professor, presided over the newly founded Geography Department at Kharkov University. He combined teaching and intensive research with numerous public lectures, and was active in the public life of the city. Fortunately he enjoyed great popularity in Kharkov because he was in charge of the University Garden, where his dream was to give up the principle of arranging the plants according to their families and orders and to group them in the way in which they occurred under natural soil and microclimate conditions. He was not, however, able to create a landscape botanical garden, due to lack of money and workers . Krasnov was an active member of the Kharkov Literary Society. He laid the foundations of the Geography Department in the town muséum, and wrote for

the pedagogical journal Natural

Science

and Geography

and for the Historical Bulletin. In 1898 he was invited to deliver lectures in the workers' school at the railway workshops and later on at the vocational school. He readily accepted both invitations. He was chairman of the school council for eight years and insisted that some workers be included as members of the council. In 1905 he continued to deliver lectures for some time after the administration ordered that the work of the school should cease. Difficulties arose for the school in the years of repression that followed the first Russian révolution and in 1911 it was closed. A professor with twentyfive years of teaching expérience at the University, the Veterinary Institute, a high school for girls and a workers' school and an honest scientist not indiffèrent to the fate of society, Krasnov wrote frequently for the press, particularly on problems of éducation. Many of his ideas concerning thèse problems were interpreted by the authorities as revolutionary ones: he was summoned to court and the newspaper Juzhny Kray was fined for publishing his articles.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT (a) His first

geobotanical

Works

As a second-year student Krasnov took part in the 1882 summer expédition to study the Altai mountain région. He wrote reports about the expédition and described the types of steppe, forest and meadow végétation that had been observed. In 1883 and 1884 he took part in the geobotanical investigations in the Simbersk and Nizhni Novgorod gubernie (adminstrative areas) under the guidance of V.V. Dokuchaev. The 1883-4 investigations resulted in the publication of his important work The

relation betueen the soil and végétation the chemozem belt of the European parts

observed in of Russia3

which won him the gold medal in the university compétition. During the expéditions Krasnov collected a substantial herbarium. The main aim in processing the herbarium was to make some generalizations instead of identifying new plants, and plants were discussed in groups rather than as separate species: végétation was treated as an élément of natural environment. In his fifth year at the university Krasnov wrote several articles on his field observations which were published

in the Materialy k otsenke zemel Nizhnenovgorodskoy Gubernii (Materials on the Evaluation of Land in

Nizhniy Novgorod Province) edited by V.V. Dokuchaev. The most significant of the articles is 'The survey of the wild végétation of Nizhniy Novgorod province'. The young scientist came to the conclusion that most of Nizhniy Novgorod province could be included in the forest-steppe belt. In the article he described the végétation of the chemozem areas, grey forest land, the northern loam, sandy loam and sandy soils and that of water meadows and ravines, as well as the cultivated plants. This original work written by Krasnov as a student shows his keenness of observation, his great érudition and extremely lively style of writing. In 1885, Krasnov made the acquaintance of I.V. Mushketov, an outstanding geologist, who invited him to take part in an expédition to the Kalmyk steppes. The Russian Geographical Society gave Krasnov a silver medal for his geobotanical investigations of the Kalmyk steppe, and he was elected a Member of the Academy of Sciences. Thèse events were followed by an important expédition to study the Khan-Tengry glaciers in the Tian Shan, of which the programme was worked out by I.V. Mushketov and P.P. Semenov. This expédition provided Krasnov with material for his work The develop-

mental history

of the flora

of the southern

parts

of

the eastern Tian-Shan for which a Master's degree in botany was conferred on him on March 18 1889. The features typical of Krasnov, such as a thorough, extensive study of the subject, bold, original thinking, the ability to notice the features characteristic of natural landscape instead of détails alone, can ail be observed in his Master's thesis. In his fine physicogeographical survey he worked out for the first time in scientific terms the végétation zones and formations and gave detailed descriptions of the known and newly discovered glaciers. As well as making an analysis of the végétation, soils and climate in the région studied and considering their évolution in time and space, he dealt with species formation. He realized the great importance of the struggle for survival and natural sélection, but he was inclined to attribute the most important rôle to the effect of the environment on the formation and development of features. He took the Tian-Shan as an example, tracing the transformation and development of végétation due to the mountain-formation, and established the relationship between the origin of végétation landscapes of the lowland déserts and the TianShan mountains. The whole work is permeated with the idea of évolution of the végétation cover as one of the éléments of the geographical environment. Krasnov combined teaching at Kharkov University

Andrey Nikolaevich with intensive research. Between 1889 and 1891 he studied the soils and végétation of the Kharkov and Poltava provinces, observing the changes in topography induced by the érosion processes which resulted in the formation of ravines and contributed to the graduai drying up of the ploughed steppes. His report on The

présent state investigations

and the immédiate task of geobotanical of the steppes in the south of Russia

contains interesting ideas on the reasons for the absence of forests in the steppes. His paper on the chernozem of the South Russian steppes read at the International Geological Congress held in 1890 at Washington attracted great attention, and Krasnov was elected as a Member of the Washington Geographical Society. His crucial works describing the steppe in great détail followed one another in rapid succession: The

topography3 végétation and soils of Kharkov province, A botanico-geographical survey of Poltava province and The gras s steppes of the northern hémisphère. The work on the grass steppes of the northern hémisphère was presented by him as his thesis for a doctor's degree. In this work Krasnov formulated his theory on the effect of relief on the development of the steppe. He attempted to establish the law governing the formation of the steppe: the spreading of the grass steppes dépends on the orography of the région. He wrote that The principal feature typical of ail the steppes is that they are lowlands .... The grass steppes are more or less flat spaces levelled due to many geological f actors. .They are undrained and therefore unwooded. Thèse spaces are covered by the light-seeking flora that surrounds the fores t. The variety of flora dépends on the âge and geographical position. Krasnov interpreted the steppe as the natural geographical landscape and included in his preliminary analysis its économie évaluation. On April 9 1894, the first debate took place in Russia at the Moscow University, after which Krasnov was awarded the Doctor's degree in geography.

(b) Main Works on the methodology

of

geography

Thèse works are closely connected with A.N. Krasnov's teaching. In his inaugural lecture 'Geography - a new university subject' (1889) he formulated his views on the essence of geography, which he interpreted as the philosophy of natural science which must provide a philosophical generalization of the conclusions arrived at in botany, zoology, geology, meteorology, anthropology, petrography and a number of other sciences. This generalization establishes genetic relationships between organic and inorganic life on the globe and formulâtes the rules governing it. Krasnov exerted much effort to found the Geography Department, realizing that he was faced with the task of creating a new course of geography and working out a method of teaching the subject. He began writing a textbook on gênerai earth-science, and he continued this work for many years.

Krasnov

79

Krasnov's new textbook was first published in 1895 as The Prinoiples of Geography. In the introduction he described geography as a generalizing science whose aim was to trace the developmental history, origin and causal relations between natural phenomena. He attributed great importance to the study of geographical combinations, or the complex, and resolutely maintained that a geographer's task was to establish 'classifications of geographical combinations1, studying their spécifie features, the reasons for their distribution and the effect exerted by them on man. This was a new approach to the tasks facing geography. The examples of 'geographical combinations' cited by Krasnov agrée markedly with the modem conception of the landscapes of a geographical zone. In the second

édition of The Prinoiples

of Geography he subdivided

climatic zones into four groups corresponding to the principal landscape zones of the globe. He used the same subdivision when describing végétation in the fourth édition of this book published in 1899. The second, greatly revised version entitled A Course in Geography was published ten years later (1908-09). It was more exhaustive than The Prinoiples of Geography, but the structure of the two books was almost the same. Krasnov included in A Course in Geography two chapters dealing with the effect of geographical conditions on the culture of man, beginning with the Stone Age. The book made use of contemporary knowledge of the globe and its life gained by various sciences. This was in keeping with Krasnov's interprétation of geography as a generalizing subject.

However A Course in Geography did not ultimately satisfy Krasnov as a textbook on geography, and he

published his Lectures

on Physical

Geography in 1910.

This work is less expansive and the description is more concise though no less comprehensive. The main aim was the same: to gêneraiize the conclusions reached by the various natural sciences and 'to establish interrelations in the phenomena determining the peculiar features of the différent countries'. According to Krasnov geography falls into two parts, gênerai geography dealing with the earth as a whole, and spécial geography responsible for analysing individual countries. When outlining the geographical complexes (or landscapes, according to the currently accepted terminology) Krasnov used the interdependence of ail the éléments as the foundation and rested his principles on the theory of the natural evolutionary zones and soils worked out by V.V. Dokuchaev. He was the first, in Russian literature, to subdivide the globe into landscape belts (or zones) and to give detailed descriptions of them ail. The conceptions of natural zones and a natural (geographical) complex form the nucleus of both the Russian pre-revolutionary and Soviet physical geography. Krasnov based his teaching on his theoretical views. Apart from delivering courses of lectures on the geography of plants, gênerai geography, anthropogeography, geography of the parts of the globe and states, he set up a geographical study-hall provided with a comprehensive collection of photographs and slides of typical landscapes, and ran a students'

80

Andrey Nikolaevich

Krasnov

geographical club preparing the students well in advance for summer excursions. He was the first Russian geography professor to teach his students in natural field conditions. From 1890 onwards he annually took his students to the Caucasus. On four excusions they collected a herbarium of the Caucasian flora numbering more than 1,000 species, made a collection of the rocks making up the ranges of the Central Caucasus and took numerous photographs depicting the natural surroundings and the everyday life of the native population. Krasnov described the scientific results of the excursions in his work The Mountain Flora of Svanetiya. He dreamed of a time when the Caucasus would be used for studying natural phenomena instead of being a scène of military activity. He wrote in the book of stories Naturalist in the Caucasus: The Caucasus is a great laboratory, a vast muséum which can be employed by a geographer, a geologist, a botanist, a zoologist and an ethnographer for observing and studying, for a short period of time and over short distances, the phenomena which are found elsewhere at long distances and are expressed less distinctly. One would hâve to< travel a long way and spend much money to observe ail these things .... This is a naturalist's paradise, the best study and muséum for a teacher. A.N. Krasnov's last theoretical work on the methodology of geography 'Modem geography and its new trends' was published in 1912 in the June issue of the journal Priroda (Nature). (c) Visits to tropical countries and the idea of developing the Russian subtropics For many years Krasnov worked hard, doing research and teaching. He was also engaged in organizational, cultural, educational activity, but the idea of travelling to tropical countries haunted him. In 1892, the dream which he had cherished since childhood came true: he went to the tropics. He travelled to Java, Japan and Sakhalin. He studied the change of végétation occurring on the mountain slopes and the tops of the mountains and compared the results of his observations with those obtained in différent régions of Asia. He marvelled at the similarity of flora occurring on the mountain tops of Java and in the northern tundras where conditions were quite différent. He interpreted the fact as évidence that the tundra flora might be a close derivative of the tropical forest flora. He was greatly interested in the origin of the végétation of the various belts, especially in the transformation of the tropical and subtropical flora of the Tertiary period into the m o d e m flora found in the northern latitudes. As a resuit of his travels Krasnov brought with him exhaustive collections which he contributed to the University muséums (photographs of landscapes and the native population, herbariums numbering more than 2,000 species, a collection of mountain rocks, the lava and the seeds of tropical plants). The main scientific achievement of his travels was that he was able to observe within the monsoon area of

south-east Asia, a botanical and geographical région of the tropics, the adjustment of végétation to tropical conditions. On the one hand, plants had adapted themselves to the low températures of mountain ranges in equatorial latitudes while on the other they showed adjustments to the graduai lowering of température with distance from the equator. He demonstrated that 'the flora of Sakhalin was a unique mixture of tropical species, such as bamboo and ever-green plants, and the tundra végétation of the polar countries'. He discovered the line between the latérite and chernozem in East Asia and detected the présence of frozen soil in Sakhalin on the latitude of the Perekop isthmus. In 1895, Krasnov undertook a journey round the world lasting about a year. His aim was to study the tea culture in eastern countries, but he did more than that. He visited China, India, Japan, Ceylon, Tibet, the Himalayas, and the Hawaiian Islands. In 1898, he published his travel notes in the form of a weighty book, The cradle of civilisation (658 pages). His twovolume report 'The Tea Régions of the Subtropical Areas of Asia' was published at the same time. The author described the spécifie features of the cultivation and processing of tea in Asia, analysed the natural and historical conditions under which the culture was developed (particularly the nature, peculiar features of everyday life and economy of the native population). As a geographer, he continually advanced the idea of évolution of végétation forms and the resulting possibility of their acclimatisation. As a Russian patriot, he gave much thought to the possibility of his country exploiting the wealth of subtropical lands. He compared the nature of the subtropical régions investigated by him with that of Kolkhida and arrived at the conclusion that some of the subtropical cultures could be acclimatised there. The main idea which Krasnov brought back from his world tour was to develop the Russian subtropics. He believed that this could be achieved because the geographical complex of humid subtropics was identical in various parts of its area and thus the forms of vegetation which did not occur naturally in some of its parts could be successfully introduced there. The comparative geographical method he used convinced him that it was possible to introduce subtropical cultures to the southern Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. He believed that the marshy, malaria-ridden Kolkhida could be turned into a fruitful garden. Some plants brought by the expédition were planted not far from Batumi on the Tchakva estate: tea, mandarin oranges, building bamboo, wood-oil trees, lacquer tree, wax plant, ramie, yam, and bush clover. The plants survived successfully. In August 1909, Krasnov visited Batumi again. Over a period of twelve years the evergreen oaks, forests of Italian stone pine, Australian araucarias, Japanese thuja, pomegranates, azaleas and oleanders had begun to grow there (in Tchakva). His dream of developing the Russian subtropics began to corne true and he thought that to transform Kolkhida an acclimatised botanical garden must be created there with the plants grouped according to the geographical principle instead of by their families so that species from Japan, China,

Andrey Nikolaevioh Ceylon, Australia, Chile could be introduced. He wanted to turn the gardens into an ethnographie muséum. Such a park muséum would allow students and tourists to become acquainted with the nature and life of distant countries without leaving their motherland. Krasnov thought it necessary to combine the acclimatisation of plants with their sélection. For many years he entertained the idea of creating such a botanical garden and published many works on the subject. The successful development of the botanical garden depended on his présence in Batumi, and so at the âge of 50 he left the Geography Department he had founded, gave up the teaching to which he had devoted the best years of his life, stopped lecturing at the workers' school, bade his friends and relatives farewell and regardless of his poor health moved to a région of completely différent climatic conditions. At the end of 1912, he managed to obtain land for the cultivation of a garden and was appointed Director of the Batumi Botanical Garden. He immediately began planting the garden. Krasnov was a designer, construction-engineer, architectplanter, agro-technician, ail in one. He was not only appointed Director of the Botanical Garden, but was also elected vice-président of the Batumi Agricultural Society and editor of the journal published by the Society. The policy of the journal was to transform Kolkhida for he was no longer satisfied with introducing subtropical cultures there but strove to achieve the rational utilization of thèse cultures. During the first year much was done in spite of lack of money and expert staff. In the Japanese section the steep slopes of the range were turned into terraces to illustrate the agriculture of the Far East, with the lower ones adapted for growing rice and lotus, and the higher terraces planted with upland rice and wax gourd; bananas yielded a good harvest and nine différent sorts were exhibited in St. Petersburg. In the landscape garden decorated with stone lamps, vessels, summer-houses and cascades falling into the mountain lake, the main décorative wild plants of Japan were grouped including the collection of Japanese azaleas, maples and oaks. His dream began to corne true, but the redoubtàble Krasnov was not satisfied with creating a botanical and geographical landscape and acclimatisation garden. Proceeding from the fact that the 'humid subtropical climate of Batumi was the climate of the long-past geological epochs', he made up his mind to collect relies from ail over the world to 'give the visitor to the garden the opportunity to find himself in the environment in which the primitive mammals changed into the modem species of animais and men'. He wanted to use the example of thèse primitive species, long extinct in most countries, to show the évolution of végétation on earth. He feared that he would not hâve enough time to turn his plans into reality and he worked without wasting a day, putting every effort into creating a botanical garden. But his illness progressed, and he died in December 1914.

Krasnov

81

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS A.N. Krasnov died at the âge of 52 at the height of his working abilities. He achieved much during his short life. The prominent Russian naturalists A.N. Beketov, V.V. Dokuchaev and V.I. Vernadsky understood him and had a high opinion of his work. They realized that Krasnov was not only a keen observer and a tireless investigator of nature but also a thinker striving to establish the laws govèrning natural history, a scientist with a broad scientific outlook, an innovator in his field and an active public worker. V.I. Vernadsky justly called Krasnov 'a seeker after geographical synthesis', an idea he entertained throughout his life. As a geographer Krasnov waged a campaign for geography, combining the principal conclusions of the natural sciences into a single System and establishing gênerai principles govèrning the origin and development of the earth's surface. However, it was not until long after his death that his achievements were generally recognized. His contemporaries did not understand his novel views on the évolution of plant species. The botanist held it against him that he did geographical research. The geographers did not accept his ideas either because they failed to see that his ideas were geographically oriented. He did not meet with understanding and, as a scientist, he stood alone. Anticipating many later developments of geography, he only gained the récognition he deserved in our time. Soviet geographers justly regard him as 'one of the most prominent scientists-naturalists of the turn of the century' (I.V. Koslov, 1960), as one of the founders of the ecological trend in natural science and

geography (A.A. Azatyan in Outstanding

Investigateurs

of

Central Asian Nature^ 1966) and as one of the most talented and original geographers of his time (F.N. Miklov, 1955). In his attempt to elaborate the principles of geographical complexes he was the herald of a new and spécial branch of geography, landscape sciences. He was the first Russian to formulate the concept of a great geographical complex and to regard land-science as based on the geographical complex. This concept could be applied to the study of the entire world. Krasnov's ideas on transforming the natural geographical complex appeared to be fantastic to his contemporaries but hâve been realized in the Soviet era for after the October Révolution the barren mountain slopes and the peat bogs of West Georgia were planted with hundreds of thousands of graceful eucalyptuses, the marshy plains of Kolkhida were drained and ceased to be malarial and the Batumi région, indeed the whole of Transcaucasia, has been transformed by subtropical cultures, which are now being successfully introduced to the dry subtropics of Central Asia.

82

Andrey Nikolaevich

Krasnov

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON A.N. KRASNOV Vemadsky, V . I . , Ocherki i rechi (Essays and speeches)3 vol 2, S t . Petersburg (1922), 98-109 Milkov, F.M., A.N. Krasnov — geograf i puteshestvennik (A.N. Krasnov — geographer and traveller)} Moscow (1955) Lipshiz, S.Y., 'A.N. Krasnov', in Otechestvennye fiziko-geografi, Moscow (1955) Kozlov, I . V . , 'A.N. Krasnov — vidayushchiysya i s s l e d o v a t e l subtropicheskikh i tropicheskikh rayonov A s i i ' ('A.N. Krasnov — a prominent i n v e s t i g a t o r of the s u b t r o p i c a l and t r o p i c a l r é gions of A s i a ' ) , in Khrestomatiya po fizicheskoy geografii zarubeznikh stran, Moscow (1968) B e i l i n , I . G . , and Parnes, V.A., Andrei Nikolaevich Krasnov, Moscow (1968) 2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY A.N. KRASNOV

1880 'Opyt i s t o r i i r a z v i t i y a flory yuzhnoy c h a s t i Vostochnogo Tyan-Shanya' ('On the developmental h i s t o r y of the southern p a r t s of the eastern T i a n - S h a n ' ) , Zap. Russkogo Geogr. Obshch. 1895-9 Osnovy zemlevedeniya (Principles of geography): vol 1, History of Cartography (1895); vol 2, The Atmosphère (1897); vol 3, Landforms (1897); vol 4, Plant geography3 Kharkov (1899) 1897-8 Chainye okrugi subtropicheskikh oblastii Asii (Survey of the culture and geography of the Far East) :\ol 1, Japon, S t . Petersburg (1897); vol 2, China, India, Ceylon, S t . Petersburg (1898) 1908-09 A Course in Geography, S t . Petersburg 1910 Lektsii po fizicheskoy geografii (Lectures on physical geography, Kharkov 1956 Pod tropikami Asii (In the tropics of Asia), Moscow

Olga Andreyevna Alexandrovskaya is a senior research worker at the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences and Technology of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

ANDREY NIKOLAEVICH KRASNOV

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1862

Born in St. Petersburg, 27 October

18701880

Studied at the first St. Petersburg High School

18801885

Student of St. Petersburg University

1885

Elected Member of the Russian Geographical Society

1886

Awarded the gold medal of the Russian Geographical Society for his part in the expédition to the Tian Shan

1887

Passed his Master's examinations and was sent to Western Europe

1888

Elected a Member of the Berlin Geographical Society

Travelled in Europe. Took part in the International Archaeology Congress in London

1889

Defended his thesis for Master's degree (botany) and was appointed subprofessor of geography at Kharkov University

Investigated the fossil flora of the limestone in Nizhni Novgorod Gubernia

1890

Elected member of Washington Geographical Society and of the Geography Department of the Society of Nature-Lovers

Took part in the International Geological Congress held in Washington. lst excursion to the Caucasus with students along the Georgian Military Highway in Svanetiya

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

He went on excursions in the environs of St. Petersburg and in Karelia; took part in the expédition to the Altai (1882), Nizhni Novgorod Gubernia (18834 ) , and the Kalmyk Steppes (1885) Geography Department founded at Moscow University (1884)

Expédition to the Tian Shan

The 1880s and 90s were marked by the popularity of the ideas and activities of the narodnik movement. Marxism began to spread in Russia.

Geography Department founded at St. Petersburg University

'The developmental history of the flora of the southern parts of the Eastern Tian-Shan'. Inaugural lecture at Kharkov University, 'Geography — a new university subject'

84

DATES

Andrey

Nikolaevich

Krasnov

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1891

Excursion with students to the Caucasus (Mud volcanoes, Baku). Investigation of Kharkov and Poltava Gubernie

1892

First visit to the tropical countries (Japan, China and Ceylon)

'The practice of teaching geography at Kharkov University' (St. Petersburg)

1893

An excursion with students to the Caucasus, to the Elbruz glacial région

'Tea culture in Batumi; on the islands of the green east' and other papers

An excursion with his students along the Osetia Military Highway

Grass steppes of the Northern hémisphère (thesis). First article on KolkhidaBatumi région as the Russian corner of subtropical nature (Zemlevedeniye, vol 1, no 4, Moscow)

1895

Second journey to tropical countries

First and second issues of Principles of Geography3 travel notes 'The Islands (Nedelya, of the Far East' St. Petersburg)

1896

Worked for a pedagogical journal Natural Science and Geography (lestestvoznaniye i Geografiya); also for the Kharkov Literary Society

Letters from his world tour (Knizhki nedeli, nos 1-12)

1894

Defended his Doctor's thesis at Moscow University. Elected ordinary professor at Kharkov University

Third issue of Principles of Geography; first issue of his work The Tea Régions of Asia 's Subtropical AreaSj Cultural and Geographical Essays on the Far East (Japan)

1897

1898

Lectured at the Women's High School and to railway workers

The Cradle of Civilization (Iz kolybeli tsivilizatsii). Second issue of The Tea Régions of Asia's Subtropical Are as3 Cultural and Geographical Essays on the Far East (China, Indiat Cey Ion)

Andrey Nikolaevich

Krasnov

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

1899

Became head of the Botany Départment at Kharkov Veterinary Institute

At the International Geographical Congress held in Berlin

Fourth issue of The Principles of Geography (geography of plants) ; reports to the Geographical Congress, Place of Kolkhida in the hunrid subtropical areas of the globe and The Flora of the South Russian Steppes

1902

Began his acclimatization experiments with subtropical and tropical cultures in the Caucasus. Founded a Geographical Department at Kharkov town muséum, and helped to arrange courses for workers at the trade school

'The Russian Riviera' (Knizhki Nedeli3 nos 1-2)

19031904

Voyage on the Azov Sea; studied the volcanoes of the Baku area; founded a library for the workers' school

The Russo-Japanese War

1905

Visit to Norway

The First Russian Révolution

1906

Founded the Botanical and Geographical Garden at the Kharkov Veterinary Institute (a prototype of the Batumi Garden); went to Batumi and Europe (Hungary, Italy, France); wrote for the Yuzhni Krai newspaper

1907

Visited St. Petersburg

Published a séries of articles on public éducation

1908

First part of A in Geography

1909

Second part of A in Geography

1910

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Course Course

Visited Batumi and pro- Lectures on Physical moted the organization Geography of an acclimatization Botanical Garden; First publication of worked on the Editorial Naturalist in the Caucasus Board of the People 's Ency clopaedia

85

86

Andrey Nikolaevich

Krasnov

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

1911

Became editor of the progressive Kharkov newspaper ïuzny Krai

Visit to Batumi, the Zacharokh krai, Pyatigorsk and Matsest. Worked out project for the Batumi Botanical Garden and Expérimental Station. Took part in the 2nd All-Russia Congress of Writers

Articles on public éducation: second issue of his Naturalist in the Caucasus. Also wrote articles on the subtropical areas of Russia for the journal Russkiye Subtropiki and other periodicals

1912

Retired and moved Opening of the Batumi to Batumi. He was Botanical Garden on elected director Zeleny Mys of the Batumi Agricultural Society and editor of the journal Russkiye Subtropiki

'Trends in modem geography', in Priroda (Nature)3 June Articles in the Juzhny Kray newspaper and in Russkiye Subtropiki

1914

Went to France for médical treatment but returned to Russia on outbreak of war

More articles in Russkiye Subtropiki and other papers

Died in Tiflis (now Tbilisi), 19 December

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Beginning of the First World War

Jan Stanislaw Kubary 1846-1896

WACLAW SLABCZYNSKI Jan Stanisjfaw Kubary, an outstanding explorer of Oceania, managed, on the basis of his vast ethnographie and naturalistic material, to give a full picture of that part of the world, solving many controversial questions, among others that of migration. His researches made possible a theoretical synthesis of the peoples of Oceania. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Kubary was born in Warsaw into a poor lower middleclass family which enjoyed the sympathy and protection of the director of the Warsaw Opéra House, Jan Quattrini, a man known for his dedication to Polish culture. Having been brought up in a patriotic atmosphère, Kubary, when only seventeen, took part in the Polish national rising of 1863. In order to stay in Poland and study medicine at the Szkojfa Gïôwna (University) in Warsaw he had to accept the authority of the tsarist police, but in time he found this so humiliating that he fled to Hamburg, where he signed a contract with a prominent shipowner and benefactor of scientific research, César Godeffroy, to collect scientific material in Micronesia. He arrived in the Samoa Islands in 1896, where he was trained for a few months by Dr. E. Greffe, a représentative of the Godeffroy Muséum. At the same time he began his own ethnographie research, of which one resuit was a paper on the native tribal System in Samoa. He collected also the Pacific avifauna and discovered the aquatic bird Pareudiastes PacificuSj described by 0. Finsch and G. Hartlaub.

From 1870, Kubary explored the Marshall Islands, and then the Carolines. This resulted in a detailed description of the Ebon Atoll in the Marshall Islands, with a map and a small dictionary of the Ebon language, as well as in rich collections from the Yap Island in the Carolines. Of thèse the collection of birds included four previously unknown species. There, were also entomological, crustacean and ichthyological collections (the last with drawings). With thèse, toge ther with ethnographical and geographical material, Dr. Graffe wrote a monograph on the archipelago. Then followed the two-and-a-half year long exploration of the Palau Islands which brought the richest scientific material. Of great value were the ornithological, entomological and ichthyological collections Kubary had amassed, as well as plant and rock spécimens. He discovered on the Angaur Island deposits of phosphate which were exploited until 1955. From his bases on the Islands he used to make long expéditions throughout the archipelago, during which he would dispel the distrust of the natives and even, owing to his médical knowledge, win their confidence and respect. In 1873, Kubary set out on an expédition to the east of the Caroline Islands. He went through the archipelago of the présent Yap and Truk districts, stopping on his way on many of the Nukuoro Islands. He set up his base on the main island of this archipelago, Ponape, on which he drew up the first detailed description and plan of ruins of a lost civilization. Although many of his collections were sunk in 1874, his achievements were so considérable that the Godeffroy Muséum asked him to work as an

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explorer for another five years: after a brief stay in Europe he went forth, from his now well-supplied base on Ponape, on an expédition to the islands of Fefan and Nukuoro. He wrote a monograph of the latter and established the Polynesian origin of its inhabitants. Following the bankruptcy of the Godeffroy firm in 1879 Kubary was obliged to conduct his researches under conditions of extrême hardship. For a time he even worked as plantation manager of the Company in New Guinea (1885-93) . His attempts to obtain a post in the Muséum in Tokyo, as well as in European scientific centres, including those in his native country with which he had remained in close contact, proved to be in vain. Financial difficulties and eventually the confiscation of his estate by the Spanish authorities drove him to suicide in 1896.

Miiller, Yap3 Hamburg, 1917). R. Andrée wrote in Globusj the geographical journal of which he was editor (1893, p 360), that 'no European had explored the astonishing life of the inhabitants of Micronesia in greater détail than Kubary . ... ' 'What he gave hère constitutes reliable material for the structuring of mankind's history'. Thèse opinions were followed by those of the contributors to other encyclopaedic publications. No wonder therefore that on Ponape Island, which Kubary had explored for the longest time, the only monument to be found is that in his memory. It was erected through the efforts of such scientists as Bastian, Buschan, Ratzel, Thilenius and Virchow. His merits hâve been commemorated in geographical and naturalistic names: 1.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT J.S. Kubary belongs to that group of explorers to whom the collection of natural and ethnographical material (even at the price of great hardships) was the main purpose. His collection, which enriched muséums not only in Europe, became the object of study of many scientists. Apart from the amassed material, he also left the most exact maps of Oceania of his time and monographs of that area — pioneering work indeed. In his studies he tried to solve the key problems of Oceania: first, the ethnie origin of its peoples, second, the mystery of its lost civilizations. Having carried out vast and complex linguistic and anthropological studies and also analyzed the products of both material and spiritual cultures, he arrived at a view, now prevailing in science, that the settlement of Oceania had taken place gradually, by successive waves of settlers. At the same time he did not share the views of Dumont d'Urville about the autochthonic origin of the lost civilizations. Moreover, having examined his excavations at Nan Matai he formed the opinion that the founders of those lost civilizations had belonged to the black race, which accords with the present-day théories about the black substratum of the neighbouring Polynesian cultures. In addition, by means of his linguistic and anthropological analysis he introduced ethnological criteria into the new geographical divisions of Oceania which hâve been accepted.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Kubary's scientific output, although little known today to the gênerai public, used to be highly regarded by prominent scientists many of whom, both in his day and later, drew on the results of his explorations. His study of the social System in Oceania has been used profitably by such famous men of science as F. Ratzel, R. Virchow, J.G. Frazer, 0. Finsch, G. Buschan, A. Bastian, W. Joest. The leading students of Oceania used to stress his achievements. Members of the Great Hamburg Expédition to the Southern Seas in 1909-10 spoke about his 'immortal merits' (A. Krâmer) and indicated that 'he contributed more to the exploration of Micronesia than anybody before and after him1 (F.W.

Mount Kubary, New Guinea, 20 km to the south of the Astrolabium Bay 2. Kubary Island in the Ailinglapalop Atoll in the Marshall Archipelago, to the north-west of the Jaluit Atoll, off which the ship carrying Kubary's collections was wrecked in 1874 3. Corvus kubaryi Reichenow — bird of the crow family, Palau 4. Cyclophorus kubaryi Mollendorf — crustacean, New Guinea 5. Hélix kûbaryi Mollendorf — crustacean, New Guinea 6. Holothuria kubaryi Ludwig — holothurian, Palau 7. Kubaryum Momigama — species name given by that ornithologist, now Rukia 8. Nembrotha kubaryana Berg — shellfish, Palau 9. Papuina kubaryi Mollendorf — crustacean, New Guinea 10. Phlegoenss kubaryi Finsch, présent name Gallicolurrba xanthonura kubaryi — pigeon, Ponape, Truk 11. Phybolosoma kubaryi — insect, Palau 12. Rhipidura rufifrons kubaryi Finsch — bird, Ponape 13. Sauromarptis kubaryi Meyer — bird, présent name Sauromarptis gaudichaud, New Guinea

Bibliography and Sources 1. ON KUBARY'S LIFE AND WORK Krzywicki, L., 'Jan Kubary i jego poszukiwania naukowe' ('Jan Kubary and his s c i e n t i f i c e x p l o r a t i o n s ' ) , Biblioteka Warszawaka (1897), vol 2 Paszkowski, L., 'John Stanislaus Kubary - n a t u r a l i s t and ethnographer of the Pacific I s l a n d s ' , Proa. R. Zool. Soc. N.S.Wales (1968-70), 43-70 SXabczynski, W., Na wyspach Pacyfiku. 0 Janie Kubarym3 badaezu Oceanii (On the Pacifia Islands 3 Jan Kubary3 explorer of Oceania)s Warsaw (1956), 111p. Waga, A., '0 zasïudze naukowej ziomka naszego Kubarego' ('The s c i e n t i f i c achievements of our countryman, Kubary'), Biblioteka Warszawskaj vol 4 (1875), 226-30

Wypych, K. , 'Zycie i zasjfugi naukowe Jana Stanisjawa Kubarego' ('Life and s c i e n t i f i c achievements of J . S . Kubary'), Studia i Materiajy z Dziejôw Nauki Polskiej, ser C, b 13 (1968), 67-103 'Jean S t a n i s l a s Kubary comme géographe e t c a r t o graphe de l a Micronésie', Etudes d'Histoire de la géographie et de la cartographie3 Wrocjfaw (1975), 489-517 2. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY KUBARY

1873 'Die Palau-Inseln in der Sûdsee', Journal des Muséums Godeffroy3 vol 4, 1-62 1878-9 'Die Bewohner der Mortlook-Inseln/Karolinen nordlicher Grosser-Ocean/', Mitt. Geogr. Gesell. tiamburg, vol 2, 224-300 1888 'Die Religione der P a l a u e r ' , in A. Bastian, Allerlei aus Volks-und Menschenkunde3 B e r l i n , vol 1, 1-70 (with three p o r t r a i t s of Kubary) 1895 Ethnographische Beitrâge zur Kenntnis des Leiden, 307p. Karolinen Archipels3 1900 ' B e i t r a g zur Kenntnis der Nukuoro- oder MonteverdeInseln (Karolinen-Archipel), Mitt. Geogr. Gesell. Hamburg, vol 16, 71-138 Wyspa Yap (Yap Island). -MS in the Archives of the Folk Science Society in Wrocïaw, Sign. 860 WacZaw SZobczynskij now retired was formerly Assistant Librarian brary3 Warsaw.

and living in WarsaWj of the National Li-

Hermann Lautensach 1886-1971

PHILIP D. TILLEY Reproduced by kind permission ofMrs Gerda Paehlke-Bôhm Hermann Lautensach first established a réputation among fellow German geographers as a glacial geomorphologist, the pupil and assistant of Albrecht Penck. By the time Lautensach died nearly half a century later he was best known by geographers throughout the world as well as in Germany for his régional studies of the Iberian and Korean peninsulas. Valuable as thèse must remain as régional geographies in their own right, Lautensach's main contribution may yet prove to hâve been the Formenwccndel approach he developed in the course of thèse studies so that the sélective and purposeful analysis of the most diverse features, natural or cultural, of even the smallest area could systematically advance our understanding of such features wherever they recurred Worldwide, in short be a contribution to topical geography however singular the instance studied.

1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Hermann Friedrich Christian Lautensach was born and lived the first twenty years of his long life in the small Thuringian provincial town of Gotha, so it is scarcely surprising that his youthful interest in geography should hâve been fostered by no less a figure than Alexander Supan, then editor of the Gotha-based and already world-renowned Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. It was Supan who advised Lautensach to begin his university studies in geography with Hermann Wagner and Max Friederichsen at Gottingen and then move on, first to Freiburg-im-Breisgau and then to Berlin. But as the elder of two children and the only son born to a very strict, religious and conventional

father who taught classics at the high school his son attended, Hermann was expected to take the state examination to qualify for the secure as well as respectable position of a high school master in his turn. He therefore studied not only geography but also geology, chemistry, mathematics, philosophy and physics, the last under the famed Max Planck who had published his quantum theory a year or two earlier. Nevertheless it was in geography, and more particularly at Berlin in glacial geomorphology under the then newly appointed professor Albrecht Penck, that Lautensach eventually specialized. By 1909 Lautensach was Penck's assistant bringing the last parts of the serially issued opus of Penck

and Bruckner Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter

to publication

while Penck himself was in the United States (replaced in Berlin by W.M. Davis). The same year Lautensach published his first paper, a thirty-page review of Penck and Bruckner's completed work. A little later he finished his own doctoral dissertation on the overdeepening of the Tessin Alps by glacial and fluvial érosion, though his graduation had to be postponed. At first it was thought that Lautensach had tuberculosis; when this proved incorrect his illness could only be put down to stress, undernourishment and overwork. Partly because of his health, but also because he was determined to marry a Gotha girl to whom he had been engaged for three years, because his mother had died, and above ail because he wanted to be independent of his father, Lautensach gave up his assistantship after only a year to become a high school teacher first

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in Berlin, then in Hannover. To stay as Penck's assistant and qualify as a university lecturer seemed too risky a course to follow at the time, though Lautensach never saw his leaving the university world as anything but a temporary expédient to gain independence. 'Had I had any idea that Penck thought so well of me I wouldn't hâve gone into school teaching ât ail .... Had he told me half of what he wrote to Partsch and encouraged me to take up an académie career straightaway my whole life would hâve taken a différent course'. In fact almost twenty years were to pass before Lautensach qualified as a lecturer, and military service in the World War 1914-18 was only the first hindrance in his way. By 1919 Lautensach had returned to his wife and son and resumed his teaching at the Bismarck high school in Hannover. Given exceptional ability to work almost unceasingly and single-mindedly Lautensach advanced his standing among académie colleagues even while he was scrupulous to a fault in his duties as a school teacher and made substantial contributions to the promotion of geography in German schools, notably in Haack's Geographischer Anzeiger from 1912 onwards. On the initiative of Supan's son-in-law Erich Obst, almost exactly Lautensach's âge but by then professor at the Technical University in Hannover, Lautensach was invited to join Obst and Otto Maull in editing the ill-fated Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik from its inception in 1924. Though he served as co-editor for only four years his work for the journal influenced his subséquent thinking in two important respects: he became keenly aware of the significance of the relative location and space relationships of geographical features and of the need to be as clear-minded as possible on how the aims of geography differed from those of cognate fields such as geopolitics. By 1928 it had become évident to Lautensach that the editors could not maintain the journal's purely scientific approach, and that they were in the hands of commercially and politically motivated men. He resigned as co-editor although he contributed articles to the journal until 1932 by which time it was no more than the organ of the Nazi 'workshop for geopolitics'. With Supan's approval before he died in 1920 the Perthes publishing house in Gotha had commissioned Lautensach to rewrite the three-level school texts long associated with Supan's name. The success of this venture left Perthes in no doubt whom they should ask to prépare handbooks for the centenary édition of the Stieler Atlas. On unpaid leave from teaching, supporting himself and his family on the honorarium the Perthes firm paid him as they received each cornpleted section, Lautensach had in twenty months written a monumental two-volume review of the whole field of geography and the countries of the whole world. The nature of this work, the complète break from teaching it entailed, and its acclaim by many if not ail academies led Lautensach to décide it was now or never if he was to qualify as a university lecturer. On further unpaid leave from teaching he learnt Portuguese and set out on fieldwork on the coastal geomorphology of Portugal, where he had relatives. This was to prove

only the first of fifteen such journeys ne was to make to the Iberian peninsula. Early in 1928 at the suggestion of Lautensach's erstwhile successor as assistant to Penck in Berlin, Walter Behrmann, Lautensach was invited by Fritz Klute, professor of geography at Giessen, to qualify as a lecturer there; after some hésitation Klute also offered him the post of assistant. Lautensach resigned his teaching job without compensation and forfeited his pension rights, to becorne again what he had been twenty years earlier, an assistant, but this time to a professor only a few months older than himself. Characteristically, and as it turned out wisely, Lautensach did not follow Klute's suggestion that he should submit the Stieler handbooks as published material in lieu of a dissertation as a partial fulfilment of the requirements to qualify as a lecturer. Instead Lautensach submitted a paper on the Portuguese coast published by the Berlin Geographical Society in its spécial centenary volume, for which he was to receive the Society's silver medal. Lautensach's application succeeded and he was admitted to the Giessen faculty in July 1928 at the âge of forty two, with some fifty publications already to his name. But even before he had qualified as a lecturer Lautensach was considered for appointment to vacant professorships at Danzig and Innsbruck on the strength not only of works such as the Stieler handbooks but also of his longestablished standing as a glacial geomorphologist. Evidently, it was only a matter of time before Lautensach became professor in one university or another. But how long might it still be delayed? In 1929 the then influential Hamburg professor Passarge circulated typescripts and published a paper criticising Lautensach's work as symptomatic of a decline in modem geography; his review of the Stieler handbooks was even more unfavourable. Passarge conceded that the handbooks showed remarkable industry and were well written in a journalistic style suited to the lay reader for whom they were intended. Lautensach was not however, Passarge asserted, master of his material, and failed to assess critically the material he used, notably the work of his former mentor Albrecht Penck. In Passarge's view the handbooks lacked original thought, were no more than a compendium, and often an ill-judged one at that, and repeatedly manifested Lautensach's ignorance as well as error. Ill-founded and uncalled for though Passarge's criticism was, on the face of it there was little chance that Lautensach would get a tenured professorship in the near future. Lautensach's response was to prépare and hâve privately printed and circulated a sixteen-page open reply to Passarge, and then to immerse himself in work on a large-scale régional study of Portugal, the first volume of which was published in 1932. Giessen University immediately recognized the achievement by conferring on its untenured lecturer the personal title of professor. And in a letter to Lautensach no less a figure than Robert Gradmann praised the book for its fundamental review of the literature, its genetic approach which did not shrink from a study of historical development (sic) and for the évidence it gave of

Hermann Lautensach Lautensach's penetrating and original fieldwork and his willingness to enter areas of study initially unfamiliar to him once he realized their importance for the work as a whole. Gradmann's letter ends with the hope that this exemplary work would be of décisive importance for Lautensach's académie career. With his future so uncertain Lautensach finished two works he had undertaken to write for the séries of handbooks Klute was then editing (one a now classical review of the nature and methods of geography, the other a régional study of the Iberian peninsula as a whole), took leave from Giessen and supported largely by his life savings set out for Korea, to study at first hand the middle latitude peninsula 'opposed' to the Iberian. On the day Hitler became Chancellor Lautensach was en route on the Trans-Siberian railway. During the following nine months he travelled some 15,000 km on foot, on horseback and by car through the length and breadth of Korea, from the volcanic landscape around Mt. Baegdu on the border with Manchuria to the sub-tropical island of Cheju in the south. Photographs of him on his travels suggest not only how earnestly Lautensach gave himself to the venture but also the privations he suffered when, for example, he was twice taken prisoner by bandit soldiers. When he returned to Giessen towards the end of the politically fateful 1933 Lautensach's friends scarcely recognized him. More than Lautensach's appearance had changed while he had been away. Unknown to him the University of Griefswald in Pomerania had nominated him to its chair of geography, but this appointment lay with the Ministry in Berlin unconfirmed. It was clear that unless Lautensach showed at least token loyalty to the new Nazi régime he would get no chair, no security to allow him to work on the results of his efforts in Korea; he might even lose the post he had. So Lautensach 'adhered' to the National Socialist Party through its association of university lecturers. When in 1937 the so-called S.A. was 'absorbed' into the Party itself after the usual pattern Lautensach, like everyone in a similar position, was regarded as having officially become a member of the Party although he had never himself sought membership. Going along with the System seemed to hâve paid off when in 1934 Lautensach got his first tenured post as professor in Braunschweig; nothing had yet been done about his nomination to Griefswald, but about this time Passarge ceased to be the Party's 'top-man' for professorial appointments in geography. In February 1936 Lautensach was confirmed as professor at Griefswald. Now he had every reason to expect that his long struggle was over, that he had 'corne home' (as in a sensé he had for both his father and grandfather came from nearby Stralsund where relatives still lived) and would be able to work uninterruptedly on his Korean and Iberian researches and start belatedly to attract students to study with him. But in June 1938, shortly before they would hâve celebrated their silver wedding anniversary, his wife died in a car accident in tragic circumstances. Still, by the end of July, Lautensach was able to participate in the

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Amsterdam Congress of the I.G.U., and in April of the following year remarry, to a fellow geographer Dr. Eugénie Loffler. With their marriage, by the rites of the Roman Catholic Church in Munich Cathedral, a fact not likely to please his Protestant Griefswald colleagues, Lautensach first became in his own words, a 'political man'. His wife was already well known not only as a geographer but as an outspoken cri tic of National Socialism. Lautensach became progressively more positively anti-Nazi, especially in late 1938 following Hitler's Saarbriicken speech and the pogrom of Jews. Despite personal tragedy and the war, Lautensach's years in quiet Griefswald were the most settled he had yet known. He taught, supervised many doctoral dissertations, and saw his loyal colleague Bluthgen qualify as a lecturer. His work on Korea culminated with the appearance in 1945 of the encyclopaedic Korea in the

Geogrccphische Handbûcher séries founded by Ratzel and

the elder Penck, in the editing of which Lautensach had joined Norbert Krebs in 1942 for the publication of Kolb's Die Philippinen. But his settled state ended abruptly when Russian troops occupied Griefswald, though they did so in relatively peaceful fashion for a town crowded with casualties and refugees partly through the efforts of Lautensach and some of his university colleagues. With the military occupation Lautensach's university teaching had to stop until authorized. Despite the work he and his associâtes did for the occupying forces and the efforts of respected colleagues in Bonn and Vienna, permission to teach geography again was not fortheoming. At the start of 1946 staff of the university with even the remotest link with the Nazis were formaily dismissed, Lautensach among them, though they could appeal. Lautensach sought support for his reinstatement from Griefswald's Socialist Unity Party, of which he had recently become a'member. When by October there had still been no décision Lautensach travelled alone to his hometown Gotha and from there crossed the boundary into the American zone of occupation to reach Munich. Despite appeals from Griefswald university colleagues to return Lautensach stayed in the west and was eventually appointed professor at the then Technical University of Stuttgart, where his daring and energetic wife moved his library and household belongings as well as their family. Until his retirement seven years later Lautensach worked single-handed, save for the unwavering support of his wife, to build a new school of geography literally out of bombed ruins, in a room with a cupboard shared with the future first Président of the new Fédéral Republic, the political scientist Heuss. As events would hâve it Lautensach was to spend the longest and perhaps the most fruitful phase of his life, as well as the last, in Stuttgart. Alone among German geographers Lautensach was able to travel from Germany to Lisbon in 1949 to join the I.G.U. Congress excursion which visited the tors of northern Portugal and to présent his paper on granitic landforms of the Korean and Iberian peninsulas. The Korean war in 1950 made it commercially viable to publish an updated and revised version of his 1945 book,

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few copies of which had survived the bombing of Leipzig. First in a lecture at Bonn in 1951, and then the following year at the Washington I.G.U. Congress Lautensach outlined his Formenwandel approach as 'a universally applicable System of landscape study'; unfortunately the paper itself was not included in the published proceedings of the Congress perhaps because a full exposition of the idea was published separately in German the same year. 1952 also saw the publication of Lautensach's appraisal of Otto Schluter's importance in the development of geographical thought. In 1953 the paper which Lautensach himself considered his most mature on the nature of geography as a scholarly discipline — 'On the terms Type and individual in Geographical Research' — appeared as did an example of the Formenwandel approach applied to a Worldwide study of the degree to which the annual range of a place's surface température predictably varied from that expected given the place's latitude. It was the outcome of Lautensach's participation in the Washington Congress's Trans-Continental excursion through 'the land of the Mormons'. And in thèse few years following his settling in Stuttgart, just for good measure, Lautensach edited not only three further Geographische Handbïicher^ most notably the manuscript left by Krebs at his death, Vergleichende Lànderkunde3 but also his own Atlas sur Lànderkunde; it seemed likely there could be no new édition of the SydowWagner Atlas on which Lautensach had collaborated with Hermann Haack since 1930. But in the now-divided Germany Lautensach's open-minded présentation of the political status quo in the new Atlas brought him only trouble in the early years of his retirement instead of the satisfaction and financial help he expected. Few scholars can hâve ended their public working life so fruitfully, yet in retirement Lautensach worked on as relentlessly as ever. The last seventeen years of his life saw as much published as in any such period earlier in his life, if not more: some forty separate papers, the last unpublished when he died in 1971, as well as the fulfilment of his life's work on the ïberische Halbinsel when he was seventy-eight years old. Thèse last years were, moreover, those in which Lautensach found himself singularly able to advise his colleagues, not least his successors in Stuttgart but also and especially colleagues in the new German Démocratie Republic, among them his life-long friend Haack still at work in their common birthplace Gotha. Lautensach led student excursions to Spain, inaugurated the new séries of published Stuttgart Colloquia with

his Moorish Traits in the Geographical Appearance of the Iberian Peninsula^ and edited seven further Geo-

graphische Handbûcher. He worked particularly to advance the efforts and careers of fellow geographers, the young as well as the established, internationally as well as nationally, and helped to disseminate and develop an awareness of what others had already contributed. What he had himself done had brought him few honours till then: the silver medal of the Berlin Geographical Society in 1928, the personal title of Professor for the first volume of his work on Portugal in 1932 and an honorary doctorate of Coimbra University

for the second in 1937. But now the honours flowed: the Festschrift of 1957 for his seventieth birthday; with Cari Sauer the gold medal of the Berlin Society in 1959, and with Cari Troll the gold Martin Behaim medal of the Nuremberg Geographical Society. Of his memberships of numerous societies and académies, none meant more to Lautensach than his élection to the Leopoldina of Halle in his Thuringian homeland.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Few contributed more substantially to geography and geographical thinking than did Lautensach for more than half a century and during a half century so important for modem geography at that. A count of his published works scarcely conveys their bulk: they include several papers more than a hundred pages long or little less, four monographs of over three hundred pages each, one more than a thousand pages long. But it is the variety as much as the volume of Lautensach's work which is so impressive. Of course fifty years ago it was much easier to work single-handed in fields as disparate as glacial geomorphology, geopolitics or urban and agricultural geography; but it was not nearly so easy to do it alone in countries as distant, as différent and as difficult as Spain or Portugal or Korea. That Lautensach did just that we can put down to his stamina and drive; that he did it so purposefully and successfully however was because he had had to give so much time and effort to reach a conceptual standpoint which integrated the sélective study of spécial topics Worldwide and regionally. Significantly, Lautensach's papers carry titles like 'Granitic degradational landforms of the Iberian peninsula and Korea', 'Mediterranean seas as geopolitical force-fields', and 'Humidity and aridity especially on the Iberian peninsula'. But they also bear subtitles such as 'a contribution towards a régional study of Spain' or a 'régional geographical détail'. In Lautensach's view place must always be put before subject mat ter whether the place in question be the whole earth surface or only some part of it. Certainly, he considered that his studies of their particular features contributed towards a fuller appréciation of the places where they occurred. But he also intended that such studies, pursued comparatively in carefully selected différent places, should enhance our understanding of particular features (granité landforms for example) Worldwide and so should contribute to topical or systematic geography. For Lautensach studies are no less régional for being concerned with the whole earth surface, nor any more so because they involve more than 'the most elementary intégration'. The issue Lautensach faced was how to practise a geography of the whole world regionally with discipline and exaetness given the great variety of the earth's surface features, natural and cultural, and given that in reality they ail form part of a continuum. Lautensach's student years were critical ones in the development of modem geography in Germany as elsewhere. They were the years in which geographers adopted a less anthropocentric standpoint and, led in

Hermann Lautensach no small degree by geomorphologists, tried to develop 'a discipline to which the physical differentiation of the earth's surface would yield', as Cari Sauer was to put it. But if in doing so they followed the approach Hettner had formulated by 1908 and sought the 'essential character' an area acquired through the particular, and in the final analysis unique, interactions between its component éléments, they ran the risk of becoming environmentalists, in the older deterministic sensé of that term, especially when concerned with cultural éléments. Facing this problem Otto Schliïter advocated that geographers should limit their concern to the landscape 'physiognomically' accessible to geographical study, to the Landschaftsbildner features as Lautensach was to call them in 1932 and écho strongly even thirty years later in the paper 'Moorish traits in the geographical appearance of the Iberian peninsula'. In 1910 the problem did not yet exist for the young geomorphologist immersed in his study of glacial overdeepening. It was while working on the Supan textbooks and the Stieler handbooks that Lautensach came to see that although geographers rightly limited their concern to part or ail of the earth surface studied chorologically, 'with référence to the coexistence of locV, phenomena at a particular place or sub specie the mère fact that things coexisted in an area, or even interacted there, did not make them geographically significant. They must find expression in the landscape perceivable by the sensés. And even then 'the hypothesis that everything which in différent lands differs must in the final analysis be chorologically explainable, is empirically unprovable'. A purely chorological approach is inadéquate, Lautensach concludes, when 'each phenomenon of a land we study owes its design to a quite particular constellation of forces and conditions during the présent or past'. We hâve to distinguish, Lautensach maintains, between the processes which shape or hâve shaped a geographical feature and the forces which drive, constrain or limit the way processes work. It is the latter which are for Lautensach the causes. And in a way strikingly similar to the idea of the three worlds Popper was to develop. Lautensach assigned thèse forces to one of three différent if sometimes overlapping sphères of causality: the physical, the biological and the psychical. The problem, as Lautensach had come to see it, was that geographers hâve to deal regionally with both différent kinds of things, subject to quite différent kinds of régulations, and with représentatives of those differently regulated kinds of thingstas they coexist and vary from one place to another. His solution was that they should study geographical Formenwandel — 'the regulated variation of features within the continuum that the geographical substance of the earth's surface forms'. Lautensach's Formenwandel approach is implicit in, and was inspired by, his earliest studies of the Iberian peninsula: Three différent groups of forces, the planetary, the continental, and the Atlantic-Mediterranean are superimposed so as to interfère with one

95

another; what each landscape of the Iberian peninsula contains as a régional entity results from this interférence. If two of thèse force-groups intensify reciprocally among one or several kinds of features, landscapes of especially well marked individuality, separated from others by unusually sharp natural boundaries, will develop. But if two weaken reciprocally the contrast will be faint. Finally, the directions in which forcegroups work can coincide. When this is the case even a single landscape displays an extremely diverse appearance: certain traits in its appearance carry over to neighbouring landscapes in a radial direction, others in a latitudinal or a méridional one. In drawing régional boundaries we then start by asking which of the force-groups it is expédient to rank first. We now hâve to analyse from thèse viewpoints the peninsula's régional geographical content (landeskundlicher Irihalt) with the spécial aim of treating Portugal as an intégral part of the peninsula and at the same time bring out its individuality within the peninsula's framework. Lautensach's efforts to understand this Formenwandel stemmed from his realization that at the beginning of this century workers such as Herbertson and, at about the same time, Hettner had used quite différent standpoints to discern the régions geographers could deal with as objects of research. For Lautensach, Hettner represented those who aim to divide up the geosphere into individual areas on the basis of a whole complex of features which altogether distinguish each of them, in order to recognize spécifie areas which in the final analysis would be unique. Herbertson, on the other hand, represented those who try to break into the continuum systematically by selectively differentiating out parts of the earth surface into type areas, and so emphasize the genetic affinities of areas rather than their différences. Lautensach saw that in some respects, though not ail, any area is as a feature complex a more or less représentative instance of what occurs elsewhere. So it can be seen as being with respect to certain of its features and in some degree, typical from a viewpoint which deals with those particular features normatively. This is possible because such features, and they range from purely natural or physical ones to the most cultural and intellectual, manifest individually and in combinations a regulated, and sometimes conformable though not necessarily causally linked variation across part or ail of the earth surface. The variation is more or less rapid, more or less continuous. It ensues and can be adequately traced, Lautensach postulâtes, in at least four distinguishable directions or catégories t though the variation in each direction is interfered with by that in one or more of the other three: the latitudinal (planetary) direction, a méridional one from west to east or vice versa, from the margins towards the centres of large or small land and sea areas or vice versa, and hypsometrically with greater or lesser élévation above sea level. As

96

Hermann

Lautensach

unrepeatedly individual as a land or sea, a pays and its 'personality' can be, it invariably includes some features which form part of a Worldwide Formenwandel however singular an instance they are. Which are the features so regulated and which those not subject to regulated areal variation only study can détermine. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPHEAD OF IDEAS

The idea that the geographical substance of the earth surface shows regulated variations which can be systematized did not of course originate with Lautensach. It is deeply rooted in the traditions of geography Lautensach was so fitted and inclined to develop: in Humboldt's efforts to chart the variation of température and végétation with latitude and élévation, in von Richthofen's and de Martonne's emphasis on peripheral and central drainage, in von Thunen's and later Christaller's formulations of. the central-place theory, and of course in the whole tradition of zonal geography. That Lautensach was eventually able to advance the idea so forcefully is inextricably bound up with his choosing to study the 'neighbouring' areas of Spain and Portugal, and the 'opposed' Korean and Iberian peninsulas, and with the influence the nature of thèse areas had on his work as it developed. Since almost none of this work has yet been translated into English and only some into Spanish or Portuguese (though this includes the fundamental Tberische Halbinsel), Lautensach's contribution to geographical thought is scarcely known outside the German-speaking world. Naturally, Lautensach's work is widely appreciated among German-speaking geographers as a monumental contribution to our knowledge of the Iberian and Korean peninsulas. But even they are only too inclined to emphasize the heuristic and didactic value the Formenwandel approach has as a way for traditional régional geography progressively to individualize particular lands or seas into unique areas. They tend to overlook Lautensach's efforts to develop, for example, a systematic régional geography of granité landforms or annual range of température. As traditional régional geography loses ground especially among German-speaking geographers Lautensach's work will, ail too easily, be seen as the end, even if a climactic one, of an outmoded era. It may prove to be much more: a way forward towards a more systematic but no less régional a geography which takes advantage of the fact that some of the earth's surface features display variation from place to place regulated, in so far as it is regulated at ail, by biophysical and socio-economic propensities, constraints and limits.

Bibliography and Sources 1.

REFERENCES AND OBITUARIES ON H. LAUTENSACH

Haushofer, K., 'Hermann Lautensach', Z.

Geopolitik3

vol 6 (1929), 265-7 Wilhelmy, H., 'Hermann Lautensach zum 70. Geburtstag', Stuttgart.

Geogr.

Stud.3

vol 69 (1957), (Hermann

Lautensach Festschrift) 9-19 (with a bibliography to that date) Stollt, 0., 'Prof. Dr. Dr.h.c. Hermann Lautensach zum 75. Geburtstag', Kartogr. Nachr.3 vol 11 (1961), 125-9 Bohm, W.E., 'Hermann Lautensach', in Forsoher und Geléhrte, Stuttgart (1966), 225-7 Plewe, E., 'Hermann Lautensach 80 Jahre', Forsch. und Fortschr.3 vol 40/9 (1966), 282-4 Troll, C., 'Hermann Lautensachs Lebenswerk: Zu seinem 80. Geburtstag', Erdkd.3 vol 20 (1966), 242-52 (with a virtually complète bibliography arranged chronologically) Bobek, H., 'Hermann Lautensach', Alm. Osterr. Akad. Wiss.3 vol 121 (1971), 392-8 Horn, W., 'Hermann Lautensach', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 115 (1971), 102 Migliorini, E., 'Necrologia', La Geografia nelle Scuole3 vol 16 (1971), 184-5 Ribeiro, 0., 'Hermann Lautensach (1886-1971)', Finisterra,

Rev.

Port.

Geogr.3

vol 6/12 (1971),

161-3 Riccardi, R., 'Hermann Lautensach', Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital.3 vol 12 (1971), 389-95 Troll, C., 'In memoriam. Hermann Lautensach 20 September 1886 - 20 Mai 1971. Herbert Lehmann 25 Januar 1901 - 8 Marz 1971', Erdkd., vol 25 (1971), 161-3 (with additions to the bibliography of 1966) Vorstand Deutscher Gesellschaft f. Kartographie, 'Hermann Lautensach', Kartogr. Nachr.3 vol 21 (1971), 131 Plewe, E., 'Hermann Lautensach 20.9.1886 - 20.5.1971', Geogr. Z., vol 60 (1972), 1-7 Beck, H., 'Herman Lautensach - fuhrender Geograph in zwei Epochen. Ein Weg zur Lânderkunde', Stuttgart. Geogr. Stud. 3 vol 87 (1974), 1-42 (with a virtually complète and correct bibliography arranged by subject) Meckelein, W., 'Hermann Lautensach zum Gedenken; Ansprache bei der Trauerfeier am 25.5.1971', Stuttgart.

43-5 2.

Geogr.

Stud.

3

vol 87 (1974), vii-viii,

SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY 0F WORKS BY H. LAUTENSACH

a. Method and History of Geography 1925 'Wesen und Méthode d e r G e o p o l i t i k ' , i n L a u t e n s a c h , H. ( é d . ) , Geopolitik: Schauen and Schildem3 F r a n k f u r t a. Main, v o l 2 , 5-8 1933 'Wesen und Methoden d e r g e o g r a p h i s c h e n W i s s e n s c h a f t ' , i n K l u t e , F . ( é d . ) , Hand. Geogr. Wiss.3 P o t s d a m , v o l 1 , 23-56 ( r e p r i n t e d D a r m s t a d t ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 34p. as b r o c h u r e ) 1938 'Uber d i e E r f a s s u n g und Abgrenzung von L a n d s c h a f t s r a u m e n ' , C.R. Congr. Int. Geogr.3 Amsterdam, v o l 2 , s e c t V, 12-26 ( r e p r i n t e d i n K.H. P a f f e n ( é d . ) , Das Wesen der Landschaft3 D a r m s t a d t ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 20-38)

Hermann Lautensach

1952 'Otto Schliïters Bedeutung fur die methodische Entwicklung der Géographie. Ein kritischer Querschnitt durch ein Halbjahrhundert erdkundlicher Problemstellung in Deutschland', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 96, 219-31 (reprinted in W. Storkebaum (éd.), Zwn Gegenstand und zur Méthode der Geographie, Darmstadt (1967), 36-81) 1952 'Der geographische Formenwandel. Studien zur Landschaftssystematik', Coll. Geogr. Bonn, vol 3, 1-16 (reprinted in K.H. Paffen (éd.), Das Wesen der Landschaft, Darmstadt (1973), 444-65) 1953 'Forschung and Kompilation in der Landerkunde', Geogr. Hunds.j vol 5, 4-6 1953 'Ober die Begriffe Typus und Individuum in der

geographischen Forschung', Mûnchen. Geogr.

Hefte,

vol 3, 33p. (reprinted in W. Storkebaum (éd.), Zwn Gegenstand und zur Méthode der Géographie, Darmstadt (1967), 539-79) b. Geography teaching 1920 'Bericht iiber einen erdkundlichen Lehrausflug in der Harz', Geogr. Anz., vol 21, 261-3 1921 'Thesen fur eine Neugestaltung des erdkundlichen Lehrplanes auf den hoheren Schulen des Deutschen Reiches', Geogr. Anz., vol 22, 18-20 1924 'Supans "Deutsche Schulgeographie" in neuer Bearb e i t u n g ' , Geogr. Anz., vol 25, 117-21 1924 'Geopolitik und staatsbiïrgerliche Bildung', Z. Geopolitik, vol 1, 467-76 (reprinted in K. Haushofer, E. Obst, 0. Maull and H. Lautensach (eds), Bausteine zur Geopolitik, Berlin-Griinewald (1928) , 286-306) 1927 'Geopolitik und Schule', Geogr. Anz., vol 28, 341-8 (reprinted in K. Haushofer, E. Obst, 0. Maull and H. Lautensach (eds), Bausteine zur Geopolitik, Berlin-Griinewald (1928), 307-24) 1953 ' I s t Landerkunde moglich?', Geogr. Runds., vol 5, 260-2

Jahrb., 215-48 1928 'Morphologische Skizze der Kiisten Portugais. Ein landerkundlicher Ausschnitt', Z. Gesell. Erdkd. Berlin, Sonderband, 296-346 1929 'Eiszeitstudien in der Sierra de Estrela (Portuvol 17, 324-69 gal) ' , Z. Gletscherkd., 1932 'Die landerkundliche Gliederung Portugais', Geogr. Z., vol 38, 193-205, 271-84 1932 'Zur Géographie der kiinstlichen Bewasserung auf der Iberischen Halbinsel', Geogr. Anz., vol 33, 345-59 (in Spanish: Estud. Geogr., Madrid, vol 9 (1950), 515-47) 1932 Portugal. Auf Grund eigener Reisen und der Literatur, vol I, Das Land als Ganzes, Petermanns Geogr. no 213, 187p. Mitt. Erg'ànz., 1934 'Spanien und Portugal', in F. Klute (éd.), Hand. Geogr. Wiss., Siïdost-und Siïdeuropa, Potsdam, 426557 1937 Portugal. Auf Grund eigener Reisen und der Literatur, vol II, Die portugiesischen Landschaften, Petermanns Geogr. Mitt. Erg'ànz., no 230, 165p. 1940 'Die Iberische Halbinsel als Schauplatz der ges-

chichtliche Bewegung', Z. Gesell.

1942 1949 1955 1960 1960

1964 c. Atlases and World studies 1924 'Die Mittelmeere als geopolitische Kraftfelder', Z. Geopolitik, vol 1, 36-47 (reprinted in K. Haushofer, E. Obst, 0. Maull and H. Lautensach (eds) , Bausteine zur Geopolitik, Berlin-Griinewald (1928), 171-200) 1926 Allgemeine Géographie zur Einfuhrung in die Landerkunde. Ein Handbuch zwn Stieler, Gotha, 429p. ( r e printed with corrections 1944, 435p.) 1926 Landerkunde. Ein Handbuch zwn Stieler, Gotha, 841p. (reprinted with corrections 1944, 844p.) 1930 (with H. Haack) Sydow-Wagners Methodischer Schulatlas, 19th éd., Gotha, with 285 maps and a gazetteer (new éditions 1932, 1938, 1943, 1944) 1934 'Die Urlandscahft in Portugal und Korea. Ein Vergleich', C.R. Congr. Int. Geogr., Warsaw, vol 4, 161-72 1954 Atlas zur Erdkunde, Heidelberg, 147p. (new éditions 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1962, 1964, 1968) d. Iberian Peninsula 1928 'Portugal als geographische Gestalt im Rahmen der Iberischen Halbinsel', Geogr. Gesell. Hannover,

97

Erdkd.

Berlin,

vol 75, 101-23 'Portugal in der Eiszeit', Z. Gletscherkd., vol 28, 20-9 'Madeira. Eine landerkundliche Skizze des Archipels, dem Exkursionsfreund J.C. Grano gewidmet', Erdkd., vol 3, 212-29 'Der Rhythmus der Jahreszeiten auf der Iberischen Halbinsel', Geogr. Runds., vol 7, 1-12 (in Spanish, Estud. Geogr., vol 17 (1956), 443-60) 'Maurische Ziige im geographischen Bild der Iberischen Halbinsel', Bonn. Geogr. Abh., vol 28, 98p. 'Die Temperaturverhaltnisse der Iberischen Halbinsel und ihr Jahresgang. Ein Beitrag zur Landerkunde', Die Erde, vol 91, 86-114 (in Spanish, Estud. Geogr., vol 23 (1962), 259-92) Iberische Halbinsel, Munich, 700p. (2nd éd. 1969) (in Spanish as Geografia de Espana y Portugal, Barcelona 1967, 811p.)

e. Korean Peninsula 1935 'Quelpart und Dagelet. Vergleichende Landeskunde

zweier koreanischer Insein', Wiss. Verôff. Mus.

1940 1940 1941 1945 1950

Ldke., Leipzig, new ser., vol 3, 177-206 'Zur Géographie der kiinstlichen Bewasserung in Korea', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., vol 86, 289-303 'Koreas Hauptstadt und ihre Umwelt', Geogr. Z., vol 46, 1-17 'Der Hakutozan. Eine vulkanische Landschaft im koreanischen-mandschurischen Grenzbereich', Geogr. Z., vol 47, 354-71, 409-31 Korea. Eine Landeskunde auf Grund eigener Reisen und der Literatur, Leipzig, 542p. Korea. Land — Volk — Schicksal, Stuttgart, 137p.

/. Other Régional Studies 1953 'Das Mormonenland als Beispiel eines sozial-geographischen Raumes', Bonn. Geogr. Abh., vol 2, 46p. 1977 'Madeira, Ischia und Taormina: Inselstudien' in Erdkundliches Wissen, vol 47, Wiesbaden, 63p.

98

Hermann Lautensach

g. Climatology 1940 'Klimakunde als Zweig landerkundlicher Forschung', Geogr. Z.3 vol 46, 393-408 1949 'Ist in Ostasien der Soiranermonsun der Hauptniederschlagsbringer?', Erdkd. 3 vol 3, 1-18 (in Spanish, Bol. Estud. Geogr.3 Mendoza, no 5 (1949), 33-64) 1950 'Der hochsommerliche Monsun in Siid-Ostasien und auf den angrenzenden Meeren', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 94, 18-24 1952 'Die Isanomalenkarte der Jahresschwankung der Lufttemperatur. Ein Beitrag zur allgemeinen analytischen Formenwandellehre', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 96, 145-55 1953 'Die Isanomalenkarte der Jahresschwankung der Lufttemperatur: Ein Nachtrag', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 104, 249-70 h. Geomorphology 1909 'Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter von A. Penck und E. Bruckner', Z. Gletscherkd.3 vol 4, 1-30 1912 'Die Ubertiefung des Tessingebiets. Morphologische Studie', Berlin. Geogr. Abh.3 new ser., vol 1, 156p. 1914-15 'Die Kleinen Seebecken der Tessiner Alpen', Z. Gletscherkd. 3 vol 9, 1-41 1950 'Granitische Abtragungsformen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel und in Korea, ein Vergleich', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 94, 187-96; and in C.R. Congr. Int. Geogr. Lisbon (1949), vol 2, 270-96 i. Biographies 1952 'Otto Jessen zum Gedachtnis', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt.3 vol 96, 1-6 1957 'Hermann Haack geb. Oktober 1872', Petermanns Geogr. Mitt. Erg'ànz. 3 no 264, 1-5 1958 'Albrecht und Walther Penck, Gedachtnisansprache am Grabe zu Stuttgart am 25 September 1958', Z. Geom. 3 new ser., vol 2, 245-50 1959 'Cari Troll - ein Forscherleben', Erdkd. 3 vol 13, 244-58 Nachr.3 1966 'Hermann Haack zum Gedachtnis', Kartog. vol 16, 85-7 3. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES HELD BY FRAU DR. E. LAUTENSACHLOFFLER IN STUTTGART INCLUDE: (i) Unpublished typescripts entitled 'Klimagebiete', 'Geschichte und Methoden der lânderskundlichen Forschung und Beschreibung' and manuscript map of Formenwandel régions (ii) Notebook from 1903 journey in the Alps (iii) Diaries of fieldwork in the Iberian and Korean Peninsulas (iv) Student lecture notes in Gottingen, Freiburg and Berlin (v) Correspondence relating to the 'Passarge Affair' of 1929 (vi) Correspondence relating to the 'Uhden action' of 1935 (vii) Correspondence relating to 'denazification' processes in 1945 (viii) Correspondence from about 1952 onwards mainly

relating to publications and the editing of the Geographische Hàndbuaher (ix) Autobiography in typescript, dated 1945 (x) Letters of condolence dated 1971 Dr. Philip D. Tilley is a senior leoturer in geography at the University of Sydney. The work on which this bibliography is based was undertaken with the support of grants from the Penrose Fund of the American Philosophical Society.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1886

Born at Gotha, 20 September

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

HERMANN LAUTENSACH

C0NTEMP0RARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

PUBLICATIONS

F. von Richtofen appointed to chair, Berlin University

1887

A. Penck, Dos Deutsche

1894

A. Penck, Morphologie Erdoberflache

1898

A.J. Herbertson graduâtes as Dr. Phil., Freiburg/Br.

1901

Planck's Quantum Theory

der

A. Hettner, Grundbegriffe ... der physischen Géographie

Travelled in Swiss and Italian Alps

1903

Reioh

1905

Left school for university, Gottingen

Publication of A.J. Herbertson's paper 'The major natural régions' and of A. Hettner, Das Wesen ... der Géographie

1906

Moved to other uni- Worked in the Harz mounversities, first tains with Walter Penck Freiburg/Br. and later Berlin

Albrecht Penck moved to Berlin. 0. Schliiter, Die Ziele der Géographie des Mensohen 0. Schliiter, Uber ... Natur und Mensch in der Anthropogeographie

1907 Fieldwork in Alps with Engelmann, Scheu and Thom

1908 1909

Assistant at Berlin University

1910

Doctorate, Berlin University

1912

Worked as school teacher in Berlin and Hannover

1913

Marriage

A. Penck, Versuah einer Klassifikation Die Ubertiefung Tessin-gebiets

des

W.M. Davis, Die Beschreibung der S. Passarge,

Klima-

Erklârende Landformen Landschaftsgéographie

War service began J.F. Unstead's paper on 'A synthetic method of determining geographical régions1, Geogr. J.3 48, 230-49

1916

1919

A. Penck and E. Bruckner, Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter

First World War

1914 1915

First publication, a review-article on the new work by Penck and Bruckner

Returned to teaching at Hannover

100

DATES

Hermccnn

Lautensach

LIFE AND CAREER

1920

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

School excursion in Harz mountains

1921

S. P a s s a r g e ,

1924

Became joint editor of Z. fur Geopolitik

1926

1927

Resigned from his teaching post

1928

Qualified as a university lecturer (Habilitation) and became assistant at Giessen. Resigned the joint editorship of Z. fur

Landschaftskunde

' G e o p o l i t i k und s t a a t s biirgerliche Bildung'

Zeitschrift founded

Allgemeine Géographie ... Landerkunde Landerkunde. Ein Handbuch ziïm Stieler

J.F. Unstead, 'Geographical régions illustrated by référence to the Iberian peninsula', Scott. Geogr. Mag., 42, 159-70

fur

Geopolitik

Visited Portugal 'Morphologische Skizze d e r Kusten P o r t u g a i s '

Geopolitik

1930

Sydow-Wagners Schulatlas

1932

Portugalj

1933

1934

Began fieldwork in Korea

Associate Professor, Braunschweig

1935 1936

Methodischer

vol 1

'Wesen und Methoden d e r geographischen Wissenschaft'

H i t l e r becomes C h a n c e l l o r . L. W a i b e l , Was verstehen wir unter Landschaftskunde. W. C h r i s t a l l e r , Die zentralen Orte

' S p a n i e n und P o r t u g a l '

International Geographical Congress, Warsaw. Popper, Logik der Forschung

'Quelpart und Dagelet'

Burger, Der

Hempel and Oppenheimer, Die Typusbegriffe im Liohte der Logik

Professor at Greifswald Portugal,

1937 1938

Death of wife

1939

Re-married

Landschaftsbegriff neuen

vol 2

'Uber die Erfassung .., von Landschaftsraumen' (I.G.U. Congress)

International Geographical Congress, Amsterdam. J.O.M. Broek, 'The concept of landscape in human geography'

R. Hartshorne, The nature

of

geography. C. Troll, Luftbildplan und ôkologisahe Bodenforschung. Beginning of Second World War

Hermann Lautensach

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1940

Editor,

Geographische Handbûcher 1945

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

101

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

'Klimakunde als Zweij 1ande rkundli cher Forschung'

Left Greifswald for Stuttgart H. Bobek and I. Schmithusen, Die

1949

Landschaft im logischen der Géographie

System

International Geographical Congress, Lisbon 1952

'Otto Schlilter's Bedeutung fur die methodische Entwicklung der Géographie'. 'Die geographische Formenwandel'. 'Die Isanomalenkarte der Jahresschwankung der Lufttemperatur'

International Geographical Congress, Washington

1953

'Uber die Begriffe Typus und Individuum in der geographischen Forschung'

T. Hagerstrand, loppet ....

1954

Retired and became Emeritus Professor, Stuttgart

Atlas

Schaefer, 'Exceptionalism in geography'

zur Erdkunde

International Geographical Congress, Rio de Janeiro. H. Bobek, 'Gedanken uber das logische System der Géographie'

1957

1960

'Maurische Ziïge ... der Iberischen Halbinsel'

1964

Iberische

1971

Innovationsfor-

Died at Wildbad, 20 May

Halbinsel

'Geschichte und Methoden der landerkundlichen Forschung und Beschreibung' (not published)

Joachim Lelewel 1786-1861

ZBIGNIEW RZEPA 1. LIFE AND SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES Joachim Jozef Benedykt Lelewel, the son of Karol and Ewa Szeluta, was born on March 22 1786, in .Warsaw, into a family having a landowning and clérical professional tradition. He was an historian of geography, cartography and numismatics, a bibliographer and a Polish libéral politician. In 1801-04 he attended a Piarist boarding-school in Warsaw, then known as a somewhat libéral educational centre and from 1804-08 he studied mathematics, natural history, history, geography, Latin and Greek at the university in Wilno (Vilnius). From 1809-10 he lectured on ancient geography at the Lyceum at Krzemieniec in the eastern part of the former Polish state, a school of university standing; it was the first time that lectures on ancient geography were given in Poland. Between 1811 and 1815 he was engaged in research at Warsaw and from 1815-18 he worked at the library of the newly established Warsaw University and also lectured there on bibliography. He gained his doctorate in 1820 at Cracow University, qualifying as a non-resident student. In 1821 he was appointed professor of history at the University of Vilnius, but though his lectures were greatly appreciated in 1824 he lost his position through the répressive policies of the Russian authorities. Lelewel returned to Warsaw and devoted himself first to académie and then to political activities. During the November Rising (1830-1) against Russia, Lelewel was a member of the Polish Administrative Council and then of the National Government. He was also elected Chairman of the Patriotic Society, a

party representing the policy of direct military action. After the collapse of the uprising, Lelewel emigrated in 1831 to France where he organized a political party called the Union of Polish Expatriâtes within which he was a leader of its démocratie wing uniting the post-insurrection émigrés. Faithful to his left-oriented principles he was regarded as dangerous by the French monarchy (as he had been earlier by the Russians) and was expelled from France in 1833. He went to Belgium (Brussels) where he stayed for 28 years. Though Roman Catholic by birth he was indiffèrent to religion. Lelewel's richest scholarly achievements were in political history. His studies on the history of nations were the basis of his interest in the history of geography and cartography. As a historian of Poland and other Slav countries he deserved merit in his homeland, while as a historian of geography and cartography he contributed considerably to world science. In the early stage of his researches, in Poland until 1831, the history of his country as well as gênerai history formed the core of his literary work, though his appréciation of the history of geography and of historical geography helped him to provide a fuller historical picture. During his period of exile, the sources he had at his disposai allowed him to concentrate on studies of the history of geography and cartography. He believed that cartographie problems would be of interest and earn appréciation in western scientific circles: his illustrated history of numismatics published in 1835 also met with success.

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2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT a. Ancient geography By 1812 Lelewel had prepared for publication an extensive work devoted to ancient geography in which he developed three thèmes: geographical thought, historical geography and the idea of the expansion of the geographical horizon. The political disturbance of the Napoleonic wars made it impossible to publish that work. Lelewel discussed thèse main thèmes in his further publications such as: Pisma pomniejsze geograficzno-historyczne (Geographical and historical essays)j1814; Badania starozytnoêci we wzgledzie geografii. Czqêc naukowa. (Studies of the geography of antiquity. Scientific section)3 1818, supplemented with an atlas containing 19 plates with 58 maps and charts illustrating the geographical knowledge and the divisions of historical geography then accepted; Dzieje starozytne Indii (Ancient History of India)3 1820, including chapters on the geography of India and on other areas of the known world; Oâkrycia Karthagôw i Grekôu) na Oceanie Atlanckim (Discoveries of the Carthaginians and Greeks in the Atlantic Océan)3 1821, and Pythêas de Marseille et la géographie de son temps3 1836. Through his more detailed historical studies Lelewel threw light on a number of problems, notably thèse three: first, he dealt with the error made by Ptolemy who had accepted the existence of one stadium as a constant and invariable measure of length. According to Lelewel the stadium was indeed the generally accepted measure of length, but it had varying values at différent times. Secondly, he discussed the rôle of Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans in enlarging the geographical horizon. Thirdly, he also stated that the African rivers, the Gir and the Nigir, shown in Ptolemy's maps, were in fact two small rivulets in the présent territory of mid-western Algeria and they had nothing to do with the Niger flowing into the Gulf of Guinea. b. Médiéval geography The two éditions of the Atlas (a 35-sheet édition of 1849 and a 50-sheet édition of 1850) and the fourvolume Geography with an épilogue (1852-7) were the most comprehensive works in the field of médiéval cartography issued at the time. While volumes 1 and 2 of the geography were a continuous discourse, volumes 3 and 4 included dissertations devoted to particular problems including 'Slavia du dixième et du douzième siècle', 'Analyse de plusieurs sections des VI and VII climats de la description d'Edrisi', 'Cartes de l'Inde et de la Chine, dressées d'après les relations des Arabes et les investigations du moyen âge', 'Examen géographique des courses et de la description de Benjamin de Tudèle, 1160-1173', 'Tavola di navicare di Nicolo et Antonio Zeni et les cartes des régions septentrionales à l'époque de sa publication en 1558'. As a student of médiéval cartography Lelewel analysed both mappae mundi based on médiéval spéculations and the compass maps (portolans). Portolan charts and Arab maps as well were valued highly by Lelewel who

believed that they provided a basis for later mapping which had been impeded by the excessive homage paid to Ptolemy's work. As a historian he underestimated the importance of the mathematical bases of geography as a starting point for modem cartography. c. Historical geography of Poland and Slavdom Assuming the necessity to reach to 'the corner-stone of the whole construction', when studying Slav countries and the early history of Poland Lelewel concentrated in his work on ancient geography in gênerai and on ancient documents dealing with the Slavs in particular. The history of geography and historical geography were closely interrelated in Lelewel's researches. Both ancient and Arab geographical descriptions were considered by Lelewel from two angles: as a historian of geography he analyzed the views held in ancient times and in Arab médiéval times, while in making use of this material as a source of information for the beginnings of Slavdom and for the earliest history of Poland he was doing research in historical geography. Ancient geographical descriptions were subjected to thorough analysis through which he distinguished primary and unaltered sources from those affected by later modifications. He examined critically some writers, particularly those of the Roman Empire who had quite frequently based their reasoning on unreliable sources and noted that texts on the Slavs contained many errors. He also analyzed critically a number of Arab, Byzantine and early German sources and eventually established correctly the names and distribution of the peoples. Contributions in the fields of historical geography and of the history of geography are to be found in two of Lelewel's works, Opisanie krajow polskich (Description of the Polish lands)3 1858, and Polska wiekôio srednich (Poland in the Middle Ages)3 1851-8. His Winulska SJÙawiansczyzna z Geografa Bawarskiego (Winulska Slavdom of the Bavarian Geographer)3 1816, and Edrisij geograf arabski o Polsce w roku 11S43 1844, are marked by a thorough and detailed analysis of the historical information on Poland. In accordance with the prevailing ideas of his time, Lelewel stressed the great importance of geographical conditions in the development of societies. He believed that geographical environment determined — particularly in the earliest stage of history — the development and character of peoples. In particular the climate, différent at various geographical latitudes, had an essential effect not only on agricultural production but also on human mentality. Lelewel also stressed the importance of the natural frontiers of states. d. Historical cartography Lelewel designed four a t l a s e s of which t h r e e i l l u s t r a t e d h i s h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s . Thèse were f i r s t , an a t l a s of 1819 which was part of h i s Dzieje starozytne (Ancient history), 1818, r e c o r d s ; second, the Ma%y atlas do Historii polskiej J. Miklaszewskiego i T. Wagi. Z szesciu kart jeograficznych zfozony. (Small atlas of Polish History by J. Miklaszewski and T.

Joachim Lelewel Waga). This atlas consisted of six geographical sheets in Teodor Waga's Historia ksiaèat i krôlôw polskich (Brief Histovy of Polish Princes and Kings)3 1824. The third contribution, the Atlas do Dziejow polsckich z dwunastu krajobrazôw zjozony (Atlas of Polish History composed of twelve landscapes) was a supplément to his Dzieje Polski (History of Poland)3 1829. The fourth, the Atlas do historii i geofrafii starozytnej (Atlas of ancient history and geography)3 1828, was an independent publication indicative of the trend of his geographical thought. Lelewel was the author of 202 historical maps and plans illustrating 125 topics. Of thèse 88 maps referred to the history of Poland (29 topics) , 66 maps to ancient history (53 topics), 27 maps to médiéval and modem gênerai history (27 topics), 21 maps to travels and the expansion of the geographical horizon (16 topics). The maps generally show political and administrative boundaries, and also war campaigns. Lelewel used contemporary historical names. He believed it was important to show the topography of the land in ail his maps and he employed colouring effectively. On the other hand he underestimated the mathematical and cartographical exactness that a map must possess and only in a few cases did he include the geographical net. As a teacher he valued school maps highly as instructional aids in teaching history. He was the author of the first Polish historical maps for schools. Lelewel knew twelve languages, an accomplishment which was of essential significance for his research. Moreover he knew how to produce maps: he etched copper plates, correcting them, as a rule, with a burin. Some maps he fully engraved himself.

10S

test of time. The following two facts may serve as évidence: in 1964 Meridian, a Dutch publishing house, published, by photo-offset techniques, the German édition of Die Entdeckungen der Carthager and, in 1966-7, the same finn published in full Géographie du moyen âge (with a smaller 35-sheet atlas). At the présent time, Lelewel's works are a starting point for research in the fields of the history of geography and cartography, and of historical geography as well. It is so not only because thèse disciplines are helpful to the study of other sciences, but also because in almost ail thèse fields Lelewel's contribution is significant and should still be considered. The continuing appréciation of Lelewel's work was confirmed in 1934 at the XIII International Geographical Congress held in Warsaw. The meeting accepted the Polish proposai to set up an international scientific organization under the name of 'Joachim Lelewel Society' , grouping together historians of geography and cartography.

Bibliography and Sources

1. REFERENCES ON JOACHIM LELEWEL Warnka, Stanis)faw, Joachima Lelewela zas%ugi na polu geografii (Merits of Joachim Lelewel in the field of geography)3 Poznan (1878), 192p. Olszewicz, Bolesjîaw, 'Joachim Lelewel jako historyk geografii 1786-1861'. ('Joachim Lelewel as an historian of geography), Ziemia3 2 (1911), 601-05 Niewojska, Irena, 'Pytheas z Marsylii w ujeciu Gosse3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD 0F IDEAS lina i Lelewela' ("Gosselin and Lelewel on Pytheas Lelewel carried on his studies in historical geography of Marseille*), Przegl. Hist.3 vol 13 (33) (1935and in the history of geography at a time of rapid de6 ) , 507-35 velopment in the historical sciences, when ancient Dzikowski, MikoZaj, Katalog atlasôw Biblioteki Unicivilizations were of particular interest. Geography, wersytetu Stefana Batorego w Wilnie. Ze szczegôlin which the first chair was established in 1820 at Berlin nym uwzglqdnieniem zbiorôw Joachima Lelewela oraz University, was regarded as subsidiary to the historimap Polski (Catalogue of the atlases of the lical sciences then widely renowned at universities. brary of Stefan Batory University in Vilnius. Lelewel's persistent work resulted in considérable With particular attention to the Joachim Lelewel achievements in the field of history of geography, parcollections and to maps of Poland)3 Wilno (1935ticularly the history of cartography, and in the his40), 677p. tory of discoveries. It was this work, and not his Hleb-Koszanska, Helena, and Kotwiczôwna, Maria, Bibsomewhat insignificant teaching activities that establiografia utworôw Joachima Lelewela (Bibliography lished his réputation in both historical sciences and of the Works of Joachim Lelewel)3 WrocXaw (1952), geography. Geography in his day was striving to es202p. tablish its position in the universities; it needed to Zawadzki, Tadeusz, 'Joachim Lelewel jako badacz dziejow develop a tradition and found it in Lelewel's works. swiata starozytnego. Proba charakterystyki' That it why Lelewel enjoyed the respect of both his ('Joachim Lelewel as an explorer of the history of contemporaries and their successors. Among his conthe ancient world'), Przegl. Hist. 3 vol 43 (1952), temporaries were A. von Humboldt and Cari Ritter, who 177-94 was the author of an introduction to the German édition Tymieniecki, Kazimierz, 'Joachim Lelewel - dziejopis of Lelewel's book Die Entdeckungen der Carthager und dawnych Sïowian' ('Joachim Lelewel - historiograGriechen auf dem atlantischen Océan, 1831. H. Wuttke pher of the ancient Slavs', Kultura i Spojeczenshared some of Lelewel's concepts, and so too did H. stwo3 2 (1958), no 2, 6-21 Wagner and L. Gallois. Tymieniecki, Kazimierz, 'Joachim Lelewel o narodach Lelewel's scientific contribution has stood the poïnocnych w starozytnoâci' ('Joachim Lelewel on

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northern peoples in ancient times'), Studia do dziejôw Polski feudalnej ofiarowane R. Grodeckiemu3 Warszawa (1960), 563-75 Drozdowska, Aniela, 'Wspolne wydawnictwo Joachima Lelewela i Reginy Korzeniowskiej' ('Joachim Lelewel's and Regina Korzeniowska's joint publication'), Sprawozdania Wrocjawskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, 16 A (1961), 17-22 Hleb-Koszanska, Helena, 'Losy nieznanego prospektu Joachima Lelewela do jego "Géographie du moyen âge". Gawçda Bibliograficzna' ('On Joachim Lelewel's unknown prospectus of his "Géographie du moyen âge". A bibliographical study'), Ksiega pamiatkowa ku czci StanisXawa Pigonia3 Krakow (1961), 465-74 Kolankowski, Zygmunt, 'Rekopisy prac naukowych Joachima Lelewela w zbiorach polskich' ('Joachim Lelewel's manuscripts in Polish collections'), Kwart. Hist. vol 68 (1961), 991-8 Kupsc, Bogumiï St., 'Zestawienie materiajîow dotyczacych Joachima Lelewela w zbiorach rekopismiennych Biblioteki Narodowej' ('List of materials relating to Joachim Lelewel in manuscript collections of the National Library'), Przegl. Bibliot.3 vol 29 (1961), 135-47 Tymieniecki, Kazimierz, 'Joachim Lelewel i studia sïowianskie' ('Joachim Lelewel and Slav studies'), Slavia Antiqua3 vol 8 (1961), 1-9 Slaski, Kazimierz, 'Wkïad Joachima Lelewela w zakresie badan nad geografia historyczna' ('Contribution of Joachim Lelewel to studies of historical geography), Z badan nad pracami historycznymi Joachima Lelewela; Poznan (1962), 171-9 Zawadzki, Tadeusz, 'Joachim Lelewel — historyk peryferii swiata antycznego' ('Joachim Lelewel — an historian of the périphéries of the ancient world', Z badan nad pracami historycznymi Joachima Lelewela3 Poznan (1962), 71-8 " Staszewski, Jozef, 'Sierakowski, Lelewel a Portugaliae Monumenta Cartographica' ('Sierakowski and Lelewel on Portugaliae Monumenta Cartographica'), Przegl. Geogr.3 vol 35 (1963), 77-81 Olszewicz, Bolesïaw, Joachim Lelewel3 Dziexoiec wiekôw geografii polskiej3 Warszawa (1967), 213-29 Olszewicz, Bolesjfaw, 'Joachim Lelewel i zbiory kartograficzne Ossolineum' ('Joachim Lelewel and the cartographical collections of Ossolineum'). Ossolineum3 Ksiega pamiatkowa w 150-lecie Zak%adu Narodowego imienia Ossolinskich3 Wrocïaw (1967), 189-96 Rzepa, Zbigniew, 'Kartografia historyczna w dorobku naukowym Joachima Lelewela' ('Historical cartography in Joachim Lelewel's scientific works'), Studia z dziejôw geografii i kartografii3 WrocZaw (1973), 203-19 2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY JOACHIM LELEWEL a. History of geography and cartography 1814 Pisma pomniejsze geograficzno-historyczne,

1818

1821

1836

1842 1844 1849

1850

1851 1852

1857

1860

Warszawa, 77p., 28p., 36p., 53p., 5p. (German édition: Kleinere Schriften geographisch-historischen Inhalts)3 Leipzig (1836), 10, 270p. Badania starozytnoêci we wzgledzie geografii. Czeêô naukowa3 Wilno-Warszawa, 591p. with Atlas do J. Lelewela Badan starozytnoêci we wzgl§dzie geografii3 (Studies of the geography of Antiquity with Atlas to J. Lelewel's Studies of the geography of Antiquity) 'Odkrycia Karthagdw i Grekôw na Oceanie Atlanckim' ('Discoveries of the Carthaginians and Greeks on the Atlantic Océan'), Rocz. Tow. Krôl. Warsz. Przyj. Nauk.3 vol 14, 339-513 and offprint (German édition: 'Die Entdeckungen der Carthager und Griechen auf dem atlantischen Océan', Berlin (1831), 14, 145p. Pythêas de Marseille et la géographie de son tempsj 74p. two éditions: in Paris and Brussels (German édition: Pythêas und die Géographie seiner Zeit3 Leipzig (1838), 150p. '0 odkryciu Ameryki przez Jana z Kolna' ('On the discovery of America by Jan of Kolno'), Orçd. Nauk.3 325-7 Guillebert de Lannoy et ses voyages en 14133 1414 et 14213 Bruselles - Poznan, 97p., 46p. Géographie du moyen âge: Atlas composé de trente cinq planches gravées par l ''auteur3 contenant 99 figures et cartes géographiques générales ou spéciales ...» Bruxelles Géographie du moyen âge: Atlas composé de cinquante planches gravées par l 'auteur3 contenant 145 figures et cartes générales ou spéciales ...3 Bruxelles (In 1851 an édition in Wrocjaw) 'Mercator', Encyclopédie du dix-neuvième siècle3 vol 16 (Paris), 12-13 Cartes de l'Inde et de la Chine dressées d'après les relations des Arabes et les investigations du moyen âge3 Bruxelles, 34p. Examen géographique des voyages de Benjamin de Tudèle, 1160-117Z3 Bruxelles, 41p. Géographie du moyen âge3 Bruxelles, 136p., 185p., 243p., 220p., 112p. (in the same year an édition in Wrocjaw) 'Globe', Encyclopédie du dix-neuvième siècle3 vol 13, P a r i s , 543-4 'Mappemonde'-, Encyclopédie du dix-neuvième siècle, vol 15, P a r i s , 429-38 Tavola di navicare di Nicolo et Antonio Zeni et les cartes des régions septentrionales a l'époque de sa publication en 15583 Bruxelles, 36p. Géographie du moyen âge. Epilogue3 Bruxelles, 308p. 'Kopernika tudziez jinnych astronomôw polskich w j e o g r a f i i zasjuga' ('Copernicus' and other Polish astronomers' merits in the f i e l d of geography'), Przyroda i Przemys%3 Poznafî, no 9-10, 70-2, 78-80 'Blaau, Blaeu-Blaeuv', Encyklopedia Powszechna3 vol 3, Warszawa, 732

b. Historical geography 1808 Rzut oka na dawnoêô litewskich narodJôw i zwiazki ich z Herulami (Glance at the antiquity of Lithuanian peoples and their relations with Herulams)3

Joachim Lelewel Wilno, 74p. 1816 'Winulska SJtawianszczyzna z Geografa Bawarskiego' ('Winulska Slavdom of the Bavarian Geographer'), Tyg. Wil.t vol 2, 333-41, 349-56, 365-73, 381-7 1844 ' E d r i s i , geograf arabski o Polsce w roku 1154' ( ' E d r i s i , Arab geographer on Poland in 1 1 5 4 ' ) , Ored. Nauk.3 vol 5, 196-200 1853 Narody na ziemiach sZawiaûskich przed powstaniem Polski (Peoples on Slavonian lands before the origin of Poland)3 Poznan, 819p. 1858 Geografia. Opisanie krajôw polskich (Geography. Description of the Polish lands)3 Posnafî, 84p. c. Historical atlas es 1819 Atlas, bez karty tytufowej3 nalezacy do dzie%a: Dzieje starozytne. Od poczatku czasôw historycznych do drugiej po%owy wieku szôstego ery chrzescijanskiej (Atlas (without the title page) belonging to the work: Ancient history. From the beginning of historical times to the second half of the 6th century of the Christian era) 3 Wilno (1818). In the a t l a s 16 tables and 42 maps 1824 Mdfiy atlas do Historii polskiej ( J . Miklaszewskiego i T. Wagi). Z szesciu kart jeograficznych z%ozony3 bez miejsca wydania. Atlas dojaczony do: Teodora Wagi. Historia ksiazat i krblbw polskich krbtko zebrana (Small atlas of Polish History) by J. Miklaszewski and T. Waga. Composed of six geographical sheets (place of publication not i n d i c a t e d ) . The a t l a s attached t o : Teodor Waga's Short History of Polish Princes and Kings, Wilno. Successive é d i t i o n s : 1829, 1865 1828 Atlas do historii i geografii starozytnej (Atlas of ancient history and geography)3 Warszawa, 14 tables and 22 h i s t o r i c a l maps 1829 Atlas do Dziejôw polskich z dwunastu krajobrazôw zXozony (Atlas of Polish history - composed of twelve landscapes), Warszawa. Atlas dojîaczony do dziejîa: Dzieje Polski Joachim Lelewel potocznym sposobem opowiedziaX, do nich dwanascie krajobrazôw skreêliZ (Atlas attached to the work: History of Poland popularly related by Joachim Lelewel who sketched twelve landscapes for it)3 Warszawa. Successive é d i t i o n s : 1830, 1845, 1849, 1853, 1856, 1859 (three t i m e s ) , 1863 (twice) 1844 Atlas contenant les tableaux chronologiques et généalogiquesj et les cartes géographiques de différentes époques3 P a r i s , 16 maps. (Atlas a t tached to the work: Histoire de Pologne), 2 v o l s . , P a r i s - L i l l e (1844) 1847 Atlas enthaltend die chronologischen und genealogischen Tafeln und die geographischen Karten der verschiedenen Zeitràume3 Leipzig, 16 maps (Atlas attached to the work: Geschichte Polens)3 Leipzig (1846), 2 éd. also in 1847 3. ARCHIVAL SOURCES Manuscripts, s c i e n t i f i c notes and maps — both published and unpublished — are to be found in the l i b r a r i e s under the signatures l i s t e d . The Jagellonian Library in Cracow - s i g n a t u r e s : 3479,

107

3480, 3481, 3482, 3483, 3484, 3485, 3488, 3489, 3490, 3491, 3493, 3494, 3495, 3496, 3502, 3503, 3504; The National Library in Warsaw - s i g n a t u r e s : 2733, 2869, 6559, 7052, BOZ 775, BOZ 835, akc. 6799; Raczynscy Library in Poznan - s i g n a t u r e s : 1384, 1387; S i l e s i a n Library in Katowice - signature 56331 I I ; University Library in Vilnius Dr. Zbigniew Rzepa is a research worker in the Institute of the History of Science3 Education and Technology of the Polish Academy of Sciences at the WrocZaw branch.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1786

Boni in Warsaw

ACTIVITIESj FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

JOACHIM LELEWEL

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1790

P. Gosselin, Géographie Grecs

des

18011804

Pupil at the Piarist boarding-school in Warsaw

18041808

Studied at the Vilnius University

Gotfryd Groddeck. became Professor of classical philology in Vilnius

18091810

Lectured on the history of ancient geography at the Lyceum at Krzemieniec

C. Malte-Brun, Histoire

la

17981813

de

P. Gosselin, Recherches sur •la géographie systématique et positive des anciens3 4 vols

1814

Pisma pomniejsze geograficznohistoryczne (Geographical and historical essays)

1815

Member of the Warsaw Society of the Friends of Science

18151818

Assistant Professor of gênerai history at Vilnius University

1818

géographie

Historyka tudziez 0 %atwem i pozytecznem nauczaniu historii (On the simple and useful teaching of history)

Badania starozytnoêci we wzgledzie geografii. Czesc naukowa. Dojîaczony: Atlas do J. Lelewela Badaiâ starozytnoêci we wzgledzie geografii (Studies of the geography of antiquity. Scientific section attached to Atlas of J. Lelewel's Studies of the Geography of Antiquity) Dzieje starozytne. Od poczatku czasôw historycznych do drugiej po%owy wieku szôstego ery chrzeêciafiskiej. Do%aczony atlas bez karty tytuJoweQ3 1819 (Ancient history. From the beginning of historical times to the second half of the 6th century of the Christian era3 with an atlas (no title page3 1819)

J. Blair, Maps of the of the World

history

Joachim Lelewel DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

PUBLICATIONS

K. Mannert, Géographie der Griechen und RbmerJ 4 vols

17991820 1820

Doctor's degree at Cracow University (non-resident student)

18181821

Worked in the library of the Warsaw University. Lectured on bibliography

Dzieje starozytne (Ancient history

of

Indii India)

Odkrycia Karthagôw i Grekôw na Oceanie Atlanckim (Discoveries of the Carthaginians and Greeks in the Atlantic Océan)

1821

18211824

109

Professor of gênerai history at the University of Vilnius

1824

Maty atlas do Historii polskiej J. Miklaszewskiego i T. yagi. 1 szeêciu kart jeograficznych zXozony (Small atlas of Polish History by J. Miklaszewski and T. Waga: consisting of six geographical sheets)

18231826

Bibliograficznych ksiag duoje, w ktôrych rozebrane i pomnozone zostaXy dwa dzie%a Jerzego Samuela Bandtke: Mistoria drukarn krakowskich tudziez Historia Biblioteki Uniw. Jagiell. w Krakowie, a przydany katalog inkunabuXôw polskichj 2 vols (Two bibliographical books in which two works by Jerzy Samuel Bandtke were analyzed and extended: History of Cracow printinghouses and History of the Jagellonian University Library in Cracow with a catalogue of Polish incunabula, 2 vols.)

1827

Historyczny rozbiôr prawodawstwa polskiego cywilnego i kryminalnego do czasow jagielloriskich (Historical analysis of Polish civil and criminal législation up to the Jagellonian times)

110 DATES

Joachim

Lelewel

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES3 TRAVEL3 FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

1828

Atlas do historii i geografii starozytnej (Atlas of ancient history and geography)

1829

Atlas do Dziejôw polskich z dwunastu krajobrazôw zjozony (Atlas of Polish history in twelve landscapes)

1831

Member of the National Government during the November Rising, a f t e r which he emigrated to Paris

18311833

Lived as an émigré in Paris

18331861

Moved to Brussels and stayed there

Historyczna parallela Hiszpanii z Polska w wieku XVI3 XVII, XVIII (Historical companion of Spain and Roland in the XVI3 XVII and XVIII centuries)

1835

Numismatique de moyen-âge3 considérée sous le rapport du type; accompagnée d'un Atlas3 composé de tables de cartes chronologiques3 géographiques et de figures de monnaies3 gravées sur cuivre3 3 v o l s , a t l a s

1836

Pythêas de Marseille et la géographie de son temps Polska odradzajaca sie czyli Dzieje polskie od roku 1795 potocznie opowiedziane (Roland's recovery 3 or3 Polish history since 17953 a popular treatment)

1839

Dzieje Litwy i Rusi az do unii z Polska w Lublinie 1569 zawartej (History of Lithuania and Russia to their union with Roland in Lublin3 1569) M.F. Santarem, Atlas composé de mappemondes de portulans et de cartes hydrographiques et historiques depuis le XI jusqu'au e XVII siècle

1842

1844

CONTEMPORARX EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Guillebert de Lannoy et ses voyages en 14133 1414 et 1421 Atlas contenant les tableaux chronologiques et gênêalogiques3 et les cartes géographiques de différentes époques

Joachim DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

111

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

F. Ukert, Géographie der Griechen und Rômer, 4 vols

18161846 1847

Atlas enthaltend die chronologischen und genealogischen Tafeln und die geographischen Karten der verschiedenen Zei tr'àwne

1849

Géographie du moyen âge ... Atlas composé de trente cinq planches

1850

Géographie du moyen âge, étudiée par Joachim Lelewel. Atlas composé de cinquante planches gravées par l'auteur, contenant 145 figures et cartes générales ou spéciales de 88 géographes arabes et latins de différentes époques y compris les cartes comparatives doubles et triples, accompagnées de 11 cartes explicatives et de deux articles géographiques: I. Table ou Indicateur de longitudes et latitudes des géographes arabes, de l'intervalle de cinq siècles, 830-1330. II. Portulan général des cartes qui composent l'Atlas, spécialement de la carte catalane 1375-1377, et de la carte 1476 de l 'anconitain André Benincasa Wykpad historii powszechnej, 5 tomôw (Lectures on gênerai history,

5 vols) M. F. Santarem, Essai

18491852

sur

l'histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie pendant le moyenâge,

18511858

Lelewel

3 vols

Polska wiekow srednich, 5 tomow (Poland in the Middle Ages,

5 vols)

1853

Narody na ziemiach s%awianskich przed powstaniem Polski (Peoples on Slavonian lands before the origin of Poland)

18521857

Géographie du moyen âge, étudiée par . . . , vols 1, 2, 3/4, Epilogue

H. Wuttke, Vber Erkunde und Karten des Mittelalters

112 DATES

Joachim

Lelewel

LIFE AND CAREER

1858

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEE, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS Geografia. Opisanie krajôw polskich (Geography. Description of the Polish lands)

18421862

E.F. Jomard, Les monuments de la géographiej ou recueil d'anciennes cartes européennes et orientales . . . publiées en fac-similé de la grandeur des originaux

18551863 1861

CONTEMPORARY E VENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Polska, dzieje i rzeczy jej3 7 tomôw (Poland -its history and its matters, 7 vols.) Died in Paris three days a f t e r a r r i v a i from Brussels

William Vaughan Lewis 1907-1961

CUCHLAINE A.M.KING 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Learning is like a light that once kindled is passed on from génération to génération and usually intensifies in the process. There are, however, relatively few people who hâve the ability to kindle the lights in the first place. Vaughan Lewis possessed this capacity in full measure. His mind was both fertile and original, and above ail imaginative. He had the great gift of perceiving analogies. Once having conceived a new idea he had the insight to apply it to appropriate problems. He then went on to invent tests to assess the merits of his hypothèses. Thèse usually involved considérable amounts of fieldwork. It was in this activity that his great enthusiasm and enterprise stimulated a very large number of fellow geomorphologists, so that the sparks he lit rapidly spread far and wide amongst many landforms and many people. Vaughan Lewis was born at Pontypridd in south east Wales in June, 1907. He grew up with a deep appréciation of the scenery of his native land. He studied at Pontypridd County Grammar School and from there went to Gonville and Caius Collège, Cambridge, in 1926. In his first year he read mathematics, but then transferred to geography, gaining first class honours in part I in 1928 and part II in 1929. He specialized in advanced physiography and surveying in his third year, an admirable introduction to the geomorphological fieldwork that was to be one of his most important contributions to physical geography. He was immediately appointed to a Student Demonstratorship by Professor Debenham, the head of the department at Cambridge, and himself a keen glaciologist, having been

with Scott in the Antarctic. Vaughan Lewis held the post of student demonstrator for four years until he was appointed university demonstrator in 1933, a position he held until 1945, when he was promoted to a lectureship. The long delay in the récognition of his scholarship and teaching ability was largely due to the war and the restriction on university development during this period. In 1949 he was appointed to a tutorship at Trinity Collège, serving both as a tutor and a member of the collège council for a number of years. He also acted as secretary to the faculty board of geography and geology for a time, a post which benefited from his great organizing ability, administrative capacity and his friendliness. He played an active part in the founding and early development of the Glaciological Society in the late 1940s and was to hâve been président of the Institute of British Geographers had his active career not been so sadly eut short by his death in a road accident at de Witt in lowa on 8th June, 1961, on his way to Kansas for fieldwork. He had also planned to visit Canada and Alaska later that year. His geomorphological work was recognized by the award in 1939 of the Cuthbert Peak grant of the Royal Geographical Society, of which he was a life member. His work was widely recognized both in Britain and in continental Europe and in the U.S.A. Among the most notable of his qualities was his great physical energy, his concern for others, and his efficiency. He was married in 1933 and had three children: with Mrs Lewis he made his home a friendly place where visitors, and particularly young people, were given charming hospitality. Sometimes he took on too

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much; during the war his home guard duties, exceptionally heavy teaching programme under difficult conditions and his concern for the Unitarian church of which he was a sincère member, proved too much and he was forced to rest to maintain his mental stability. Another period of stress followed after the war, when again he had to relax for a time for the sake of his health. He was an inspiring teacher, in the lecture room, in the laboratory, but above ail in the field, and it was in the organization of field parties that one of his most important contributions to geomorphology was made. His enthusiasm was transmitted to his students, who provided willing help. Perhaps more important, however, for the development of the science of geomorphology, was his involvement of experts in other fields of learning.

2. SCIENTIFIC

IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

a. Methods For three décades between 1930 and 1960 Vaughan Lewis produced a considérable number of important papers on a wide range of topics in the field of physical geography. His work was done before the quantitative developments of the 1960s and 1970s, but nevertheless he anticipated many of the later developments in his approach to the problems that he studied. His early training in mathematics at Cambridge gave him an appréciation of the value of précise observations, and the use of quantitative équations and rigorous reasoning in his approach to the problems to which he devoted his attention. Another notable aspect of his contribution was the great breadth of his interests. He contributed worthwhile ideas to many différent fields of physical geography, notably to geomorphology and hydrology. This wide range of interests was important in that it facilitated one of his great attributes as a scientist. This was his ability to perceive analogies. His lively imagination could transfer from one problem to another the critical features of a particular landform or situation, sparking off an idea that he then pursued thoroughly until a successful outcome had been ensured. Another aspect of his fertile imagination was his use of models; again his use of this method of study was ahead of his time in many instances. Most of the models he used were of the hardware variety, and they demonstrated his practical skill and his ability to transfer his thoughts from one médium to another. He used models to study problems of river development and was interested in wave tank studies, although he never developed this aspect far. He did some ingenious model experiments on glacier flow, using a variety of différent substances in his attempts to produce realistic flow phenomena. One of the most successful of thèse was kaolin, and he produced a model glacier in this material which was exhibited at a Royal Society conversazione. He also experimented with bouncing putty having some of the essential characteristics of glacier ice, in that it will deform or break according to the applied stress.

Above ail, however, his contribution was made in his field methods and his fieldwork. Again he was ahead of his time in his concentration on the study of process in the field. His ingenuity was used to the full in inventing novel methods of measuring processes and in recording significant éléments of morphology. As an example of his ingenuity the work carried out on Chesil Beach that his prématuré death prevented from being published is worthy of mention. He devised instruments, referred to as giraffes owing to their elongated character, to record changes of level of the shingle on the foreshore under the action of waves. The ingenious instruments consisted of a pôle driven into the shingle at low tide, with a marker that could be operated by a rope from the shore when the instrument was under the surf at high water, providing a measure of the change of shingle level activity under wave attack. Thèse changes could then be related to the changes in wave character. It is characteristic of Vaughan Lewis that he enlisted the assistance of G.E.R. Deacon of the National Institute of Oceanography to obtain an instrumental method of wave height recording. The pressure wave gauge was installed under the direction of members of the Institute of Oceanography so that reliable wave data could be used to relate to the beach changes on this active, steep shingle beach, which was idéal for the type of experiment being carried out. His fieldwork in glaciology was even more ambitious. He enlisted the willing help of many undergraduates to dig a tunnel through the small cirque glacier of Skauhoebreen in Norway, as well as initiating the more ambitious field activities on Austerdalsbreen. Again he made the most of thèse strenuous endeavours by soliciting the help of specialists in appropriate fields, especially physicists and engineers.

b. Contributions i) Coastal

to

geomorphology

geomorphology

Vaughan Lewis1 main contribution to coastal geomorphology was made between 1931 and 1940, although he had important material on Chesil beach unpublished at the time of his prématuré death. In this décade he introduced important concepts in both systematic and régional coastal studies. His first paper was published only two years after his graduation, in 1931, in the Geogvaphical Journal and was devoted to the effect of wave incidence on the configuration of a shingle beach. In this paper, which was based on the study of beaches at Chesil, Portland, Weymouth, Hurst Castle, Calshot, Selsey Bill, Dungeness and the Glamorgan coast, he introduced the now familiar concept of destructive and constructive waves, differentiating them in terms of their frequency. He, as was his invariable custom, gave full acknowledgement to the earlier ideas of Vaughan Cornish. Nevertheless his own concepts hâve been accepted by most geomorphologists and form an essential élément of nearly ail textbooks on this topic. This contribution illustrâtes his ability both to appreciate the beauty of the natural features he was studying and to pick out

William those aspects that are most significant geomorphologically, such as the pattern of the ridges of shingle. He developed this work further in a later paper, published in 1938, dealing with the évolution of shoreline curves. This work is an appréciation of the importance of the distinction between the action of prévalent and dominant waves in the orientation of beaches. Again Lewis drew his examples widely from the shores of England and Wales, also mentioning miniature examples from Iceland, the subject of another and shorter paper, published in 1943. Although his ideas concerning orientation omitted the important factor of wave refraction he did lead the way in his appréciation of the importance of wave approach direction. This topic has been considerably developed recently, but its original direction of advance was indicated by his work around the shores of Britain, in which he stressed the importance of the processes of wave action in explaining the résultant shore forms. His analysis of Hurst Castle spit in the Soient illustrâtes well his perceptive appréciation of the importance of the relationship between morphology and process in the récognition of the part played by différent wave trains in the formation of the complex recurved spit. He contributed significantly to the swingback of the pendulum from an undue stress on tidal and other currents to an appréciation of the importance of wave action in coastal geomorphology. His other major contribution to coastal geomorphology was concerned with one of the greatest of shingle structures, the cuspate foreland of Dungeness in south east England. His study of this feature which was published in three papers, one jointly with W.G.V. Balchin, shows both his grasp of essentials and his thoroughness. He used ail the available historical évidence and studied ail the extant maps of the area in his search for the historical évidence of development. He also used air photographs in his efforts to trace the original growth of the foreland. This archive work was supported by précise surveying, which provided a detailed and accurate picture of the pattern and height of the ridges. From thèse data he was able to deduce a consistent picture of the development of the area from Neolithic times onwards. His views hâve been generally accepted and widely disseminated since their publication. He also referred to coastal geomorphology in his work on Iceland, although this aspect was not the main aim of the expédition. Nevertheless he made many pertinent observations, for example on différences between sand and shingle beaches. His other work on coastal geomorphology was concerned with Chesil beach, where the remarkable grading of the shingle along the beach attracted his attention. Mention has already been made of some of the process observations he undertook on the beach. There is no doubt that he would hâve made important further contributions in this field had his interest not been diverted to other problems. The expéditions to Iceland in 1932 and 1937 led to a change of direction in his research towards glacial geomorphology.

ii)

Periglaoial

Vaughan Lewis

115

geomorphology

Very little work had been done in periglacial geomorphology in Britain by the mid 1930s so that his contributions are significant, in that they pointed the way to much future work and interest in this field. He only published two papers on this topic, both being based on his work in Iceland. One was published in 1936 and was concerned with nivation, river grading and shoreline development in south east Iceland, and the other with snow-patch érosion in Iceland. Both thèse works bear witness to his perceptive eye and his attention to détail in getting towards the solution of problems. He was not content merely to observe, but surveyed and dug into the snow patches to assess the importance of différent variables in their action in forming nivation features. His results hâve since been followed up and elaborated, but not fundamentally modified. He anticipated many more récent developments in this field.

iii)

Glacial

geomorphology

It was in glacial geomorphology that Vaughan Lewis made his most important contribution to geomorphology. He published in ail eighteen papers on this subject, and in thèse he introduced many important concepts. Much of this work was devoted to the processes leading to the formation of cirques, and he also contributed new concepts in his work on glacial érosion in gênerai, particularly important being his récognition of the importance of rotational ice movement both in cirque and valley glaciers. His study of the function of melt-water and pressure release in glacial érosion was also significant. In this work he was willingly assisted by numerous undergraduates and by many experts in différent fields of glacier study. Perhaps his greatest contribution was the way in which he organized ail this expertise and physical activity to attain a much enhanced appréciation of the processes of glacial érosion. His first paper in the field of glacial geomorphology was published in 1938 and was concerned with the function of melt-water in cirque formation. It was based on his work in Iceland in 1932 amongst the cirques on Snaefell. He applied his observations hère to an investigation into the cirques of several mountain groups in Britain, including Cader Idris, Snowdon, the Cuillins of Skye and Ben Nevis. Later he extended the work to the Alps and involved W.R.B. Battle to obtain précise measurements to support his théories. This led to a joint paper in which the actual températures in a number of bergschrunds were recorded and used to further his theoretical reasoning. A more realistic theory of the rôle of melt-water in cirques and the other processes that are important in their formation was produced. His visits to Norway stimulated his interest in cirques and glaciers in the magnificent mountain country of the Jotunheim. In thèse mountains he found a small cirque ideally suited to his plan to delve even deeper into the mystery of glacial processes. This literally involved the digging of two tunnels right through the thickness of the glacier to the backwall. This arduous task was carried out by parties of

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undergraduates, while the help of expert surveyors and people with other interests added many other dimensions to the study. The help of several research students provided one of the most detailed studies of the nature of the small glacier and of the processes that shape it that hâve ever been carried out. The work led to the publication under Lewis' editorship of an important research memoir by the Royal Geographical Society in 1960. This work is still extensively quoted and had not been matched since. The results amply confirmed his theory that rotation was an important aspect of glacier movement in a cirque of this type. It enabled him to relate the form of glacial erosional features to the nature of the ice movement within them. In this he was assisted by the theoretical work of John Nye and the laboratory experiments of John Glen, both of Whom acquired their interest in ice through Vaughan Lewis' enthusiasm. This work laid the foundation on which much modem glaciology and glacial geomorphology rests.

found in three papers published in the Geological Magazine in 1944, 1945 and 1946. Although they are not a major contribution they illustrate his research methods and his ability to link expérimental, field and theoretical methods to deduce valid conclusions. In the first'paper he described experiments made in a stream trough in the laboratory of the Cambridge department. The second contribution discusses the theoretical development of the curve of water érosion, using mathematical équations, and based on the findings of the experiments. The use of itérative methods is foreshadowed in this paper. The third one of the séries uses field surveys carried out in Edale on small streams. The results are evaluated by référence to the experiments and the theoretical reasoning. The relationships between discharge and load are used to explain the findings in terms of the changing gradients of the small valleys.

The work on the small cirque glacier of Skauthoebreen was extended in the 1950s to the larger and more complex glacier of Austerdalsbreen, which is an outlet glacier from the Jostedalsbreen, not far from the Jotunheim in Norway. Again teams of workers surveyed and studied the glacier for several seasons under the leadership of Vaughan Lewis and later Bill Ward. Thèse field parties undertook exacting tunnelling opérations in a much more active and difficult glacier; a pipe was sunk into the ice to measure the vertical velocity profile, and studies of side slip and of the conspicuous ogives were carried out. In ail this work the purely geomorpholigical contribution was greatly enhanced by the active participation of glacier physicists, especially John Nye, John Glen and Bill Ward, and shorter visits were paid by other glaciologists, including Ron Shreve from the U.S.A. and Norwegian experts. The work led to important concepts in the character of ice, its behaviour in passing over an ice fall and in the formation of the annual ogives, for which Nye produced a valid hypothesis. Vaughan Lewis himself also provided many valuable ideas on the origin of thèse intriguing features. He was as usual quick to appreciate the significance of simple observations carried out by students on the dirt-holding capacity of différent types of ice.

One of the most popular gênerai physical geography textbooks of the 1930s and 1940s was that originally written by P. Lake, of the Cambridge geography department. This textbook has been reissued in several new éditions, to which Vaughan Lewis contributed several new and revised chapters. The second édition published in 1949 included chapters on coasts, rivers, snow and ice rewritten by W.V. Lewis, who also contributed a chapter on river régimes to the third édition, published in 1952. He was able to introduce many of his original ideas into this useful textbook.

Another important contribution Vaughan Lewis made to glaciology was his study of the effect of pressure release in glacial érosion. He appreciated the pattern of jointing in relation to the morphology of cirques and roches moutonnées, and associated this pattern with the stress release jointing typical of some quarries where deep extraction of rock takes place. He noted the bursting of layers of solid gneiss in a recently deglaciated section of the valley near the snout of Svellnosbreen, and associated this with the bursting of marble during quarrying opérations in Vermont. The idea of pressure release has since been applied to other problems of glacial érosion.

iv)

Fluvial

geomorphology

Vaughan Lewis' contribution to fluvial geomorphology is

v) General

geomorphology

c. Hydrology Another field of physical geography to which Vaughan Lewis made a significant contribution was hydrology. His work in this field can be divided into two groups, the first having a geomorphological bias and the second being more purely hydrological. In the first group is the work he undertook, again with the help of many undergraduates and colleagues, into a study of the dry valleys of Pegsdon on the chalk scarp near Cambridge. This work was carried out by a group of geomorphologists in 1946 and the following years. It involved surveying and digging deep pits through the valley infill. As usual Vaughan Lewis was keen to get literally to the bottom of the problem and was not afraid of hard work, willingly helped by his students. He enlisted the expertise of his colleague B.W. Sparks in the analysis of the fossil fauna of the deposits, especially the snails; geologists helped as well. He also explored the hydrology of the chalk in seeking an explanation for the form of the valleys. This work, therefore, leads into his more purely hydrological contribution. The hydrological work includes a study with Professor O.T. Jones of the water levels in the Breckland mères, in which he was concerned with developing équations for percolation. This work led on to his study of the fluctuations in the water levels in wells in the chalk country of south east England. He attempted to establish a relationship between précipitation, evaporation-transpiration loss and percolation in an area where runoff is limited because of the pertneability

William

of the chalk. He was able to establish a relationship, called the percolation formula, based on the pattern of monthly rainfall and test it over a wide range of conditions in the chalk catchments. Another contribution that can be included in this section was the observations made with P.D. Baird of the results of exceptionally heavy rainfall in the Highlands of Scotland. This work was also linked with his interest in fluvial geomorphology in that he was concerned to examine the morphological changes resulting from an extrême event. The results included slope solifluction as well as changes in the channel of the streams involved. In this work he anticipated the more récent concern with the effect of extrême events and the importance of récurrence interval of events in relation to their magnitude.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Vaughan Lewis was a great teacher and his influence has spread widely by his students, in whom he aroused a very strong interest in the various aspects of geomorphology in which he worked. He provided the stimulus through his own fertile imagination, and through his ability to extend his own enthusiasm to his students by involving them directly with the problems under considération. This was done by participation in the field studies that he organized. Thèse investigations usually involved much physical effort, for example in the digging of pits at Pegsdon, in the boring of the tunnel through the glacier or in various types of demanding surveys in exposed places on the beach or in the glacier. Thus his work was based on sound and thorough field investigation, backed up by expérimental work with various types of hardware models, from wave tanks and stream troughs to model kaolin glaciers. His early mathematical training allowed him to appreciate the value of quantitative and theoretical analysis to guide the interprétation of the field observations. He was always generous in sharing his publications with his students, but in nearly every case the joint publication was inspired by his own original ideas. Originality was one of his foremost qualities and contributions to geomorphology. His original ideas, however, were tested rigorously in the field and worked into fully satisfactory théories, which hâve provided the basis for much subséquent work. Another of Vaughan Lewis' major contributions was his involvement of other scientists in his projects. He was quick to realise that in the field of glaciology and glacial geomorphology the physicists had an essential part to play. He was instrumental in obtaining the coopération of physicists expert in the behaviour of metals, getting them to turn their expertise to the study of ice. Thus the glaciological work was placed on a much sounder theoretical base as a resuit of his endeavours. He worked also with oceanographers on coastal problems, and involved geologists and palaeontologists in his work when their contribution was essential. Hydrologists and meteorologists also became involved as and when necessary. He had a

Vaughan Lewis

H7

wide view of the problems involved and a very thorough method of attacking the problems from ail possible points of view, aided by the appropriate experts. In this type of joint research based on team-work he was anticipating much more récent developments. Probably his most lasting contributions will be seen in his work on coastal problems, and above ail, in his contributions to glacial geomorphology. Many of the fundamental ideas now taken for granted were introduced or re-introduced by his work. He was always the first to give crédit to earlier workers and to build on their foundations. His ability to perceive analogies was very important, and can be exemplified in the likeness he saw between the rotational slumps along the coast of south east England and the rotational movements of the cirque glaciers that led eventually to his great contributions to glacial morphology. Having once seen an analogy he pursued the matter indefatigably and thoroughly until he could provide a convincing argument in favour of his ideas. He was, however, flexible, and was always prepared to modify his ideas in the light of the results of the fieldwork carried out to test them. His most important contributions were in the study of process; he was concerned with a dynamic landscape, and in this he was also ahead of his time. His emphasis on field observation backed up by theory and experiment is very modem. His breadth of interest was very great, but perhaps his gréâtest contribution was his enthusiasm, which was amply passed on to his many able students and helpers from other disciplines. Thus his influence has spread far and wide in the field of physical geography.

Bibliography and Sources 1. OBITUARIES Steers, J.A., 'William Vaughan Lewis', Geogr. J.3 vol 127 (1961), 386-7 Manley, G., 'William Vaughan Lewis — 1907-1961', J. Glaciol., vol 3 (1961), 1173-5 Ward, W.H., 'William Vaughan Lewis — 1907-1961', Ibid.3 1175-6 anon., 'William Vaughan Lewis', Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr., no 29 (1961), ix-x 2. PUBLISHED WORK a. Coast s 1931 'The e f f e c t of wave i n c i d e n c e on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a s h i n g l e b e a c h ' , Geogr. J.3 v o l 7 8 , 129-48 1932 'The f o r m a t i o n of Dungeness F o r e l a n d ' , Geogr. J.3 v o l 8 0 , 309-24 1937 'The f o r m a t i o n of Dungeness and Romney M a r s h ' , The South-Eastern Naturalist and Antiquary: being

118

1938 1940 1943 1952

William

Vaughan Lewis

the Proceedings and Transactions of the SouthEastern Union of Scientific Societies3 vol 42, 65-70 'The évolution of shoreline c u r v e s ' , Proc. Geol. Assoc.3 vol 49, 107-27 (with W.G.V. B a l c h i n ) , ' P a s t s e a - l e v e l s a t Dungeness', Geogr. J.3 vol 96, 258-85 'Miniature s p i t s and embankments on a lake shore, I c e l a n d ' , Geogr. J.3 vol 102, 175-9 (with J.A. Steers and W.W. Williams), 'Coastal i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ' , Proceedings3 Eighth General Assembly and Seventeenth International Congress3 Washington3 D.C.3 August 8-153 19523 I n t e r n a t i o n al Geographical Union, 373-9

b. Péri glaciation 1936 'Nivation, r i v e r grading, and s h o r e l i n e development in south-east I c e l a n d ' , Geogr. J.3 vol 88, 431-47 1939 'Snow-patch érosion in I c e l a n d ' , Geogr. J.3 vol 94, 153-61 c. Glacial geomorphology 1938 'A melt-water hypothesis of cirque formation', Geol. Mag.3 vol 75, 249-65 1940 'The function of meltwater in cirque formation', Geogr. Rev.3 vol 30, 64-83 'Dirt cônes on the northern margins of Vatnajokull, Iceland', J. Geomorph.3 vol 3, 16-26 1947 'Valley steps and glacial valley érosion', Trans. Pap. Inst. Br. Geogr. 3 no 13, 17-44 'The cross sections of glaciated valleys', J. Glaciol. 3 vol 1, 37-8 'The formation of roches moutonnées: some comments on Dr. H. Carol's article', Ibid.3 60-3 1949 'The function of meltwater in cirque formation: a reply', Geogr. Rev.3 vol 39, 110-28 'Glacial movement by rotational slipping', Geogr. Ann.3 vol 31, 146-58 'An esker in process of formation: Boverbreen, Jotunheim, 1947', J. Glaciol. 3 vol 1, 314-19 1951 (with W.R.B. Battle), 'Température observations in bergschrunds and their relationship to cirque formation', J. Geol. 3 vol 59, 537-45 (with J.M. Clark), 'Rotational movement in cirque and valley glaciers', J. Geol. 3 vol 59, 546-66 1953 'Tunnel through a glacier: measurements of iceflow and rotation', The Times Science Review3 no 9, 10-13 1954 'Pressure release and glacial érosion', J. Glaciol. 3 vol 2, 417-22 1955 (with M.M. Miller), 'Kaolin model glaciers', Ibid.3 533-8 1956 Contribution to the 'Future lines of progress in glaciology: a symposium', Ibid.3 694-703 1960 Edited: Investigations on Norwegian cirque glaciers 3 Royal Geographical Society, research memoir séries no 4, and contributed I, 'Introduction', pp.1-4 and IX, 'The problem of cirque érosion', pp.97-100 1961 (with C.A.M. King), 'A tentative theory of ogive formation', J. Glaciol. 3 vol 3, 913-39

1961 (with J.W. Glen), 'Sideslip in Àusterdalsbreen', J. Glaciol.3 vol 3, 1173-6 d. Fluvial geomorphology 1944 'Stream trough experiments and terrace formation', Geol. Mag.3 vol 81, 241-53 1945 'Nick points and the curve of water érosion', Geol. Mag.3 vol 82, 256-66 1946 'Stream profiles in the Vale of Edale, Derbyshire', Proc. Geol. Assoc3 vol 57, 1-7 e. General papers and other publications 1945 (with W.G.V. Balchin), 'The construction of distribution maps', Geography3 vol 30, 86-92 1949 Physicàl Geography by Philip Lake. Second édition, revised and enlarged by J.A. Steers, G. Manley, and W.V. Lewis, under the editorship of J.A. Steers. Lewis revised Part III: The Land, except for chapter III, and rewrote chapters IV: Shorelines, pp.270-96, VIII: Rivers, pp.314-33, and X: Snow and Ice, pp.345-62 1952 Physicàl Geography by Philip Lake. Third édition, revised and enlarged by J.A. Steers, G. Manley, and W.V. Lewis, under the editorship of J.A. Steers. With J.A. Steers, W.V. Lewis, compiled Chapter XV: River régimes, pp.398-411 /. Hydrology 1941 (with O.T. Jones), 'Water levels in Fowlmere and other Breckland mères', Geogr. J.3 vol 97, 158-79 1943 'Some aspects of percolation in south-east England', Proc. Geol. Assoc.3 vol 54, 171-84 magasine 1949 'The Pegsdon dry valleys', Compass: the of the Cambridge University Geographical Society3 vol 1, 53-70 1954 (with B.J. Garnier), 'Potential evapo-transpiration: an appeal for its measurement', Weather3 vol 9, 243-5 1957 (with P.D. Baird), 'The Cairngorm floods, 1956: summer solifluction and distributary formation', Scott. Geogr. Mag.3 vol 73, 91-100 (with B.W. Sparks), 'Escarpment dry valleys near Pegsdon, Hertfordshire', Proc. Geol. Assoc.3 vol 68, 26-38 1959 'Rainfall and flooding in south-east England', J. R. Agric. Soc.3 vol 120, 64-9 Cuchlaine A.M. King is Professor University of Nottingham.

of Geography at

the

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1907

Born at Pontypridd, south-east Wales, 2 June

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

WILLIAM VAUGHAN LEWIS

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

At local County school (to 1926) 1926

Pensioner at Gonville and Caius Collège, Cambridge

1927

Part I Maths. Tripos

1928

Part I Geog. Tripos Class I

1929

P a r t I I Geog. Tripos Class I Appointed student démonstrator in Geog. Dept., Cambridge

1930

Became life fellow of Royal Geographical Society First paper published on Wave incidence

1931 1933

Dungeness papers

Appointed University démonstrator in Geog. Dept. , Cambridge

1935

Expédition to Iceland Vatnajokull

1938

Expédition to Iceland

1939

Cuthbert Peak grant awarded by R.G.S.

Expédition to Norway Course for Royal Engineers, Home Guard duties

19391945 19441948

Secretary of the Faculty of Geog. and Geol., Cambridge

1945

Appointed University Lecturer, Geog. Dept., Cambridge University

1947

Papers on shoreline curves and melt-water in cirques

World War II

Papers on fluvial geomorphology

Expédition to Jotunheim

Paper on valley steps

Glaciological Society founded

120

William

Vaughan

Lewis

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL,

1949

Appointed Tutor of Trinity Collège, Cambridge

Visits to Norway and Switzerland

Rotational slipping paper

Pegsdon dry valley papers

1957

Last visit to Austerdalsbreen

1959

Publication of R.G.S. Res. Mem. 4 on Cirques

1960

1961

PUBLICATIONS

Appointed member of Committee for Wales of Nature Conservancy. Killed in motor accident at de Witt, Iowa en route to Kansas, 8 June

Visit to U.S.A., April

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Georg Joachim Rheticus 1514-1574

MANFRED BÙTTNER AND KARL H. BURMEISTER Rheticus was a prominent mathematician of his âge, an astronomer and physician, and a passionate advocate of the Copernican theory. His geographical works are mainly confined to the time of his immédiate contact with Copernicus. He called for a revival of geography and for coopération with amateurs. The first geographer to use the term 'landscape', he moved the focus of interest from gênerai geography to chorography. Influenced by Melanchthon, he used as his basis the Lutheran connection between geography and theology.

1. EDUCATION^ LIFE AND WORK Georg Joachim Rheticus was born on February 16, 1514 in Feldkirch, Bavaria. He was the son of the town's physician, Dr. med. Georg Iserin (Iserin may hâve been the German form of an Italian name), a man of classical éducation who came from Mazzo near Tirano (Valtellina); in 1528 he was executed for médical trickery and sorcery. His wife Thomasina de Porris (from a noble Lombardic family) took as her second husband the wealthy mayor of Bregenz, Georg Wilhelm. After his father's exécution Georg Joachim went by his mother's name (de Porris - in German: von Lauchen) but in Wittenberg he assumed the scholar's name Rheticus (the man from Rhetica). In Wittenberg, too, he became a Lutheran in 1532, but it is not known whether he had been affected by Protestant thought during his childhood. For his first lessons in mathematics Rheticus was indebted to his father, after whose death he went to the Frauenmunster-schule in Zurich from 1528 to

1531, where his fellowship with Konrad Gesner, polyhistorian-to-be, began. They shared the same table in the house of their teacher Oswald Mykonius (1488-1552). On his return to Feldkirch, where Achilles Pirmin Gasser (1505-77), who had succeeded Dr. Iserin as the town's physician, was to fill him with enthusiasm for astronomical studies, a meeting of great importance for Rheticus took place: this was with Paracelsus, whose revolutionary thoughts made a lasting impression on him. In 1532 Melanchthon's pupil, Gasser, sent Rheticus to Wittenberg for further studies with a letter of recommendation to Melanchthon. Melanchthon encouraged Rheticus' interest in mathematical subjects, to which he gave his time under his masters Johannes Volmar (+1536) and Jakob Milichius (1501-59). In 1536 he took his M.A. degree, and succeeded to the late Johannes Volmar's professorship shortly afterwards. Though Rheticus' teaching included only an introduction to arithmetic and geometry on the basis of Euclid's work, he lectured also on astrology and astronomy (Proclus and Alfraganus) in the very first years of his professorship. He discussed the heliocentric theory, which had become known by rumour, with Johannes Schôner (1477-1547) in Nurnberg, with Peter Apian (1495-1552) in Ingolstadt and with pupils of Johannes Stoffler (1452-1531) in Tilbingen, and decided to visit Nicolaus Copernicus (1477-1543) at Frauenburg where he remained until 1541. In 1540 he published his Narratio Prima in Danzig. This was the first printed report of the theory of Copernicus, under whose influence Rheticus pursued extensive astronomical, mathematical and geographical studies and also constructed

122

Georg Joachim

Rheticus

astronomical instruments. Taking with him a manuscript of Copernicus' De revolutionibusj which had been released for publication, he returned to Wittenberg in October 1541, where his enthusiasm for the heliocentric world System was regarded as excessive by both Melanchthon and Luther: he left Wittenberg after his last lecture on Ptolemy in the winter term of 1541/42. When the printing of Copernicus' main work had begun in Nurnberg, Rheticus succeeded to the professorship of mathematics at Leipzig in the autumn of 1542, though he still lectured mainly on astronomy. His teaching was interrupted from 1545 to 1548 by his journey to Italy (a longer visit to Girolamo Cardano), illness, and the Schmalkaldic War. During this time Rheticus spent some months in Lindau, Bregenz, Konstanz and Zurich. In 1551 he was accused of a homosexual offence, which caused his expulsion from Leipzig univers ity. Rheticus seems to hâve studied medicine at Prague university from 1551 to 1553 and to hâve taken a médical degree. From this time he worked as a gênerai practitioner and independent scholar at Cracow. In 1554 he declined an offer of the most exclusive of the three mathematical professorships of Vienna university as well as an invitation to Paris in 1564. Apparently he had no contacts with Cracow university, and he said that he chose Cracow for his résidence because it was situated on the same meridian as Frauenburg and he' could continue his work on Copernicus' theory most effectively. His interests shifted to mathematics on the one hand and to Paracelsian medicine and chemistry on the other. He also caused a stir at the Polish Court as an astrologer and magician. He spent the last years of his life in the Zips in Slovakia and died — unnoticed by the scientific world — on December 4 1574 at Kojice (now Czechoslovakia). His main work, mathematical plates called Opus Palatinum were published by his pupil Valentin Otho at Neustadt as late as 1596. The chief interest of Rheticus' work lay in the field of mathematics and astronomy (including astrology). Compared with this geography was subordinate and confined to few works during the time of his immédiate contact with Copernicus. During this short time, however, he seems to hâve been deeply interested in geography; for he occupied himself with a revival of this subject and worked out suitable guiding principles. Written in 1539, his Encomium Prussiae is a classically orientated work on Prussia in Latin prose. The text, which covers eight octavo pages, was printed for the first time as an appendix to the Narratio prima with Franz Rhode in Danzig in 1540. It was also published with ail further éditions of the Narratio prima (Basel, 1541, 1566 etc.), and it was later translated into several modem languages (into German by Karl Zeller, Munchen/Berlin 1943) together with the Narratio prima itself. Opening with a Pindaric ode about Rhodes, with which country Prussia is compared, Rheticus first describes the amber, of which the occurrence at various places leads to the idea that Prussia had been covered by the sea in the beginning.

After that he mentions the rich hunting-grounds, the forests, the bées, then touches upon the spécifie animal world and finally he characterizes the différent towns: Thorn, Danzig, Frauenburg, Marienburg, Elbing, Kulm. His further représentations are devoted to the economy, including the fruitfulness of the country, the exports to England, the Netherlands and Portugal, the abundance of fish, and the imports. The next passage deals with arts and sciences and the constitution, and the work ends with a eulogy on Prussian hospitality, especially that of his patrons Tiedemann Giese and Johannes von Werden. To conclude a work with a eulogy, even a panegyric, was something of a tradition in Italian humanist literature as well as in German writing. Rheticus' Encomium Prussiae contains éléments of a chorographical desription, especially as a Tabula Chorographioa about Prussia (Nurnberg 1542) was added to it, and published under the name of Rheticus' assistant Heinrich Zell. It must be regarded as a work of coopération between Copernicus, Rheticus and Zell. Even so, it is Rheticus' main geographical contribution which concerns us hère, (V*i): his other contributions included a work (now lost) on the sait mines of Wielicke written in 1570, and his speech of 1542, 'Oratio de Astronomia et Geographia', given at a university graduation and printed in Melanchthon's Selectae Declarationes (Strasburg, 1544), which went through several éditions. There is however little on geography in the speech, which deals mainly with astronomy. 2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT The aim of the Tabula Chorographia of 1542 is to inspire a revival of geography. Rheticus first deals with fundamental matters and then appeals mainly to amateurs, meaning non-mathematicians, inviting their coopération. Though Rheticus wrote his Chorography in close contact with Copernicus he does not mention the heliocentric world System in this work. In his introduction Rheticus first touches slightly on the theological significance of geography. He points out that you cannot find your way to God the Creator only through nature, but that in this world you can perceive the continuing rule of the Creator. Hère Rheticus' Lutheran way of thinking shines through his theory. The différences between Lutheran and Catholic geographical thought lies in the fact that for Lutherans sciences (including geography) can be used as proof of the Divine rule, whereas the Catholics' main aim is to prove His création. It is then explained that geography is in need of a revival for the following reasons: a) Since the décline of the Roman Empire immense political changes had taken place. Many towns known to geographers like Ptolemy no longer exist though other towns, newly founded, do not appear in the works of the classical geographers. b) Many countries which were of no importance at the time of Ptolemy and were mentioned only briefly or not at ail are 'well constructed

Georg Joachim Rheticus countries' today, 'constituted' with 'religion' and 'government'. Other countries which were important in former times do not exist at ail today. c) The new islands (America) were not yet known to the old geographers. After this Rheticus demands forcibly that one should follow in the footsteps of Ptolemy and draw maps which reflect the présent state of affairs just as Ptolemy's maps reflected the state of affairs in his time. It is évident that Rheticus does not call for a methodical revival of geography: indeed his aim is to bring Ptolemy's maps up to date. After this introduction the author turns to discuss the essence of geography, hints at its close connections with astronomy and physics, and stresses the différences between geography and chorography. In détail his line of reasoning is that physics and astronomy hâve proved that the earth is a 'round bail' like the sun and the moon. By means of geometry it is possible to détermine the course of sun and moon and to predict éclipses. (Rheticus does not follow the Copernican theory hère, but talks about the movement of the sun). But because of the 'roundness' of the earth the inhabitants of Asia do not see an éclipse at the same time as for instance the inhabitants of Spain. People living in the north do not see some stars which people living in the south can observe. Besides, in the summer people in the north can see the sun longer than those in the southern latitudes. It is the task of geography to describe thèse phenomena and thus to stress the connection between 'earth and sky'. It is not enough to describe countries or kingdoms one by one as Strabo, Mêla and others had done. Only when geographers can definitely state where each place is situated on the globe will they be able to fulfil their real task, that is to state with certainty 'how you can see the éclipses, stars and celestial signs from this or that country'. It is évident that Rheticus classes geography with astronomy or rather dérives it from the latter. Gregor Reisch (c. 1470-1525), the geographer and cartographer, had proceeded in the same way. Even if Rheticus does not quote Reisch, the inspiration for such a dérivation is likely to hâve been Reisch's, for in the beginning of the sixteenth century students of the faculty of arts usually orientated their studies according to Reisch, whose 'septem artes libérales' included much that would now be regarded as geography. Rheticus clearly distinguishes between geography and chorography which deals with the description of single countries, irrespective of their connections with the sky and their place in the System of coordinates. Thus — as he points out in détail — geography is practised by mathematicians and chorography by amateurs (non-mathematicians). The main source of chorography is merchants' travel books, but even kings and other potentates hâve often distinguished themselves in this field by financing explorations. Geography and chorography hâve not so much in common as geography and astronomy. Taking modem ter-

123

minology as a basis one could say that in Rheticus' view geography is, as it were, 'the astronomical description of the earth as a celestial body'. Chorography, then, is what we today regard as 'geography'. Now Rheticus cornes to write about his real object. He tells us that the old geographers gave no hints on how chorographical maps were to be made. He hopes to fill this gap by means of his writing. Then he explains, in a way which is understandable even to nonmathematicians, how to proceed on the basis of Itinerarium in connection with goniometry3 the measurement of angles. Although Reisch dealt with geography within the scope of astronomy, it had already become associated with chorography in his works. After Reisch an increasingly close connection between geography and chorography had developed. Scientists like Glareanus, Schoner, Apian, Munster and others clearly drew a dividing line between the science of the earth, consisting of gênerai geography and country-orientated geography, and cosmography, astronomy etc. Hère Rheticus i^ent his own way. We do not know as yet why he did so, especially as he had close contact with the prominent geographers of his time, who were of a différent opinion about the connections between astronomy, geography and chorography. It may be that Rheticus was a mathematician and an astronomer by nature. Ail his thoughts were formed by thèse sciences, and in geography he was fundamentally a self-taught amateur. Whether Copernicus had encouraged his conception of geography is not yet known. In the présent state of research Rheticus appears to be the first to use the German term Lccndschaft (landscape). This term is not identical with the Latin term 'pars terrae' or 'regiones terrae'. If Rheticus speaks of the 'landscape around Vienna' for instance, this does not mean a mathematically, physiogeographically or politically limited part of the country, but rather the spécial, the matchless, the individual essence of the région, which gives it its character. Rheticus it is true, does not enter into terminological détails explicitly but we can conclude from his hints that the term 'landscape' roused the same associations in him (if only conceptually) as it has done in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Munster also uses the term in his cosmography of 1544 though he deals with a mathematically limited space. Although Rheticus favoured the heliocentric world-view, this point does not émerge in his geographical writings. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPHEAD OF IDEAS Rheticus' geographical works did not hâve much influence. Though his work about Prussia was mentioned in Munster's Cosmography and his writing about the sait mines was well known in Poland up to the eighteenth century, yet on geographical thought and the development of geography as a subject he had little influence for the following reasons. Firstly, Melanchthon and Munster, the founders of geography in protestant Germany determined the development of geographical thought from the middle of the

124

Georg Joachim

Rheticus

sixteenth century onwards. Rheticus could not contend with thèse scientists. His main geographical work in one way represents a setback. One gets the impression that Rheticus was not quite 'up to date', at least in his geographical thought. So it is not surprising that his main work has not appeared in print. Secondly, as an advocate of the heliocentric world System — even if he did not mention it as a geographer — Rheticus was bound to arouse suspicions among his contemporaries. For it was mainly the physical world picture — according to which the earth as the heaviest élément must be the centre of the world — which was challenged by the conception that not the earth but the sun is the centre. Thus ail geographers of Rheticus' time from Reisch to Munster remained faithful to the geocentric world system, and a dissenter was sure to be regarded as unreasonable. For whatever reason, therefore, Rheticus may well go down in the history of geography 'only' as the man who first used the term 'landscape'.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON GEORG JOACHIM RHETICUS

H i p l e r , Franz, 'Die Chorographie des Joachim Rheticus' ('The chorography of Joachim R h e t i c u s ' ) , Zeitsohrift fur Mathematik und Physik3 vol 21 (1876), 125-50 Sudhoff, Karl, 'Rheticus und P a r a c e l s u s ' ('Rheticus and P a r a c e l s u s ' ) , Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel3 vol 16 (1903), 349-62 Sudhoff, Karl, 'Rheticus und P a r a c e l s u s , ein neuer Beitrag zu ihren Beziehungen' ('Rheticus and P a r a c e l s u s : a new c o n t r i b u t i o n concerning t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ' ) , Munchener Medizinische Wochenschrift3 vol 50 (1903) , 1850 Rosen, Edward, 'The Ramus-Rheticus Correspondence', J. Hist. Ideas, vol 1 (1940), 363-8 Z e l l e r , Karl, Des Georg Joachim Rheticus Erster Bericht uber die 6 Bûcher des Kopernikus von den Kreisbewegungen der Himmelsbahnen (Georg Joachim Rheticus' first report on Copernicus ' 6 books on the révolutions of the heavenly sphères)3 Munchen and Berlin (1943) Horn, Werner, 'Sébastian Munster's Map of P r u s s i a and the Variants of i t ' , Imago Mundi3 vol 7 (1951), 66-73 Dianna, Jadwiga, 'Pobyt J . J . Retyka w Krakowie' ( ' G . J . Rheticus' stay in Cracow'), Studia i materialy z dziejow nauki polskiej3 vol 1 (1953), 64-79 Balmer, Heinz, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erkentnisse des Erdmagnetismus (Contributions to the history of understanding earth magnetism)3 Aaran (1956), 892p. S t r a u s s , Gerald, Sixteenth-Century Germany3 its Topography and Topographers3 Madison (1959)

Burmeister, Karl Heinz, Georg Joachim Rhetikus3 15141574. Eine Bio-Bibliographie (Georg Joachim Rheticus, 1514-1574: a biobibliography)3 3 vols, Wiesbaden (1967-8); vol 1, 206p.; vol 2, 100p.; vol 3, 206p. Maurer, Wilhelm, Der junge Melanchthon (The young Melanchthon)3 2 v o l s , Gottingen (1967-9); vol 1, 247p.; vol 2, 617p. Burmeister, Karl Heinz, 'Georg Joachim Rheticus as a Geographer and His Contribution to the F i r s t Map of P r u s s i a ' , Imago Mundi3 vol 23 (1969), 73-6 Rosen, Edward, ' R h e t i c u s ' e a r l i e s t extant l e t t e r to Paul E b e r ' , Isis3 vol 61 (1970), 384-6 F i g a l a , Karin, 'Die sogenannten Sieben Bûcher iïber die Fundamente der chemischen Kunst von Joachim Rheticus (1514-1574)', ('The s o - c a l l e d seven books about the fundamentals of the a r t of chemi s t r y of Joachim Rheticus, 1514-1574'), Sudhoffs Arch.3 vol 55 (1971), 247-56 Rosen, Edward, Three Copemican Treatises3 The Commentariolus of Copernicus3 The Letter against Werner3 The Narratio prima of Rhetikus3 3rd é d . , New York (1971) Buttner, Manfred, 'Kopernikus und die deutsche Géographie im 16. Jahrhundert' ('Copernicus and German geography during the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' ) . Philosophia Naturalis3 vol 14 (1973), 353-64 Burmeister, Karl Heinz, 'Die chemischen Schriften des Georg Joachim Rheticus' ('The chemical w r i t i n g s of Georg Joachim R h e t i c u s ' ) , vol 10, Organon (1974), 177-85 Rosen, Edward, 'George Joachim R h e t i c u s ' , D.S.B,3 vol 11 (1975), 395-8 Robert S. Westman, 'The Melanchthon c i r c l e , Rheticus, and the Wittenberg i n t e r p r é t a t i o n of the Copemican Theory', Isis3 vol 66 (1975), 165-93 Burmeister, Karl Heinz, 'Neue Forschungen uber Georg Joachim R h e t i c u s ' , ('New research on George Joachim R h e t i c u s ' ) , Jahrbuch des Vorarlberger Landesmuseumsvereins3 1974/753 Bregenz (1977), 37-47 Buttner, M., Burmeister, K.H., 'Georg Joachim Rheticus (1514-1574)', in Manfred Buttner ( é d . ) , Wandlungen im geographischen Denken von Aristoteles bis Kant. Abhandlungen und Quellen zur Geschichte der Géographie und Kosmologie (Changes in geographical thinking3 from Aristotle to Kant. Treatises and sources on the history of geography and cosmology)3 vol 1, Paderborn (1979), 129-37 2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 0F WORKS BY GEORG JOACHIM RHETICUS 1536 Quaestio an leges damnent praedictiones astrologicas (Prejudicial laws on astrological prédictions) j in Philipp Melanchthon, Quaestiones de rébus cognitione dignissimis3 Wittenberg (1557), 24-6 In arithmeticen praefatio (Préface to arithmetic)3 Wittenberg 1538 E d i t o r , Johannes de Sacrobosco3 Libellus de sphaera (Johannes de Sacrobosco3 Booklet de

sphaera)3 Wittenberg 1540 De libris revolutionum Nicolai Copernici narratio prima (First report about Nicolaus Copemicus' book on the révolutions of the heavenly sphèresj with a 'Fraise to Prussia' in the appendix)3 Danzig (2 ed, Basel, 1541) 1541 Chorographia (Chorography)3 Wittenberg 1542 Editor, De lateribus et angulis trianulorum libellus3 soriptus a Nicolao Copernico (Booklet about the sides and angles of triangles authored by Nicolaus Copemicus)3 Wittenberg Tabulae astronomicae (Astronomical tables)3 Wittenberg (3 ed, Wittenberg, 1545) Orationes duae3 prima de Astronomia et Geographia3 altéra de Physica (Two addresses3 one about astronomy and geography3 the second about physics)3 Nurnberg 1549 Editor, Euclidis elementorum geometricorum libri sex (Euclid's six books about the éléments of geometry)3 Leipzig 1550 Prognosticon oder Practica Deutsch auff MDLI (Forecast in Germon language for the year 1551)3 Leipzig 1550a Ephemerides novae seu expositio positus diurni siderum (New ephemeris or exposition on the daily constellation of the heavenly bodies)3 Leipzig 1551 Canon doctrinae triangulorum (Canon on the teachings of triangles)3 Leipzig 1570? De salinis (About sait mines)3 work lost, date of publication unknown 1596 Opus Palatinum de triangulis (Table of trigonometrical ratios)3 Neustadt Manfred Buttner3 Dr. rer. nat.3 Dr.phil. and Dr. theol. 3 is Prof essor of the History of Geography and Cultural Geography at the Ruhr-Universitât3 Bochum3 Fédéral Republic of Germany, where he is also director of the research centre for the history of geography. Karl Heinz Bermeister3 Dr.phil.3 Dr.jur.3 is Director of the Provincial Archives of Vorarlberg3 Bregenz3 Austria. The authors acknowledge the collaboration of Prof. Klaus D. Gurgel3 Weber State College3 0gden3 Utah3 U.S.A.3 in the préparation of the English manuscript.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1514

Born at Feldkirch, February 16

15281531

School at Zurich

15321536

Studied at University of Wittenberg

1537

Professor of mathematics at University of Wittenberg

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

TRAVEL3

GEORG JOACHIM RHETICUS

PUBLICATIONS

Stay with Copernicus at Frauenburg

15391541 1540

Narratio prima ... (First report ...)

1541

Chorographia (Chorography)

15421551

Oratio de Astronomia et Geographia (two addresses)

Professor of mathematics at Leipzig University

15451546

Stayed with Cardano in Italy

15471548

Stayed with Gesnerus at Zurich

15511553

Studied medicine at University of Prague

15541574

Physician at Cracow

auf

Preussen

of Nicolaus

Death of Henry VIII

De

1570?

1596

Tabula chorographioa by Heinrich Zell De Revolutionibus Copernicus

1543

1574

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

salinis Huguenots left France in large numbers

Died at Kosice Opus

Palatinum

Richard Joël Russell 1895-1971

H. IESSE WALKER Many of the traits of most men can be traced back to their cultural héritage and to the nature of the environment in which they were brought up, a matrix well demonstrated in the case of Richard Joël Russell. Indeed, it was a conditioning to which he often pointed with pride. He liked to attribute the love for travel and the inquisitive nature which influenced his career to 'a pioneer orientation inherited from ancestry leading back through his grandfather's participation in the California Gold Rush'. He apparently also inherited a pride in achievement, a pride that made him not only respect the success of other members of his family but led him to strive for similar success and récognition.

1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK R.J. Russell, born in Hayward, California on November 16, 1895, moved with his family to Hawaii in 1899 on board a three-masted schooner. This trip was the beginning of a life of travel that took him to ail parts of the globe save Antarctica. After four years in Hawaii, the family returned to California. Fréquent moves during the next twelve years prompted Russell to write, using the third person as he often did, 'there was no real "home" anywhere, and possibly for that reason his adult life was characterized by travel'. High school training proved influential to Russell's career, although in itself it did not inspire him to go immediately to collège. The éducation offered by the high school faculty of seven, including two with doctorates, was classical. One of his courses

was physical geography; the textbook used was written by William Morris Davis. 'I became so interested in the subject', Russell wrote, 'that when summer vacation came I drove my teacher, Dr. Frederick P. Johnson, up to Mt. Lassen to witness the volcanic éruptions that were then in progress'. The pre-university years, as a period in Russell's life, might be characterized as 'interesting', a word he used frequently during his life, describing an emotional reaction that probably guided his scientific career more than any other. As a youngster he was interested in camping, athletics, carpentry, horses, hiking, photography — nearly always connected in one way or another with out-of-doors activity. Young Russell was precocious — learning shorthand and how to type at the âge of nine; taking pictures of the San Francisco earthquake in 1906 (âge 11) and later using them for popular lectures; publishing an article in 1912 (âge 17) on a new photographie technique for obtaining prints in colour which he developed; and winning an automobile race (at 60 miles per hour) in 1914 (âge 19). Russell's désire to further his éducation came within a year after high school graduation, as the resuit of conversations with a forest superviser he had met on a hunting trip. When he realized that a collège éducation was needed to follow such a career, he enrolled at the University of California at Berkeley in agriculture. His attendance was interrupted by World War I and when he re-entered he switched his major to geology. In geology he concentrated on vertebrate palaeontology to take advantage of the présence of

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Professor John C. Merriam who later became Head of the Carnegie Institution. Russell graduated with honours in 1920. The following years, which terminated with his doctorate in geology in 1926, were busy ones. Every summer was spent in the field, the first two under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution. Thèse field sessions, under the guidance of Chester Stock and Ralph Chaney, sharpened Russell's ability to read the land. The next four summers were devoted to dissertation fieldwork in the Warner Range in northeastern California under the supervision of George D. Louderback. In graduate school Russell was offered an assistantship by both the geology and geography departments. He chose geography, a décision that facilitated the development of a close and continuing friendship with Cari 0. Sauer who had taken over the Department of Geography at Berkeley in 1923. Sauer, an inspiration to Russell in their years together at Berkeley, became a confidant after Russell left California. Davis' influence on Russell which began through a high school textbook was strengthened at Berkeley where Russell's first geography course was Davisian in approach. In 1925, he had the good fortune of participating in a seminar given by Davis. During this seminar, he began to doubt the Davisian methods, a doubt that increased because of the difficulty he had in the application of the deductive method in his fieldwork. The doubt, combined with the influence of Sauer and Louderback both of whom had ideas that were opposed to those of Davis, allowed Russell to proceed in his own research with an open mind and to develop his own scientific methodology. In 1926, Russell joined the Texas Technological Collège in Lubbock, Texas, as an associate professor of geology. Despite a heavy teaching load, he was still able to travel to various fossil beds, the Carlsbad Caverns, and the Rocky Mountains where he worked on solifluction and nivation. The stay in Texas lasted only two years, but before moving Russell showed Albrecht Penck around the Sierra Nevada. It was a pleasurable favour that was returned in 1931 and 1938 when Penck showed Russell the Alps. Each benefited greatly from the contacts, even though Russell by 1938 was becoming firmly entrenched in the study of non-alpine landscapes. In 1928 Russell moved to Louisiana State University (L.S.U.) in Bâton Rouge, Louisiana, where he settled permanently. He joined L.S.U. at the invitation of Dr. H.V. Howe, a former classmate at Berkeley, for the purpose of developing the field of geography. A year later Howe and Russell were joined by Fred Kniffen, also a graduate from the University of California at Berkeley. Over the years, thèse three developed what was to become the School of Geology (later renamed the School of Geoscience) in which geology, geography, and anthropology advanced together. The close affiliation that developed, and still exists, among thèse disciplines is reflected in the overlapping of courses offered and in the nature of the research conducted and supervised by the faculty. Russell was to write that in such an

arrangement 'a freedom existed in which one needn't fit a firmly established pigeonhole. One could be a Professor of Geography, yet teach structural geology'. During his fortythree years at L.S.U. Russell taught a wide variety of courses including many in geology, climatology, and meteorology as well as in physical and cultural geography. Toward the end of his teaching career he concentrated mainly on the areas of alluvial and coastal morphology. Russell, along with the other faculty members of the School, was a strong advocate of fieldwork. He frequently included students in his field programmes, both domestic and foreign, a practice continued even after his retirement from formai teaching. Dr. Russell's liking for fieldwork led to fréquent and often lengthy trips. Although he concentrated on field research in the Mississippi River valley and delta during his early years at L.S.U., he was still able to make several trips to Europe. Most of his foreign travel during this period of time involved participation in International Congresses. He found the field trips conducted by International Congresses particularly appealing because they provided opportunities of viewing new areas and of making contacts with informed scientists from other parts of the world. Such contacts led to invitations to conduct fieldwork in 'interesting' areas such as Morocco, Turkey, Brazil, and Malaya. International Congresses attended by Professor Russell spanned some thirtysix years and included those in geography, geology, sedimentology, and the Quaternary as well as régional types, such as the Pacific Science Congresses in 1961 and 1967. In addition to the travel associated with such professional meetings, Russell's fieldwork, conducted mainly under the auspices of the Office of Naval Research, extended around the world. Much of it, especially that of the reconnaissance variety, led to detailed study (for example, in beach rock) by Russell himself, but more often by members of the Coastal Studies Institute which he founded and directed (195366). During his lifetime, Russell held a variety of administrative posts, belonged to and participated in many societies, and received numerous honours. He be.gan by serving as président of the graduating classes in both grammar school and high school. Thèse presidencies were followed by that of the Epsilon Chapter of Thêta Tau, the oldest professional engineering fraternity in the United States. He also served,as its national président between 1927 and 1931, a presidency of which he was very proud. Russell was président of both the Association of American Geographers (1948) and the Geological Society of America (1957) , a dual honour shared only with William Morris Davis, Nevin M. Fenneman, and Douglas Johnson. He also served as président of the Conférence of Deans of Southern Graduate Schools. Russell was a member of numerous committees in a variety of educational, governmental, and fraternal organizations. Some of the most significant were service on the Executive Council of the National Research Council, with the Earth Sciences Section of the

Richard Joël Russell American Association for the Advancement of Science, on a Panel on Science and Technology established by the U.S. House of Représentatives, and on the Committee on Geophysics and Geography in the U.S. Department of Défense. Administrative duties were never allowed to interfère seriously with Russell's research activities. At Louisiana State University he served lengthy tenures as Chairman of the Department of Geography, Acting Director of the School of Geology, Director of Coastal Studies Institute, and Dean of the Graduate School. Russell had that rare ability of being able to combine demanding administrative duties with other activities and practised the technique of delegating authority effectively. Russell's honours and awards were numerous; many were from foreign countries. He served as Distinguished Lecturer for the Association of Petroleum Geologists, National Lecturer for Sigma Xi, and Hitchcock Lecturer at the University of California at Berkeley. His awards included the first W.W. Atwood Award for Studies in Physical Geography, Association of American Geographers; Outstanding Achievement Award, Association of American Geographers; Cullum Medal, American Geographical Society; and the Vega Medal, Royal Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography. In addition he was elected to membership in a number of foreign académie and research societies including the Royal Danish Academy of Science, The Royal Dutch Geographical Society, and the German Academy of Sciences . Russell's désire for excellence was not limited to science. He carried it into his other activities as well. Fred Kniffen, an associate of Russell's for fifty years, once wrote that Russell was 'deeply interested in cultural matters, nonprofessionally as well as professionally. He was fond of classical music. He purchased a complète set of Frazer's Golden Bough and read it through. He sketched well and on occasion wrote poetry. He was much interested in food habits, languages, and other cultural attributes of the many areas in which he worked'. 2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Russell's interest in the earth sciences began early, partly, as he liked to say, because of the 'pioneer orientation' he inherited from his family. Nonetheless, with an educational background that included training in forestry, palaeontology, petrography, structural geology, and physical geography, and with the stimulus provided by a close association with such men as William Morris Davis, Cari 0. Sauer, G.D. Louderback, John C. Merriam, Chester Stock, Ralph Chaney, Henry Howe, and Fred Kniffen, it is not surprising that he became a dedicated field man, that he learned to recognize research opportunities when they appeared, that he believed research results should be shared with the scientific community, and that he published frequently on a variety of topics. Before reviewing Russell's scientific productivity, it might be well to examine several traits that appear

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to hâve pervaded his research. He insisted on using original sources and in making exhaustive searches of the literature before publication. He was pleased when he could make such a statement as, 'Although thèse features (beach cusps) were not named in 1834, Palmer described their origin more accurately than anyone else during the succeeding century'. At the same time, Russell did not hesitate to challenge doctrines he believed to be fallacious; e.g. 'It was unfortunate that the major divisions of the scheme (Gulliver's 1899 classification of shorelines) were based on faulty assumptions'. Two conditions more than any others guided Russell in his sélection of spécifie research topics: they had to be 'interesting' and 'challenging'. The actual problem might be small and fortuitous such as the one that prompted him to détermine the direction-of-fail of trees during the passage of a localized tornado, or large and time-consuming as in his seven-year study of the nature, distribution, and origin of the world's beach rock. Russell was organized and efficient. He made it a point always to hâve some research under way that, if interrupted, could be readily resumed. Such activities usually involved statistical analyses of a climatic nature and, in the main, were responsible for the récognition of Russell during the early and middle part of his career as an accomplished climatologist. He normally refused to participate in group projects because, as he put it, 'I wanted to sélect my own research problems'. Nevertheless, he pointed out as early as the mid-1930s the advantage of approaching problems from différent viewpoints. 'They (Russell and Kniffen) conducted fieldwork and writing separately and their agreement in conclusions established beyond doubt the value of interdisciplinary studies in deciphering the drainage history of the Mississippi flood plain'. Although Russell considered the production of articles based on statistical analysis a 'pleasing diversion', it was research that involved fieldwork which proved more to his liking. His first structured fieldwork was the 1919 search for vertebrate fossils in an area of Nevada now covered by Lake Mead. During the next fiftytwo years Russell engaged in some kind of fieldwork almost every year. His last field season was in 1971, only a few months before his death. Russell published broadly on geological, geomorphical, climatological, hydrological, oceanographical, and biological topics. Many of his papers deal with quite spécifie subject matter, e.g. loess, sea level, beach rock, and the water table. However, in nearly every case the significance of the study has broad implications. In addition to his scientific contributions he also wrote articles and books for students in grade school and high school and for the educated layman. It was a type of writing he considered 'challenging' — the challenge was not the subject matter, but rather how to make good science interesting and understandable no matter the educational level of the reader.

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a. Geology and alpine land forms Russell's first paper, 'Récent horizontal offsets along the Hayward fault', reflects his interest and training in structural geology, his love of fieldwork, his knack for recognizing a research problem, and his ability to capitalize an opportunity. The locale of this fieldwork was within the quadrangle map named after his home town, Hayward. However, Russell's earliest comprehensive field investigation was that devoted to his dissertation which involved deciphering the structure and stratigraphy of the Warner Range; its publication was in 1928. Conclusions from both the Hayward fault and Warner Range studies were used on geological maps published in the late 1950s. During the eight-year period between 1926 and 1933, Russell published six substantial landform papers, ail dealing with California or Great Basin topics. He considered his 'Landslide lakes of the northwestern Great Basin' (1927) paper as the least significant of the six, but found that it attracted more attention than the others because 'William Morris Davis liked and quoted it'. The paper of this group which Russell thought had most to offer was 'Land forms of San Gorgonio pass, Southern California' (1932). He discussed in détail a number of désert surfaces including those of aeolian déflation and aeolian accummulation. It contains 'many observations on sand dunes that later were duplicated by others'. b. Meteorology and climatology Russell looked on climatology as 'his hobby field', one that could serve as a respite from intensive work on geomorphological problems. He used Koppen's classification as a starting point for many of his papers, including the first, 'Climates of California', a paper that was published in the same year, 1926, as his first geomorphology paper. Because of the relative smallness and the great topographie diversity of California, Russell found it necessary to modify Koppen's System 'in the direction of recognizing somewhat finer climatic subdivisions than Koppen had provided'. Further modifications came when he made a study of the dry climates of the United States because he found it 'desirable to give greater weight to seasonal distribution of précipitation than Koppen had considered necessary'. Two of the main conclusions in this study are that médian values are more valuable than averages and that climatic landscapes do not hâve fixed positions. Expanding thèse ideas, Russell developed the climaticyear concept to describe the dry climates, a concept he later extended to humid climates as well. The climatic-year concept furnishes a sensitive index of climatic change, .... offers the possibility of studying climatic cycles in terms of areal distributions, ... provides a method for delineation of the boundaries of nuclear climates and of transitional zones, ... frees us from the blind assumption that landscape forms are related to normal climatic conditions.

Russell published only twenty papers on climatology but they were of sufficiently high quality to earn him offers for a number of positions in climatology, including that of the senior chair of climatology in the United States. He treated the subject broadly, delving into régional, topical, applied, theoretical and popular climatology. He largely abandoned the field because he felt that he was inadequately grounded in basic physics. c. Sea levels of the Quaternary period Between 1926 and 1945, when Russell issued most of his papers on climatic topics, his interest swung gradually but perceptibly from present-day climatic patterns to the climates of the past and especially to their influence on the development of landscapes during the Quaternary period. Many of the questions Russell considered dealt with sea level; where it stood at the time of maximum glacial advance, how rapidly it rose once the Pleistocene ice began to wane, when stability was reached, and how sea-level changes affected coasts and river valleys. He believed that the three-dimensional framework of the Mississippi delta was one of the best areas in the world in which to decipher the Quaternary period and study sea-level change. He emphasized that, although the essential knowledge for identifying the Quaternary period is climatic, the record of its history is stratigraphy and, along with H.V. Howe and H.N. Fisk, he proceeded to compile data about the stratigraphie record in the Mississippi valley. Russell's 'Techniques of eustasy studies' (1964) was written for the purpose of identifying évidence that would provide accurate criteria for the establishment of former levels of the sea. In the case of the Mississippi delta, Russell and Fisk calculated that the pre-Recent sea level stood at -137 m, a level they determined by projecting the slope of the bottom of the pre-Recent Mississippi trench seaward to the former shoreline. A high degree of accuracy was possible in such a projection because data from over 60,000 boreholes between the valley walls were available. One of Russell's most controversial studies resulted from the extension of his research on Quaternary terraces northward into the loess areas of the middle Mississippi valley. He concluded that loess was not aeolian in origin but rather weathered terrace deposits, at least along the Mississippi River. It is a conclusion he advocated until his death. d. Rivers and deltas Several factors were involved in diverting Russell's scientific dévotion from an alpine, hardrock area to one that was 'too water-logged to excite immédiate interest'. Thèse factors included the collecting of artifacts in the swamps of Louisiana with Fred Kniffen, coring wet lands with Henry Howe, acquiring detailed topographie maps of the Mississippi floodplain, and the request by William Morris Davis that Russell would find out why the lower Mississippi River has a comparatively straight course below New Orléans. When Russell discovered that 'alluvial morphology

Richard Joël Russell is an exciting field of research' he discovered 'a new way of life' . It was to be a way of life devoted to a pursuit that was considered as having little économie relevance. However, as it turned out, his research in alluvial morphology provided Russell with a number of consulting opportunities and, more importantly, was partially responsible for redirecting the field of geomorphology in the United States. For twentyfive years, low, wetland environments were the primary concern of Russell's research. Seven years before moving to Louisiana Russell had assisted in the préparation of a laboratory manual for physical geography students. Because the manual was designed around William Morris Davis' physiographic models, it was logical to use the Donaldsonville, Louisiana quadrangle as an example of the 'old âge' stage of the érosion cycle. However, in the mid-thirties Russell and his co-workers determined that the 'meandering of rivers is related to alluviation, rather than a shift of activities concemed mainly with vertical corrosion during earlier phases of an érosion cycle to latéral corrosion later on'. This détermination followed from the analysis of thousands of borings which showed that 'the depth of alluvium in the Lower Mississippi River Valley commonly exceeded by several times that of the deepest pools along the river'. Russell's first Louisiana paper, 'Larto Lake, an Old Mississippi River Channel', appeared in 1933 and was soon followed by many others. Although the proposai that Larto Lake was an abandoned river channel of the Mississippi River may hâve been daring, as Russell claimed, it was his 1936 monograph, 'Physiography of the lower Mississippi river delta', that especially attracted attention. In it he lucidly démons trated the importance of load-induced subsidence and along with Howe advançed the idea of the Gulf Coast geosyncline. Russell in trying to find the answer to Davis' question about the straightness of part of the Mississippi River learned that the channel is fixed in clay that had been deposited at the head of an earlier delta. He also discovered that the fine materials that accumulate during the meandering of a river in its alluvial valley convert cut-off lakes into 'clay plugs'. Clay plugs, once established, are 'practically unerodible, or at least resist érosion for the reason that the alluvium nearby is reworked with much greater ease'. They account, at least in the lower Mississippi River Valley, for the confinement of the river to a gênerai course 'much as cattle are confined to a fenced lane'. Russell's studies of stream patterns were conducted in many parts of the world in addition to Louisiana and in many cases were tied in closely with his research on the effects of sea-level change. He noted that rapidly alluviating estuaries, such as the Amazon in Brazil, Mobile Bay in Alabama, and the Great Meander River in Turkey, provide surfaces upon which textbook examples of deltaic stream patterns develop.

e.

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Coasts

Although much of Russell's early Louisiana research was concerned with deltas, their study was more an extension of riverine work than an analysis of coastal types or coastal processes. It was not until after he turned 60, that he delved intensively into coastal re-

search per se. In River Plains

and Sea Coasts

(1967),

a book that cornes close to being an autobiography, he wrote that in 1956 he 'judged that the time for a change had arrived, so embarked on ... the investigation of possible relationships between minerai composition and beach morphology'. Russell's coastal research was frequently of the reconnaissance variety, although he attacked many spécifie problems during his career. He was often sidetracked by interesting problems as shown by his several years' research into the distribution, character, and origin of beach rock. No fewer than eight papers dealt specifically with the subject, most of them emphasizing the importance of the water table, of which the coastal expression was, in his mind, responsible for many of the features présent along coasts. In one of his last papers, 'Water-table effects on seacoasts' (1971) which appeared after his death, he wrote 'During the last 15 years most of my fieldwork, whatever its initial objective, has brought me face to face with features associated with the water table' Although Russell's riverine research had led him to many parts of the world, his interests in coastal phenomena greatly expanded his régional purview. Indeed, coastal travels included many of the islands in and coasts along the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Océans as well as such bordering seas as the Mediterranean and Caribbean. Russell was most often ac companied on thèse trips by Dr. William G. Mclntire who succeeded him as the second Director of the Coastal Studies Institute. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Although R.J. Russell believed that he 'was not as well known locally as nationally' he nonetheless left a héritage to Louisiana State University that is evidenced in the everyday opérations and present-day philosophy guiding the Department of Geography and Anthropology, the School of Geoscience, the Center of Wetland Resources (and especially its oldest arm, the Coastal Studies Institute), the Graduate School, and the University. Within Louisiana, the rest of the Lower Mississippi River Valley, and the South, his influence was felt in the petroleum industry, in légal actions related to wetland environments, and in graduate éducation. Service as président of several national organizations, as a member of many high-level governmental committees, as editor or associate editor of a number of important foreign and domestic journals, and his original, cogent, and provocative research publications ail served as effective vehicles for the spread of his ideas. Russell advocated that the 'true rôle of any university is not the training of the masses. It is the development of potential leaders ... leaders who will

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advance living standards and provide the necessary peaceful, prosperous, and intellectual climate for their realization'. It is in the realm of graduate éducation that many of his ideas reached fruition. He maintained that research is the sine qua non of every viable graduate programme, that 'research and graduate study are inséparable, each drawing strength from the other'. So strong was his conviction regarding the importance of research in a graduate programme that he once wrote that a 'récipient of the Ph.D. is stronger in inverse proportion to the number of course hours included in his program'. Although he served as Dean of the Graduate School for thirteen years, he held that, from the standpoint of quality graduate programmes, a graduate school is unnecessary, that is unnecessary if the university has compétent departments and a faculty with complète académie integrity. Although he realized such a désirable combination is unlikely, he nonetheless worked on the theory that the quality of a 'graduate school is inversely proportional to the severity of régulations'. While Dean, Russell interested himself in many aspects of graduate éducation. He researched and published on the training of collège teachers, doctoral programmes and examinations, graduate assistantships, and the seminar. His influence in graduate éducation was not limited to the L.S.U. campus, but was felt around the United States through the type of assistance given graduate programmes by various agencies of the fédéral government. During his tenure on committees of the National Research Council (N.R.C.), Office of Naval Research (O.N.R.), House of Représentatives, the Department of Défense (D.O.D.), and the National Academy of Science (N.A.S.) he persuasively advocated that government should fund basic research in universities at high levels. One of his important services to geography came as a member of the Screening Committee of the N.R.C.'s Foreign Field Research Program, a programme supported financially by O.N.R. 'This program', Russell wrote, 'had for its primary purpose, raising standards of geographical research'. In that it was successful during its seventeen-year existence, in ail but one of which Russell was involved. Although Russell's influence as an academician was great, it is as a scientist that he is best remembered. Russell wrote that 'a scientist is motivated by curiosity. He is one of the inquisitive who are happy to discover facts, speculate about their mean ings, reach conclusions, predict, and verify prédictions'. Russell did not stop there however, but maintained that the true scientist shares his findings, théories, and ideas with fellow scientists so that they might undergo expert scrutiny, évaluation, and acceptance or rejection. Such a belief led to the publication of over 150 scientific books, monographs, articles, and reviews between 1926 and 1971. In the 1930s, when petroleum exploration required new assessments of property values in Louisiana's swamps and marshlands, the nature and quality of Russell's research 'focused attention on him as the

person ... to serve as an expert witness in various land-title lawsuits'. It was a type of activity he relished. He considered that the 'expérience gained during fieldwork preparatory to grilling on the witness stand ranked foremost .. among factors that led to a rewarding research career'. Evidence Russell and Howe presented in one case won the state title to extensive waterbodies in southwestern Louisiana and led to the adoption of the term 'chenier' into geomorphological literature. 'Chenier' is a word of Créole origin given to the long narrow, sandy ridges, running roughly parallel to the coast of southwest Louisiana. Well drained and fertile, they hâve a naturally luxuriant végétation in which evergreen oaks are prominent, so the word 'chenier' is derived from the French chêne (Geogr. Rev., vol 25 (1935), 449). It was for his work in climatology that Russell first gained récognition both in the United States and abroad. Although this research may hâve been a pleasant diversion, as he liked to claim, it was nonetheless thoughtful; Kniffen was prompted to write that Russell's climatic-year concept was 'almost profound in its implications '. It is the influence Russell has had in the field of geomorphology and especially its sub-disciplines of alluvial and coastal morphology, that is most significant. In the foreword to Russell's book River Plains and Sea Coasts3 C.O. Sauer wrote that Russell 'has been a principal in revitalizing geomorphology, giving it new directions, new and sharper means of inspection, and linking it to other disciplines'. The influence Russell and his co-workers had on geomorphology took many forms. First, they were largely responsible for the establishment of a more realistic approach to the study of landforms in the United States. By showing that the depths of the récent alluvium in the Mississippi River valley far exceeded the depths of the thalweg along the present-day river, they negated the accepted notion that the valley was an example of the 'old-age' stage in the Davisian erosional cycle and thereby helped to reduce the emphasis that had previously been placed on érosion in landform development. Second, by demonstrating that évidence from outside disciplines such as archaeology, geophysics, hydrology, paleontology, and pedology can lead to more accurate conclusions in landform research than those based on form alone, they set a pattern that led to the highly developed interdisciplinary research of today. Russell's studies were also responsible for providing the basis for present-day deltaic models, models that contrast greatly with the tripartite model of Gilbert that had been universally accepted. It was shown that deltas such as the Mississippi build 'downward rather than areally' and that subsidence is a very important process in deltaic formation. This discovery led to the conclusion that 'the volume of material eroded from landmasses during each of the low stands of the Quaternary seas and that deposited during times of rising sea level is much greater' than formerly believed. His alluvial valley, deltaic, and riverine terrace research led to new insights into land-sea relationships during the Quaternary.

Richard Joël Russell Russell's process studies demonstrated that the location of major diversions in the Lower Mississippi valley 'depended on the présence of faults and in no way were related to delta growth1, that 'ail major channel patterns in a delta are essentially those originally established under water', and that the Mississippi River is relatively straight in some portions of its lower course 'because it is bottomed in Récent prodelta clay, which fixes its course'. The latter discovery answered the question William Morris Davis had posed to Russell in 1929, the question which Russell claimed 'probably more than anything else, focused my attention on the flood plain and delta of the Lower Mississippi River'. Although Russell's contributions in coastal morphology may hâve been less spectacular than those in alluvial and deltaic morphology, they were, nevertheless, of major significance. Through intensive and extensive research on beach rock, Russell established a solid base upon which present-day studies are being made. His research helped clarify the rôle of groundwater in the formation of beach rock and also in other coastal forms as well. Research in coastal history when added to his firm base in alluvial and deltaic history led to some important morphological conclusions. He strongly advocated that sea level during the Récent period (which he considered as beginning when 'sea level started its last major rise, possibly in the order of 80,000 years ago') reached little, if at ail, above its présent position. The rise in its initial stages was so rapid that 'coastal landforms in Consolidated rock hâve not changed appreciably', and, with very few exceptions, ail coastal zones are of the submerged variety. According to Russell, two of the important results of the approximately 4,000-year-long standstill are a rapid filling of many of the estuaries that had been created by rising sea level and a natural loss of sand from most of the beaches of the world. Russell's contributions to éducation and science hâve been significant. It is likely that his numerous and provocative publications will continue to instil students with the désire to 'go into the field with enthusiasm' and to study 'interesting physical features that occur on ail sides of us' for many years to corne.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON RUSSELL Mclntire, W.G., 'Richard Joël Russell (1895-1971), Geogr. Rev., vol 63 (1973), 276-9 Walker, H.J., 'Dean Russell', Louisiana State University Graduate Report, vol 21 (1976), 9 The following include bibliographies: Anderson, C.A., 'Richard Joël Russell, 1895-1971: a biographical memoir', Biogr. Mem. 3 vol 46 (1975), 368-94

133

Howe, H.V., Mémorial to Richard Joël Russell, 18951971, Geol. Soc. Am., 10p. Kniffen, F.B., 'Richard Joël Russell, 1895-1971', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 63 (1973), 241-9 2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY 0F WORKS BY RUSSELL a. Geology and alpine landforms 1926 'Récent horizontal offsets along the Hayward fault', J. Geol., vol 34, 507-11 1927 'Landslide lakes of the northwestern Great Basin', Publ. Geogr., Berkeley, University of California, vol 2, 231-54 'The landforms of Surprise valley, northwestern Great Basin', ibid., vol 2, 323-58 1928 'Basin Range structure and stratigraphy of the Warner range, northeastern California', Geol. Soi. Bull., Berkeley, University of California, vol 17, 387-496 1932 'Land forms of San Gorgonio pass, southern California', Publ. Geogr., vol 6, 23-121 1933 'Alpine land forms of western United States', Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 44, 927-50 1956 'Fracture patterns in the Amazon and Mississippi valleys', (with H.O'R. Steinberg), Proc. 17 Int. Geogr. Congr., Washington, 380-5 b. Meteorology and climatology 1926 'Climates of California*, Publ. Geogr., vol 2, 73-84 1931-2 'Dry climates of the United States', I-'Climatic map', Publ. Geogr., vol 5, 1-41; II'Frequency of dry and désert years 1901-20', ibid., vol 5, 245-74 1934 'Climatic years', Geogr. Rev., vol 24, 92-103 1936 'The desert-rainfall factor in denudation', Rep. 16 Int. Geol. Congr., Washington, vol 2, 753-63 1941 'Climate through the âges', in 1941 Yearbook of Agriculture, Washington, U.S. Dept. Agric, 67-97 1945 'Climates of Texas', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 35, 37-52 c. The Quaternary era and sea level 1938 'Quaternary surfaces in Louisiana', Ci?. Int. Geogr. Congr., Amsterdam, vol 2, sect. F, 406-12 1940 'Quaternary history of Louisiana', Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 51, 1199-1234 1957 'Instability of sea level', Am. Sci., vol 45, 414-30 1961 Pacific island terraces: eustatic? (éd.), Z. Geom., Band 3, supp., 106p. 1964 'Techniques of eustasy studies', Z. Geom., Band 8, 25-42 1964 'Duration of the Quaternary and its subdivisions', Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., vol 52, no 3, 790-96 d. Rivers and deltas 1935 Physiography of coastal southwest Louisiana (with H.V. Howe and J.H. McGuirt), Geol. Bull., no 6, Bâton Rouge, Louisiana, Department of Conservation,

134

Richard Joël Rus se II

1-72 1936 'Physiography of the lower Mississippi river delta', in Reports on the geology of Plaquemines and St. Bernard parishes, Geol. Bull., no 8, Bâton Rouge, Louisiana, Department of Conservation, 3-193 1938 'Physiography of Iberville and Ascension parishes', ibid., no 13, 3-86 1939 'Morphologie des Mississippi deltas', Geogr. Z., 45 Jahresber., heft 8, 281-93 1940 'Gulf coast geosyncline: America's great petroleum reserve', C.R. 17 Int. Geol. Congr., Moscow, vol 4, 269-72 1942 'Geomorphology of the Rhône delta', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 32, 149-254

1948 'Coast of Louisiana', Bull.

Soc. Belge

Geol.

Paleontol. Hydrol., vol 57, 380-94 1954 'Alluvial morphology of Anatolian rivers', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 44, 363-91 1957 'Aspects of alluvial morphology', Tijdschr. K. Ned. Aardijksk. Genoot., vol 74, 377-88 1966 River and delta morphology, Coastal studies ser, no 20, Bâton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 55p. e. Coasts, beach rock and the water table 1935 'Cheniers of southwestern Louisiana', Geogr. Rev., vol 25, 449-61 1953 'Coastal advance and retreat in Louisiana', C.R. 19 Int. Geol. Congr., Algiers, sect. 4 vol 4, 109-18 1959 'Caribbean beach rock observations', Z. Geom., Band 6, H 3, 227-36 vol 17, 24-7 1963 'Beach rock', J. Trop. Geogr., Rev., 1965 'Southern hémisphère beach rock', Geogr. vol 55, 17-55 'Australian tidal flats' (with G. Mclntyre), Coastal studies séries, no 12, Bâton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 48p. 'Beach cusps' (with W.G. Mclntyre), Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 76, 307-20 1966 Barbuda reconnaissance (with W.G. Mclntyre), Coastal Studies séries, no 16, Bâton Rouge, 53p. 1967 'Origin of e s t u a r i e s ' , in Lauff, G.H., ( é d . ) , Estuaries, publ. no 83, Am. Assoc. Adv. S c i . , 93-9 'Aspects of coastal morphology', Geogr. Ann., vol 49, ser A, no 2-4, 299-309 1970-1 Oregon and northern California coastal reconnaissance, Technical report no 86, Coastal Studies I n s t i t u t e , Louisiana State University, 53p.; Florida beaches and cemented water-table rocks, i b i d . , no 88, 25p.; Beaches and ground water studies of cape Sable, Florida, i b i d . , no 103, 18p. 1971 'The coast of Louisiana', in S t e e r s , J.A. ( é d . ) , Applied coastal geomorphology, London, 84-97 'Water-table effects on s e a c o a s t s ' , Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 82, 2343-8 f.

Textbooks

1944 The Mississippi

river,

Bureau of Educational Ma-

terials, Louisiana State University, Bâton Rouge, 120p. 1951 Louisiana, our treasure ground, ibid., 149p. Culture worlds (with Fred B. Kniffen), New York, 591p. 1961 Culture worlds - brief édition (with Fred B. Kniffen and E.L. Pruitt), New York, 476p. g. Miscellaneous 1942 'Flotant', Geogr. Rev., vol 32, 74-98 1944 'Origin of loess 1 , Am. J. Sci., vol 242, 447-50 'Lower Mississippi valley loess', Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 55, 1-40 1945 'Post-war geography', J. Geogr., vol 44, 301-12 1946 'Climatic transitions and contrasts', in Peattie, R. (éd.), The Pacific coast ranges, New York, 357-79 1947 'Sierra climate', in Peattie, E. (éd.), The Sierra Nevada, New York, 323-40

1949 'Geographical geomorphology', Ann. Assoc. Am.

Geogr., vol 39, 1-11 1956 'Environmental changes through forces independent of man', in Thomas, W.L. jr. (éd.), Man's rôle in changing the face of the earth, Chicago, 453-70

1958 'Geological geomorphology', Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am.,

vol 69, 1-21 1960 'Report on scientific research in Indonesia', Council for Science of Indonesia, Bull., no 2 1967 River plains and sea coasts, Berkeley, Univ. of California Press, 173p. 1968 Glossary of terms in fluvial, deltaic and coastal morphology and processes, Coastal studies séries, no 23, 97p. 3. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS AND SOURCES There are papers referring to R.J. Russell in the library of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pa., and in the archives of the Louisiana State University library, Bâton Rouge, La. His published works are collected together in the Richard Joël Russell library, Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University library.

Jesse State

Walker is Professor University, U.S.A.

of Geography at the

Louisiana

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1895

Born, Hayward, Calif, November 16

1900

Travelled with his parents

1914

High School Diploma

1918

Ensign, U.S. Navy

TRAVEL,

B.S. in Palaeontology, University of California (Berkeley). During this and the next few years, influenced particularly by G.D. Louderback, J.C. Merriman, C.O. Sauer, W.M. Davis Fieldwork in the Warner Range, Sierra Nevada, Calif., to 1925

1923

Associate in Geography, University of California, Berkeley, to 1926

National Président, Thêta Tau (to 1931) Associate Professor of Geography, Louisiana State University

Further fieldwork on Sierra Nevada, visited by Albrecht Penck

Presented dissertation on the Basin and Range provinces

With H.V. Howe and (from 1929) F. Kniffen, developed the teaching of geography and geology in Louisiana State University Began fieldwork in Louisiana

1929 1930

First papers on the Hayward fault and on the climates of California

Ph.D in Geology, University of California, Berkeley Associate Professor of Geology, Texas Technological Collège

1927 1928

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Beginning of 1914-18 war

Visited Mt. Lassen, to see a volcanic éruption

1921

1926

PUBLICATIONS

Fieldwork in Oregan (palaeontology)

1919 1920

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

RICHARD JOËL RUSSELL

Professor of Geography, Louisiana State University

Fieldwork in Europe

International Geographical Congress, Paris

136

DATES

Richard

Joël

Russell

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

PUBLICATIONS

19 34

'Climatic years', Geogr. Rev.t 24, 92-103

1935

'Cheniers of S.W. Louisiana1, Geogr. 25, 449-61

1936

Rev.3

Physiography of the lower Mississippi river delta, Bâton Rouge

Head of Geography department, Louisiana State University

International Geological Congress, U.S.S.R.

First Atwood award, Association of American Geographers

1937

Fieldwork in Novaya Zemblya 1938

Fieldwork in Rhône delta and Scandinavia, travelled with Albrecht Penck

International Geographical Congress, Amsterdam

1939

Associate editor, Zeitschrift fur Géologie

Outbreak of war in Europe

1941

'Climate through the âges', 1941 Yearbook of Agriculture

1942

'Geomorphology of the Rhône delta', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr.; 32, 149-254

1943

Distinguished lecturer, American Association of Professional Geographers

1944

Acting Director, School of Geology, Louisiana State University (to 1963)

1948

Président, Association of American Geographers

Spécial Fellow, BelgianAmerican Educational Foundation

1949

Dean of the Graduate School, Louisiana State University (to 1961)

Member, Committee on Geography, Office of Naval Research

'Lower Mississippi valley loess', Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 55 1-40

Editor LSU Studies 1961) 1951 1952

International Geological Congress, England 'Geographical geomorphology', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 39, 1-11

(to Culture Worlds (with Fred B. Kniffen) International Geological Congress, Algiers

Richard Joël Russell DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

1953

Président of the Council of Deans, Southern Graduate Schools

Fieldwork in Morocco and Turkey

1954

Director, Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University (to 1966)

Honorary member, Royal Dutch Geographical Society

127

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

PUBLICATIONS

Chairman, Division of Earth Sciences, National Research Council Co-chairman, Geomorphology section, I.G.U. Congress Changed the direction of his research from floodplains to sea coasts

1956

1957

Président, Geological Society of America

Associate editor,

Zeitschrift phogie

fur Geomor-

International Geographical Congress, Brazil

'Instability of sea

level', Am. Soi.,

45,

414-30

Fieldwork on river Amazon and on the West Indies National lecturer, Sigma X

1958

'Geological geomorphology',

Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am.j 69,

1-21 Elected to National Academy of Sciences

1959

Scientific Adviser, Indonesia i960

Outstanding Achievement award, Association of American Geographers

Honorary Fellow, German Academy of Science

International Geographical Congress, Norden (Stockholm)

1961

Boyd Professor of Geography, Louisiana State University (to 1966)

Associate editor, monograph séries, Association of American Geographers

Pacific Science Congress, Honolulu

Vega Medal, Royal Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography 1962

1964

Vice Président, Earth Science Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science

Cullum Medal, Daly Medal, American Geographical Society

Chairman, Geomorphology section, I.G.U. Congress Fieldwork in Australia and Indian Océan

'Origin of bedrock', Z.

Geomorph.j 6/1, 1-16

International Geographical Congress, London

138 DATES

Richard

Joël

Hussell

LIFE AND CAREER

1965

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Gave Hitchcock lecture at Berkeley

1967

U.S. Navy, Distinguished service award

1969

Chairman, Graduate Schools Association, S.E. section

1970

1971

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

Elected to Royal Danish Academy

Fieldwork in Florida and on west coast of U.S.A. Died, Bâton Rouge, September 17

River plains ooasts

and sea

William Scoresby 1789-1857

BRYAN WAITES National Portrait Gallery, London 1.

EDUCATION,

LIFE

AND WORK

William Scoresby was born in the moorland village of Cropton, near Pickering, Yorkshire, on 5 October 1789. He was the third child of William and Mary Scoresby. His father, William Scoresby (1760-1829) had been at sea since 1780 and in the Greenland whale-fishery since 1785. When father was given command of the Henrietta the family moved to Whitby. Young William grew up in the atmosphère of a famous seaport and whaling centre. Each spring his father, now in command of the Dundeet sailed to the Arctic. In 1800 a visit on board the Dundee 'excited my imagination and interested my feelings. I felt a strange longing to participate in its progress and adventures'. His father let him stay aboard and go to the Arctic when only ten years old. On his return he was sent back to school. For a short time the family lived in London but in 1803, on their return to Whitby, William was apprenticed to his father on the Resolution. Each year from 1803 to 1823 (with the exception of 1819) he sailed to the Greenland whale-fishery. In 1806 as Chief Mate in the Resolution he reached farthest north to 81 30'. Later in the same year, aged 17, he enrolled at the University of Edinburgh to study chemistry and natural philosophy, coming into contact with Professors T.C. Hope (1766-1844) and John Playfair (1748-1819). His voyages to the Arctic continued, however, each summer and in September 1807 he volunteered for service with the Royal Navy as a seaman. On the conclusion of this short period of service in December 1807 he met Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820). There ensued a long period

of friendship and correspondence which lasted until Banks' death. After another Arctic voyage Scoresby returned to Edinburgh University in 1808 to read natural history, mathematics and logic. Hère Professors John Leslie (1766-1832) and Robert Jameson (1774-1854) gave him great encouragement, the latter being especially interested in life in the Polar Seas. No doubt this interest and that of Sir Joseph Banks encouraged Scoresby to intensify his scientific observations in the Arctic which began in 1807 with his meteorological journals. Soon he was elected to the newly created Wernerian Society of Edinburgh and many of his early papers were published through the Society. When Scoresby attained the âge of twenty-one, his father resigned to him the command of the Resolution and his first voyage as captain in 1811 yielded a record of thirty whales. In the same year he married Mary Eliza Lockwood, daughter of a shipbroker in Whitby. Between 1813 and 1817 Scoresby sailed to the Arctic in command of a newer and larger Esk. During this period many of his most important discoveries and observations on Arctic geography, meteorology and oceanography were made. During the winter of 1817-18 he corresponded at length with Sir Joseph Banks on the possibility of a government-sponsored voyage of discovery to the Arctic, hoping that he might lead it in the Famé. However though the suggestion was taken up by Sir John Barrow (1764-1848) of the Admiraity for an expédition in 1818, a naval officer was to command it. This is the beginning of an 'officiai' exclusion of Scoresby which may hâve contributed to his retirement

140

William

Scoresby

from Arctic voyages in 1823. Had he been officially supported for such voyages, with his unrivalled knowledge of polar régions, he could hâve contributed even more than he did to the discovery of a North West Passage. Meanwhile, scientific papers continued to flow from his pen and in 1819 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In the same year he moved to Liverpool with his family to supervise the building of a personally designed whaler, the Baffin3 which was launched on 15 February 1820. He sailed in March for Greenland and returned after a highly successful voyage. During his absence An Account of the Arctic Régions was published which was the culmination of his scientific observations in the Arctic and has been described as 'the foundation stone of Arctic science ' . Whaling voyages continued in 1821 and 1822. In the latter year Scoresby charted and named a large section of the east coast of Greenland. The map was

eventually published in his Journal

of a Voyage to the

Northern Whale-Fishery (1823). It was at this time that he met Sir Humphrey Davy who showed great interest in his magnetic experiments and inventions. Scoresby made his last voyage to the Arctic in 1823. In a remarkable change of career he now prepared himself for the ministry and was ordained in 1825. In the previous year he had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London and had been well received by many notable scientists on a visit to Paris. This led to his élection to the Institute of France in 1827. From 1827 to 1832 he was the first chaplain of the newly established Floating Church for Seamen, Liverpool. During this same period he became a founder-member of the British Association in York (1831) and for the remainder of his life he was a regular attender contributing many scientific papers year after year. He was appointed chaplain-in-charge of Bedford Chapel, Exeter, in 1832 where he remained for seven years. His work on magnetism continued and culminated in the invention of the Scoresby Compass Needle and the publication of the

first volume of Magnetical

Investigations

(1839). He

gained his B.D.(1834) and D.D.(1839) during this period. Somewhat reluctantly, Scoresby accepted the' appointment as Vicar of Bradford (Yorkshire) in 1839. This large, industrial and dissenting parish caused constant trouble and controversy for Scoresby, leading eventually to a breakdown in his health. However, it brought out the best in him as a social reformer and he made outstanding contributions to the establishment of model schools, provision for public health and improved working conditions in mills. His first visit to the United States in 1844 did little to improve his own health but he was impressed by female working conditions in the cotton mills of Lowell, Massachusetts. This led

to the publication of American Factories

and their

Fe-

male Operatives (1845) and stimulated his efforts to improve working conditions before he resigned the living in 1846. Despite his onerous duties he sustained his scientific interest by regular papers to the B.A., the publication of the final volume of Magnetical Investigations (1843) and in notable collaboration with J.P.

Joule in electro-magnetism. From 1846 to his death in 1857 he held no permanent appointment. However, on his third marriage he settled in Torquay and assisted as unpaid Lecturer at Upton Church. This was a very productive period for Scoresby with a return to his Arctic interests. He wrote, advised and lectured on the Franklin Mystery, publishing his Franklin Expédition in 1850. In the same year he edited The Whaleman's Adventures and the following year he published My Father in which he recorded the important contributions made by his father and by father and son together in the early years. The wide-ranging character of Scoresby's talents is illustrated by his interest in hypnotism and zoistic magnetism in his later years. In 1856 he sailed on the maiden voyage of the Royal Charter to Australia and back in order to make systematic observations on the magnetism of iron ships. He was awarded an honorary M.A. of the University of Melbourne during his visit. Shortly after his return his health failed and he died on 21 March 1857. The results of his investigations were published posthumously in 1859.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONTRIBUTIONS William Scoresby was a prolific writer and an indefatigable lecturer. His published works exceed one hundred and they range from contributions to Polar geography, oceanography and natural history to scientific works on magnetism, religious tracts and publications on social reform.

His early works, particularly An Account of

the

Arctic Régions placed him in the forefront of Arctic pioneers, scientists and scholars. This 'classic of whaling literature' provides a reliable history of the early Arctic whale-fishery conveyed through vivid descriptions and detailed accounts of equipment and hunting methods. It is also a first-hand study of the économies of the industry well supported by statistics and comparative accounts. Scoresby's critical overview of Arctic exploration up to the early nineteenth century is excellent, containing suggestions far ahead of his time. For example, he believed that the North Pôle could be reached over the ice from Spitzbergen by the use of sledges pulled by dogs or fitted with sails or even on foot. The détails he provided foreshadow the epic journey of Wally Herbert almost one hundred and fifty years later. However, his outstanding contribution is his pioneer work in oceanography. From the first he used scientific and observational methods on his voyages. His Hydrographical Survey of the Greenland Sea is a model study in oceanography. It contains the first account of Arctic plankton, which is illustrated; shows the dependence of whales on plankton as a food; describes the différent colouration of Arctic waters; analyzes sea water to show varying salinity which he expresses in parts per thousand. He invented the Marine Diver (an opening and closing waterbottle) which allowed him to record water températures and spécifie gravity at varying depths. By using the Marine Diver he discovered that Arctic waters were

William Scoresby warmer at greater depths than near the surface. It was not until the Challenger Expédition (1872-6) that such techniques came into fréquent use. His observations on Arctic currents and waves form the first systematic account and, in particular, his remarks on the direction and influence of the Gulf Stream were important. Later, as a resuit of voyages to North America, he presented further papers on wave motion. Scoresby may be called the first Arctic Geographer. His meteorological journals and observations made between 1807 and 1818 are without parallel. Supported by careful analysis and interprétation they provide the first comprehensive discussion of what Scoresby called 'the atmospherology of the Arctic Regions'. He was particularly interested in the physiological effects of cold on man. In his studies of Polar ice he delineated certain ternis such as field ice, floe, drift-ice, brash-ice, bay-ice, sludge, hummock, calf-ice, etc. He put forward ideas on ice formations, types, properties and on ice movement to which later glacial geomorphologists were indebted. Snow crystals were a spécial interest and he was one of the first people to make detailed drawings of them. It was during his Arctic voyages that his studies of terrestrial magnetism, especially magnetic variation, began. This led eventually to a lifelong scientific study of electro-magnetism and the magnetism of iron ships culminating in the invention of the Scoresby Compass Needle. As an explorer and surveyor Scoresby's accomplishments were considérable. They include 'the nearest approach to the Pôle that I conceive has ever been made' (1806); mapping Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen; mapping the extent of sea ice in the Greenland Sea and, in 1822, surveying and mapping 800 miles of the coast of east Greenland. He gave names, such as Scoresby Land, many of which remain to this day, although as late as 1852 he was complaining to the Hydrographer of the Navy that many of his placenames had been wrongly replaced. His excellent and accurate charts were well supported by well-drawn coastal panoramas. Thèse, together with his sketches of whale-fishing scènes, equipment, snow crystals, whales and microscopic life forms indicate his ail-round artistic ability. This émerges very well from his accurate drawings of different species of whale. In the field of zoology much subséquent knowledge was based on his observations and descriptions of the Greenland Whale. His shore excursions in Spitzbergen illustrate his skilful and accurate observation of flora and fauna with a surprising knowledge of geological strata. Vivid and detailed topographical descriptions of Polar landscapes from his original observations allied to botanical and geological observations comprised the first full geography of areas such as Spitzbergen, Jan Mayen and east Greenland. Thèse were largely published in An Account of the Arctic Régions and Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-Fishery. His article on Polar Régions in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia (1825) represented a mature extension of his previous work and an important statement on Arctic geography. In terms of Arctic exploration he had much to say

141

about the North West Passage, offering practical advice for explorers, advocating transglacial journeys and dispelling conventional ideas about open sea around the Pôle. If the Admiraity had chosen to listen to his advice more frequently they would hâve benefited in the important period 1817-47. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS The late Sir Sidney Harmer, one of Britain's leading authorities on whales and whaling, in his Presidential Address to the Linnean Society in 1928 referred to Scoresby's An Account of the Arctic Régions as 'one of the most remarkable books in the English language'. In the Dictionary of National Biography it is described as 'the foundation stone of Arctic science'. Without doubt this, and associated works, placed Scoresby in the forefront of Polar Studies and this was recognized internationally by his élection to the Institute of France and his warm réception by foreign scholars such as Humboldt. Indeed, Baron von Buch described him as 'one of the most courageous and skilful of the captains who fréquent the Greenland Seas; he is a man worthy of being placed along with a Hudson, a Dampier and a Cook'. Scoresby's publications not only had a wide influence at the time but continue to be significant today. As an explorer and surveyor too, his legacy has stood the test of time. Many placenames he gave, including Scoresby Sound in Greenland, hâve been retained. The accuracy of his charts of Jan Mayen, Spitzbergen and east Greenland has been vindicated in this century and they hâve formed the basis of modem charts. As an active lecturer ail his life, Scoresby broadened the scope of his influence ail over the country from the Royal Society and Royal Institution to the Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society, to which he bequeathed his manuscripts and Arctic collections to form the Whitby Muséum. He was a vigorous member of many societies and played a conspicuous part in the founding of the British Association though he could never understand why he was not called to a high office in the Association. He was an important link in the great scientific network of the first half of the nineteenth century. His contacts included explorers, such as John and James Ross, Sir John Franklin; scientists such as Faraday, Cavendish, Davy, Joule, Lord Rosse, T.S. Trail in Britain and Humboldt, Cuvier, Ampère, Gay-Lussac in Europe; his Edinburgh contacts numbered eminent men such as Jameson, Leslie, Playfair, Thomson, Brewster, Forbes and finally, the scientific and philosophical entrepreneurs such as Sir Joseph Banks and Sir Roderick Impey Murchison. Such connections were, in most instances, not isolated or perfunctory but resulted in fréquent meetings and regular correspondence. Besides Scoresby's outstanding contributions to Arctic geography and oceanography there is his rôle in the development of electro-magnetic theory and the ship's compass. Also his social reforms in Bradford had a profound effect on school provision and working conditions there for many years. He was known as 'an eminent Christian Philosopher'.

142

William

Scoresby

Scoresby, in the great tradition of the nineteenth century, was not one man but several: whaling captain, explorer and navigator; surveyor, draughtsman and artist; naturalist, geographer and oceanographer; scientist, writer, scholar and divine. He lived in a formative period of Polar discovery, scientific advance and social reform. The magnitude of his overall contribution is beginning to be recognized in détail in our own time.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON WILLIAM SCORESBY

Young, George, A History of Whitby, 2 vols., Whitby (1817), 953p. 'Brief Memoir of William Scoresby, junr., Esq.', Impérial Magazine, vol 3, columns 1229-36, Liverpool (1821) Manby, G.W., Account of a voyage aboard the Baffin, 1821, London (1822) Michaud, Louis G., Biographie Universelle ancienne et moderne, 45 vols., Paris (1843), 65; 37, 548 Froc. R. Soc, vol 9 (1857-9), 57-60 (Obituary) Froc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, vol 4 (1857-62), 9-11 (Obituary) Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol 7 NS (Jan.April 1858), 346-7 (Obituary) J.R. Geogr. Soc, vol 28 (1858), 138-40 (Obituary) Smith, Archibald (éd.), Journal of a voyage to Australia and round the world for magnetical research by William Scoresby (post.), London (1859), introduction, 7-48 Scoresby-Jackson, R.E., The Life of William Scoresby, London (1861) , 406p. James, J., Bradford, Bradford (1866), 176-80 Smales, Gideon, Whitby Authors and their Publications, Whitby (1867) Nelson's Shilling Séries, The Story of Dr. Scoresby, the Arctic Navigator, London (1876), 120p. Boase, Frederick, Modem English Biograpy, 6 vols., London (1892-1921), Reprint (1965), vol 3, 446 D.N.B., edited by Sidney Lee, London, vol 51 (1897), 5-8 Nathorst, A.G., 'On the map of King Oscar Fjord and Kaiser Franz Josef Fjord in North East Greenland', Geogr. J., vol 17 (1901), 48-63 Weatherill, R., The Ancient Port of Whitby and its Shipping, Whitby (1908), 445p. Gaskin, R.T., The Old Seaport of Whitby, Whitby (1909), 450p. Explorers' Club of New York, Seven log books concerning the Arctic voyages of Capt. William Scoresby, Snr., of Whitby, England, New York (1916-17), with introductory volume Harmer, Sir Sidney, 'Presidential Address: "History of Whaling"', Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, session 140 (1928), 51-95

Howarth, O.J.R., The British Association, London (1931), 330p. Boyd, Louise A., The Fiord Région of East Greenland, American Geographical Society, Spécial publication No.18, New York (1935), 369p. Lubbock, B., The Arctic Whalers, Glasgow (1937), 483p. Sheppard, T., The Scoresbys, father and son and the lost colonies in Greenland, Hull (1939), 14p. Fraser, F.C., 'Some letters of William Scoresby, junior', Polar Record, 5 (1949), 306-8 Mirsky, Jeanette, To the Arctic!, London (1949), 334p. Dawson, Warren R. (éd.), The Banks Letters, London (1958), 739-41 Preston, C., Captain William Scoresby (1760-1829) Whitby 's most successful whaler, Whitby (1964), 28p. Hardy, Sir Alister, Introduction to the 1969 édition of An Account of the Arctic Régions by William Scoresby. David & Charles reprint, Newton Abbot Deacon, Margaret, Scientists and the Sea, 1650-1900, London (1971), 445p. Stamp,, Tom and Cordelia, William

Scoresby:

Arctic

Scientist, Whitby (1975), 253p. Magnolia, L.R., Whales, whaling and whale research: a selected bibliography, Cold Spring Harbour Whaling Muséum, Long Island, New York (1977), 91p. U.S. Department of Défense, Arctic Bibliography, Washington D.C. (annual) 2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY WILLIAM SCORESBY

1807-14 'Meteorological Journals kept in the Greenland Sea', Mem. Wernerian Soc, Edinburgh, vol 1, 249, 609; vol 2(i), 153, 167, (ii) 641, 644, 650, 653 1810 'Account of the Baloena Mysticetus or Great Northern Whale, and First Correct Figure of it', ibid., vol 1, 578-86 1815 'Account of Greenland or Polar I c e ' , ibid., vol 2 ( i i ) , 261-338 1816 'Notes of an advance to l a t i t u d e 8 1 ° 3 0 ' N . ' , ibid., vol 2, 642 1818 'Narrative of an Excursion on the Island of Jan Mayen with Discoveries t h e r e o n ' , Edinburgh Philos. J., vol 1, 121 1819 'On the anomaly in the v a r i a t i o n of the magnetic needle as observed on ship-board 1 , Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, p a r t i , 96-106 1820 An Account of the Arctic Régions; with a History and Description of the Northern Whale-Fishery, Edinburgh, 2 vols 1823 Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-Fishery; including researches and discoveries on the eastern coast of West Greenland made in the summer of 1822, in the ship Baffin of Liverpool, Edinburgh, 472p. 1825 'Polar Régions', a r t i c l e in the Edinburgh Encycl., vol 18, 1-40 1826 Narrative of the loss of the Esk and Lively, Greenland whalers, Whitby, 83p. 1828 'On the p o s s i b i l i t y of reaching the Pôle by t r a n s g l a c i a l j o u r n e y ' , Edinburgh Philos. J. 1835 Memorials of the Sea: Sabbaths in the Arctic

William Scoresby Régions, London, 393p. 1835 Mémorial of an Affeotionate and Dutiful Son, Frederick R.H. Scoresby, London, 220p. 1839/43 Magnetical Investigations, London, 2 vols 1845 American Factories and their Female Operatives, London, 122p. 1850 The Franklin Expédition, London, 99p. The Whaleman 's Adventures in the Southern Océan; as gathered by the Rev. H.T. Cheever. Edited by the Rev. William Scoresby, London, 304p. Zoistic Magnetism, London, 144p. 'On Atlantic waves, their magnitude, velocity and phenomena', Rep. Br. Assoc. Adv. Soi., Edinburgh, 26-31 1851 Mémorial of the Sea. My Father; being records of the adventurous life of the late William Scoresby, Esq., of Whitby. By his son, the Rev. William Scoresby, London, 232p. 1852 Magnetical Investigations on Terrestrial Induction and Iron Ships, London 1853 'On the surface température and great currents of the Atlantic', Rep. Br. Assoc. Adv. Soi., Hull, 18-22 'On the popular notion of an open Polar Sea. Is it the fact?', ibid., 92-6 1859 Journal of a voyage to Australia and round the world, for magnetical research, London; posthumous work, edited by Archibald Smith, 459p. Two major bibliographies exist: Scoresby-Jackson, op. cit., appendix, 401-06; listing 91 works, and Charles A. Fédérer, Yorkshire Bibliography, Bradford (1887), 15p., listing 113 works 3. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES ON WILLIAM SCORESBY The major collection of Scoresby Papers, scientific and nautical equipment, Arctic relies and spécimens, etc. is in Whitby Muséum, Pannett Park, Whitby, North Yorkshire held in trust by the Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society. The Scoresby Papers are being catalogued by the Archivist, County Record Office, County Hall, Northallerton, North Yorkshire. They were sorted and extensively used by Tom and Cordelia Stamp for their book William Scoresby: Arctic Scientist (1975). Certain other manuscript sources, especially letters, are held by the Royal Geographical Society Library, Kensington Gore, London SW7 2AR; the British Muséum (Natural History) General Library, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD; the National Maritime Muséum Library, London SE10 9NF; the Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge CB2 1ER; the Brown, Picton & Hornby Libraries, William Brown Street, Liverpool L3 8EW. The National Portrait Gallery, London WC2H OHE, has four engravings of William Scoresby. There is an unpublished spécial study by Marilyn Mackin entitled The Scoresbys and Whitby, School of Humanities (Geography), Leicester Polytechnic (1974) , 32p. The Kendall Whaling Muséum, Sharon, Mass., 02067, USA, has a substantial collection of early éditions of Scoresby's works, an unpublished logbook of the Resolution covering four voyages, 1807-10, paintings and

143

other items. The G.W. Blunt White Library, Mystic Seaport, Mystic, Conn., 06355, USA, also is reported to hold some Scoresby whaling logbooks and possibly other papers. An Inventory of Logbooks and Journals of the Northern and Southern Whale Fisheries is being compiled by Mrs. A. Shirley (National Maritime Muséum), Mr. S.G. Brown (Sea Mammal Research Unit, Cambridge), and Dr. Stuart C. Sherman (Brown University Library, Providence, Rhode Island, 02912, USA). Bryan Waites is Principal of Humanities, Leicester

Lecturer in Geography, Polytechnic.

School

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE:

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1789

Born at Cropton, Yorkshire, England, 5 October

1791

William Scoresby, snr. given command of the

whaler

TRAVEL,

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS French Révolution

Henrietta

1800

1802

ACTIVITIES, FIELDWORK

WILLIAM SCORESBY

Sails to Greenland with his father on the Dundee

Illustration of the Huttonian Theory of the

Family move from Whitby to London

Ecœth3 John Playfair (1748-1819) 1803

1806

Return to Whitby

Apprenticed to his father on the Resolution. Voyage to the Arctic

Chief Mate in the

Sails farthest north in the Resolution. Continues Arctic whaling voyages each summer

Resolution.

Attends Edinburgh University 1807

Seaman in the Royal Navy. Meets Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820)

1808

Returns to Edinburgh University

1809

Elected to the Wernerian Society

1810

Last voyage of father and son together

Charts Balta Sound, Shetland Is. Visits Copenhagen. Assists Navy to bring Danish vessels to England

Napoleonic War (1803-15)

'Meteorological Journals kept in the Greenland Sea, 1807-14'

Treaty of Tilsit Seizure of Danish fleet in Copenhagen

Wernerian Natural History Society founded by Professor Jameson (1774-1854) Drawing of snow crystals first shown at a meeting 'Account of the

Mystioetus

Baloena

or Great

Northern Whale' 1811

Married Mary Eliza Lockwood of Whitby, 25 September

1812

Birth of a son, William, 5 September

1813

In command of the Esk

William, jnr., makes his first voyage as Captain

of the

Resolution

War with the U.S.A. Invents the Marine Diver a. 1810-13

1815

Paper on Polar Ice presented in absentia to the Wernerian Society. Charts Spitzbergen

1817

Visits and surveys Jan Mayen Island

'Account of Greenland or Polar Ice'

Battle of Waterloo

William Scoresby

145

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

PUBLICATIONS

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

1818

Birth of second son, Frederick Richard Holloway, 5 November

Sails in the Famé for Greenland

'Narrative of an Excursion on the Island of Jan Mayen'

John Ross and Edward Parry to Baffin Bay and Melville Island. Buchan and Franklin in the Arctic

1819

Elected F.R.S., Edinburgh. Death of his mother. Moves to live in Liverpool

Whaler Baffin built to his design in Liverpool

'On the anomaly in the variation of the magnetic needle as observed on ship-board'

1820

In command of the Baffin. Birth of son Henry who died soon after birth

Successful Arctic whaling voyage, 17 whales, 186 tons of oil

An Accovnt Régions

1822

Meets Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) Death of Mrs. Scoresby

Charts and names the east coast of Greenland

1823

Retires from the whaling trade

Last voyage to the Arctic

1824

Entered as a 'ten year' man, Queen's Collège, Cambridge. Elected F.R.S., London

Visits Paris. Meets Ampère Cuvier, Humboldt, Gay-Lussac

1825

Ordained at York. Appointed curate at Bessingby

of

the

Arctic

Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-Fishery

'Polar Régions' in

Edinburgh

Encyclopaedia

Narrative of the loss of the Esk and Lively3 Greenland l-Jhalers

1826

1827

Elected to the Institute of France. First chaplain of the Floating Church for Seamen, Liverpool

1828

Married Elizabeth Fitzgerald of Corkbegg, Ireland

1829

Death of William Scoresby, snr.

Death of Sir Joseph Banks First iron steamship

Captain Frederick Beechey reaches Point Barrow.

Ampère's

Electrodynamics

'On the possibility of reaching the Pôle by transglacial journey' Ross Arctic Expédition (1829-33) reaches the north magnetic pôle

1830

Makes first journey from Liverpool to Manchester by railway train

Death of William Huskisson, M.P., in first railway accident. Royal Geographical Society, London, founded

1831

Founder-member of the British Association in York

Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction

146

William

Scoresby

DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

1832

Chaplain in charge of Bedford Chapel, Exeter

1834

B.D. Cambridge Death of Frederick Scoresby

1835

Death of first son William

1839

D.D. Cambridge Vicar of Bradford

1840

Voyage of the (1831-6)

Beagle

Invents the Scoresby Compass Needle c. 1836-9 Magnetical vol 1

Investigations

James Clark Ross Expédition to Antarctica (1839-43)

Magnetical vol 2

Investigations

'On the calorific effects of magneto-electricity and the mechanical value of heat', J.P. Joule

Lectures on magnetism at the Royal Institution. Shows improved magnetic apparatus to Prince Consort Meets the Brontës, Meets J.P. Joule (1818-89)

Introduces an educational scheme for Bradford; model schools opened

1843

1844

CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

PUBLICATIONS

Founds the Exeter Athenaeum Club

1837

1842

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

Meets Président John Tyler (1841-5)

1845

First North American Tour Works with J.P. Joule on electro-magnetism

American Factories and theiv Female Operatives

Sir John Franklin's Expédition in Erebus and Terror for the North West Passage A. von Humboldt (1769-1859),

Kosmos 1846

'Experiments and observations on the mechanical powers of electro-magnetism, steam and horses',

Resigns as Vicar of Bradford

Philosophical

Magazine

(with J.P. Joule) 1847

Death of second wife

Second North American Tour (1847-8)

1848

Returns to Whitby. Elected to the American Institute, Philadelphia

Adviser on the Franklin Search

1849

Married Georgiana Ker of Torquay. Elected to the Athenaeum, London

Begins study of hypnotism and zoistic magnetism

Year of Révolutions Search for Franklin begins

William Sooresby DATES

LIFE AND CAREER

ACTIVITIES, TRAVEL, FIELDWORK

CONTEMPORARÏ EVENTS AND PUBLICATIONS

The Franklin Expédition Zoistic Magnetism

1850

1851

PUBLICATIONS

147

Breaks leg in riding

Consultée by Admiralty on the Franklin Mystery. His magnets displayed at the Great Exhibition

Mémorial of the Sea: My Father

The Great Exhibition

The Physical Geography of the Seat Matthew Fontaine

1855

Maury (1806-73) 1856

Honorary M.A. University of Melbourne

Sails to Australia on

the Royal

Robert Edwin Peary born

Charter

(18 Jan.) and returns 14 August 1857

1859

Died at Torquay on 21 March. Buried at Upton Church, Torquay

Journal of a voyage to Australia and round the worldj for magnetical researoh

Origin of Species,

by

Charles Darwin (1809-82). McClintock discovers traces of Franklin's Expédition

Index The index is divided into four parts : 1. PERSONAL NAMES as far as possible are given in full for those mentioned in the text with the year of birth and of death. 2. ORGANIZATIONS AND RELATED REFERENCES is subdivided into (a) Collèges, Institutes, Institutions} Muséums, Officiai and Research Organizations; (b) Scientific Congresses and Commissions; (c) Societies; (d) Universities. 3. SUBJECTS covers concepts, geographical théories and spécifie research. 4. CUMULATIVE LIST OF BIOBIBLIOGRAPHIES includes ail the geographers studied in volumes 1, 2, 3 and 4. Page numbers in italic refer to the Bibliography and Sources sections of the biobibliographies and underlined numbers refer to the chronological tables. 1. PERSONAL NAMES ADAMOV, Nicolay Palovich, 1861-1912, 34 AL-BALKHÎ, 850-934, 3 AL-ISTAKHRI, mid-tenth century, 3 AL-MASÛDÎ, c. 895-956, 1 AL-MUQADDASÎ, c. 945-c. 988, 1-6 ALEXANDROVSKAYA, Olga Andreyevna, 82 ANDRÉE, Richard, 1835-1912, 88 BANKS, Joseph, 1743-1820, 139 BARDOUX, Jacques, 1874-1959, 7 BARROW, John, 1764-1848, 139,141 BASTIAN, Adolf, 1826-1905, 88 BATTLE, Walter Ravenhill Brown, 19191953, 115,125 BAULÏG, Henri, 1877-1962, 7-17,21 BAUMANN, Oscar, 1864-1899, 44 BECK, Hanno, 1923, 62,63,96 BEHRMANN, Walter, 1882-1955, 92

BEKETOV, Andrey Nikolaevic, 18251902, 33,77 BERG, Lev Semenovich, 1876-1950, 37 BIEBER, Friedrich Julius, 1893-1924, 44 BIRD, James Harold, 1923, 50 BIROT, Pierre, 1909, _16_ BLOCH, Marc, 1886-1944, 11,13 BLUTHGEN, Joachim, 1912-1973, 93 BOSWELL, Katherine Cumming, 18891952, 9 BOUTROUX, Emile, 1845-1921, 10 BOWMAN, Isaiah, 1878-1950, 13 BRATESCU, Constantin, 1882-1945, 1924 BRUCKNER, Eduard, 1862-1927, 91,9_9_ BRYAN, Patrick Walter, 1885-1968, 50,52 BUCHANAN, Robert Ogilvie, 1894, 51 BUFFON, Georges Louis Leclerc, 17071788, 60,61,6_5_ BURMEISTER, Karl Heinz, 1936, 124,125 BUSCHAN, Georg, 1863-1942, 88 BUSCHING, Anton Friedrich, 17241793, 61,65_,66_ BUTLEROV, Alexander Michaylovich, 1828-1886, 33 BUTTNER, Manfred, 1923, 63,64, 124,125 CHABOT, Georges, 1898-1975, 11 CHALSLOVSKY, Vasily Ivanovich, 18341878, 34 CHANLER, William Astor, 1866-1934, 44,46_ CHEBYSHEV, Pafnuty Lvovich, 18211894, 33 CHRISTALLER, Walter, 1893-1969, 96 CLOOTS, Anachatsis, 1755-1794, 7,14. COPERNICUS, Nicolaus, 1477-1543, 121-2 CORNISH, Vaughan, 1862-1948, 114 COTTON, Charles Andrew, 1885-1970, 11 CVIJIC, Jovann, 1865-1927, 7,25-32 DARWIN, Charles Robert, 1809-1882,

35,70 DAVIS, William Morris, 1850-1934, 7,8,10,23,1_4,20,91,127,128,129, 130 DEBENHAM, F r a n k , 1 8 8 3 - 1 9 6 5 , 113 DE CHARDIN, TEILHARD, 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 5 , 8 DEDIJER, J e v t o , 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 1 8 , 28 DE LA NOË, G a s t o n , 1 8 3 6 - 1 9 0 2 , 10 DE LAPPARENT, A l b e r t , 1 8 3 9 - 1 9 0 8 , 8 DE MARGERIE, Emmanuel, 1 8 6 2 - 1 9 5 3 , 1 0 , 13,37 DE MARTONNE, Emmanuel, 1 8 7 3 - 1 9 5 5 , 8 , 10,U_,21,26,96 DEPÉRET, C h a r l e s , 20 DERRUAU, Max, 1 9 2 0 , lj6_ DESJARDIN, P a u l , 1 8 5 9 - 1 9 4 0 , 7 DMITRESCU-ALDEM, A l e x a n d r e , 18801 9 1 7 , 19 DOKUCHAEV, V a s i l y V a s i l y e v i c h , 1 8 4 6 1903, 33-42,77,78,79 DRAGIC, M i h a i l o , 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 1 5 , 28 DURTAIN, André Nepveu, d i t L u c , 1 8 8 1 1959, 7 EGLI, Johann Jakob, 1825-1896, 71 ESAKOV, Vasily Alexeyevich, 1924, 39 FEBVRE, Lucien Paul Victor, 18781956, 11 FENNEMAN, Nevin Melanchthon, 18651945, 128 FERKHMIN, Albert Romanovich, 18581905, 35 FILOPOVIÉ, Milenko, 1902-1969, 28 FINSCH, Otto, 1839-1917, 87,88 FISCHER, Theobold, 1846-1910, 71 FORSTER, Johann Reinhold, 1729-1798, 65_,66>,£7_ FRANZ, Johann Michael, 1700-1761, 61, 62,65_ FRAZER, James George, 1854-1941, 88, 129 FREEMAN, Thomas Walter, 1908, 13,29,30 FRIEDERICHSEN, Max, 1874-1941, 91 GALLOIS, Lucien, 1857-1941, 25,105 GERASIMOV, Innokenty Petrovich,

150

Index

1905, 37 GERLAND, Georg, 1833-1919, 71 GILBERT, Grove Karl, 1843-1918, 23,14_ GLINKA, Konstantin Dmitrievich, 18671927, 34 GOTTMANN, Jean, 1915, 11 GRADMANN, Robert, 1865-1950, 92-3 GRENIER, Albert, 1878-1961, 11 GRIGORYEV, Andrei Alexandrovich, 1883-1968, 37,35 GÛNTHER, Siegmund, 1848-1923, 71 GURGEL, Klaus D., 64,125 GUTHE, Hermann, 1825-1874, 69 HAACK, Hermann, 1872-1966, 92,94,37, 98 HAHN, Friedrich, 1852-1917, 53,71 HALÉVY, Daniel, 1872-1962, 7 HANN, Julius von, 1839-1921, 26,_3JL HARTSHORNE, Richard, 1899, 62, 63 HASSART, Kurt, 1866-1947, 71-2 HAUBER, Eberhard David, 1695-1765, 61 HAUQAL, Ibn, 943-973, 3,4 HAUSHOFER, Karl, 1869-1946, 96,97 HEDIN, Sven, 1865-1952, 72 HERBERTSON, Andrew John, 1865-1915, 95,^9 HERRMANN, Annemarie, 1949, 45 HETTNER, Alfred, 1859-1941, 61-2,70, 71,72,25,95 HOHEISEL, Karl Robert, 1937, 64 HÔ'HNEL, Ludwig von, 1857-1942, 43-7 HUMBOLDT, Alexander von, 1769-1859, 35,40,62,69,70,71,141 JAGIC, Vatroslav, 1838-1923, 26 JANKOVIC, Petar, 1874-1909, 26,28 JOERG, Wolfgang Louis Gottfried, 1885-1952, 50 JOEST, Wilhelm, 1852-1897, 88 JOHNSON, Douglas Wilson, 1878-1944, 11,128 JONES, Hilda Rodwell, see ORMSBY, Hilda Rodwell JONES, Llewellyn Rodwell, 1881-1947, 49-53 JOVANOVIC, Petar, 1893-1957, 27,23 JUILLARD, Etienne, 1914, 13 JUNKER, Wilhelm, 1840-1892, 44 KALESNIK, Stanislav Vikentievich, 1901-1977, 37 KANT, Immanuel, 1724-1804, 55-67 KAPP, Ernest, 1808-1896, 71 KING, Cuchlaine Audrey Muriel, 1922, 118 KIRCHHOFF, Alfred, 1838-1907, 69-76 KLEIN, Claude, 1924, 13 KLUTE, Fritz, 1885-1952, 92,93 KNIFFEN, Fred, 1900, 128,129,

130,136 KNUTZEN, Martin, 1713-1751, 55,56 KOLB, Albert, 1906, 93 KOPPEN, Vladimir, 1846-1940, 130,733 KRAMER, Augustin Friedrich, 18651941, 88 KRASNOV, Andrey Nikolaevich, 18621914, 71,77-86 KREBS, Norbert, 1876-1947, 93,94 KUBARY, Jan Stanisfaw, 1846-1896, 87-9 LAKE, Philip, 1865-1949, 116,118 LAUTENSACH, Hermann Friedrich Christian, 1886-1971, 91-101 LAZIÊ, Antonije, 1886-1968, 27 LEFEBVRE, Georges, 1874-1959, 11 LEFÈVRE, Marguerite Alice, 18941967, 11 LEHMANN, Paul, 1850-1930, 71 LELEWEL, Joachim, 1786-1861, 103-12 LESLIE, John, 1766-1832, 139 LEWIS, William Vaughan, 1907-1961, 113-20 LEYSER, P., 1690-1728, 61 LINNAEUS, Carolus, 1707-1778, 60,61, 65 LINTON, David Leslie, 1906-1971, 11 L0M0N0S0V, Mikhail Vasilyevich, 1711-1768, 35 LUCHAN, Félix von, 1854-1924, 19 LULOFS, Johannes, 1711-1768, 61 LYELL, Charles, 1797-1875, 35,40 MACHATSCHEK, Fritz, 1876-1957, 21,23 MACKINDER, Halford John, 1861-1947, 49 MALTEBRUN, Conrad, 1775-1826, 108 MANLEY, Gordon, 1902-1980, 117,118 MARBUT, Curtis Fletcher, 1863-1935, 37 MAULL, Otto, 1887-1957, 92 MAY, J.A., 62,53 MEHEDINTI, Simion, 1868-1962, 19,21, 2^,2^ MELANCHTHON, Philipp, 1497-1560, 123, 124 MENDELEYEV, Dmitry Ivanovich, 18341907, 33,77 MEYNEN, Emil, 1902, 73 MILOJEVIÊ, Borivoje, 1885-1967, 289, 30 MONTESQUIEU, Charles Louis, 16891755, 8 MORGAN, Frederick Wallace, 19101952, 50 MtÎLLER, Frederick-Wilhelm Karl, 1863-1930, 88 MUNSTER, Sébastian, 1489-1552, 123, 124 MYLIUS, Alphons von, 1875-1916, 44

NEUSTRUEV, Sergei Semenovich, 18741928, 37,35 NEWTON, Isaac, 1642-1727, 55,59 NIKOLIÔ, Rista, 1877-1917, 28 NIMIGEANU, George, 22 OBST, Erich, 1882, 92,37 ORGHIDON, Nicolae, 1881-1967, 19 ORMSBY, Hilda Rodwell, 1877-1973, 49,50 PARTSCH, Joseph, 1851-1925, 71 PASSARGE, Siegfried, 1867-1958, 92, 93,35,99,100 PÉGUY, Charles, 1873-1914, 7 PENCK, Albrecht, 1858-1945, 19,26, 71,72,_75_,91,92_,93,SS,j)9_,128 PENCK, Walter, 1888-1923, 9-10,L5_, 23_,_3_1,3S PESCHEL, Otto, 1826-1875, 69,70,74 PLAYFAIR, John, 1748-1819, 139,144 PLEWE, Ernst, 1907, 70,35 POLYNOV, Boris Borisovich, 18771952, 37 PRASOLOV, Leonid Ivanovich, 18751954, 37 PTOLEMY, Claudius, A.D. 90-168, 2, 27,104,122,123 RADOVANOVIÔ, Vojislav, 1894-1957, 28,29 RATZEL, Friedrich, 1844-1904, 71,88, 93 RECLUS, Jean Jacques Elisée, 18301915, 71,74_ REISCH, Gregor, c. 1470-1525, 123 RHETICUS, Georg Joachim, 1514-1574, 121-6 RICHTHOFEN, Ferdinand von, 18331905, 70,72,75_,92 RITTER, Cari, 1779-1859, 62,69,70, 71,105 RJEPA, Zbigniew, 107 ROSIWAL, Vojislav, 1860-1923, 44 ROSS, James Clark, 1800-1862, 141, 144 RUSSELL, Richard Joël, 1895-1971, 127-38 SAUER, C a r i O r t w i n , 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 7 5 , 9 4 , 95,128,129,132 SCHOLTEN, A r n h i l d , 5 SCHLUMBERGER, J e a n , 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 6 8 , 7 SCHLÛTER, O t t o , 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 5 9 , 7 0 , 7 2 , 94,95,37,9£ SCORESBY, W i l l i a m , 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 5 7 , 139-47 SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY, P e t e r P e t r o v i c h , 1 8 2 7 - 1 9 1 4 , 78 SIBERTSEV, N i c o l a i M i c h a y l o v i c h , 1860-1900, 34,35 SIEGFRIED, André", 1 8 7 5 - 1 9 5 9 , 7 SION, J u l e s , 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 4 0 , 28

Index SLABCZYNSKI, Wacfaw, 1904, 89 SOLNTSEV, Nikolai Adalovich, 1902, 37 STAMP, Laurence Dudley, 1898-1966, 49,51,_53 STIELER, Adolf, 1775-1836, 92 STÔFFLER, Johannes, 1452-1531, 121 STRABO, c. 64 or 63 B.C.-c. A.D. 25 or 26, 27 SUESS, Eduard, 1831-1914, 8,26,11,44,

Admiraity, G.B., 139,141 American Institution, Philadelphia, 146 Austrian Academy of Sciences, 45 Austrian National Library, Vienna,

45

Austrian Naval Academy, 43 British Muséum (Natural History), General Library, 143 Brown University Library, Providence, R.I. , 143 HL Carnegie Institution, 128 SUKACHEV, Vladimir Nicolaievich, Centre d'études germaniques, Stras1880-1967, 37 bourg, 7 ,15 SUPAN, Alexander, 1847-1920, 71,72, Centre National de la Recherche 91,92 Scientifique, 8 Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana, TAN-FILYEV, Gavryl Janovich, 1857128,129,131,134,137 1928, 34,35,37,35 Collège of Education, Constanta, 19, TELEKI, Samuel, 1845-1916, 43,44^46_ 23. THUNEN, Johann Heinrich von, 1783Deutscher Geographentag, 70,72,74 1850, 96 Dokuchaev Agricultural Research TILLEY, Philip Damian, 1932,98 Institute, 35 TOULA, Franz, 1845-1920, 44 Dokuchaev Institute, Kharkov, 34,41 TROLL, Cari Theodor Josef Maria, Ecclesiastical Academy of St. Peters1899-1975, 94,3g,03,100 burg, 33 Fondation Universitaire de BelleULE, Willi, 1861-1940, 71 ville, 7,j^ UNSTEAD, John Frederick, 1876-1965, Forestry Department, Russia, 34-5 99,100 Geological Committee, Russia, 40 German Academy of Sciences, 129 VALSAN, George, 1885-1935, 19 Godeffroy Muséum, 87,88 VARENIUS, Bernhardus, 1622-1650, 61 House of Représentatives, U.S.A., VASOVIC, Milorad, 1926, 30 132 VERNADSKY, Vladimir Ivanovich, 1863Institut, Académie des Sciences, ^6_ 1945, 37,35,77,81,£2 Institut fur Landeskunde, 70 VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, Paul, 1845-1918, Institute of France, 140,145. 7,14 Institute of the History of Natural VIRCHOW, Rudolf, 1821-1902, 88 Sciences and Technology, Moscow, VOYEIKOV, Alexander Ivanovich, 184239,82 1916, 71 Kendall Whaling Muséum, Sharon, VYSOTSKY, Geory Nikolaevich, 1865Mass., 143 1940, 37 Kharkov Veterinary Institute, 78, WAGNER, Hermann, 1840-1929, 70,72, 85_ Kommission Landeskundlicher Erfor91,105 schung der deutschen Schutzgebeit, WAITES, Bryan, 1931, 143 70 WALKER, Jesse, 134 Leicester Polytechnic, 143 WALLACE, Arthur Russel, 1823-1913, Ministry of Crown Domains, Russia, 71,74 34 WISE, Michael John, 1918, 51 Moscow Agricultural Institute WOOLDRIDGE, Stanley William, 1900(Academy), 34 1963, 11,49,51,53 WUNDT, Wilhelm, 1832-1920, 28 National Academy of Science, U.S.A., 132,137 YATES, E.M., 73 National Institute of Oceanography, 114 2. ORGANIZATIONS AND EELATED REFER- National Maritime Muséum, 143 ENCES National Research Council, U.S.A., 128,132 Collèges^ Institutest Institutions3 Nizkni Novgorod (Gorki) Natural Muséums3 Officiai and Research History Muséum, 34 Organizations Office of Naval Research, U.S.A.,

151

128,132 Peace Conférence, Paris, 1918-19, 26,32 Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of the History of Science, Education and Technology, 107 Poltava Muséum, 34 Prussian Kriegsakademie, 69,74 Régional Muséum, Constanta, 19 Royal Danish Academy of Sciences, 129,138 Royal Institution, 141,146 Scott Polar Institute, Cambridge,

143

Serbian Academy of Sciences, 26,29, 32_ Smolensk seminary, 23,40 Soil Department, U.S.A., 37 Soil Science Muséum, Leningrad, 34 Soil Section, World Exhibition, Paris, 1900, 37 Technische Hochschule, Dresden, 71 Texas Technological Collège, 128, 135 U.S. Department of Défense, Committee on Geophysics and Geography, 129, 132 Verein fur Erdkunde zu Halle, 70,74 Weber State Collège, Ogden, Utah, 64,125 Whitby Muséum, 143 World Columbus Exhibition, Chicago, 41_ Zentralausschuss fur deutsche Landeskunde, 72 Zentralkommission fur wissenschaftliche Landeskunde fur Deutschland, 70,72,74_,75_

Scientific

Congresses

and Commissions

Congress (8th) of Russian Naturalists and Physicians, ^1_ International Archaeology Congress, London, 1888, £3_ International Geographical Congresses 2nd Paris, 1875, 34 4th Paris, 1889, 44 7th Berlin, 1899, 85_ llth Cairo, 1925, 15 12th Cambridge, 1928, 53_ 14th Warsaw, 1934, 105 15th Amsterdam, 1938, 93 16th Lisbon, 1949, 93 17th Washington, 1952, 94,iJ6 International Geographical Union, Commission on Pliocène and Pleistocene Terraces, 8,16 International Geological Congress, Washington, 1890, 79,83 Pacific Science Congresses, 1961, 1967, 128,137

152

Index

Societies Agronomical Society, 37 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 129,137 American Association of Professional Geographers, 136 American Geographical Society, 9,16, 129,136,137 American Philosophical Society, 98 Amsterdam Geographical Society, 44 Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 4 Association of American Geographers, 128,129,137 Association géographique d'Alsace, lb_ Association of Petroleum Geologists, 129 Batumi Agricultural Society, 81,86 Berlin Geographical Society, 44,83, 92,94 British Association for the Advancement of Science, 140,141,145 Cairo Geographical Society, 44 Cultural Society of Dobrega, 19,23,

U_

Exeter Athenaeum Club, 146 Free Economie Society, Russia, 33,34, 38 Geological Society of America, 128, 137 Institute of British Geographers, 8, 11, L5 Joachim Lelewel Society, 105 Kharkov Literary Society, 78 Linnaean Society, 141 Mineralogical Society, Russia, 33 Naples Geographical Society, 44 Naturalists' Society, Russia, 33,41 Neuchâtel Geographical Society, 44 Nuremburg Geographical Society, 94 Patriotic Society of Poland, 103 Romanian Geographical Society, 19,20 Rome Geographical Society, 44,116,

118,119 Royal Dutch Geographical Society, 129 Royal Geographical Society, 145 Royal Society, 141,145 Royal Society of Edinburgh, 140,145 Royal Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography, 129,137 Russian Geographical Society, 78,83 Serbian Geographical Society, 32 Union of Polish Expatriâtes, 103 Union of St. Petersburg Landowners, 33 Vienna Geographical Society, 44 Warsaw Society of the Friends of Science, 108 Washington Geographical Society, 79, 83 Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, 139,

144 Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society, 141,143

Universities Belgrade (High School, then university), 25,28-9,30,21,32^ Berlin, 91,99^,105 Braunschweig, 93,100 Bucharest, 19,Z3,24_ Califomia, Berkeley, 127,128,135, 138 Cambridge, 113,114,116 Cambridge, Queen's Collège, 145,146 Cernauti, 19,24 Coimbra, 94 Cologne, 73 Cracow, 103,108 Craiova, 22 Edinburgh, 139,144 Erlangen, 56,66 Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 91,99 Giessen, 71,92,93,100 Gottingen, 65.,91,99_ Greifswald, 93,100 Halle, 56,62,69,72,74. Hannover Technical, 92,99 Harvard, 7,14 Heidelberg, 72 Jena, 56,74 Kharkov, 78,82 Konigsberg, 55,56,57,65 Leeds, 49,_52 Leipzig, 69,122,126 London, 11,14 King's Collège, 49f,73 London School of Economies, 49f Louisiana State, 128-37 Melbourne, 140,147 Moscow, 79,23,24. Munich, 69,70,71 Nottingham, 118 Paris, Sorbonne, 7,10,14,26,32,122 Prague, 122 Rennes, 7,14 Rostock, 72 Ruhr, Bochum, 5,64,125 St. Petersburg, 33-4,40,41^,77,22 Strasbourg, 7,8,11,15,17 Stuttgart, 93,94,101 Sydney, 98 Toronto, 63 Trier, 73 Vienna, 26,31_,75,122 Warsaw, 103,109 Wilno (Vilinius), 103,108,109 Wittenberg, 121,122,126 3. SUBJECTS Africa, exploration of, 43-4,46,47

air photography, 115 anthropology, Kant on, 56,57,60 applied geography, 21 Arab geographers, 1-6,104 Greek influence on, 2 Arctic, Scoresby visits to, 139, 140,141 Asia, geography of, 80 astronomy, 121,122,123 biogeography, 69,78,79,80,81 cartography history of, 103,104,105 Kant on, 59 Lautensach's work in, 92 central-place theory, 2,96 climate climatic zones, 79 relation to soils and végétation, 35,80,81 Russell on, 130 earthquakes, Kant on, 57 éducation in geography, 70,71,77,132 ethnography, 81,87,88 ethnology, 25,27-8,44,59 fieldwork al-Muqaddasî on, 3 of Cvijic, 26 of Lautensach, 93,94 in London University, 51 in nineteenth-century Russia, 345,78,79,80 in U.S.A., 128,129 France, research on, 7,8 geomorphology Baulig's views on, 8-11 coastal, 114,115,117,128,131,132, 133 désert, 130 hydrological, 116,117,130,131,140, 141 influence of W.M. Davis on, 8f,127J of karst in Balkans, 26 Lewis on, 114f of Mississippi valley and delta, 130,131,132 of mountains, 130 Penck (Albrecht) on, 9-10 qualitative and quantitative, 10 of river valleys, 34 of Romania, 19-21 glaciation in Balkan peninsula, 26-7 Lautensach on, 91 Lewis on, 113f periglacial, 115

pioneer course on, by Dokuchaev, 33,34 and Romanian landforms, 20,21 and Russian s o i l s , 34 and sea levels of the Quaternary period, 130,132,133 Greenland, 139,140,141

Index

h i s t o r i c a l geography, 5 0 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 7 0 - 1 , 103,104,105 human g e o g r a p h y , C v i j i c o n , 2 7 - 8 , 2 9 I c e l a n d , 115,116,119 I s l a n d e empire geography of, 2-4 provinces of, 4 régions of, 3,4 towns of, 4 Korea, geography of, 93,96 landscape and Landschaft, 71,94,121, 124 London, geography of, 50 Magnetism, Scoresby on, 140 Mathematics, geography and, in sixteenth century, 121,122 North America Baulig in, 7,9 work on, by L.R. Jones and P.W. Bryan, 50,52,53 Norway, glacial phenomena in, 114, 115,116 Oceania, geography of, 87,88 philosophy, Kant on its relation to geography, 56,57,59,60 physical geography, Kant on, 57,58, 59,61 Poland, geography of, 103,104,105 political geography of Balkans, 28,29 and geopolitics, 92 Kant on, 57,58 Portugal, geography of, 92,94,95,96 régional geography, 70,71,72,95,96 Romania, geography of, 19-21 soil science, in Russia, 33,34,35, 36,37,77,78,79,80 Spitzbergen, 140,141,144 tectonic éléments, of Balkan peninsula, 27 theology, geography in relation to Kant on, 55,56,60,61 Rheticus on, 122 transport, effect on industrial location, 50 végétation zones of Russia, 37 vocabulary, geographical, contribution of Baulig on, 9 Yugoslavia, Cvijic on, 25f 4. CUMULATIVE LIST 0F OGRAPHIES

BIOBIBLI-

AL-MUQADDASÎ, o. 945-c. 988, vol 4, 1-6 ANCEL, Jacques, 1882-1943, vol 3, 1-6 ANUCHIN, Dmitry Nikolaevich, 18431923, vol 2, 1-8 ARB0S, Philippe, 1882-1956, vol 3, 7-12 ATW00D, Wallace Walter, 1872-1949,

vol 3, 13-18

1964, vol 2, 67-71

BAULIG, Henri, 1877-1962, vol 4, 717 BERNARD, Augustin, 1865-1947, vol 3, 19-27 BLACHE, Jules, 1893-1970, vol 1, 1-8 B0SE, Nirmal Kumar, 1901-1972, vol 2, 9-11 B0WMAN, Isaiah, 1878-1950, vol 1, 918 BRATESCU, Constantin, 1882-1945, vol 4, 19-24 BRIGHAM, Albert Perry, 1855-1929, vol 2, 13-19 BROOKS, Alfred Hulse, 1871-1924, vol 1, 19-23 C0RTAMBERT, E u g è n e , 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 8 1 , v o l 2 , 21-5 C0TT0N, C h a r l e s Andrew, 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 7 0 , v o l 2 , 27-32 CVIJIC, J o v a n , 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 2 7 , v o l 4 , 2 5 32 D'ABBADIE, Antoine, 1810-1897, vol 3, 29-33 DAVIDSON, George, 1825-1911, vol 2, 33-7 DIMITRESCU-ALDEM, Alexandre, 18801917, vol 3, 35-7 DOKUCHAEV, Vasily Vasilyevich, 18461903, vol 4, 33-42 ERATOSTHENES, o. v o l 2 , 39-43

153

2 7 5 - c . 195 B . C . ,

GEDDES, A r t h u r , 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 6 8 , v o l 2 , 45-51 GEDDES, P a t r i c k , 1 8 5 4 - 1 9 3 2 , v o l 2 , 53-65 GEIKIE, A r c h i b a l d , 1 8 3 5 - 1 9 2 4 , v o l 3 , 39-52 GEIKIE, J a m e s , 1 8 3 9 - 1 9 1 5 , v o l 3 , 53-62 GILBERT, Edmund W i l l i a m , 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 7 3 , vol 3 , 63-71 GILBERT, Grove K a r l , 1 8 4 3 - 1 9 1 8 , v o l 1, 25-33 GILLMAN, C l é m e n t , 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 4 6 , v o l 1 , 35-41 GRANÔ, J o h a n n e s G a b r i e l , 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 5 6 , v o l 3 , 73-84 HERBERTSON, Andrew John, 1865-1915, vol 3, 85-92 HIMLY, Louis-Auguste, 1823-1906, vol 1, 43-7 HO, Robert, 1921-1972, vol 1, 49-54 HÔHNEL, Ludwig von, 1857-1942, vol 4, 43-7 HUTCHINGS, Geoffrey Edward, 1900-

JONES, Llewellyn Rodwell, 1881-1947, vol 4, 49-53 KANT, Immanuel, 1724-1804, vol 4, 55-67 KECKERMANN, Bartholomâus, 15721609, vol 2, 73-9 KIRCHHOFF, Alfred, 1838-1907, vol 4, 69-76 KOMAROV, Vladimir Leontyevitch, 1869-1945, vol 1, 55-8 KRASNOV, Andrey Nikolaevich, 18621914, vol 4, 77-86 KUBARY, Jan Stanisjîaw, 1846-1896, vol 4, 87-9 LAUTENSACH, Hermann, 1886-1971, vol 4, 91-101 LELEWEL, Joachim, 1786-1861, vol 4, 103-12 LEVASSEUR, Emile, 1828-1911, vol 2, 81-7 LEWIS, William Vaughan, 1907-1961, vol 4, 113-20 MAURY, Matthew Fontaine, 1806-1873, vol 1, 59-63 MEHEDINTI, Simion, 1868-1962, vol 1, 65-72' MELANCHTHON, Philipp, 1497-1560, vol 3, 93-7 MILL, Hugh Robert, 1861-1950, vol 1, 73-8 MILNE, Geoffrey, 1898-1942, vol 2, 89-92 MUNSTER, Sébastian, 1488-1552, vol 3, 99-106 PLATT, Robert Swanton, 1891-1964, vol 3, 107-116 POL, Wincenty, 1807-1872, vol 2, 93-7 POWELL, John Wesley, 1834-1902, vol 3, 117-24 RAVENSTEIN, E m s t G e o r g , 1 8 3 4 - 1 9 1 3 , v o l 1 , 79-82 RECLUS, E l i s é e , 1 8 3 0 - 1 9 0 5 , v o l 3 , 125-32 RENNELL, J a m e s , 1 7 4 2 - 1 8 3 0 , v o l 1 , 83-8 RHETICUS, Georg J o a c h i m , 1 5 1 4 - 1 5 7 4 , v o l 4 , 121-6 ROMER, E u g e n i u s z , 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 5 4 , v o l 1 , 89-96 RUSSELL, R i c h a r d J o ë l , 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 7 1 , v o l 4 , 127-38 SAUER, C a r i O r t w i n , 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 7 5 , v o l 2 , 99-108

154

Index

SCHRADER, F r a n z , 1 8 4 4 - 1 9 2 4 , v o l 1 , 97-103 SCORESBY, W i l l i a m , 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 5 7 , v o l 4 , 139-47 SHALER, N a t h a n i e l S o u t h g a t e , 1 8 4 1 1 9 0 6 , v o l 3 , 133-9 SMITH, George Adam, 1 8 5 6 - 1 9 4 2 , v o l 1 , 105-6 SOMERVILLE, Mary, 1 7 8 0 - 1 8 7 2 , v o l 2 , 109-11 STRZELECKI, Pawejf Edmund, 1 7 9 7 - 1 8 7 3 , v o l 2 , 113-18 TAYLOR, Thomas Griffith, 1880-1963, vol 3, 141-53 TILLO, Alexey Andreyevich, 1839-1900, vol 3, 155-9 TOPELIUS, Zachris, 1818-1898, vol 3, 161-3 VALLAUX, Camille, 1870-1945, vol 2, 119-26 VALSAN, George, 1885-1935, vol 2, 127-33 VOYEIKOV, Alexander Ivanovich, 18421916, vol 2, 135-41 WEULERSSE, J a c q u e s , 1 9 0 5 - 1 9 4 6 , v o l 107-12 YAMASAKI, Naomasa, 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 2 8 , v o l 113-17

1, 1,