Geographers Biobibliographical Studies Volume 1 9781474231077, 9781474231053

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GEOGRAPHERS Biobibliographical Studies VOLUME 1

GEOGRAPHERS BIOBIBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES This volume forms part of the series Studies in the History of Geography planned by the International Geographical Union, Commission of the History of Geographical Thought. Chairman, Professor Philippe Pinchemel, Institut de Géographie, Université de Paris, 191 rue Saint Jacques, 75005, Paris. Secretary Professor T.W. Freeman, Department of Geography, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL. Ordinary members: Professor Vladimir Annenkov, Geographical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Staromonetny per 29, Moscow V-17; Professor Jozef Babicz, Institut d'Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques, Polska Akademia Nauk, Nowy Swiat 72, Warsaw; Professor George Kish, Department of Geography, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104; ProfessorJosef Schmithüsen, Universitat des Saarlandes, Geographisches Institut, Universität Bau 11 IV, D-66, Saarbrücken 15, West Germany. Honorary members: Mr Gerald Crone, 34 Cleveland Road, Ealing, London W13; Professor Robert E. Dickinson, 636 West Roller Coaster Road, Tucson 85704; Professor R. Hartshorne, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; Professor Vintila Mihailescu, Str. Muntii Tatral 2, Bucaresti 8.

GEOGRAPHERS Biobibliographical Studies VOLUME 1

Edited by T. W. Freeman, Marguerita Oughton and Philippe Pinchemel on behalf of the International Geographical Union Commission on the History of Geographical Thought

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc LON DON • OX F O R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA

www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in 1977 by Mansell Information/Publishing Limited Reprinted 1978, 1979 © International Geographical Union, 1977 T.W. Freeman, Marguerita Oughton and Philippe Pinchemel have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Editors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: ePDF: 978-1-4742-3105-3 ePub: 978-1-4742-3106-0 Geographers: biobibliographical studies. (Studies in the history of geography). Vol. 1: Index. ISBN 0-7201-0637-0 ISSN 0308-6992 1. Title 2. Series 3. Freeman, Thomas Walter 4. Oughton, Marguerita 5. Pinchemel, Philippe 6. Commission on the History of Geographical Thought 910’92’2 G67 Geographers Series: Geographers: Biobibliographical Studies, volume 1

Contents Introduction

Philippe

Pinchemel

vii

The Commission on the History of Geographical Thought T. W. Freeman List of Abbreviations

xi Jean Nicod

Jules Blache 1893-1970 Isaiah Bowman 1878-1950 Alfred Hulse Brooks 1871-1924 Grove Karl Gilbert 1843-1918

Geoffrey

Robert Ho 1921-1972

9

Morgan Sherwood

19

Preston

E. James

25

Brian S. Hoyle

35

Vincent

Berdoulay

43

George C.H. Cho

49

T.D.

Ilyina

55

Leighty

59

Mihailesou

65

T.W. Freeman

73

David B. Grigg

79

Alan Downes

83

Vladimir Leontyevitch Komarov 1869--1945

John

Matthew Fontaine Maury 1806-1873 Simion Mehedinfi 1868-1962 Hugh Robert Mill 1861-1950 Ernst Georg Ravenstein 1834-1913 James Rennell 1742-1830 Eugeniusz Romer 1871-1954

J.

Vintila

Jozef

Franz Schrader 1844-1924 George Adam Smith 1856-1942

1

Martin

Clement Gillman 1882-1946 Louis-Auguste Himly 1823-1906

ix

Babiaz

89

Numa Broc

97

Middleton

105

Dorothy

Jacques Weulersse 1905-1946

Pierre

Gourou

107

Naomasa Yamasaki 1870-1928

Usao

Tsujita

113

Index

119

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viii

Introduction

As time goes by, reference to obituary notices and entries in biographical dictionaries tends to decline. Research attention is given to only a limited number of individuals, for their influence in establishing some school of thought, for the importance of their publications or because of the careers of their disciples. These reflect their apparent scientific influence and their place in those scientific institutions through which they achieved their work or through which their views have been opposed. The selection of figures to be remembered may also come about through intellectual interest. However objective one may be, one tends to rediscover those whose ideas and concepts appear to be relevant to modern interests, the founder fathers or pioneers of present-day concepts. Consequently the names of many people of significance to the history of geography have been forgotten as time passes. The history of geography in the nineteenth century rests essentially on four names: Humboldt, Ritter, Ratzel and Vidal de la Blache. Yet alongside these four great men, whose place in the creation of modern geography is incontestable, there are many others less well known but without whom the whole development of geography cannot be appreciated. Among them were university men, explorers, statisticians, men who founded and worked for geographical societies, map curators, cartographers, historians, natural historians and geologists. For geography has never been the exclusive concern of geographers: it is not so at the present time nor was it so in the past when there was no formal institutional structure to support geographical research and education. Geographers will publish periodical collections of biobibliographical studies with the aim of showing the evolution of geography as a science and of geographical thought throughout the world. It will be an international enterprise with contributors in many countries. A general pattern will be adopted in the compilation of the studies. In the biographical texts, the authors will deal with three major aspects: the education, life, work and personality of the subject; scientific ideas and geographical thought; influence and spread of ideas, and assessment of the place of the subject in the development of geography and of geographical thinking. The bibliographies will vary in character and length, depending on the nature of the work of the subject of the study and the extent of existing bibliographical references to his work. In general the bibliographies will be selective and classified thematically, and will give references to other sources on the subject of the study. Already the manuscripts received from authors of biobibliographical studies in many countries show the extent of the interest in this new enterprise. Some figures previously unknown in international geography are revealed as having done work of immense value in their own countries. Others who were little known or sank into obscurity in the shadow of more dominant minds and personalities are now given an appropriate place in the evolution of their subject. Studies of scholars in the other disciplines who have contributed to geographical thinking emphasize the interdependence of a number of specialized scientific fields and show the fecundity of interdisciplinary research. As more and more biobibliographical studies are published, it will be possible to put new construc-

tions on the history of geography, replacing or revising existing theories of the evolution of the subject. Through the study of the work and achievements of many more individuals, ideas which until now have been based on the work and influence of a few founder fathers, dominant individuals of outstanding scholarship, will give way to theories which take account of the work and influence of a much greater number of contributors to the growth of geographical thought. It will be seen that the influence and status of the major figures cannot be precisely understood or assessed without knowledge of the background against which they worked. Without the less well known and less dramatic figures, the development of geography as a scientific study would have been different. The international character of Geographers should lead to the discovery of links between geographers and geographical thinking in widely separated countries and to cross-currents in education, research and publication in the geographical field, particularly in the field of European geography. The variety of the biobibliographical studies will lead to a better understanding of the international relationships between schools of thought and of the spread of influence of such schools, sometimes through the historical processes of colonization, sometimes through connections between institutions or through shared languages. These biobibliographical studies which are now being published will in the future become source material for research and new thinking, particularly for studies of schools of geography and of trends of thought in geography, both national and international. The Commission invites geographers throughout the world to collaborate in this enterprise. In launching this new periodical it does not ignore the difficulties and uncertainties that may arise. The appearance of the first volume marks an important step forward but the most difficult stages must not be overlooked. The continuation of a project can be more difficult than its initiation. The Commission now looks to the international geographical community to ensure the success of Geographers through support both by means of subscriptions to receive it and of contributions towards its contents.

Philippe Pinchemel, Chairman, Commission on the History of Geographical Thought

The Commission on the History of Geographical Thought Originally appointed at the Congress in New Delhi in 1968 the Commission met in Paris in 1969 and 1970, under the chairmanship of Philippe Pinchemel. The first task was to find out which geographers were interested in the history of geographical thought. The members of the Commission agreed to make enquiries throughout the world: Philippe Pinchemel in western Europe, Latin America, North Africa and West Africa, George Kish in North America and South Africa, A. Mints in the U.S.S.R., Jozef Babicz in eastern Europe and Asia, and T. W. Freeman in Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries. The last-named, acting as secretary to the Commission, also enquired from all British and Irish universities where geography courses existed about the teaching of the history of geographical thought and virtually all replied. The emphasis given varied markedly from one university to another but the interest was almost universal. To celebrate the first Congress, in 1871, of geographers from all over the world, plans were made in Paris in 1970 for the publication, in English and French, of Geography

Jean Gottmann gave a lecture on Albert Demangeon to mark the centenary of his birth in 1872 and Professors Gerassimov, Annenkov and Mints gave a joint paper on stages in the development of modern geography based largely on the Congress publications from 1871 to 1968. The paper was presented by Professor Mints, a full member of the Commission, tragically killed on 19 February 1973. Each paper aroused considerable discussion and the Commission, encouraged by the response to its efforts since 1968, then embarked on plans for future work. It was recognized that,though many geographers were interested in the history of geographical thought, few of its members devoted all their research to this topic. And it was also true that publications on aspects of the history of geographical thought were spread through a wide range of journals, including those devoted to the history of science and of education. These conclusions were based on bibliographical research made in several countries. One major possibility appeared to be the writing of studies of individual geographers, using the term through a century of International Congresses 3 La geographers in a somewhat liberal sense to include geographie a travers un siecle de Congres Interpersons who may not have regarded themselves as geonationauXj 252p. This was the work of fifteen authors, graphers at all but who nevertheless made contribuwriting in English and French, with a foreword by the tions of significance. Eventually it was agreed that President of the International Union, S. Leszczycki of these should be of differing lengths, and various Warsaw. It was published with the financial assistance national committees, or in some cases individuals, beof UNESCO. It includes a bibliography of I.G.U. pubgan to compile lists of geographers in their own counlications from 1871 and was given to all members of tries to be the subject of such studies. Further meetthe 1972 Congress in Montreal. ings of the Commission were held at Jadwasin, Warsaw, Apart from the full members of the Commission, a 13-17 September 1973, in association with the Vth Internumber of geographers were invited to become corresnational Conference on the History of Cartography, in ponding members. There has normally been approximately the University of Manchester on 5-8 September 1974 and fifty of these, including a number nominated by Nationin Greenwich, England on 5-7 September 1975. al Committees of Geography. Before the 1972 Congress At these meetings one main topic of discussion was the Commission published a short history of geographical the compilation and possible publication of the biothought: Paul C. Claval, La Pensee Geographique. Inbibliographical studies available from various countries. troduction a son histoire, Paris, SEBES, 1972, 117p The chairman provided a sample, written by Francois Carre (Publications de la Sorbonne, Serie N.S. Recherches 2. on Charles Vallaux, and a methodological guide was worked Centre d'Histoire de la Geographie et de Geographie out. During the meeting in Manchester Miss Marguerita historique). In 1971 there was a meeting of the ComOughton, experienced as a free-lance editor and also in mission at Budapest immediately before the Regional Con- editing the British journal Geography, was invited to ference, of which a record is given in La Naissance de discuss possible publication within reasonable financial la geographie moderne. Friedrich Ratzel et Paul Vidal bounds. Meanwhile the secretary had been invited to de la Blache3 Symposium of the Commission held at Buda- discuss the project with the British National Committee, pest in 1971, published by Institut de Recherches geoin July 1974. From this meeting came the useful suggesgraphiques, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, tion that the Social Science Research Council might sup1974, 145p. port this research, especially on British geographers, During the Montreal Congress of 1972, two meetings but in a broader context also. Fortunately this support of the Commiss ion were held. On 12 August Professor was given and Miss Oughton became a Research Associate

x

The Commission on the History of Geographical Thought

to the secretary based on the Department of Geography in the University of Manchester. Since Miss Oughton's appointment from March 1975 considerable progress has been made not only in writing studies of British geographers but also in encouraging work throughout the world of which one expression is this publication. Miss Oughton has been responsible also for much of the translation of manuscripts submitted in French. In its work the Commission is looking to wider horizons than those apparent here. At various meetings papers have been given on national schools of geography and on the relation of geographical study to other branches of learning. And as the Introduction by Philippe Pinchemel shows, the history of geographical thought is part of a wider theme. Authors dealings with particular geographers must inevitably be aware of the social, economic and political circumstances of their time. By the nature of his work the geographer must be aware in a very special sense that he is a citizen of the world.

T. W. Freeman Reports of the Commission on the History of Geographical Thought have been published in the I.G-U. Bulletin, vol. 23 (1972), no.7, 13-15; vol.25 (1974), no.l, 12-13; vol. 26 (1975), nos. 1-2, 27. Note: Intending authors are asked to write to Professor T. W. Freeman, c/o Department of Geography, The University, Manchester M13 9PL, who will send a note of information for authors of biobibliographical studies.

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviations have been adopted from British Standard 4148: Part 23 1975 Word-abbreviation list, and refers to abbreviations in both the bibliographical references and Chronological Tables Allg,

Launder- u. Vblkerkunde Allgemeine Lander- und vBlkerkunde Am. Assoc. Advance. Sci. American Association for the Advancement of Science Am. Geogr. Soc. Bull. American Geographical Society Bulletin Am. Geogr. Soc. Spec. Publ. American Geographical Society Special Publication Am. J. Sci. American Journal of Science An. Acad. Romane Analele Academiei Romane Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. Annals of the Association of American Geographers Ann. de G&ogr. Annales de Geographie Annu. Club Alpin Franqais Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais Assoc. Am. Coll. Bull. Association of American Colleges Bulletin Assoc. Am. Geogr. Association of American Geographers Baltimore Bull. Educ. Baltimore Bulletin of Education Br. Assoc. Advance. Sci. British Association for the Advancement of Science Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr. Buletinul Societatii Romane de Geografie Bull. Alabama Geol. Surv. Bulletin of the Alabama Geological Survey Bull. Am. Geogr. and Stat. Soc. Bulletin American Geographical and Statistical Society Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr. Bulletin de 1'Association des Geographes Francais Bull. Etud. Orient. Inst. Fr. de Damas Bulletin d'Etude: orientales de l'Institut francais de Damas Bull. Geogr. Soc. Philadelphia Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America Bull. Sci. Soc. Malaya Bulletin of the Scientific Society of Malaya Bull. Soc. G£ogr. Marseille Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie de Marseille Bull. Spec. Libr. Assoc. Geography and Map. Div. Bulletin Special Libraries Association, Geography and Map Division (U.S.A.) C.R. Congr. Intern. G&ogr. Compte-Rendus du Congres International de Geographie

Congr. Intern, de la Population Congres International de la Population Congr. Intern. Geogr. Congres International de Geographie East Afr. Agric. J. East African Agricultural Journal East African Geographical Review East Afr. Geogr. Rev Edinburgh New Philosophical Edinburgh New Philos J. Journal Foreign Aff. Foreign Affairs Geogr. Geography Geogr. Ann. Geografiska Annaler Geogr. Assoc. Geographical Association Geogr. J. Geographical Journal Geogr. Mag. Geographical Magazine Geogr. Rev. Geographical Review Geogr. Teacher Geographical Teacher Geol. Rundsch. Geologische Rundschau Geol. Soc. Am. Geological Society of America Geol. Surv. Ohio Geological Survey of Ohio Geol. Surv. Tanganyika Geological Survey of Tanganyika I.G.U. International Geographical Union Illinois State Geol. Surv. Bull. Illinois State Geological Survey Bulletin Inst, de France, Acad. Sci. Morales et Polit. Institut de France, Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques Inst. Geogr. Alp. Institut de Geographie Alpine Intern. Geogr. Congr. International Geographical Congress Intern. Geogr. Un. International Geographical Union Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR Izv. Gos. Geogr. Obshch. .Izvestiya Gosudarstvennogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva (formerly Izv. Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva) IzV. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. Izvestiya Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva J. Ecol. Journal of Ecology J. Geogr. Journal of Geography J. Geogr. Chicago Journal of Geography of Chicago J. Geol. Journal of Geology J. Geomorphol. Journal of Geomorphology J.R. Soc. Arts Journal of the Royal Society of Arts J. Stat. Soc. Journal of the Statistical Society J. Trop. Geogr. Journal of Tropical Geography J. Washington Acad. Sci. Journal of the Washington Academy of Science La France Miditerr. et Afr. La France Mediterraneenne et Africaine L 'Inf. d'Outre-Mer L'Information d'Outre-Mer Malay. Agric. J. Malayan Agricultural Journal

xii

List of Abbreviations

Malay. Econ. Rev.

Malayan Economic Review

Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. of the U.S.A.

National Academy of Sciences

Natl. Geogr. Mag. National Geographic Magazine Natl. Geogr. Monogr. National Geographic Monograph Orient, Geogr. Oriental Geographer Pac. Viewpoint Pacific Viewpoint Philos. Soc. Washington Bull. Philosophical Society Proc.

of Washington Bulletin Afr. Assoc. Proceedings of the African Association

Proc. Am. Assoc.

Advance.

Sci.

Proceedings of the Am-

erican Association for the Advancement of Science

Proc. Centen.-Bi-Centen.

Biol.

Conf.

Proceedings of the

Centennial-Bi-Centennial Biological Conference

Proc. Ref. Conf. Intern.

Geogr. Union

Proceedings of

the Regional Conference of the International Geographical Union Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.) R. Geogr. Soc. Royal Geographical Society R. Meteorol. Soc. Royal Meteorological Society R. Scott. Geogr. Soc. Royal Scottish Geographical Society

R. Soc. Philos.

Trans.

Royal Society Philosophical

Transactions

Records Dar es Salaam Cult.

Soc.

Records of the Dar es

Salaam Cultural Society

Recueil

Trav.

Inst.

Geogr. Alp.

Recueil des Travaux de

l'Institut de Geographie Alpine

Rev. de G&ogr. Rev. de I'Econ.

Revue de Geographie Contemp. Revue de l'Economie Contempo-

raine Ec. Anthropol. Paris Revue de l'Ecole d'Anthropologic de Paris Rev. Enseign. Sup. Revue de l'Enseignement Superieur Rev. Gtogr. Alp. Revue de Geographie Alpine Rev.

Rev. Geogr. Him. et Ethnol.

Revue de Geographie Humaine

et d'Ethnologie Rev. G&ogr. Lyon Revue de Geographie de Lyon

Rev. G&ogr. Pyr. et Sud-Ouest

Revue e Geographie des

Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest Rev. Intern. Enseign. Revue Internationale de l'Enseignement

Rev. Polit.

et Parliamentaire

Revue Politique et Par-

liamentaire

Rev. Trav. Acad. Sci. Morales et Polit

Revue des Travaux

de l'Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques

S. Afr. Geogr. J. South African Geographical Journal Sci. Mon. Scientific Monthly Scott. Geogr. Mag. Scottish Geographical Magazine Sov. Botan. Sovetskaya Botanika Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

Trans.

6th Intern.

Congr. Soil

Sci.

Transactions of the

6th International Congress of Soil Science U.N. Conf. United Nations Conference U.S. Geogr. Surv. United States Geographical Survey

U.S. Geol. Surv.j

Ann. Rep.

United States Geological

Survey, Annual Report U.S. Off. Educ. Bull. United States Office of Education Bulletin Univ. Universite, University

Vestn.

Akad. Nauk SSSR Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR

Z. Gletscherkunde

Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde

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2

Jules

Blaohe

graphical laboratory at Aix. On his retirement he spent his time at Saint-Ismier and Nice and remained closely associated with the geographical institutes at Aix, Grenoble and Nice. An excellent researcher, teacher and administrator, Blache was endowed with exceptional gifts. His capacity for analysis was remarkable. From the time of his early education, he had a taste for dialectic and he retained a critical approach which his students held in awe. But these formidable qualities were tempered by others acquired during his researches among the pastoralists and lumbermen of the massifs of the Pre'-Alps. There he acquired a sense of reality and the concrete and an understanding of humanity which moderated his penchant for the abstract. His courses and his interpretations of maps were always enjoyable experiences; his talent for self-expression and his graphic and verbal clarity were incomparable. Indeed he was in a class by himself, and though he combined a rigorous scientific method with natural goodwill, nevertheless his critical vision of human dignity led him to the uncompromising patriotic viewpoint which rejected the regime imposed on France during the Second World War and in due time changed the direction of his career. The consequence of this was the diminution of his scientific work after 1944. 2.

SCIENTIFIC

IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

Like most geographers of his time, Jules Blache was educated primarily in historical researches but it was not difficult for him to become a talented human geographer. It was in geomorphology, however, that he made his name and in which he made some pioneer contributions, particularly in aerial photointerpretation in 1919 and in pedology, the latter influenced by his reading of M.H. Erhart's work Traite de Hdologie (1933). a. Geomorphology Blache's first researches were on glacial geomorphology and he returned to this field on many later occasions, even as late as 1952, when his La Sculpture Glaciaire synthesized the ideas developed by the Grenoble school. From his earliest studies of the Liassic hills on the east flanks of the Gr&sivaudan he inferred that traces of pre-glacial erosion surfaces should not be sought there but rather the results of differential glacial erosion of the marls and schists and forms of fluviatile action lateral to the glacier. From these observations he was drawn into controversy with Emmanuel de Martonne, for he became a strong advocate of the geomorphological role of glacial sculpture, a theme which he frequently developed with the aid of analytical material on glacial troughs in Switzerland, Norway, Spitzbergen and other areas. The development of these ideas owed much initially to work by W.H. Hobbs from 1911 and of H.W:son Ahlmann in 1919 but especially of H. Hess who in 1931 demonstrated the conditions of glacial ice flow. This last work effectively allowed Blache to base his hypothesis on physical principles. Starting with his work of 1936, Comment s'etablit le profil des valines glaciaires? y Blache compared the

action of a glacier in its trough with that of a river in its bed. The succession of basins and steps, the floors of hanging valleys, the variety of levels of shoulders could all be explained by variations in the volumes and erosive capacities of ice flow, as a function of the degree of glaciation. He attached special significance to the confluence and diffluence of ice streams, an aspect taken up by Raoul Blanchard in the successive volumes of Alpes Occidentales (1938-56) though these ideas had been used by Blache in his earliest work. Study of the Grande Chartreuse and Vercors led Blache to formulate laws of structural geomorphology, in which process some basic principles emerged, notably in the course of his early theses and in his papers of 1925 ('Relief prealpin et relief jurassien') and 1928 ('Volume montagneux et erosion fluviale'). These included the significance of the relative thicknesses of resistant and less resistant strata in the development of structural escarpments; the importance of the altitude of resistant strata above transverse valleys; the influence of tectonics in the potential formation of inversions of relief. His theory of landform sculpture by meanders, conceived in Lorraine, particularly at Liverdun, was formulated in 1939-40 ('Le probleme des meandres encaissis...') and has become classic. Similarly his work on river capture in Lorraine, on which he published two papers, is frequently cited. Blache was a pioneer also in another line of inquiry. In his paper of 1942 ('Des versants aux rivieres') he introduced a concept of the evolution of slopes that was much nearer the morphoclimatic point of view than Baulig had presented in his paper of 1940, 'Profil d'£quilibre des versants'. Blache's work was based on his observation of landscapes, the work of pedologists which he wished geographers to appreciate and the researches of American geomorphologists. These fundamental contributions to geomorphology, based on his discriminating powers of observation, opened a door to new researches in geomorphology just at the time when Blache's career was destined to change direction. b. Mountain geography A highlander by birth, Blache deeply loved and understood the mountain environment. His first intimate knowledge of the Pre'-Alps was later extended to the Alps and was developed through his numerous articles on their traditional economy, their pastoral life and the mountain habitat, and through the second part of his thesis on the Grande Chartreuse and the Vercors. His wartime experience of flying over the Moroccan highlands and his travels in Corsica and Norway widened his knowledge of mountain geography, a process which culminated in the writing of his synthesis L'Homme et la Montagne (1934). His master, friend and collaborator, Raoul Blanchard contributed the preface to this work, in which he reflected on the difficulties and complexities of research in mountain geography and with pleasure welcomed especially the final synthesis in which Blache drew together the general characteristics of mountain life and demonstrated the psycholological influence of mountains in words which 'rise to a kind of philosophy'. He pointed out that Blache concluded with the melancholy reflection that there existed a decadence caused by the impact of modern

Jules ways upon the life of the mountains.

c. Other

studies

When he was appointed at Nancy in 1935, Blache turned resolutely from his research in mountain geography, though his work had reached a mature scientific stage, and directed his attention to investigations of agrarian structure and rural habitats. This new direction of his interests was influenced by the work of Albert Demangeon, of the historian Marc Bloch and of Roger Dion. Unfortunately the outbreak of the Second World War interrupted these promising studies. His work on landscapes of west African countries was published in 1940 and he embarked on another theme, in which he intended to blend geography and philosophy, a study of islands. After some early work, published in 1936, he did not return to this theme until he had visited Reunion and Mauritius as Rector of the Academy of Aix, after the war. In the 1950s he took up urban geography, in the course of which he produced some interesting if abbreviated material on American towns. The variety of Blache's researches demonstrates the catholicity of his geographical interest. On his death Paul Veyret remarked how he had always remained attentive to the changes in the world around him. In geomorphology as in human geography, his approach was first through direct observation and analysis of landscapes, a method in which, like his master Blanchard, he excelled. But he also possessed a rigour and elegance in his reasoning and a regard for simple, coherent explanation. On the other hand he was capable, with his implacable logic, of swiftly demolishing a thesis that conflicted with his own. For instance his paper 'La question des peneplaines du Jura tabulaire' (1929) was a caustic critique of the thesis of Georges Chabot. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Blache's work in structural, glacial and fluvial geomorphology established principles that were virtually axiomatic and which remain accepted, though there may be local exceptions related to special cases. Thus

Pierre Birot, in his Precis

de Geographie

Physique

generate (1959) adopts Blache's views that variations in the thickness of the ice are crucial in landform sculpture by glaciers, on the difference between superimposed and incised meanders, and particularly on Blache's law concerning monoclinal escarpments with cliff faces. Blache used a method of rigorous analysis to demonstrate the differing conditions under which relief was evolved in the Juras and the PreAlps. The laws he established in this process remain valid, even though the type regions may be specific, by reason of the influence of tectonics and morphology in the Jura and of differences of thickness and facies of Urgonian rocks in the Chartreuse. In the field of human geography Blache's work has been equally fertile. His ideas on the inevitable economic decline of mountainous regions have been taken forward by Blanchard in his monumental work on the Western Alps. In this the master had become the pupil, as he showed in his dedication of the first

volume of this work, Les Prealpes

frangaises

du Nord3

to Blache. L'Homme et la Montagne has served as a source and guide to many students and teachers, and

Blache

3

although it has been superseded because of modern developments in mountain regions of European countries (such as hydro-electricity reorganization, tourism and winter sports, transalpine tunnels) Blache's book remains the only work giving a synthetic treatment of its subject. On an entirely different theme, by inaugurating in Lorraine the methodical analysis of the structure of landholdings, Blache opened up another topic which has proved to be extraordinarily fruitful. Although the circumstances of his career prevented Jules Blache himself from bringing to fruition many of the investigations developed under his direction, his influence has proved to be profound and lasting, whether as counsellor or guide, through his research, his many articles (mostly published in Revue de Geographie Alpine), through his teaching and through the contacts he continued to maintain after he became Rector at Aix university and in his retirement. After his death Paul Veyret described him as 'a liberal without illusions but not without convictions, one who exposed pretentious claims and myths quite irrevocably, not through excessive criticism but by the expression of that civic responsibility which was a feature of the man throughout his life. It was a delight to listen to his fulminations against false prophets, his diatribe punctuated with bursts of homeric laughter'.

Bibliography and Sources 1- OBITUARIES AND REFERENCES Isnard, H. and Nicod, J. 'Jules Blache', Mediterranie, July-Sept 1970, 207-10 Veyret, P. 'Jules Blache', Rev. Geogr. Alp.t vol. 4, 589-92 'Pages Geographiques par J. Blache' is a collection in

the Publications de 1'Institut de Geographie de la Faculte" des Lettres d'Aix en Provence, Gap, 1963. It

was published on the occasion of Blache's retirement and contains a comprehensive bibliography of his publications as well as reprints of some of his more important articles and an appreciation by Raoul Blanchard,'Les debuts geographiques de Jules Blache' (pages 5 to 9 ) . 2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY J. BLACHE a. General geomorphology 1913 'Note sur 1'evolution du lit des cours d'eau',

Recueil

1925 1928 1929

Trav.Inst.

Geogr. Alp.,

vol 1, 193-200

'Relief pre-alpin et relief jurassien*, Ann. de Gtogr.y vol 34, 398-412 'Volume montagneux et erosion fluviale', Rev. Gtogr. Alp., vol 16, 455-97 'La question des peneplaines du Jura tabulaire'

Rev. GZogr. Alp.t vol 17, 155-71 1931 Les massifs de la Grande Chartreuse et du Vercors. Etude g&ographique (These Lettres

4

Jules

Blache

Grenoble), vol 1, GSographie physique, Grenoble, 477p. 1932 'Les grands traits de la morphologie corse', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 20, 627-53 1933 'Etudes mcrphologiques en Savoie', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 21, 543-68 1939-40 'Le probleme des meandres encaisses et les rivieres lorraines', J.Geomorphol., vol 2, 201-12, vol 3, 311-31 1942 'Des versants aux rivieres', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 30, 1-50 'Sur l'origine des meandres encaisses', Bull. Assoc. Ge'ogr. Fr., no 140-1, 91-5 1943 'Captures comparees. La vallee morte de la Bar et les cas voisins', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 31, 1-37 'Le mecanisme des captures fluviales', Bull. Assoc. Ge'ogr. Fr., no 155-6, 78-82, no 157-8, 103 b. Glacial geomorphology 1914 'Le bord d'auge glaciaire du Gresivaudan (rive gauche), etude de morphologie glaciaire', Recueil Trav. Inst. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 2, 353-406 1915 'La rive gauche du Gresivaudan. Etude de morphologie glaciaire', Z. Gletscherkunde, vol 9, 188-207 1916 'Notes de morphologie glaciaire. Vallees d'Uriage et d'Allevard1, Recueil Trav. Inst. Geogr. Alp., vol 4, 285-95 1923 'Morphologie et glaciers norvegiens, d'apres Hans W:son Ahlmann', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 11, 201-21 1934 'Traits alpins et traits non alpins des glaciers et de la topographie du Spitzberg occidental', C.R. Congr. Intern. Ge'ogr. Varsovie, vol 2, Warsaw, 1936, 229-34 1936 'Comment s'etablit le profil accident! des vallees glaciaires?', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 24, 645-66 1938 'Sur 1'interpretation des irregularites laterales des auges glaciaires', C.R. Congr. Intern. Geogr. Amsterdam, vol 2, sect A, 19-25 1952 'La sculpture glaciaire', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 40, 31-123 1960 'Les resultats de 1'erosion glaciaire', MMiterrariee, vol 1, 5-31 c. Climatology 1931 'Note sur les conditions de 1'inversion de temperature dans la region de Villard-de-Lans', Melanges Geogr. offerts a. Raoul Blanchard, Grenoble, Inst. Geogr. Alp., 135-44 d. General mountain geography 1919 'De Meknes aux sources de la Moulouya. Essai d'exploration a&rienne', Ann. de Ge'ogr., vol 28, 293314 1920 'Quelques aspects des montagnes marocaines', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 8, 225-38 1921 'Modes of life in the Moroccan countryside', Geogr. Rev., vol 11, 477-502 1930 'Dans les montagnes norvegiennes: paysages et problemes', Rev. Geogr. Alp.,vol 18, 695-730 1934 L'Homme et la Montagne, Paris, 192p. 'Les types de migrations pastorales montagnardes. Essai de classification', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 22, 525-31

1936

'Demographie et economie rurale: un cas scandinave', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 24, 447-54

e. Human geography of the French Alps 1922 'Les trappeurs du Vercors au Moyen-Age', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 10, 305-10 1923 'Carte viticole des abords des Alpes Dauphinoises du Nord', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 11, 449-56 'L'essartage, ancienne pratique culturale dans les Alpes Dauphinoises', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 11, 55375 1924 'Le probleme de 1'habitat dans les massifs de la Chartreuse et du Vercors', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 12, 423-53 1931 Les massifs de la Grande Chartreuse et du Vercors. Etude geographique (These Lettres Grenoble), vol 2, Geographie humaine, Grenoble, 514p. /. Rural geography of France (especially Lorraine) 1935 "Apercus recents sur la formation du paysage rural francais', Rev. Ge'ogr. Alp., vol 23, 121-36 1937 'La structure parcellaire du terroir lorrain et le probleme de 1'habitat rural', Le Pays Lorrain, 29° ann, 76-101 'De la structure parcellaire a 1'habitat rural en Lorraine', Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr., no 105, 58-64 1938 'Les maisons etirees du vignoble toulois (Lorraine). L'exemple du village de Bruley', C.R. Congr. Intern. Ge'ogr. Amsterdam, vol 2, sect A, 19-25 'Un village de La Voge: Martinvelle dans ses rapports avec le village de type lorrain', C.R. Congr. Intern. Geogr. Amsterdam, vol 2, sect A, 26-31 1939 'Notes de geographie lorraine', Ann. de Ge'ogr., vol 48, 235-51 'Le modele de la campagne francaise', contribution to La Campagne, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 7-45 g. Urban geography 1954 'Note sur le site et le developpement de la Nouvelle-Orleans', Bull. Soc. Geogr. Marseille, vol 65, 3-11 1955 'Coup d'oeil sur les villes americaines', Rev. Geogr. Lyon, vol 30, 1-18 1959 'Sites urbains et rivieres francaises', Rev. Geogr. Lyon, vol 34, 17-55 'Naissance et horoscope des villes francaises1, Rev. Chambre de Commerce de Marseille, no 699, 255 countries and geography h. Human geography of tropical of islands 1936 'Le probleme des lies', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 34, 717-23 1940 'La campagne en pays noir, Essai sur les caracteres du paysage rural en Afrique occidentale', Rev. Geogr. Alp., vol 28, 348-88 1942 'La question pastorale en Afrique occidentale', Ann. de Geogr., vol 51, 26-44 1949 'L'lle de la Reunion. Jeunesse et archaismes", Rev. G&ogr. Alp., vol 37, 553-86 1950 'Les particularity geographique des lies", Bull. Soc. Geogr. Marseille, vol 64, 5-22

i. General geography 1931 Congres International de Geographie, Paris. Livret Guide de l*Excursion A4 (Alpes du Dauphine), Paris, 43p. 1937 'Les Vosges et la question de l'age des montagnes', Bull. Cercle d'Etudes de I'Enseignement primaire de la Circon8cription de Briey, February, 8-20 1939 'Le cadre geographique lorrain', contribution to Histoire de Lorraine, Nancy, 1-14 'Le Maroc vu en avion', L'Inf. d'Outre-tier, vol 1, 108-13 1941 'Les sols veg&taux. Essai de presentation geographique', Rev. G&ogr. Alp., vol 29, 153-222 1951 'Les Alps Francaises', La France, Larousse, 135-92 I960 'Qu'est-ce que la geographie?', Rev. Enseign. Sup., no 1, 58-68 1962 'Les sites urbains mediterraneans en France', Rev. Trav. Acad. Sci. 194-210

j. Civic

Morales et Polit.,

1° sernestre,

activity

1945 Le Grand Refus Paris, 247p.

(pamphlet on civic re-education),

Jean Nicod is professor Institut de Geographie,

of physical geography at Aix en Provence.

the

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: JULES BLACHE Dates

Life

and

career

1893

Born at Grenoble

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

1908

Institut de Geographie Alpine founded by R. Blanchard at Grenoble

1910

Die Alpen in Eisalter (Penck and Bruckner); 'L'erosion glaciaire et la formation des vallees Alpines' (de Martonne), Ann. de Geogr., vol 19, 289-317 and vol 20, 1-29

1911

1912

existing

Licencees Lettres (History and Geography)

1913

'Note sur 1'evolution du lit des cours d'eau'

1912-14

Study for Docteur es Lettres; fellow student of P. Arbos, A. Allix, E. Benevent, D. Faucher and A. Gibert

1914

Voluntary enlistment

1916

Wounded at Verdun

1917

Sub-Lieutenant of Artillery

1918

Air Force service

1919

Graduated in history and geography; became teacher in Lycee at Grenoble (until 1928)

1920

Characteristics of glaciers (Hobbs)

Introduced to R. Blanchard during Christmas vacation

'Le bord d'auge glaciaire du Gresivaudan'

Outbreak of war

End of war

Aerial observations in Morocco 'De Meknes aux sources de la Moulouya1

'Geomorphological studies in Norway' (H. W:son Ahlmann) Geogr. Ann., vol 1, 1-148, 193-252

Responsible for course at Inst, de G6ogr. Alp. Grenoble

1921

'Studies in the cycle of glaciation' (Hobbs), J.Geol., vol 29, 370-86

1922

'La vie rurale dans les Alpes francaises' (Thesis by P. Arbos)

1923

'L'essartage, ancienne pratique culturale'

1925

'Relief prealpin et relief jurassien'

Jules Dates

Life

and

career

1928

Appointed lecturer at Inst, de Geogr. Alp., Grenoble

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

Directed excursion at 13th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Paris; field work in Switzerland

Publications

Blache

7

Contemporary events and publications

'Volume montagneux et erosion fluviale1

'L'Oisans, itude g&ographique (Thesis by A. Allix)

1929 Fieldwork in Norway

1930

'Les massifs de la Grande Chartreuse et du Vercors'

1931

'Die Stromungs theorie der Gletscher bewegung' (H. Hess),

Z. Gletscherkunde,

vol 19,

221-50 1932

Lecturer in physical geography, Inst. Geogr. Alp., Grenoble

Fieldwork in Corsica

1933

Fieldwork in Spitzbergen

1934

Attended 14th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Warsaw

1935

Professorship of Geography, Univ. of Nancy

L 'Homme et la Montagne

Essai sur la formation paysage rural franqais

Traite" de P&dologie (Erhart)

Exchange professorship, Harvard Univ., U.S.A.

1936

'Comment s'Stablit le profil accidente des vallees glaciaires?'

1937

'La structure parcellaire ^ 1'habitat rural en Lorraine'

1938 1939

Attended 15th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Amsterdam Mobilized for army service

Chevalier Legion d'Honneur; visit to West Africa

1940

Outbreak of war 'Le probleme des meandres encaisses et les rivieres lorraines' 'La campagne en pays noir'

1941-4

Active participation in the French Resistance movement Professor, Inst, de Geogr. Alp., Grenoble

'Les sols vegetaux'

1942

Professor, Faculti des Lettres, Nancy (until 1944)

'Des versants aux rivieres'

1943

'Captures comparees: le mecanisme des captures fluviales' Prefect, Meurthe and Moselle departement

1945 1946

'Le profil d'equilibre des versants' (Baulig), Ann. de Geogr., vol 4-9, 81-97 Occupation of France

1941-2

1944

du (Dion)

'Le grand Refus' Rector, Academie d'Aix-Marseille

Visits to Reunion and Mauritius

'L'lle de la Reunion'

End of war

8

Jules Blaohe

Dates

Life and career

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

Essai sur quelques problemes de morphologie generale

1949

(Birot) 1950

Officier Legion d'Honneur 'La sculpture glaciaire'

1952 1953

President, Jury d'Agregation de Geographie (until 1958); fact-finding mission, U.S.A.

1956

Doctor, honoris causa, Univ. of Oxford; Member, Conseil Sup. Educ. Natl. •Sites urbains et rivieres francaises'

1959 Visit to Mexico

1960

'Les sites mediterraneens en France'

1962 1963

Retired; residence at Nice and Saint-Ismier (Isere)

1970

Died at Nice 9 April

Isaiah Bowman 1878-1950

GEOFFREY J. MARTIN

Isaiah Bowman was a university lecturer, a Director of the American Geographical Society, President of Johns Hopkins University and an adviser to the U.S. Government. He was the only American to have served at Paris (1918-19) under President Woodrow Wilson, and throughout the period of the Second World War under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Bowman studied physiography under William Morris Davis. Together with other geographers including Albert P. Brigham, Ellsworth Huntington, Mark S.W. Jefferson, and Ellen C. Semple, he helped to develop the relationship between organic and physical phenomena which constitutes a large chapter in the making of American geography. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Isaiah Bowman was born twenty minutes after midnight following Christmas Day, 1878. He was the third child and first son born to Samuel and Emily (Shantz) Bowman in the Canadian town of Berlin (later renamed Kitchener) , Ontario. When he was eight weeks old, his family moved to Brown City, in St. Clair County, Michigan, where he grew up knowing something of the pioneer stage of settlement at first hand. A simple, but rigorous country schooling, regular attendance at a Baptist Sunday School, and work on his father's farm preceded attendance at the Ferris Institute, Big Rapids, Michigan in 1900, when Bowman was already twenty-two years of age. At Ferris Institute Bowman studied geography under Harlan H. Barrows who had himself studied geography under Charles T. McFarlane at the Michigan State

Normal School in Ypsilanti. When McFarlane came to lecture at Ferris, Bowman decided to study geography with him. Bowman arrived in Ypsilanti in the autumn of 1901 to learn that Mark Jefferson had replaced McFarlane as geographer. Bowman was the first and perhaps most notable of a group of geographers to emerge from the tutelage of Jefferson. From Ypsilanti Jefferson arranged to send Bowman to Harvard University for study under W.M. Davis, N.S. Shaler, R. de C. Ward, and R.T. Jackson. Students whom Bowman came to know at Harvard and who became luminaries in twentieth-century geography included H. Baulig, J.W. Goldthwait, E. Huntington, V. Stefansson, and W.S. Tower. But it was Davis who directed and dominated the thought of Bowman; the two men met each other frequently and corresponded regularly until Davis died in 1934. Davis demonstrated to Bowman the meaning of geographical discipline. The meeting of Davis and Bowman constitutes one of the most significant associations in the history of U.S. geography. Bowman, having graduated from Harvard with a B.S. degree in 1905, was placed by Davis in the Department of Geology and Geography at Yale University, where he remained until 1915. There Bowman formed some meaningful intellectual relationships, especially with three geologists, Richard S. Lull, Charles Schuchert, Joseph Barrell, and with two geographers, Ellsworth Huntington and Herbert Gregory. At Yale Bowman offered courses in regional geography (among the first in the U.S.), and began to study influences of the geographic environment, and to specialize in the geography of Latin America. During his ten years as a geographer at Yale University he made three trips to South America in 1907, 1911, 1913; the three expeditions meant a total of 2,000 miles by mule-

10

Isaiah Bowman

back through the Central Andes, eighteen months in the field, a camp at 4°F below zero, and the discovery of an inhabited village in Peru at 17,100 feet. During these ten years he published twenty articles 3nd four books, and received a Ph.D. degree (1909). On June 28, 1909, at Lynn, Massachusetts, he married Cora Olive Goldthwait, sister of his Harvard friend, J.W. Goldthwait. In the summer of 1915 he assumed the Directorship of the American Geographical Society, and he retained the office until 1935 when he accepted the presidency of Johns Hopkins University. In his twenty years with the Society he strengthened the staff, revised the format of the Society's publication and changed its title to The Geographical Review^ developed the library and map collection and housed the Inquiry of 1917-18, a euphemism for a host of activities preparatory to negotiating the peace. He organized and inspired the commencement (1920) of a map of Hispanic America on the 1:1 million scale, of which some of the 107 sheets, completed in 1945 at a cost of $400,000, were used to adjudicate several boundary disputes. In 1925 he initiated research on the theme of pioneer settlement; this project resulted in numerous publications and was employed by governments in their quest to exploit marginal land. A third major research thrust made by Bowman as Director of the Society was to encourage Polar research, and especially the work of Louise Boyd,Richard E. Byrd, Robert A. Bartlett, Lincoln Ellsworth, Sir Douglas Mawson, Fridtjof Nansen, Knud Rasmussen, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Sir Hubert Wilkins. Frequently prior to 1922 the Association of American Geographers met at the American Geographical Society. The Annals of the Association were published by the Society and the Journal of Geography was taken over by the Society at a critical stage in its history. Bowman's influence through the Society was international. He and W.M. Davis corresponded frequently with the two Pencks, Albrecht (1858-1945) and his son Walther (18881923); and when Davis was in conflict with the elder Penck on the theory of geomorphology Bowman brought sympathy and reason into their argument and so managed to maintain concord. This same goodwill revealed itself between 1925 and 1938 when he worked sincerely and constantly at the task of encouraging the German geographers to return to the International Geographical Congress from which immediately following the First World War they had been excluded. In July 1935 Bowman took office as the fifth president of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. By curious coincidence the first president of the university—Daniel Coit Gilman—had been a geographer. He declined formal inauguration though thirteen of his addresses given between April 1935 and his Commemoration Day Address, 22 February 1936, were published as a book, A Design for Scholarship. He at once began the fundamental but difficult task of fund raising in the aftermath of the great depression. In Bowman's thirteen years as President he resolved immediate financial problems, encouraged and facilitated waroriented research, created departments of geography and oceanography and managed to write and publish a considerable amount of geographical material. He insisted that without teaching there is no university and without research there is no teaching worthy of the name of university. He strengthened the graduate programme for

which the university had become known since its foundation, and in this context was inspired to write The

Graduate School in American Democracy. His advice con-

cerning the establishment of geography was sought by more than one hundred colleges and universities. All this was done notwithstanding the three days a week he spent in the U.S. State Department acting as special adviser to Secretary Cordell Hull, his service on the political and policy committees of the department and as chairman of its Territorial Committee. He was a member of the Stettinius mission to London (1944), a member of the American delegation at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference on World Peace and Security (1944), and adviser to the Secretary of State at the United Nations Conference on International Organization at San Francisco (1945). He also advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt on numerous occasions. Following the war he sbught retirement from both the university and government. He retired from the university in 1948, and although he reduced his work with government he was an*active adviser to the Economic Cooperation Administration at the time of his death on 6 January 1950.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT a. Scientific

contribution

Bowman was one of a few U.S. geographers who initiated and helped to define the ontographic departure from Davisian physiography. This departure represented not revolution, but evolution towards an integration of life and the physical environment which quite incidentally ushered in an era of quest for 'influences' of the geographical environment. Davis himself had written to Bowman, 'You should develop geography proper, physiography and ontography properly combined, and not simply physiography (as I have done too much)'. Bowman's response to this admonition is to be noted in the early papers he read before the Association of American Geographers: 'Partly submerged islands in Lake Erie' (1904); 'Hogarth's "The Nearer East" in Regional Geography' (1905); 'The deserts of Peru and Chile in South American history' (1906); 'Geographic relations in Chile and Bolivia' (1907); 'Trade routes in the economic geography of Bolivia' (1908); 'The regional geography of Long Island' (1909); 'The geographical results of the Yale Peruvian expedition' (1911); 'Nivation in the Central Andes and a new hypothesis of cirque development' (1912) and 'Lake Titicaca and the rivers of Tiahuanaco' (1912); and 'The first decade (of the Association of American Geographers)' and 'Results of Expedition to the Central Andes' (1913). These papers were copied, read by other geographers lecturing in colleges and universities, and occasionally used as classroom texts. His 1905 paper is one of the earliest expressions of regional geography extant in North America. In the wake of three field trips to South America (1907, 1911, 1913) Bowman wrote numerous articles and two books that illustrated this

point of view: The Andes of Southern Peru (1916) and

Desert Trails of Atacama (1924). The first of these books resulted from a two-hundred-mile transect from the Urubamba to Camana on the desert coast of Peru. This route along the 73rd meridian was accurately mapped for the first time (1:125,000), eight regional diagrams ('it bears somewhat the same relation to the facts of human

Isaiah geography that a block diagram does to physiography' p.51) were constructed to cover the same route (these were apparently the first regional diagrams ever published) and original contributions were made on physiographic subjects including the origin of coastal terraces, dune formation and the bergschrund hypothesis. Desert Trails of Ataoama represented one of the earliest regional geography books written in the U.S. Cprobably the first was Bowman's improbably titled

Forest Physiography: Physiography of the United and Principles of Soils in Relation to Forestry,

States 1911).

The Atacama book reveals something of the frontier in South America and his extensive research on the ancient lake system of the Bolivian altiplano is still respected as a contribution to the Pleistocene history of Bolivia. In the mid-twenties Bowman initiated a study of pioneer belts at the American Geographical Society. He journeyed to Montana, Oregon and the Great Plains of Kansas and Nebraska in 1930 and two years later to the pioneer fringe northwest of Edmonton, Canada. He contributed 'Jordan Country', (1931) a case study of an American pioneer community in Montana, and The Pioneer Fringe (1931). In the book he sought to 'sketch the outlines of a science of settlement'. It was a complement to what the historians had written on the subject, and the first book of its kind written by an American geographer. Bowman was anxious to recruit government aid to support men in their mighty creative experiment on the pioneer fringe. With acuity Bowman perceived that the U.S. frontier did not cease to exist in 1890 even though one could read in the Eleventh U.S. Census of 1890: 'Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be said to be a frontier line'. Bowman recognized that the frontier still existed though the census had eliminated the 'frontier line'. Many authors failed to recognize the distinction. Bowman's book was followed in the next

year (1932) by Pioneer Settlement—Cooperative

Studies,

a compilation of the work of twenty-six authors edited by W.L.G. Joerg. Under the direction of W.A. Mackintosh the Canadian Pioneer Problems Committee studied settlement in marginal lands in Canada on which eight volumes were published. These latter studies were largely organized and financed through Bowman's support from the American Geographical Society. Throughout his career Bowman was concerned with the meaning of geography. He never allowed any supposed definition of the field to inhibit the intellectual quest and did not believe in disciplinal boundaries, but gave himself to the full pursuit of the problem wherever it led. In 1934 he publised Geography in Rela-

tion to the Social

Sciences.

The book represented

Bowman's view of the substance and method of geography and was perhaps the most comprehensive statement of its kind published in the United States to that time. The book was published five years before R. Hartshorne's The Nature of Geography (1939) in a decade when there was much discussion about the scope and purpose of geography. Consequently it exerted a marked influence on professional geographers, administrators and educators. It remains perhaps the most frequently consulted or Bowman's work extant. Finally, Bowman's work as a geographer in helping with peace negotiations for both of the World Wars

Bowman

11

demands attention. As chief officer of the Inquiry, and territorial adviser to the American Commission to Negotiate Peace 1918-19 he was largely responsible for the decision to produce numerous maps for U.S. and allied use. He was also instrumental in helping to establish numerous boundary lines from his influence on the work of the Polish Commission, the Central Territorial Commission, the Rumanian-Jugoslav Commission, and the Polish-Ukrainian Armistice Commission. One result of this experience was the first political geography book to be written in the U.S.: The New World (1921) which was republished in much revised editions in 1924, 1926 and 1928. During the course of the Second World War Bowman served as a geographer in the State Department and was a valued adviser, especially to Sumner Wells, Cordell Hull and President F.D. Roosevelt (though it is not possible to separate the Bowman contribution from that of numerous other people). During the 1930s and 1940s Bowman decisively distinguished a legitimate political geography from geopolitics with its preconceived systems.

b. Ideas held on geography and other

sciences

While at Yale University (1905-15) Bowman developed an ontographic geography in a regional setting without ever forgetting the importance of the physical basis of such studies. He was attracted by geographers who argued the case of an environmental 'influence' exerted on mankind. He had been influenced by the work of A.P. Brigham, E.C. Semple, his friend and colleague, Ellsworth Huntington, but especially by the English historian, H.T. Buckle. At Yale he offered a course 'Geographic Controls

in American History'. In The Andes of Southern

Peru

(1916) he wrote (p.vii) 'The strong climatic and topographic contrasts and the varied human life which the region contains are of geographic interest chiefly because they present so many and such clear cases of environmental control within short distances'. At Paris (1918-19) Bowman learned of social, economic, and political forces: he wrote in March 1919 ... 'the Semple bubble ... is forever punctured so far as I am concerned'. He had come to appreciate the work of A.J. Herbertson, but was especially impressed with the work of Vidal de la Blache and Jean Brunhes. He admired the objectivity and scientific structure of Brunhes's La Giographie Bumaine, and together with R.E. Dodge and I.C. Le Compte translated the book into English (1916-20), The French possibilist posture and regional monograph impressed Bowman. He came to revere the G&ographie Universelle volumes and wished to see them translated into the English language. His wide ranging notion of what was

geographical was expressed in Geography in Relation

to

the Social Sciences. The art of regional synthesis was for him the mainstream of all that was geographical. But a correct scientific attitude was a necessary prerequisite to attainment. That attitude must incorporate a determination to persist, clarity of thought, and an ability to doubt in the face of a desire to believe. He did not believe in definition but offered that a subject 'is what its creative scholars really make it'. He recognized that significant lines of thought and content interconnect the sciences with one another. To that end he read widely and corresponded substantially notably with anthropologists, historians, political scientists, geologists, economists, physicists, statisticians, and biologists. Bowman's long-considered research themes relating to Hispanic America, the pioneer fringe, and

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20

Alfred

Hulse

Brooks

at the Sorbonne in Paris under Fouque, Bertrand, and De Launay. Following his designation as chief of the Alaska unit, Brooks visited the country almost every year until his death, often to guide federal dignitaries on tours of inspection. His expertise resulted in his appointment as vice chairman of the Alaska Railroad Commission, an appointment as delegate to the PanPacific Scientific Congress in Australia (1923), and an honorary D.Sc. from Colgate University. While he was director of geological, topographical and mineralogical work in Alaska he remained, like his father, 'an eminently practical man'. Exploration and original geological investigations were often suspended in favour of surveys to meet the immediate needs of regions that were important economically. Such reports might contain botanical and meteorological notes as well, and chapters on economic geology were cast in a popular literary form, 'avoiding technical terms as far as possible'. In one report on the Nome region, Brooks even recommended reform of the mining laws. Though his administrative duties restricted severely his own original fieldwork Brooks continued to publish. Every year from 1904 to 1923 (with a break during the First World War), he prepared a report on all of Alaska's mineral resources. His own studies and summaries of the work of his staff resulted in numerous articles for such journals as the National

Geographic Magazine, Mining and Metallurgy, Science, Engineering and Mining Journal, Popular Science, Journal of Geology, and the Geographical Review.

Shortly before his death on 22 November 1924, he com-

pleted an article entitled The Future of printed the following year in the Annals

sociation

of American Geographers.

Alaska,

of

the

As-

But the publication

that secured his reputation as the leading authority

on Alaska was The Geography and Geology of

Alaska

(1906). Both scholarly and thorough, it drew together the highlights of our knowledge, to that date, of Alaska's history, land and resources. Only once between 1898 and 1924 did Brooks interrupt his Alaskan work. During the First World War he volunteered for military service abroad, received a commission, and became Chief Geologist of the American Expeditionary Force in Europe and, later, geologist with the American Commission to Negotiate Peace. The European military experience stimulated studies of military mining, of water supply, of the iron industries of France and Belgium, and finally, U.S.G.S.

Powell, appreciated the political realities of federal science administration, and Brooks himself was not hostile toward those dominant economic philosophies of the period that viewed unexploited natural wealth as wasted resources. At the same time Brooks also appreciated the geographical realities which prevented the economic development of Alaska, including spatial and social-psychological factors such as the territory's isolation, the great interior distances, and the diminished interest of Americans in living the difficult life of a frontier pioneer. When he generalized, or when he extended his data to speculate broadly about Alaska's future, he did so with the caution of a trained scientist, but he was no theorist.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Though Brooks made no major contribution to scientific theory, he was the great synthesizer of all knowledge about Alaska. He lost some battles and some of his predictions were premature, mainly because of an historical timetable which he could not possibly have foreseen in detail. The route recommended by his railway study group was not followed by the federal Alaska Railroad. Using the popular but dubious Scandinavia-Alaska analogue, he looked forward to the day when Alaska would support a population of ten million people. Nevertheless, between 1900 and 1924 nobody knew Alaska better than Brooks. That basic fact combined with his official position and his publications to make his influence felt in all matters Alaskan—historical, geographical and economic. Brooks's opinions about economic development lurk even today behind the rush to exploit the State's natural resources. The magnificent mountain range that bears his name is, ironically, a battleground between petroleum companies and environmentalists who gauge the value of Alaska rather differently from Brooks or the mining industries. Perhaps the best measure of his modern influence and the high regard in which he is still held is the posthumous publication, in 1953, of his Blazing Alaska's Trails, a comprehensive up-dating of his Geo-

graphy and Geology of Alaska

and other writings, put

together from unpublished manuscripts.

Professional Paper 128, The Use of Geology on the Western Front.

Bibliography and Sources

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

1. REFERENCES ON ALFRED H. BROOKS Merrill, G.P. The first one hundred years of

Alfred Brooks was a geologist first and became a geographer in response to the U.S.G.S. programme for Alaska, a largely unknown dependent territory. It was the custom of the Survey to emphasize economic geography; during the early period, particularly, that meant the 'more practical conclusions, bearing chiefly on the mineral resources....' The policy was in part inherited from John Wesley Powell, who thought in 1878 that a successful Survey should serve 'the industries of the people', in part determined by the wishes of Congress and the Executive, then heavily oriented toward business and national economic development, and in part the result of Brooks's influence. He, like

American

geology, Yale University, New Haven, 1924, 336-441 Smith, P.S. 'Memorial of Alfred Hulse Brooks', Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol 37, 1925, 14-48.

Sherwood, M.B. Exploration

of Alaska,

1865-1900,

Yale

University Press, New Haven, 1965, 169-82.

2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY ALFRED H. BROOKS 1896

'Preliminary petrographic notes on some metamorphic rocks from eastern Alabama', Bull. no. 5,

Alabama Geol. Survey, 1900

177-97

'A reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River

1901

1902

1903 1905 1906 1907 1911

1914 1921 1922 1925 1953

basins, Alaska, in 1898', U.S. Geol. Survey, Twentieth Annu. Rept,, Part 7, 425-94 'A reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska, including a description of the copper deposits of the upper White and Tanana rivers', U.S. Geol. Survey, Twenty-first Annu. Rept., Part 2, 331-91 'A reconnaissance of the Cape Nome and Norton Bay regions, Alaska, in 1900: Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and adjacent gold fields of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, in 1900' (with G.B. Richardson and A.J. Collier), U.S. Geol. Survey Special paper B, 1-185 'The coal resources of Alaska', U.S. Geol. Survey, Twenty-second Annu.Rept., Part 3, 515-71 Preliminary report on the Ketchikan mining district , Alaska, with an introductory sketch of the geology of southeastern Alaska, U.S. Geol. Survey, Professional Paper No.l, Washington, 120p. 'An exploration to Mount McKinley, America's highest mountain', J. Geogr. Chicago, vol 2, 44169; also, Smithsonian Annu.Rept., 407-22 'The Alaskan range; a new field for the mountaineer', Am. Geogr. Soc. Bull., vol 37, 468-80 The geography and geology of Alaska; a summary of existing knowledge, U.S. Geol. Survey, Professional Paper No.45, 327p. 'Railway routes in Alaska', Natl. Geogr. Mag., vol 18, 164-91 The Mount McKinley region, Alaska, with description of the igneous rocks and of the Bonnifield and Kantishna districts by L.M. Prindle, U.S. Geol. Survey, Professional Paper No.70, 234p. 'Mineral deposits of Alaska*, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 592, 18-44 The use of geology on the western front, U.S. Geol. Survey, Professional Paper No.128, 85-124 'The scientist in the Federal service', J. Washington Acad. Sci., vol 12, 73-115 'The future of Alaska', Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., vol 15, 163-78 Blazing Alaska's trails, University of Alaska and Arctic Institute of North America, College, Alaska, 528p.

3. ARCHIVAL SOURCES Historical records, U.S. Geol. Survey Alaska Branch, Menlo Park, California Alfred Hulse Brooks papers, University of Alaska archives , Fairbanks Records of the U.S. Geol. Survey, Department of the Interior, National Archives, Washington, D.C. Morgan Sherwood is Professor in the Department of tory, University of California, Davis, U.S.A.

His-

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: ALFRED HULSE BROOKS Dates

Life

and

career

1871

Born at Ann Arbor, Michigan, 18 July

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

Contemporary events and -publications

Publications

U.S. Geological Survey founded

1879 1888-9

Topographic assistant in Vermont and Michigan

1889-91

Study at Stuttgart and Munich

1894

Graduated in geology, Harvard; appointed geologist, U.S. Geol. Surv.(until 1897) With C.W. Hayes in Appalachians and J.E. Wolff in New Jersey

1894-6

'Petrographic notes on some metamorphic rocks of Eastern Alabama'

1896

1897

7th Intern. Geol. Congr. and travel in Russia

1897-8

Study at Sorbonne

1898

Geologist, U.S. Geol. Surv. (until 1917) With W.J. Peters, exploring White, Tanana, Nabesna and Fortymile rivers and adjacent regions

1898-9

Investigated Seward Peninsula

'Reconnaissance of Tanana and White river basins'; 'Reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska'

1901

Mineral survey, Ketchikan

'Reconnaissance Cape Nome and Norton Bay'

1902

Explored Alaskan range, Mt McKinley

'Coal resources of Alaska'

1903

Chief Geologist, Alaska unit (until 1917)

1900

1906

Geography and of Alaska

1907

'Railway routes in Alaska'

1911

Mount McKinley Alaska

1912

geology

region,

Vice Chairman, Alaska Railroad Commission Outbreak of war

1914 1917-19

Yukon-Alaska gold rush

Engineer officer, U.S. Army

Chief geologist American Expeditionary Force, Europe

Alfred Eulse Brooks Dates

Life and career

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

1919

Geologist, U.S. Geol. Surv.

Chief geologist, Alaska unit

Contemporary events and publications

Use of Geology on the Western Front

1921 1923 1924

Publications

Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress, Australia Died at Washington D . C , 22 November

1925

'Future of Alaska'

1953

Blazing Alaska's

Trails

23

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Grove Karl

Gilbert

the law1. Only much later did he recognize the importance of soil creep. He also realized that his model must account for all the other conditions which modify the ideal development of a river profile. Clearly rock formations vary in their resistance to stream erosion, and resistant rocks are worn down more slowly than weaker rocks. Therefore the actual shape of a surface is governed by the interaction of two laws. Slopes are steep in proportion to the resistance of the underlying rocks; and they are also steep in proportion to their nearness to a drainage divide. Gilbert was one of the first to recognize the interdependence of all parts of a drainage system: Every slope is a member of a series, receiving the water and the waste of the slope above it, and discharging its own water and waste upon the slope below. If one member of the series is eroded with exceptional rapidity, two things immediately result: first, the member above has its level of discharge lowered and its rate of erosion is thereby increased; and second, the member below, being clogged by an exceptional load of detritus, has its rate of erosion diminished. The acceleration above and the retardation below diminish the activity of the member in which the disturbance originated; and as the declivity is reduced the rate of erosion is likewise reduced. But the effect does not stop there. The disturbance which has been transferred from one member of the series to the two which adjoin it, is by them transmitted to others, and does not cease until it has reached the confines of the drainage basin. For in each basin all lines of drainage unite in a main line, and the disturbance upon any line is communicated through it to the main line and thence to every tributary. As any member of the system may influence all the others, so each member is influenced by every other. There is an interdependence through-

out the system. (Report on the geology

Mountains,

of The Henry

without any previous knowledge of the work done by European scholars, such as Charles Lyell, on marine planation. Gilbert's last great work, also published by the Ge-

ological Survey, dealt with The Transportation

of

Debris

by Running Water (1914). Again without any knowledge of previous work, such as that of the French scholar Du Buat who worked out the mathematical equations to describe how a river can form an equilibrium between velocity and load in 1786, Gilbert reached similar but more precise conclusions as a result of his studies of the Sacramento River in California. He found that the debris poured into the river by the hydraulic mining operations had raised some of the low-lying borders of San Francisco Bay above the low tide level; This, together with the programme of marsh-land reclamation around the Bay, had reduced the tidal currents through the Golden Gate by about 4 per cent. As a further result, between 1855 and 1900 the tidal bar off the Golden Gate had shifted some 1,000 feet toward the Shore. W.M. Davis asks: .. could there be imagined a more beautiful enchainment of argumentation, or a more convincing demonstration of the principle announced in the Henry Mountains report years before regarding the 'interdependence of drainage lines'? Gilbert pointed out that the debris from hydraulic mining will cease to be of importance along the lower valley because the mine tailings must now be impounded in the mountains. But the continued reclamation of the tidal marshes around the Bay will result in a reduction of the tidal discharge through the Golden Gate to about two-thirds of its original volume. This will result in a continued shift of the tidal bar closer to the shore, and by a decrease in the depth of water over the bar which may then become a hazard to navigation. Gilbert raised the question whether the increased agricultural production on reclaimed land would balance the damage to a great commercial port.

1877, 118).

Gilbert recognized that as the velocity of a stream gradually diminishes, the capacity to transport debris also diminishes, and when the capacity becomes less than the load of debris supplied, deposition takes place, the coarsest particles being dropped first. He offered the 'law of uniform slopes' toward which all drainage basins are tending; but since erosion does not proceed equally on all parts of a surface, actual uniformity of slope can never be reached. Only a sheet of water of uniform depth flowing over a surface of homogeneous material could produce such a uniform slope. Gilbert's statement of the equilibrium between slope, volume, and load—which he called 'grade'—has become one of the. essential foundations of modern geomorphology. In 1890 Gilbert's monograph on Lake Bonneville was published. Once again he demonstrated his extraordinary capacity to think along new lines and to formulate general concepts regarding the origin of landforms. His history of Lake Bonneville provided a new view of marine processes, and showed clearly the different results to be expected from the work of waves and currents, and from the work of rivers. This he did

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Gilbert lived and worked at a time when the study of the earth's surface features was achieving status as a learned profession. The traditional appeals to extraordinary and supernatural events to explain the observed earth features were being replaced by a rational philosophy based on the long-continued operation of normal and observable events. During his lifetime a thoroughgoing evolutionary philosophy was adopted which, as Davis put it, 'recognized the uninterrupted continuity of natural processes, organic as well as inorganic, through all geological time', (Biographical Memoir of G.K. Gilbert^ 1926, 285). Gilbert was thoroughly in tune with this philosophy, and he played a leading part in applying this point of view to the interpretation of the earth's landscapes. Gilbert expressed himself on numerous occasions on the nature of the scientific method. In almost every case where he presented his ideas about method, he illustrated what he had to say by reference to the solution of particular problems. One of the earliest of his philosophical papers was presented as his presidential address to the Society of American Naturalists in

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56

Vladimir

Leontyevitch

Komarov

In a short essay on the Pamirs and the Altai, Komarov first put forward a scheme of the vertical vegetation belts and concisely outlined the vegetation distribution patterns, which remain valid to this day. He had already stated the need for a historical approach in elucidating the contemporary nature of vegetation and in explaining the significance of the effect of the increasingly dry climate on the development of the natural surroundings in Central Asia. Komarov's conclusions on the links between the flora of Turkestan and that of the Mediterranean, and on the role of man in shaping the present-day plant world, are still important. In 1894 V.L. Komarov left St. Petersburg University with a first class degree, but he was not permitted to give lectures at that time for political reasons. On the recommendation of the Russian Geographical Society he managed to find a job with the prospecting party engaged on the construction of the Amur railway. The party investigated the lower reaches of the river Iman. Then it proceeded in a westerly direction from Khabarovsk to the lower reaches of the river Bureya and then on to Blagovyeshchensk through the virgin taiga, across marshy swamps and over the Little Khingan Mountains. Having studied the flora of these regions and the geographical and climatic conditions in detail, Komarov was convinced of the need to solve a number of geographical and botanical problems in a comprehensive way and not in isolation, as was still customary at that time. In the spring of the following year, 1896, with the consent of the Russian Geographical Society, Komarov, with a small group, explored the region adjacent to Manchuria. In just four months his party went from Vladivostok to the town of Kirin on the river Sungari and ended up in the Posyeta region. His report on his studies of the Amur region and central Manchuria was approved by the Russian Geographical Society which financed another expedition for him. In 1897 Komarov set out from Vladivostok for unexplored North Korea. In six months the party covered more than 2,300 kilometres through wild, uninhabited areas, swamps and marshes. They first came to the lower reaches of the river Tumyntszyan; then they came out on the upper reaches of the river Yalu; they crossed the frontier of Manchuria and came out into the basin of the river Liaochow; then they continued through the town of Mukden and the basin of the river Sungari, and, after passing through the town of Kirin, visited on the previous expedition, they reached the Russian frontier. Komarov gave a general geographical and ethnographical description of the countries explored, and also of their vegetation, geological structure, terrain features, climate, and mineral wealth; he noted the difference between the flora of North Korea and that of the South Amur area. 'For the works produced by him during his two-year-long travels in Manchuria and North Korea, on the instructions of the Society' the Russian Geographical Society awarded V.L. Komarov the N.M. Przhevalsky Prize. After he had taken his examinations for a Master's degree in 1898, Komarov began to hold seminars at St. Petersburg University. In the spring of 1899 he was appointed supernumerary custodian of the University's botany room, and in the autumn he became the curator of the Botanical Garden, with which he was involved all his life and which is now named after him. At the same

time, he began to give lectures on botany at the Advanced Courses for women. From the materials collected during the Manchurian expedition V.L. Komarov compiled a multi-volume monograph entitled The Flora of Manchuria. The first volume of the monograph formed the basis of his Master's dissertation (1901), after which he was given a permanent post at St. Petersburg University and permitted to give lectures. In the second and third volumes of the monograph which came out later, more than 1,500 plants were systematized and described for the first time, among them 100 plants discovered by the author.. The Flora of Manchuria was the first botanical and geographical description of that country. In this work Komarov determined for the first time the concept of species as a morphological system 'multiplied by a geographical definitiveness'. Scientific circles appreciated this fundamental work highly: the Russian Academy of Sciences awarded Komarov the Ber prize; the International Academy of Botanical Geography presented him with a special medal bearing the portraits of the famous naturalists and taxonomists Tournefort and Linnaeus. Komarov's next expedition to study the adjoining lands covered a somewhat original route in the East Sayan. The party proceeded from the town of Irkutsk along the valley of the river Irkut to Lake Baikal, on into the Tunkin Mountains, around Lake Hovsgol, through Mongolia, over the Gargon Pass to Lake Ilchig, to Baikal and back to Irkutsk. Not only did they gather an extensive herbarium with samples of alpine and subalpine flora, but they also described the climatic zones and the glacial formations and made ethnographic observations. According to Komarov, in the East Sayan Mountains, 'the entire expanse ranging from the northern shore of Lake Hovsgol (Koso Gol) to Mount Aliber and from the Gargon pass to the central stretch of the IkheIgun, and perhaps as far as the Turan, would at one time be completely frozen over'. In the summers of 1908 and 1909 Komarov made trips to Kamchatka with groups of students. The expeditions gathered a wealth of plant species. Komarov determined the belts of vegetation distribution and put forward a scheme of the vegetation on Kamchatka; he described mountains and volcanoes, hot springs, rivers, lakes, the animal world, the climate and the way of life of the local inhabitants. The materials collected by the Kamchatka expedition were at first published in several summary articles, but in 1927-30 they were published s

a three-volume monograph entitled The Flora of the Kam chatka Peninsula.

After the publication in 1908 of a long work entitled

Introduction

to the Flora of China and Mongolia,

in

which his views on the development of plant species are substantiated, in 1911 Komarov defended his Doctor's thesis on the same subject at Moscow University. And although a Doctor's degree gave him the right to head a department, Komarov's hopes that the University would provide him with the opportunity to carry on independent scientific work and teaching and that he would gain some material benefits were not fulfilled. As in the past, during the summer he attempted to participate in expeditions, and in the winter he continued to give lectures and to work on the materials he had collected. On assignment from the Resettlement Administration, in the summer of 1913, Komarov set out for the agricultural areas of the South Ussuri district between the

Vladimir Sikhote-Alin and the Pogranichny (Frontier) Mountain Range, to examine the vegetation in detail, to discover the reasons for the changes that had taken place, to study the effect of the climate, and to work out recommendations which would help in growing commercial crops. For all his works on the Far East the Russian Geographical Society awarded Komarov the F.P. Litke Medal. In 1914 V.L. Komarov was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, after being presented by Academicians I.P. Pavlov, I.P. Borodin, A.S. Famintsyn and other well-known scientists. However, this recognition of his great merits as a scientist had no effect on the authorities at St. Petersburg University. He remained in the humble post of lecturer and curator of the Botanical Garden but not on the permanent staff. Only after the Great October Socialist Revolution did V.L. Komarov, for the first time, take over the Department of Botany at the University; he was also appointed Director of the Botanical Garden. In 1920 V.L. Komarov was elected a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as one 'of the most active and most talented botanists, most highly educated with regard to the natural sciences' and indubitably the 'foremost authority on the flora of Asia', as he was presented to a general meeting of the Academy. His work was pursued even more intensively. Besides lecturing and working at the Botanical Garden, he found the time and opportunity to travel; expeditions were organized on his instructions and he took part in many of them. Komarov organized a special Commission of the Academy of Sciences to study Yakutia and an expedition to Mongolia. He made trips to Central Asia and the Far East, and visited Korea, Manchuria and France. He was particularly interested in Central Asia and the Far East. He did some research in Tadzhikistan and among other activities founded a botanical station on the slopes of the Hissar Mountains. He devoted some forty years to the study of species, developing his own system of classification and pointing out the tremendous importance of the environment. By the 'geographical definitiveness of species' Komarov understood the qualitative distinctiveness of each species, the habitat and environment of the given plant, and not only its distribution. In his last summary work, Studies of Plant Species (1940), he pointed out that a species should be examined together with the surroundings, in its structure, and in connection with the imperatives of the balance in nature. Typical of all the scientific works of V.L. Komarov is an extensive geographical approach in explaining the considerable influence of the environment on the development of plant species and their distribution. Right from his student years V.L. Komarov actively participated in the work of the Russian Geographical Society. He was editor of the Geographical Society News and academic secretary of the society. He only left this place of honour and extremely important post in 1930 when he was elected Vice-President of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1936 he became President of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a post in which he remained until 17 July 1945, shortly before his death. As president, with the energy characteristic of him, he organized branches of the Academy in the union republics, in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan; he founded new institutes and scientific centres and took measures to ensure that the Academy solved more of

Leontyevitch

Komarov

57

the problems important to the country's economy. During the Great Patriotic War (1941-5) the work done by the commission organized by V.L. Komarov to exploit the resources of the Urals, Siberia and Kazakhstan for defence needs was extremely important. The Soviet government highly appreciated the scientific merit of V.L. Komarov: he was awarded many orders and medals of the Soviet Union, and on his seventieth birthday the title of Hero of Socialist Labour was conferred on him 'for his outstanding scientific work, in particular in the field of botany, and for his important services in the organization of scientific institutions'. V.L. Komarov died on 5 December 1945, in Moscow. In his honour the largest volcano in the Kronotsky State Reserve on Kamchatka is named after him, as are also many plants discovered by Soviet and foreign botanists.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON V.L. KOMAROV Semyonov, P.P. 'Ekspeditsii V.L. Komarova v 1892-3 (The Expeditions of V.L. Komarov in 1892-3)' in Istoriya

poluvekoyi deyatelnosti Russkogo Geograficheskogo Obshchestva 1845-95 (History of the Half Century of Activities of the Russian Geographical Society), St.

Petersburg, 1896 Alexeyev, V. 'Botanik V.L. Komarov i Russkaya Kitaistika (The botanist V.L. Komarov and Russian

Sinology)', Izv.

Gos. Geogr. Obshch.

(Proc.

State

Geogr. Soc), vol 71 (1939) 1422-5 Fedchenko, V.A. 'V.L. Komarov kak issledovatel Srednei Azii (V.L. Komarov as a researcher on Central Asia)',

Sov. Botan.

(Soviet

Botany),

1939, no 8, 10-16

Fersman, A.E. 'Vydayushchiisya ucheniy i obshchestvenniy deyatel (An outstanding scientist and public figure)',

Vestn.

Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull.

USSR Acad. Sci. ) ,

1939, no 10, 14-21 Ilyinsky, A.P. V.L. Komarov kak geograf i kak chlen Geograficheskogo Obshchestva (V.L. Komarov as a geographer and as a member of the Geographical Soc-

iety) ' , Izv.

Gos. Geogr. Obshch.

(Proc. State

Geogr.

Soc), vol 71 (1939), 1413-21 Obruchev, V.A. 'V.L. Komarov kak Puteshestvennikissledovatel Azii (V.L. Komarov as a traveller and researcher on Asia)', Vest. Akad. Nauk. SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1939, no 10, 27-31 Sergeyev, M.A. 'V.L. Komarov kak issledovatel Dalnego Vostoka i Kamchatki (V.L. Komarov as a researcher on the Far East and Kamchatka)', Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR, (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1939, no 10, 32-42 Vavilov, N.I. 'Pervy Botanik Sovetskoi Strany (The Soviet Union's first botanist)', Vestn. Akad. Nauk

SSSR (Bull.

USSR Acad. Sci.),

1939, no 10, 22-6

Vorobiev, D.N. '45 Let nauchnoi deyatelnosti Akademika V.L. Komarov po Dalnemy Vostoku 1895-1940 (Academician V.L. Komarov's 45 years of scientific activities dealing with the Far East, 1895-1940)',

Trudy Dalne-Vostochn. Gorno-Taiezhn. Eastern Mountain and Taiga Station),

st. (Trans. 1941

Baranov, P.L. 'Istoricheskiy metod v rabotakh V.L. Komarova (The historical method in the works of

Far

58

Vladimir

Leontyevitch

Komarov

V.L. Komarov)', Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1944, no 10, 63-72 Brueyevich, N.G. 'Vladimir Leontyevitch Komarov v dni Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny (V.L. Komarov during the Great Patriotic War)', Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR, (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1944, no 10, 29-34 Gerasimov, I.P. 'Vydayushchiisya Sovetski Geograf i Biolog: k 75-letiyu prezidenta AN SSSR V.L. Komarova (The outstanding Soviet geographer and biologist: for the 75th birthday of the President of the USSR Academy of Sciences, V.L. Komarov)*, Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1944, no.2, 41-4 Lavrenko, E.M. 'Botaniko-geograficheskiye issledovaniya V.L. Komarova (The botanical and geographical research of V.L. Komarov)', Priroda (Nature), 1944, no 5-6, 22-8 Obruchev, V.A. 'V.L. Komarov—glava shkoly ispytatelei prirody Sovetskogo Soyuza (V.L. Komarov—head of the School of Researchers on the Soviet Union's countryside)', Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Proc. USSR Acad. Sci.), (Geological series), 1944, no 6, 5-8 Radkevitch, O.N. 'V.L. Komarov i Leningradskiy Universitet (V.L. Komarov and the University of Leningrad) ', Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1944, no 10, 120-30 Tsitsin, N.V. 'Neutomimiy issledovatel prirody (Tireless researcher on nature)', Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), 1944, no 10, 102-5 Berg, L.S. 'Akademik V.L. Komarov—puteshestvennik i geograf (Academician V.L. Komarov—traveller and geographer)', Obshcheye sobraniye Akademii Nauk SSSR 14-17 okt, (General Meeting of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR 14-17 October), 1945, 77-85 Gvozdetskii, N.A. Puteshestviya Vladimira Leontyevitcha Komarova (The Travels of V.L. Komarov), Moscow, 1949 Pavlov, N.V. V.L. Komarov, Moscow, 1951 2. PRINCIPAL WORKS OF V.L. KOMAROV 1893 'Poyezdka V.L. Komarova v Turkestan i Zakaspiisku (Komarov's journey to Turkestan and the Transcaspian area)', Izv. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. (Proc. Russian Geogr. Soc), vol 29, 463-4 'Kratkiy otcherk rastitelnosti Gornogo Zarevshana (Short essay on the vegetation of the mountainous Zarevshan)', Trans. St. Petersburg Obshch. yestestvoispytateleyi (Trans. St. Petersburg Society of Natural Scientists), vol 23, 174-89 1895 'Barometricheskoye nivelirovaniye rastitelnosti Unguza ot Shiikhe do Mirza-Chirla v 1893 g (Barometric surveying of the Unguz from Shiikhe to Mirza-Chirle in 1893)', Izv. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. (Proc. Russian Geogr. Soc), vol 31, 1-26 1897 'Botaniko-geograficheskiye oblasti basseina Amura (Botanical and geographical regions of the Amur basin)', Trans. St. Petersburg Obshch. yestestvoispytateleyi (Trans. St. Petersburg Society of Natural Scientists), vol 28, 35-46 1898 Soobshcheniye o Manchzhurskoi ekspeditsii 1897 g. Otchet Russ. Geogr. Obshch. za 1897 g (Report on the Manchurian Expedition of 1897. Report of the Russian Geographical Society), St. Petersburg, 8-11 'Manchzhurskaya ekspeditsia 1893 (The Manchurian expedition of 1896)', Izv. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. (Proc. Russian Geogr. Soc), vol 34, 117-84

Vvedenie k floram Manchzhurii i Mongolii (Introduction to the flora of Manchuria and Mongolia), St. Petersburg, lip. 1901-7 Flora Manchzhurii (The flora of Manchuria) ,St. Petersburg, vol 1, 1901, 559p.; vol 2, 1903-4, 787p.; vol 3, 1905, 1905-7, 853p. 1905 Prakticheskii kurs botaniki (A Practical Course of Botany), St. Petersburg, 300p. (5 ed. published up to 1926) 'Poyezdka v Tunkinskyi krai i na ozero Kosogol v 1902 g (Journey to the Tunkin area and to Lake HovsgBl in 1902)', Izv. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. (Proc. Russian Geogr. Soc), vol 41, 23-154 1912 Pteshestviye po Kamchatke v 1908-9 gg (Travels around Kamchatka in 1908-9), Moscow, 456p. 1924 'Russkoye geograficheskoye obshchestvo v 1918-22 gg. Kratki otchet sekretarya obshchestva (The Russian Geographical Society in 1918-22. Short report by the Secretary)', Izv. Russ. Geogr. Obshch. (Proc Russian Geogr. Soc), vol 55, 173-98 1933 Proiskhozhdeniye rastenii (The Origin of Plants), Leningrad, 192p. (7 ed. published up to 1943) 1942 Vsyu silu peredovoi nauki na sluzhbu frontu (All the efforts of progressive science serve the Front), Vestn. Akad. Nauk SSSR (Bull. USSR Acad. Sci.), nos 7-8, 1-4 1945-58 Izbranniye sochineniya (Selected works in 12 volumes), USSR Academy of Sciences, MoscowLeningrad

Dr Tatiana D. Ilyina is a senior research worker in the section for the history of geology and geography of the Institute of the History of Science, at the Academy of Science, Moscow, U.S.S.R. and vice president of the Section for the History of Earth Sciences of the Soviet National Association of Historians of Science.

Matthew Fontaine Maury 1806-1873

JOHN LEIGHLY

1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK As an officer of the United States Navy, even though during much of his career he was on shore duty engaged in work at least partly of scientific quality, Matthew Fontaine Maury stood outside the main current of American science. He had no scientific education, and so was self-taught in whatever branch of science he worked in. For the most part he concerned himself with the sea and the atmosphere above it. But in his lifetime no distinct science of the sea was recognized; such an avowed and named science, oceanography, emerged only later in the nineteenth century, as the new data collected on the Challenger expedition of 1872-6 were worked up and published. It is thus not astonishing that Maury identified himself more closely with geography than with any other existing field of learning. He delivered the second annual address before the American Geographical Society in 1854, and called his best-known book The Physical Geography of the Sea. In a brief address given at the laying of the cornerstone of the University of the South at Sewanee, Tennessee, in October, 1860, he celebrated physical geography in the spirit of Carl Ritter and of Arnold Guyot's The Earth and Man (1849). And when, from 1866 on, he turned to writing as a means of livelihood, he did so as the author of textbooks in geography. Maury was born on 14 January 1806 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. In 1810 his father moved his family to Williamson County, Tennessee, where Maury spent his youth, attending a rural school and Harpeth Academy. Except for the slight instruction he later received in the Navy, he had no further schooling. In 1825 he

entered the Navy, which as yet had no academy for the education of its officers, as midshipman; his first service was on the ship that carried Lafayette back to France from his visit to the United States in 1824-5. From 1826 to 1829 he served on various naval vessels about South America, and then on the voyage of circumnavigation (1829-30) of Vincennes. He was again on duty on the west coast of South America from 1831 to 1834. On his return he married and completed the writing of A new

Theoretical

and Practical

Treatise

on Navigation,

pub-

lished in 1836. An accident he suffered in October 1839 determined Maury's later career in the Navy. He was returning to New York from a visit to his parents in Tennessee when an overloaded stage coach in which he was a passenger upset, and his right leg was so badly broken that he never regained the full use of it. During a long convalescence he wrote a series of pseudonymous articles in which he severely criticized the Navy, especially the inadequate training it gave its officers. Finally, in the summer of 1842, he was recalled to duty in Washington as Superintendent of the Navy's Depot of Charts and Instruments, in 1844 renamed National (or Naval) Observatory and Hydrographical Office, the position he held until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. Maury devoted more of his attention to the compilation of observations of winds and currents at sea, which could be used in choosing routes for sailing vessels, than to the astronomical work of the Observatory. The earliest of his Wind and Current Charts, the primary vehicle by which he published his results, were based on information extracted from logbooks of vessels of the Navy, routinely deposited at the Observatory. But he

60

Matthew Fontaine Maury

soon prepared special forms for recording observations, use of which was made mandatory in the Navy; they were also issued on a voluntary basis to merchant mariners who agreed to make the required observations in return

for the Charts and the Sailing

Directions

Maury wrote

'to accompany' them. At an international maritime conference at Brussels in 1853, of which Maury was the prime instigator, the leading maritime states adopted a system of uniform observations at sea modelled after the programme he had devised for American ships. His work at this conference brought Maury international prominence and numerous honours from European states and scientific organizations. He was constantly busy with his pen. In

and Sailing

Directions

Explanations

to Accompany the Wind and Cur-

rent Charts (1851) he included, in addition to material properly designated by its title, the content of a number of articles he had published elsewhere. The Physi-

cal Geography of the Sea appeared in 1855. By 1861

both of these works were in their (nominal) eighth editions, greatly enlarged by inclusion of new material;

and seventy-odd Wind and Current

Charts had been

issued. Maury's career in the United States Navy came to an abrupt end in April 1861 when on the secession of Virginia he resigned his commission and cast his lot with his native state and the Confederacy. Promptly commissioned in the Navy of the Confederacy, he rendered valuable service by constructing electrically detonated underwater mines for the defence of the Virginia rivers. In 1862 he was sent to England to purchase and outfit ships for the Confederate Navy. At the time of the collapse of the Confederacy in 1865 he was on his way back to America on a British steamer bound for Havana and Vera Cruz. Learning on his arrival at Havana of the end of the war, he decided to go on to Mexico and offer his services to Maximilian, whom Napoleon III had installed as Emperor of Mexico. A plan he devised for the settlement in Mexico of Southerners who might find better prospects there than in their own ruined country proved impractical, but before its complete failure Maury sailed for England to join his family, which had preceded him thither. Thus he was not in Mexico when Maximilian fell in 1866. Still in England and in great need of money to support his family, Maury undertook in 1866 to write a series of textbooks in geography for a New York publisher. In the summer of 1868 he returned to the United States to accept a professorship at the Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, and the superintendency of a Physical Survey of Virginia. Work on his textbooks and the Survey, lectures at the Institute, and much public speaking occupied the last few years of his life, which ended on 1 February 1873.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT The Physical Geography of the Sea3 rather than being the systematic account of existing knowledge of the oceans its title promises, consists of revisions of scattered articles previously published and collected in Sailing Directions. The most important original contributions Maury made in it are: (1) a first attempt at drawing a bathymetrical chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, principally from deep-sea soundings made under Maury's direction; (2) a map of isotherms for March and September of the surface water of the Atlantic; and (3)

information on deep-sea sediments brought up by a sounding apparatus invented by one of Maury's subordinates. But these solid contributions are obscured by wordy speculations on the circulation of the atmosphere and the ocean, long quotations apparently selected more for their flowery verbiage than for their factual content, and the boastful exhibition of gains in sailing time made by mariners using Maury's charts and sailing directions. Maury's speculations were rejected by all scientists who took the trouble to comment on them. One anonymous reviewer of the book (Southern. Quarterly RevieWj vol 29 (1856), 166J was 'not only ... disappointed, but ... deeply chagrined and mortified that such crude ideas should go forth as specimens of American science'.

In any event The Physical

Geography of the Sea would

soon be rendered obsolete by the flood of new observations made during the voyage on which the Challenger embarked two months before Maury's death. The one durable item from his ante-bellum authorship was his 'diagram of the winds', a circular figure showing belts of wind and calm on a meridional hemisphere of the earth, surrounded by a cross-section illustrating the vertical components of the circulation of the atmosphere. Modified to accommodate newer concepts, it remained a very nearly perennial textbook illustration. The period in which Maury was writing textbooks, 1866 to 1873, was a favourable one. Authors of geographical literature, from Humboldt to Reclus, had set a high literary standard. Wood engraving had attained a technical perfection that enabled publishers to provide accurate and effective illustrations from both drawings and photographs. Polychrome printing permitted them to include an ample number of coloured maps. American textbooks in geography of the 1870s established the format—large pages to accommodate maps and illustrations—that persisted into the present century. Maury's books for elementary schools, in successive revisions and under various titles, remained in print into the 1930s. The regional arrangement of his elementary texts was less adapted to Maury's talents than the topical organization of his Physical Geography (1873), which also had a long life. The organization of works in physical geography was well established; improvements required, in the 1870s, only the use of new facts and insights, literary skill, and employment of the excellent facilities for illustration now available. Maury's book was one of three important textbooks in physical geography published in the United States in the 1870s; the others were by Arnold Guyot (1873) and Edwin J. Houston (1875). All three of these authors wrote in a genuinely scientific manner. The objective tone of Maury's book is especially noteworthy, since what he wrote before the war is so strongly coloured by 'natural theology' as to incur the reproach of reviewers. In his address of October 1860, cited earlier, he had vehemently defended his practice, summing up his position in these words: 'To reveal to man the offices of [natural agencies] in making the earth his fit dwelling place, is the object of physical geography'. All three of the books mentioned are worthy precursors of those published in the later decades of the nineteenth century, which gained for geography recognition in colleges and universities.

Matthew Fontaine 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS The information available to authors of textbooks in physical geography in the 1870s was soon overwhelmed by new material. Meteorology grew prodigiously after the establishment of official weather services; investigation of the sea, by no means restricted to the work done on the Challenger, remade Maury's special branch of science; and the scientific exploration of the western United States created a new geomorphology. A new generation of textbooks, inaugurated by R.S. Tarr's Elementary Physical Geography of 1896, grew out of this material, which is already prominent in Russell Hinman's Eclectic Physical Geography, 1888. These later writers cite Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea in their reading lists, but one finds in their books no material borrowed from it except the modified 'diagram of the winds'. By the late 1890s authors of works in physical geography, though they used the long-established organization, did not need to borrow content from their predecessors of the previous generation.

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON M.F. MAURY Several biographies of Maury have been published, of which the following are the most important: Corbin, Diana Fontaine Maury. A Life of Matthew Fontaine Maury... compiled by his Daughter, London 1888, 326pLewis, Charles Lee. Matthew Fontaine Maury, the Pathfinder of the Sea, U.S. Naval Inst., Annapolis, 1927, 264p. Brown, Ralph Minthorne. 'Bibliography of Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury, including a biographical sketch', Bull. Virginia Polytechnic Inst., vol 37 (1944) (largely superseded by the bibliography in F.L. Williams (1963) but still useful). Williams, Frances Leigh. Matthew Fontaine Maury, Scientist of the Sea, New Brunswick, N.J., 1963, 720p. (this is a definitive work, containing a full bibliography of Maury's writings and writings about him) . 2. SELECTED AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY M.F. MAURY Maury's voluminous, scattered and repetitive writings present great difficulties to the bibliographer, which neither R.M. Brown nor F.L. Williams completely surmounted. a. Navigation 1834 'On the navigation of Cape Horn', Am. J. Sci, vol 26, 54-63 1836 A new Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Navigation, Philadelphia, 400p. Rev. eds. Elementary, Practical and Theoretical Treatise on Navigation, Philadelphia, 1843, 1845, 336p. 1847-60 Wind and Current Charts, 70 sheets, excl. of revisions

Maury

61

b. Oceanography 1844 'The Gulf Stream and currents of the sea', Am. J. Sci., vol 47, 161-81 1850 'On the currents of the Atlantic Ocean', Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol 3, 74-80 1851 'On the currents of the Atlantic and the existence of the North-West Passage', Edinb. New Philos. J., vol 51, 51-5 1855 The Physical Geography of the Sea, New York, 274p. Later editions to 8th, which has the title The Physical Geography of the Sea and Its Meteorology, 1861, 474p. This last edition was republished, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963, 432p. British editions, London, 1855 and later. Unauthorized editions issued by T. Nelson and Sons and George Philip and Son. Translations: Dutch, 1855; French, 1858, 1865, 1868; German, 1856, 1859; Italian, 1872; Norwegian, 1865; Spanish, 1860. c. Geography 1853 'Valley of the Amazon', De Bow's Review, vol 14, 449-60, 556-67; vol 15, pp.36-43 1854 'Progress of geographical science'. Bull. Am. Geogr. Stat. Soc, vol 1, 1-31; De Bow's Review, vol 17, 569-90 1860 Commander Maury's Address, in An Account of the Ceremonies... at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the University of the South, Wednesday, 10 Oct. 1860, University of the South Peepers, Ser A, no 1, 63-8 1864 Physical Geography for Students and General Readers, London, 141 p. Translations: Geografia fisica para las escuelas y la .juventud de Mexico, Mexico; Edicion del periodico La Nacion, 1865; Populiarii kurs fizicheskoi geografii, St. Petersburg, 1865 1868 First Lessons in Geography, New York, 62p. 2nd ed., New York, 1871 The World We Live In, New York, 104p. 2nd ed., New York, 1871. Transl., Le monde oil nous vivons.Paris, C1868?: 1870 Manual of Geography, New York, 162p. Later eds. 1880 to 1906 1873 Physical Geography, New York and Baltimore, 218p. Rev. eds., 1883, 1888, 1891, 1903; as MaurySimonds Physical Geography, New York, 1908, 347p. (The last four titles, with a set of eight wall maps, constituted 'Maury's Geographical Series' as he left it at his death. First Lessons in Geography and The World We Live In were combined and abridged as Elementary Geography, 1881, 1894, to form, with revisions of the other two, 'Maury's Geographies, New Series'. The titles of the two elementary texts were changed by the American Book Company to New Elements of Geography, 1907 and later, and New Complete Geography,1909 and later. These were still in print in the 1930s. The University Publishing Company kept the 'Old Series' in print into the 1890s, so that dates of printing in the two series overlap). d. Miscellaneous 1868 Physical Survey of Virginia. Preliminary Report, No.l. Richmond, 2nd ed., New York, 1869. 1877 Physical Survey of Virginia. Preliminary Report No.2. Richmond. John Leighly is professor University of California,

of geography, emeritus, Berkeley, USA

at

the

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: MATTHEW FONTAINE MAURI Dates

Life

and

career

1806

Born 14 January, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia

1810

Family moved to Williamson County, Tennessee

1818

Entered Harpeth Academy, Tennessee

1825

Appointed Midshipman, U.S. Navy

Activities, fielduork

travel,

Visited South America

1829-30

Circumnavigation; Pacific Islands, China, East Indies, Cape of Good Hope Acting Sailing Master, Sloop

Visited South America Currents of the Atlantic Ocean (James Rennell, posthumously)

1832 1836

Married Ann Herndon; promoted to Lieutenant, U.S. Navy

A New Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Navigation (later ed. 1843 and 1845) 'Der Ozean', Allg. Lander- u. Volkerkunde, vol 1 (H. Berghaus)

1837

1839

Right leg disabled permanently

U.S. Exploring Expedition

1840 1842

Pseudonymous articles on naval matters Superintendent, Depot of Charts and Instruments, U.S. Navy

1844

1847

Depots of Charts and Instruments renamed National Observatory and Hydrographical Office First Wind and Current Charts (others published up to 1860) Aspects of Nature (American ed.) (Humboldt); Manual of Scientific Inquiry prepared for the use of Officers of R.M> Navy (J. Herschel ed.)

1849

1851

Contemporary events and publications

Visited France and the Mediterranean

1826

1831

Publications

Explanations and Sailing Directions to accompany Wind and Current Charts (later ed. to 1858-59)

Matthew Fontaine Dates

Life

and

career

Activities, fieldwork

travely

Contemporary events and •publications

Publications

The Physical of the Sea

1855

Geography 'An essay on the winds and currents of the ocean' (W. Ferrel)

1856

1858

Promoted to Commander, U.S. Navy

1861

Resigned from U.S. Navy; commissioned in Confederate States Navy

Organized coastal defences of Virginia

1862

Ordered to England on secret service

Purchase of supplies for Confederate navy

Outbreak of American Civil War

1864

Maximilian Emperor of Mexico

1865

1868

Joined family in England

Commissioner of Colonization, Mexico; visited Cuba and Mexico

End of American Civil War

Contracts with New York publishers to write series of textbooks in geography; visited England

Fall of Maximilian

Appointed Professor of Return to U.S.A. Physics, and Superintendent of Physical Survey of Virginia, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington

First Lessons in Geography; The World we Live in; Preliminary Report of Physical Survey of Virginia Manual of

1870 1873

63

Instigated and attended Maritime Conference, Brussels; visited England, Belgium, Germany and France

1853

1866

Maury

Died at Lexington, Va., 1 February

Physical

La Terre

(E. Reclus)

Geography Geography

The Depths of the Sea (C. Wyville Thomson); Challenger expedition in progress

Simion Mehedinti 1868-1962

VINTILA MIHAILESCU

Simion Mehedinti belonged to the circle of great men who added brilliance to Romanian intellectual life in the first half of the twentieth century. His interests and his thinking ranged far beyond the sphere of classical geography by deliberate intention, in a period before geography was established definitively as a modern science, to enable him to develop his own concepts of geography.

1. EDUCATION^ LIFE AND WORK Mehedinti, one of the eleven children of a cure, was born in the mountain village of Soveja in the southwest corner of the province of Moldova. After a period of theological studies he entered the University of Bucharest, where he was influenced by the archaeologist Alexandru Odobescu to devote himself to geography. The Romanian Geographical Society awarded him a bursary which enabled him to study under Vidal de la Blache at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris, under F. von Richthofen at the University of Berlin, and with Ratzel at Leipzig, where he obtained a doctorate in 1899 for his thesis 'Die kartographische Induktion1. When he was a student at Bucharest science was not included in higher level studies and he was taught no geography. Nevertheless his thinking was first directed to geography by his own reading—of Buckle, the English historian, and of Auguste Comte, Taine and Herder, the philosophers—and by his own philosophy teacher, Titu Maiorescu. He attended courses at the University of Paris run by Dubois and Himly, the latter a historian turned geographer and a new interpreter of history. He observed that his teachers in Paris were themselves

searching for a geographical science, with little success except in the case of Vidal de la Blache. It was Vidal de la Blache who advised Mehedinti to continue his studies in Berlin. Before he left Paris he had progressed sufficiently to be able to write an article: 'Locul geografici fntre stiinte (The place of geography among the sciences)', which he sent to Odobescu who had it published in the Bulletin of the Romanian Geographical Society in the following year, 1894. It was in Paris, therefore, during his studies with French geographers that Mehedinti began to develop his concept of geography as a science. In Berlin (in 1894) and later in Leipzig (in 1895) Mehedinti found that concepts of the definition of geography were not markedly different from those held in Paris, though Richthofen, a geologist, saw the subject as a study of the earth's present-day surface, structure and functions. Ratzel, through his Anthropogeographie

and Bibliothek

der geographischen

HandbVicher, was

initiating specialization in geography. Studying under these teachers, Mehedinti was introduced to seminars as means of communication and discussion, though he could not understand why such great travellers as Richthofen and Ratzel did not organize field excursions with their students. Mehedinti was a worker who drove himself relentlessly. After three years of intense activity he suffered a breakdown and had to spend over two years recovering in his native village. Restoration to health was achieved through the powers of mental discipline which became evident in this period and which he retained through his long life. By the time of his return to academic activity, he had developed his fundamental ideas on the

66

Simion

Mehedintj,

unitary nature of geography as a science and the concept of the organic unity of the environment with man and nature in a perpetual relationship. On his return to Romania as professor of geography at the University of Bucharest, after presenting his doctoral thesis at Leipzig, he published in 1900 two articles which contained the essence of his geographical thinking: 'Eterogenitatea celor patru sfere (The heterogenity of the four spheres)' and 'Problemele geografici contemporane ca §tiin£a a Cosmosului (The problems of contemporary geography as a science of the Cosmos)'. These were used as the framework for the courses he started in 1901 and remained fundamentally unchanged as the basis of his major work Terra, published in 1930. Of his subject at the beginning of the twentieth century, tfehedin^i wrote: 'At the beginning of the century, geography was a kind of Cinderella, both at home and abroad... University courses in geography could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In Romania there were no courses at all. In the secondary schools, geography teaching ended at the third year. The teachers, all self-taught and with no more than secondary school education, gave instruction each in his own fashion, but did not stray far from traditional methods. The pupil had to put on a map the names of countries, towns, mountains, rivers etc. Geography was at that time a descriptive science with recitation of place names.and statistical facts by heart'. There was no guidance on general theory of the subject and no enlightened body of teachers existed. It was accepted that geography was a kind of 'mental ability' which could never aspire to the title of a science. Mehedin^i saw his task as that of convincing teachers of geography that their discipline could be conceived of as a real science, and that there were other methods of teaching it. Fortunately he realized that his obligation lay in training future geographers, both for teaching and for research, and in convincing the 'selftaught' teachers that geography should be based not merely on remembering facts but primarily on absorbing facts on a basis of reasoning. Had he, in demonstration, devoted himself exclusively at this time to some specialized branch of his subject, he would not have achieved his broad and essential educational purpose. Mehedinpi had a philosophical yet bold mind; he was endowed with exceptional pedagogical aptitude; and he was a good speaker and writer. In order to gain acceptance of his reforming ideas in a conservative, or even hostile, milieu he adopted specific strategies. He began with the careful preparation of his university courses and the publication of short theoretical papers in the Bulletin of the Romanian Geographical Society. He made.himself known to teachers in secondary schools, and to naturalists and historians as well as geographers. To further his purpose of influencing school geography teaching he initiated annual geographical conferences and monthly seminars. The first geographical conference was held in 1904 at Ia§i and was attended by Spiru Haret, Minister of Education, who suggested to Mehedinti that he should produce geographical manuals for use in secondary schools. This proved to be a momentous idea, for Mehedinpi's textbooks were largely responsible for transforming the tedious memorizing process to a study of geography that was both instructive and educational and also a reasoning discipline.

After 1920 geography was introduced throughout secondary school courses and, as a compulsory subject, into the

baccalaureat.

The geographical conferences had a double purpose: first, to familiarize the participants with the geography of the locality in which they were held, by means of lectures, discussions and excursions; and secondly, to encourage professional pedagogical discussions and experience of model lessons. The second conference for geography teachers occurred after an interval of eight years, in 1912, after which they were held annually in different locations until 1942. Professor Mehedinti presided over them until 1938. After his textbooks, these meetings were undoubtedly the most influential means by which his ideas on modern geography were spread and accepted among Romanian geographers. Another activity initiated by Mehedinti at the University of Bucharest was the holding of monthly seminars for the presentation of reports and scientific communications and for discussions between high school teachers, naturalists, historians and others who were interested in geographical problems. Over a period of thirty years Mehedinji's geographical concepts were disseminated through these regular meetings. He saw them also as the means of holding the interest of his former students in geographical development and research. In 1909 he intro-

duced the Anuarul de geografie si antropogeografie (Annual Bulletin of Geography and Anthropogeography)

in

which the reports and discussions of the seminars were published. This periodical ceased in 1917. In 1922 Mehedinti, having been appointed to the editorial board of the Bulletin of the Romanian Geographical Society, invited his students to contribute papers to it. With the passage of time the Bulletin has become the platform for geographers throughout the country. In 1939 Mehedinpi was succeeded in the chair of general geography at Bucharest by his former student Constantin Bratescu (1882-1945). Another former student George Valsan (1885-1935) had been appointed to a chair of physical geography at Bucharest in 1929. In retirement Mehedinti continued his very active life and in

1946 published his memoirs Premize si concluzii la Terra (Prerequisites and conclusions to Terra). He died in

Bucharest in 1962. 2. SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT AND GEOGRAPHICAL IDEAS Mehedinti had developed his concept of the unitary nature of geography by the time he was thirty. This came about during his convalescence at Soveja in the solitude of his walks in the forest, when he came to understand the relationship between man's integration with his environment and the idea of the organic unity in which man and nature are combined. In his exploration of the theory of his subject, Mehedinpi began with his original questions, first formulated during his studies in Paris: Does geography merit being called a science? Has it an objective and methodology in its own right? These were difficult questions to answer at that time—even as they can be at the present day. He felt that it was first necessary to have a definitive classification of the existing geographical information. Such a basis was essential if geography was to be given the character of an organic self-contained science, whether as a research subject or one taught in schools. Geographical facts, once classified and selected, must then be presented in

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Leipzig, 247-55 1916 'Chestia oriental! din punct de vedere geografic |i etnografic (The oriental questions from geographical and ethnographical points of view)', Bui. Soc. Romdne de Geogr.3 vol 35, 169-81 1919 'Observatii asupra Dobrogei (Observations on Dobrogea)', Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr.3 vol 38, 187-97 'Cadrul antropogeografic al Transilvaniei (The anthropogeographical framework of Transylvania)' in Transilvania3 Banatul3 Crisana, Bucharest, 587-603 1925 Vechimea poporului roman qi legatura lui cu elementele alogene (The age of the Romanian people and relationships with foreign elements), Bucharest, 46p. 1928 'Dacia pontica §i Dacia carpatica. Observari antropogeografice (Pontic Dacia and Carpathian Dacia. An anthropogeographical study)', Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr.3 vol 47, 5-18 1929 La Roumanie, Romanian Geographical Society, Bucharest, 136p. 1933 'Discordante antropogeografice (Anthropogeographical discordances)', Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr.3 vol 52, 193-229 1936 'Der Zusammenhang der rumanischen Landschaft mit dem rumSnischen Volke (Relationships between the Romanian landscape and the Romanian people)', in Vom Leben und Wirken Romanen3 II Rumanische Reihe3 Heft 7, Jena and Leipzig, 29p. 1940 'Qu'est-ce que la Transylvanie?', Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr.3 vol 59, 1-110 1943-4 Opere complete. Prelegeri3 studii §i artiaole de

70

Simion

Mehedinfi

geografie teoretica qi geografie regionala publicate vntre 1894 si 1941 (Complete works. Lectures, studies and papers of theoretical and regional geography published between 1894 and 1941), 2 vols, 278p. and 260p., Bucharest b. General geography; methodology and epistemology of geography 1894 'Locul geografiei intre §tiin£e (The place of geography among the sciences)', Bui. Soc. Romane de Gepgr., vol 15, 19-34 1899 'Uber die kartographische Induktion (On cartographic induction)', thesis, Leipzig, 51p. 1900 'Eterogeneitatea celor patru sfere (The heterogeneity of the four spheres)', republished in Opere complete, vol 1, Bucharest, 1943, 45-58 1901 'Obiectul §i definijia geografiei (The object and definition of geography)', republished in Opere complete, vol 1, Bucharest, 1943, 9-44 'Studiul geografiei in invajfamintul secundar (Geographical studies in middle schools)', Bui. Soc. Romane de Geogr., vol 22, 269-87 1902 'Geografia ca disciplina universitara (Geography as a university discipline)', republished in Opere complete, vol 1, Bucharest, 1943, 192-203 1930 Terra (The Earth): vol 1, Introducere in geografie ca §tiin£a (Introduction to geography as a science) , 5 H p . ; vol 2, Descrierea inveli§urilor planetei; clasificarea geografica (Description of the earth's envelopes: geographical classification), 692p., Bucharest 1934 'Contributia romaneasca la geografia contemporana (The Romanian contribution to contemporary geography) ' , in Stiin^a qi filosofie contemporana— Contributie romaneasca (Contemporary science and philosophy—the Romanian contribution), Valenii de Munte, 5-27 1937 'Quelques observations sur 1'evolution de la geographie en Roumanie' in La vie scientifique en Roumanie: I, Sciences pures, Bucharest, 45p. secolului XX. 1938 Geografie qi geografi la tnceputul Tnsemnari cu privire la dezvoltarea qtiin^elor si tnvatamzntului tn Romania (Geography and geographers at the beginning of the twentieth century. On the development of the sciences and education in Romania), Bucharest, 138p. 1946 Premise si concluzii la Terra. Amintiri qi marturisiri (Prerequisites and conclusions to Terra. Memories and confessions), Academia Romana, Studii §i cercetari, no 73, Bucharest, 253p. 1947 'Metoda geografica in §tiin£ele naturale qi sociale (Geographical method in the natural and social sciences)', An. Acad. Romane, Memoriile Sectjiunii Istorice, ser III, vol 29, mem 4, 24p. c. Ethnography and ethnopedagogy 1913 Poporul (The people), Bucharest, 169p. 1918 Scoala poporului (The people's school), Bucharest, 96p. 1919 Alta creqtere—Scoala muncii (Other development— the works' school), Bucharest, 215p. 1920 'Caracterizarea unui popor prin munca qi uneltele sale (The characterization of a people by their work and their tools)', Academia Romana, Discursuri de recepi^ie, vol 47, Bucharest, 31p. 1930 'Coordonate etnografice—Civilizatie §i cultura

(Ethnogaphical coordinates: Civilization and culture)', An. Acad. Romana, Memoriile Sec^iunii Istorice, ser III, vol 11, mem 4, 105p. 1939 'Trilogia s.tiin^ei: cercetator, erudit, savant (The trilogy of science: researcher, scholar, scientist), An.Acad. Romana, Memoriile Sec^iunii Istorice, ser III, vol 21, mem 12, 108p. 1940 Trilogii. Stiin^a, Qcoala, Vialja. Cu aplicari la poporul ronton (Trilogies. Science, school and life, in relation to the Romanian people), Bucharest, 445p. d. Literature 1920 Oameni de la munte. 10 nuvele din via^a poporului roman de la munte (The mountaineers. 10 novels from the life of the Romanian mountain people), 3rd ed, Bucharest, 207p. Vintila Mihailescu is professor of geography in the Institute of Geography of the University of Bucharest, Romania

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: SIMION hEHEDINTI Dates

Life

and

career

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

1868

Born at Soveja (Putna)

1888

Entered Univ. of Bucharest

1893

Received bursary from Romanian Geogr. Soc; studied under Vidal de la Blache

Visited France

1894

Moved to Univ. of Berlin to study under F. von Richthofen

Visited Berlin and Leipzig

1895

Attended Univ. of Leipzig, to work under F. Ratzel

Visited Germany and the Alps

1899

Awarded doctorate

1901

Appointed Professor of Geography at Univ. of Bucharest

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

'Locul geografiei intre s,tiinte' (The place of geography amongst the sciences)

'Die kartographische Induktion' (thesis)

La Valachie

1902 1904

(de Martonne)

Initiated annual geographical conferences for Romanian geographers Recherches sur I 'evolution des Alpes de Transylvanie (de Martonne)

1907

1908

Initiated monthly geographical seminars

1909

Established and directed Annual Bulletin of Geography and Anthropogeography

Traite de Geographie (de Martonne)

Began publication of geography textbooks

La Geographie (Brunhes)

1910

Professor at Army College

1915

Member of the Romanian Academy

1918

Minister of Public Education

Humaine

Die Geographie als Wissenschaft und Lehrfach (Hettner)

1919 1920

'Caracterizarea unui popor prin munca si uneltele sale' (The characterization of a people by their work and their tools)

1921 1922

Physique

Principes de Geographie (Vidal de la Blache) President of the Editorial Committee of Bulletin of the Romanian Geogr. S o c ; work with G. Valsan

Humaine

72 Dates

Simion Life

Mehedinfi and

career

Activitiest fieldwork

travelt

Le Pays et le

1927

Roumain

People

(in French)

Terra

1930 1938

Vice-President of the Romanian Geogr. Soc.; work with V. Mihailescu

Geography and geographers at the beginning of the twentieth century

Premize se concluzii la Terra (Prerequisites and conclusions to Terra)

1946

1962

Contemporary events and publications

Publications

Died at Bucharest

Hugh Robert Mill 1861-1950

T.W. FREEMAN

Delicate in youth, and subject to intermittent and severe illness, Mill was a devoted geographer who never held a university appointment. The influence of his parents, especially of his remarkable mother, remained crucial for he loved life and enjoyed both its scholarly and its social opportunities. Like many British geographers of his time, he was attracted to geography by its apparent breadth of vision, though he was entirely aware that world generalizations can only be satisfying if based on detailed local study. 1. EDUCATION3 LIFE AW WORK H.R. Mill, in An Autobiography (1951), records that he was born at 3 p.m. on 28 May 1861 in Thurso, where his father was a hard-working medical doctor, a farmer and a magistrate. His mother, so significant an influence in Mill's life after the death of his father in 1873, was described by him as inheriting 'the gentle grace of her half-English mother combined with the good constitution and the strong moral purpose of her sternly selfdisciplined father'. There were eleven children, seven of whom lived to be over seventy and one other over sixty. Mill's father, as a man of three occupations, worked from morning to night but found time to read aloud to his children. At the age of five, in 1866, Mill went to an infant school run by a charming Scotswoman and in 1870 he went to the Free Church School run by an engaging Irishman who also edited Thurso's local paper, the Caithness Courier. But then tuberculosis ended his formal schooling though not his education, for his mother kept up the interest he had acquired in reading, not only in general literature but also in

natural history and physical science from his teachers in both schools. Elder sisters taught him French, penurious students were brought in to teach the elements of mathematics and Latin, and his father read aloud 'improving books' such as Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic. Mrs Mill moved to Edinburgh in 1877 and there her son, unusually widely read but in need of some systematic education, went to evening classes at the Watt Institution, spending the rest of each day on the seven subjects needed for matriculation at the University of Edinburgh. He matriculated in 1880 and became a Bachelor of Science three years later, having studied chemistry, physics, mathematics, botany and zoology. High honours came to him as a student especially for his work in chemistry, and on graduation he was awarded scholarships in physics and in chemistry, and even read his first paper, on rainfall, to the Royal Society of

Edinburgh. A varied career began with his appointment as chemist and physicist to the new Scottish Marine Station at Granton, on the Firth of Forth, in 1884. A Fellowship (one of three made available) was given to Mill, who worked in the University for the Doctor of Science examination and in the laboratory of the Ark3 where James Young Buchanan, the chemist on the Challenger, had installed its chemical equipment. (Buchanan, who instructed Mill in work on the chemistry of sea water, taught geography at Cambridge university from 1889-93). Mill spent much of his time afloat in the Medusa, a steam yacht attached to Granton, studying the salinity of sea water. In 1886 he was awarded the D.Sc. degree at Edinburgh University after an examination lasting several days and the presentation of a thesis on The chemistry

74

Hugh Robert

Mill

of the water of the Firth of Forth. Although Mill remained on the staff at Granton until 1888, his work in chemistry was now completed, for in 1887 he had become lecturer in geography and physiography at the HeriotWatt College. This was the (re-named) institution at which Mill had attended evening classes, but with the assistance of wealth from the Heriot Trust, and the energy of its new principal, Francis Grant Ogilvie (father of Alan G. Ogilvie) it was entering a phase of expansion which culminated in university status. Mill was also drawn into university extension lecturing in Scottish towns, largely encouraged by the ever-dynamic Patrick Geddes. From 1891, he also carried out this work in the north of England. Mill supplemented his income from 1888 by publishing school texts, of which the first was the Elementary Commercial Geography. His book, The Realm of Nature (1891), which survived for fifty years as an introduction to physical geography, was based on his lectures at Heriot-Watt. Having married in 1889 Mill was anxious to find a more secure income than that provided by part-time and intermittent lecturing with some royalties for textbooks. This came in April 1892 when he began work as Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society. The new appointment gave Mill rich social opportunities, especially in 1895 when the Sixth International Geographical Congress was held at the Imperial Institute in London. Mill and John Scott Keltie, then secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, were joint secretaries of the Executive Committee, of which Charles Darwin's soldier son, Major Leonard Darwin, was chairman. Undoubtedly Mill enjoyed such gatherings and he was a familiar figure at the Geography section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science from 1885, its Recorder from 1893-1900 and its President in 1901. At that time the meetings of Section E (Geography) at the British Association were arranged by the Royal Geographical Society. From 1893 Mill, with his wife and two other geographers, hi-s friend Edward Heawood and, later on, A.J. Herbertson, began a bathymetric survey of English lakes, recorded in articles published by the Royal Geographical Society. Similar work began in Scotland from 1901 under Sir John Murray and others. Such ventures were enjoyable but hardly remunerative and Mill was glad to supplement his income not only by lecturing but also by writing. The textbooks were kept in print, and in 1899 Mill edited The International Geography3 a work of over 1,000 tightly printed pages by seventy authors. With later revisions this remained in print until the First World War. By this time, partly due to the concern over Antarctic explorations expressed at the 1895 International Geographical Congress, Mill had developed a fascination for the Polar world that he was never to see, and one result was his book of 1905, The Siege of the South Pole. This book was a success but he was unable to find a publisher for a revised edition though in 1923, after retirement, his Life of Ernest Shackleton3 written at the request of Lady Shackleton, appeared. The final period in Mill's career, and the longest, began on 1 January 1901, as he said 'the first day of the new century'. He accepted the unexpected invitation of Henry Sowerby Wallis to become joint director of the British Rainfall Organization, which had collected records supplied by 450 observers on its foundation in 1861 and 3,500 by 1900. The results were

published in the annual volumes familiar as British Rainfall and in a small periodical called Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine established by G.J. Symons, who died in March 1900. Wallis retired in 1903 and Mill with his wife went to live at 62 Camden Square, London, the headquarters of the British Rainfall Organization. Mill's policy was to develop the scientific study of rainfall and to establish more recording stations, of which there were 5,000 by 1912, many of them visited by Mill on holiday and other travels. In 1912 his eyesight failed and he contemplated retirement, though this was postponed until 1919, when the British Rainfall Organization was merged with the Meteorological Office of the Air Ministry. In the thirty years of his retirement, Mill's most notable writing was a splendid chapter on the climate of the British Isles in the volume issued for the International Geographical Congress in Britain, edited by A.G. Ogilvie, Great Britain: Essays in Regional Geography (1928) and the book issued to celebrate the centenary of the Royal Geographical Society, The Record of the Royal Geographical Society (1930). Almost entirely blind for the last four years of his life Mill died at East Grinstead, Sussex on 5 April 1950. 2.

SCIENTIFIC

IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT

a) The contribution to science Having had an excellent scientific education, both in Edinburgh University and with the marine survey, Mill became steadily more conscious of the need for climatic study. He had a pragmatic outlook and wanted any generalization to be based on detailed work, such as that done at the Ben Nevis observatory from 1883 to 1904. Many of his conclusions were expressed with admirable clarity, as in an article in the Geographical Teacher, vol 11 (1921-2) 63-75, in which he showed that thunderstorms and other cyclonic disturbances gave heavy rains that bore no relation to physical features, but only to meteorological conditions. On the relation of rainfall to relief, there were four main principles: there were no abrupt transitions in average rainfall; on the windward slope there was an increase with slope, but not necessarily at a uniform rate; rainfall on the leeward side was greater at some point on the slope than on the summit; areas of similar relief and exposure would have a similar distribution of rainfall. He also urged that a hydrological study of the entire country was needed. This he had also urged in papers of 1896 and 1900 on a 'proposed geographical description of the British Islands based on the Ordnance Survey'. He had in mind a fairly comprehensive treatment of varying lengths in most cases with regional memoirs for areas such as the Weald, the Lake District or East Yorkshire. Mill was bitterly disappointed that nothing happened until comparable work was done by the Land Utilization Survey of the 1930s. Nevertheless, some of his excellent ideas bore fruit in the fullness of time and his fine work for the British Rainfall Organization was a major contribution to meteorology and climatology. b) Ideas on geography and other sciences Mill saw geography as 'the exact and organized knowledge of the distribution of phenomena on the surface of the earth'. He was well read in the works of early geography, including Varenius, Kant, Humboldt and Ritter. He accept-

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90

Eugeniusz

Romer

contemporary centres of geographical thought in Central Europe. Having completed these studies and after adding to them pedagogic qualifications, he became a teacher at secondary schools for a period of ten years. Convinced of the importance of both patriotic and geographical education, he enjoyed teaching and in 1897 he moved to the Commercial Academy at Lwow. He qualified for appointment as an assistant-professor in 1899 and continued his work at the Academy while at the same time becoming assistant-professor (privat-docent) in the department of geography directed by A. Rehman at Lwow University. His studied abroad led to his initial work in climatology, which at that time had special significance in contemporary geomorphological research. For his thesis 'Rozk/ad ciepjfa na kuli ziemskiej ' (Thermal distribution on the terrestrial globe) he received his doctorate in 1894. His work of the same year, Geogra-

ficzne rozmieszczenie opad&w atmosferycznych w krajach karpackich (The distribution of rainfall in the Car-

pathian lands)j was highly rated by R. Assman as well as by the Russian cartographer General A.A. Tillo. As a teacher Romer was confronted with the urgent task of preparing educational material which would raise the standard and change the methods of teaching geography at Polish primary and secondary schools. His

Textbook of Geography (PodrQeznik geografii dla klas pierwszyoh) (190U) and School Geography Atlas (MaZy

Atlas geograficzny)(1908) brought about a reform in the teaching of the subject. The old method of memorizing knowledge was replaced by the inculcation of basic concepts and the observation of phenomena. His atlas was a vital influence in making geography a rational subject. It also foreshadowed, with his textbook, his later contributions to cartographical research. In the mature period of his career, Romer successfully combined his teaching activities with his research work, both at home and abroad. His scientific research involved field expeditions devoted to geomorphological and glacial studies. As a preparation for these he studied for six months, in 1909, at the Maurice Lugeon Institute at Lausanne. In addition to his frequent field expeditions in Poland, he took part in a number of foreign expeditions. In 1911, as a topographer he was a member of a Russian geological-mining expedition, led by E. Toll, to the Sikhota-Alin mountains. Returning by sea, he visited en route Japan, China and India. Two years later, he spent four weeks in Brittany and thence went to Canada for a few months for an International Geological Congress at Toronto, followed by Congress excursions to the glaciers of the Rocky Mountains in Canada and Alaska. This expedition was a great success and won him international recognition. It also signified his commitment to geomorphological problems which he approached through his climatic studies. The geographical study group set up by him in 1911, after he was appointed to the chair of geography at Lwow University, became the nucleus of the Geographical Institute, whose work was entirely given over to explorations and practice in the field. At this time-there were growing differences between the great powers, which raised the hopes of the Polish people for independence. Romer increasingly gave his attention to political questions, especially those pertaining to territories and frontiers. Already, in 1905, he had gone beyond the teaching of geography, by taking

part in open and underground patriotic activities, mainly by giving lectures and talks. The work he wrote in

this connection, Podstawy przyrodzone Polski cznej (The natural background of historical

historyPoland)

(1912), was the start of his anthropo-geographical studies which were subsequently collected in a volume

entitled Ziemia i panstwo

(Land and State)

(1939).

In 1914-15 he increased these activities, both at home and abroad, by publishing articles and pamphlets about Poland and maps of her territory. These endeavours resulted in the collection of material for Geograficzno-

Statystyczny

Atlas

Polski

(The

Geographical-Statistical

Atlas of Poland) (1916) and later served as a startingpoint for his next cartographical work, the so-called

Congress Atlas

(Atlas

Kongresowy) which had a signifi-

cant influence in Poland's recovery of independence. This atlas was compiled in the years 1918-19 when Romer was engaged as an expert in boundary questions and was head of the Polish Bureau at the Paris Peace Conference. As a scientist of international reputation, numbering among his friends such an esteemed geographer as Isaiah Bowman, he could do more for the national cause than many politicians. Later he served as an expert adviser also at the Peace Conference at Riga (1921) and took part in the plebiscite in Silesia in the same year. His constant commitment to the political life of his country expressed itself in various forms, for example in his uncompromising attitude towards the undemocratic changes in Poland before 1939, and in his defence of academic liberties. In 1921 Romer founded the Instytut Kartograficzny (Cartographical Institute) which acted jointly with the publishing house Ksiaznica-Atlas. The latter supplied the Polish book market with valuable cartographic and scientific publications, making the country independent of foreign suppliers. After he retired in 1930, Romer still worked mainly within the Institute, which was destroyed by the invading forces in 1939. Fortunately the specialists trained there were able to resume work in 1945. Romer spent the war in hiding, part of the time in a monastery of the Fathers of the Resurrection (Zmartwychwstancy), engaged in the study of geographical and religious problems. In 1945-6 in the chair of geography he headed the Geographical Institute at Cracow University and was simultaneously consultant to the Geographical Institute founded in Wrocjaw in 1946. His activity in these later years is indicated by his publications— some thirty in number, mainly on geomorphology—which he wrote during the seven years before his death in Cracow in 1954. Romer's appearance and character seemed to reflect his originality of thought and the nature of the activities he undertook. Slight in stature, he had the handsome face of a southerner who looked on the world shrewdly through his dark eyes. His lively disposition found an outlet in hard work with mental concentration, and in continuous creativity which was in him a compulsion. Being himself diligent, he considered diligence the measure of a scientist's value; his view was that a scientist should in his work and life reveal the highest of moral standards. He was a man of action and courage whose romantic dreams about an independent and cultured Poland were combined with the achievement of scientific deeds. He lived modestly with his family, his wife Jadwiga, nee Rosenknecht, and their two sons Witold and

Eugeniusz Edmund, who were subsequently professors at the Polytechnic Institutes of Gliwice and Wroclaw, devoting all his energy to public and scientific activity both at home and internationally. 2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL WORK Amongst Romer's many-sided studies certain fields of special significance can be identified:

a. Climatology His two early works: Studia nad rozkJLadem ciep%a na kuli ziemskiej (Studies on the thermal distribution on the terrestrial globe) (1892) and Geograficzne rozmieszozenie opadJow atmosferyoznych w krajach karpaokioh (The distribution of rainfall in the Carpathian lands) (1894) show how he linked the study of Poland's climate with general climatological problems of the earth. His next work: 'Die Mangel der Methode Ed. Briickners in seiner Abhandlung Klimaschwankungen seit 1700 und Einfluss derselben auf die Theorie der Klimaschwankungen' (Das Wetter—Weather) in 1896 showed that he was mature enough to take up and solve these problems. His interests in Poland's climate were very wide and ranged from organizing meteorological research through detailed studies of particular climatological questions to a synthesis of Poland's climate, including its geographical aspects. In his successive works: Geografia

fizyozna ziem polskich (Physical geography of lands) (1904), Poglad na klimat Polski (Opinion climate of Poland) (1938), Klimat Polski (The of Poland) (1939), Regiony klimatyczne Polski

Polish on the climate (Climatic

regions of Poland) (1949), Romer gave an unsurpassed image, both analytical and synthetic, of his country's climate. He arrived at his synthesis and detailed regional classification through an analysis of isothermal and isohyetal maps and by means of tracing lines of densities and intersections of isotherms and of the isorhythm of seasons. Romer created the notion of a 'Polish intermediate climate' of six seasons, a notion which was subsequently introduced by de Martonne into his classification of the world's climates (Traite" 1909-11), when he described by de Geographie physique, this term also the climate of the U.S.A.-Canadian borderland and the climate of a part of the Amur land in Siberia. Using a system of climatic gradients and isogradients, as well as the 'agrotechnical method', applied only after the Second World War, Romer regarded the cyclical economic periods as functions of climatic, soil, hydrological and other elements in particular areas. His methods have proved to be valuable during recent classification of the climatic regions of Poland.

b.

Geomorphology

The interdependence between climate and earth sculpture was already recognized when Romer studied both climate and geomorphology in Germany. Indeed it was discussed in the works of pioneers of geomorphology: G.K. Gilbert in 1877, F. von Richthofen in 1886,G. Noe and E. de Margerie in 1887 and W.M. Davis in 1899. These works stimulated interest in field investigations, a method of which Romer too became an ardent advocate. He started his geomorphological studies by analysing the concepts of his day and critically discussing, in 1897,

Rome?

91

the then prevailing Jacques Babinet theory of 1859 according to which, because of the earth's rotational movement, rivers erode their right banks in the northern hemisphere, and their left banks in the southern hemisphere. Basing his opinion on his own observations of rivers and on relevant geographical literature, Romer aroused among Polish geographers strong criticism of the then fashionable but unfounded theory, and so transferred the problem of riverbank erosion from the geophysical to the geographical level. Two years later in

his work Wp%yw klimatu na formy powierzchni Ziemi (The influence of climate upon forms of the earth) (1899) he

proved the connection between forms of landscape and various climates. At the same time he enthusiastically upheld Davis's theory of climatic cycles. In his keen pursuit of fieldwork, in Central Asia, the Alps, Alaska and the Himalayas, he turned his attention to glaciers, for he was interested especially in the role of climate in their evolution, in the problem of glacial erosion, and in the origin of fiords. In glacial processes he considered water to be the chief agent of erosion and ice that of preservation. In linking geomorphological processes with climatic phenomena, he applied Davis's deductive model. In his rejection of the excessive influence of tectonics in the formation of the earth's surface, he was of the opinion that morphological regions could be correlated with climatic regions. However, most of his work in geomorphology concerned Poland. In his classic work Tatrzafiska epoka lodowa (The Ice Age in the Tatra) (1929) he pointed to a connection between climate and glacial morphology and to the specific character of glaciation in Poland. He established the cycles of glaciation in Poland—four glacial periods and three interglacials. In the work written towards the

end of his life, Mapa jako dokument rzeZby powierzchni Ziemi (The map as a document of earth's sculpture)

(1950)—typical of his climatic geomorphology—he applied Davis's deductive method in describing Africa's surfaces.

c. Anthropogeography

and political

geography

In these two fields Romer was especially motivated by his desire to help in the restoration of his country's independence, which led him to present to Polish society — a n d to the world—historical, ethnic, demographic and economic aspects of Poland and to strengthen his arguments with cartographic representations. But in presenting his very detailed arguments in these respects, he did not neglect more» general, theoretical work. Responding to geopolitical statements of German imperialism, he would justify the Poles' right to the lands inhabited by them—the area between the Baltic and the Black Seas—by delineating the distinctive natural features of that area. In his argumentation geographical determinism was, however, softened by the stress he laid on the significance of the human will. In all this he did not go beyond the methods of his day. And yet it was not natural factors that determined Poland's boundaries after the First and Second World Wars, but historical and political ones, as W. Na£kowski, the Polish geographer, indicated in his disputation with Romer in 1910-11. The articles on this subject, collected in Romer's book Ziemia i pafistwo (Land and State) (1939) , now provide historical evidence of the use of geography in political controversy.

92

Eugeniusz

Romer

d. Cartography This was the field of Romer's greatest achievement. During his geomorphological and climatological studies, he developed methods for their cartographical presentation. For example in 1938 he drew up two sample climatic maps of Poland which expressed his application of statistical methods in climatology. At an early stage of his career, both as a regular and exacting critic of published and imported maps and as a teacher of geography, he came to acknowledge the manifold functions of maps. When contour maps began to appear, he appreciated their superiority over earlier hachured maps and in his use of the new technique even improved it. In this work he was prompted by his wish to counteract the harmful influence of maps issued by Poland's invaders. The atlas that met all his scientifGeography ic and political requirements was his School Atlas of 1908 (which ran to fifteen editions up to 1955). It included a modern hypsometric synthesis of the whole terrestrial globe that was a revelation for cartographers of many countries because of its imaginative conception and very high standard of cartographic design. The quality of the atlas was heightened by Romer's application of the theory of the spectrum in the modified Peucker's scale, as well as by the faithful representation of land surfaces in the maps. This atlas was highly praised by leading contemporary geographers and cartographers—J.G. Bartholomew, John Bolton of Stanfords, H.J. Mackinder, T.C. Chamberlin, Vidal de la Blache, E. de Martonne, Jean Brunhes, Maurice Lugeon, E.G. Ravenstein and E. de Margerie. In 1916 he published the Geographical and Statistical Atlas of Poland (Geograficzno-Statystyczny Atlas Polski) t a veritable encyclopedia of information about his country, of great value in the preparations for Poland's independence. The material it contained was subsequently developed in the Congress

Atlas

of

Poland

(Polski Atlas Kongresowy) of 1921 which resulted from the work of the Geographical Bureau headed by Romer in the Polish delegation to the Versailles Congress. HavAtlas of ing published an equally impressive Universal Geography (Powszechny Atlas Geograficzny) in 1928, Romer began work in 1936 on the Great Universal Atlas of Geography (Wielki Powszechny Atlas Geograficzny)3 an undertaking interrupted by the Second World War. His cartographic output included sixty atlases, 140 maps, four terrestrial globes, forty-three papers and reviews, and became an example for many other cartographers. His success in this field owed much to the scientific base he himself had helped to organize: the Cartographical Institute founded in 1921, with a library comprising 200,000 maps and atlases; the publishing house of Ksiaznica-Atlas, founded in 1924; and the journal Polski Przeglad Kartograficzny (Polish Cartographic Review )\)hich was published from 1923 to 1934• As the founder of these institutions and master of a circle of specialists working in them, he is considered to be the creator of the first Polish school of cartography which is still active in Wroclaw. e. Theoretical thought His output in this sphere was more limited. His booklet 0 geografii. Rozwazania historyczne i metodologiczne (On Geography: Historical and Methodological Consider-

ations) j which gave a systematic review of the contemporary and earlier geographers, was issued only in 1969. Yet, basing his work on contemporary theoretical literature, he developed his own views on such fundamental questions as the nature of geography and the relationship between man and geographical environment. He attached great importance to the latter in that he regarded history as the consequence of geographical and social conditions. Geography was in his opinion a science dealing with relations between natural conditions and human life, that is, concerned with life on earth. But, for Romer, geography was not only the knowledge about earth and man, applied in practice and socially useful. He also considered geography to be a philosophical science, a kind of spatial synthesis whose development meant 'the absorption of earth by man's consciousness', 'the taking possession of the earth through knowledge'. He also stressed the impact of the individuality of scientists in the evolution of geography. In one of his lectures, given in Cracow in 1945 and entitled 'Geography and Geographers', he quoted many examples to show how this scientific discipline bears the characters of individuals and that there is in fact 'no geography but only geographers'. For him, geographers have an inborn capacity for looking at the world, 'a geographical sense of noticing... of getting to the core of the country's nature, which makes it possible at one stroke... to grasp all the acting forces'. 3.

INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS

Romer's scientific output includes 512 items, reflecting his wide-ranging interests and comprising 58 climatological, 34 geomorphological, 247 cartographical, 32 regional and 49 anthropo-geographical works, as well as 92 on other subjects. As it was his intention to make geography serve the needs of society, he had to put before it, at various times, a variety of problems. Hence the range of his interests. At the beginning of his career there were in Poland only two chairs of geography, both located in the Austrian sector of the country, in Cracow, held by F. Schwarzenberg-Czerny, and in Lwow, held by A. Rehman. This weakness in academic geography went together with the traditional method of 'learning by heart' at lower schools. Such a situation made it possible for Romer, a man of exceptional gifts, to use his talent both in the scientific and the pedagogic fields. Since the situation was due to the lack of Poland's statehood, he combined his scientific activities with a struggle for national independence. When the crucial moment of independence came, Romer's contribution to the national cause was considerable and made him very popular in his country. He also laid institutional foundations for the development of geography in Poland and educated young geographers who could be employed in schools and in research work. He kept in close touch with his pupils, supplying them with scientific and school aids, such as curricula and manuals, and also suggesting to them new lines of study while at the same time regulating his inventiveness to meet the potential of the group he directed. His co-workers and pupils formed a closely knit group devoted wholeheartedly to their task. Romer himself was able to combine the discipline of scientific thinking with artistic imagination, and he was a lively

and talented speaker. The main object of his geographical studies was, of course, Poland. However, thanks to his cartographic publications, and his climatological, geomorphological and especially glaciological investigations, carried out in many lands, he was well known to foreign geographers, some of whom, like Isaiah Bowman, Lucien Gallois, Maurice Lugeon and Emmanuel de Margerie, were his close friends. Twice Romer was vice-president of the International Geographical Union and he also organized the International Geographical Congress in Warsaw in 1934. He and Jovan Cvijic were the best-known Slavonic geographers connected with western science. If the notion of 'the Romer school' has established itself in Polish science and if in each of the eight Polish geographical centres there are scientists who consider themselves to be Romer's 'pupils', then there must be some particular reason for it. Indeed, although he made an original contribution to a number of geographical fields, this did not by itself create a 'school', since his pupils were pursuing various lines of study. So what is called 'the Romer school' is a vast group of geographers united by patriotism and common scientific interests. At the crucial moment in his nation's history, Romer took it upon himself to create modern geography in Poland and to link it with national purpose. He was a great patriot and a great scientist and is remembered in his country on both these counts.

Bibliography and Sources JjLomer, Eugeniusz. Wybor prac (Selected

works),

4 vols,

Warsaw, 1960-64. Volume 1 contains an article by Julian Czyewski, 'Zycie i dzialalnosc Eugeniusza Romera (The life and activity of Eugeniusz Romer)'. It is followed by an index of Polish and foreign publications on Romer, and a bibliography of his works. Jagiellonian Library, Cracow: holds other sources: 25,000 letters, Romer's diary of 1892-1954, memoirs and four concise variants of autobiography, and drafts of unpublished works.

Mazurkiewicz-Herzowa, Lucja. Eugeniusz

Romer , Warsaw,

1966, 192p. Babicz, Jozef, 'Eugeniusz Romer', Dictionary of Scientific Biography, New York, vol xi (1975), 524-5

Jozef Babicz is head of the Department of the History of Natural Sciences in the Institute of the History of Science and Technology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: EUGENIUSZ ROMER Dates

Life

and

career

1871

Born at Lwow

Activities3 fieldwork

travel,

Publications

Restoration of the chair of geography at University of Cracow Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains (G.K. Gilbert)

1877 1878-89

Contemporary events and publications

Attended schools at Rzeszow, Krosno, JasXo and Nowy Sacz

1886

Fuhrer fur Forschungsreisende (F. von Richthofen)

1888

Les Formes du Terrain (G. Noe and E. de Margerie)

1889-91

Studied at Univ. of Cracow

1891-2

Studied at Univ. of Halle

1892-3

Studied at Univ. of Lwow

'RozkZad ciepja na kuli ziemskiej (Thermal distribution on the terrestrial globe)' (thesis)

1894

Awarded doctorate at Univ. of Lwow

'Geograficzne rozmieszczenie opadow atmosferycznych w krajach karpackich (Distribution of rainfall in the Carpathian lands)' (thesis)

1895

Geomorphological studies in Vienna

1896

Climatological studies in Berlin

1897

Teacher at the Academy of Commerce in Lwow

1899

Assistant Professor of geography at Univ. of Lwow

Studia nod asymetriq dolin (On the asymmetry of river valleys)'

1904

Geografia fizyczna ziem polskich (Physical Geography of Polish lands)

1905

Hydrografia (Hydrography); Geografia hgolna Ameryki (General Geography of America

1908

1909

9th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Geneva; geomorphological studies in Lausanne Traite de G&ographie (de Martonne)

Physique

Eugeniusz Dates

Life

and

career

travels,

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

Expedition to SikhoteAlin, Japan, China and India

1910

1911

Activities, fieldwork

'Mouvements epeirogenetique dans le haut bassin du Rhone'

Professor and Chairman of Department of Geography, Univ. of Lwow

1912

Intern. Geol. Congr., Toronto; expedition to Rocky Mountains and Alaska

1913

Honorary member, Geogr. Soc. of Belgrade

1916

Corresponding Member, Polish Academy of Science, Cracow

1918-19

Head of Polish Bureau at Versailles Peace Congress, Paris

1921

Founded Cartographical Institut, Lwow and became Head; honorary member of the Polish Geogr. Soc. and of R. Geogr. S o c , London

1922

President, Union of Polish Geography Teachers; awarded Prix Gallois by Geogr. Soc. of Paris; member, Geographical Societies of Bratislava and Prague

1923

Awarded Gold Medal by Geogr. Soc. of Chicago

1924

Member of editorial board, Ksiaznica-Atlas Publishing House; President, National Committee of Geographers (until 1938); Romer Glacier, Glacier Bay, named by U.S. State Dept.

Geograficzno-Statystyczny Atlas Polski (Geographical and Statistical Atlas of Poland) (American ed. publ. New York 1917)

Polski Atlas Kongresowy (Congress Atlas of Poland)

Corresponding member of Geogr. S o c , Leningrad; Hon. member, Geogr. S o c , Moscow; Congress of Slavonic Geographers and Ethnographers, Cracow 1928

Vice President, Intern. Geogr. Union; 12th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Cambridge

Powszechny Atlas Geograficzny (Universal Atlas of Geography)

1929

Honorary member, Polish Academy of Sciences, Cracow, and of Union of Polish Teachers

Tatrzdnska epoka lodowa (The Ice Age in the Tatra)

Romer

95

96

Eugeniusz

Dates

Life

Romer and

career.

1930

1931

Activities3 fieldwork

travel^

Congress of Slavonic Geographers and Ethnographers, Belgrade Retired from Univ. of Lwow

Hon. Professor, Univ of Lwow

1934

President and Organi: 14th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Warsaw; awarded hon. doctor's degree, Univ. of Poznan; Hon. member, National Society of Poland and of Geogr. S o c , Leningrad; Corresponding Member, Geogr. Soc. of Rome and of Stockholm

1937

Hon. member, Geogr. S o c , Sofia

1938

Hon. member, Geogr. S o c , Neuchatel; 15th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Amsterdam

Polski climate

Held Chair of Geography, Univ. of Cracow

1946

Hon. member, Western Institute and Baltic Institute

1947

Awarded hon. degree Univ. of Cracow

1948

Hon. professor, Univ. of Cracow

1949

Hon. member, Geogr. Soc. of Italy

1951

Commander's Cross and Star of Order of Poland's Rebirth

1954

Poglad na klimat (Opinion on the of'Poland)

Ziemia i pans two (Land and State)

1939 1945-6

Contemporary events and publications

Publications

Died at Cracow

Rozmyslania nad klimatem (Reflections on the Problems of Climate)

Regiony klimatyczne Polski (Climatic regions of Poland)

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Franz

Schrader

particular the 1879 edition of Les Pyrenees. But Schrader was not intended only for menial tasks and in 1880 Templier put him in charge of the Cartographical Department which was established with a view to the publication of the Atlas Universel. This was a project which Vivien de Saint-Martin had initiated in 1872 but had subsequently abandoned, and was intended to free French cartography from dependence on German sources. Schrader revived the enterprise and was its sole director from 1880 until 1911. In addition to the Atlas Universel he directed numerous publications for Hachette. These included popular geographical and historical atlases, in collaboration with Prudent, Anthoine, and Gallouedec, and such periodicals as Les

Nouvelles

Geographiques

(1891-4) and L'Anne'e

Carto-

graphique (1890-1913), which evolved in the course of the production of the Atlas Universel. Hachette's enterprises in popular geography were paralleled by Schrader's work in the educational field. This completely self-taught man did substantial work in the revival of geography teaching after the end of the war in 1871. From 1881 onwards, working with H. Lemonnier, he started a series of primary-level manuals. Ten years later, his collection of secondary-level manuals appeared, produced in collaboration with L. Gallouedec; these remained in use until 1930. Ultimately, even if the university never admitted him, Schrader gave courses on anthropological geography at the Ecole

d'Anthropologie

of Paris.

These many activities did not distract Schrader from his interest in mountains. He produced a large number of maps of the Pyrenees. Of particular interest were his map of the Central Pyrenees drawn up on six sheets, at the scale of 1:100,000, and a geological map of the whole range at 1:800,000, produced in collaboration with Emmanuel de Margerie (published in 1892). Schrader's talents as a topographer and draughtsman were also expressed in a large number of panoramas, circular horizons and relief diagrams. These, exhibited at Expositions Universelles, brought both mountains and geography before the public. In 1898, Schrader took part in the founding of the Societe des Peintres de Montagne and his art, at once sensitive and realistic, earned for him the title of the 'Corot of the mountains'. He was no less active in scientific organizations, for he was an influential member of the Societe

de Geographie

of Paris and of the Comite des

Travaux

Historiques. In 1901 he was elected president of the Club Alpin Frangais, a term of office which was distinguished by the creation of a Commission de Topographic destined to revive the cartography of high mountain areas, which was of mediocre quality in the Ordnance Survey productions. Two masterpieces came out of this organization, in which Henri and Joseph Vallot, Paul Helbronner, Emmanuel de Margerie, Emmanuel de Martonne, and Robert Perret were involved. These were Vallot's Mont Blanc and Schrader*s Mont Perdu (1914), the latter restored to the drawing board after an interval of more than forty years. At the beginning of the twentieth century Schrader had become a scientist of international repute and was hailed as a topographical expert by numerous foreign governments (among them Argentina, Turkey and Greece). In 1912 he offered himself as a candidate for the chair of human geography newly created at the College de France^ but he was passed over in favour of Jean

Brunhes. In 1918, at the request of Clemenceau and the Acad&nie des Sciences he undertook a complete revision of the Atlas Universel^ in which were to be incorporated the changes that resulted from the First World War. After a splendid jubilee at the Sorbonne in 1923 and a last trip to Gavarnie, Schrader died peacefully in Paris on 18 October 1924. In 1927 his body was interred at the foot of the Cirque de Gavarnie, the place that had inspired him during his lifetime as a scientist and an artist.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT Because of the abundance and diversity of Schrader's work it is not a simple matter to assess it as a whole.

a. Cartographic

work

Among his contemporaries, Schrader was above all regarded as the author of fine maps of the Pyrenees and of the Atlas Universel. Geographically the most important map is that of the Central Pyrenees, at 1:100,000, covering an area of more than 5,000 km 2 (1881-1901). On the Spanish slopes, this map bore major corrections in the location of water courses, in the orientation of mountain ridges and the situation of inhabited areas. Rivers which appeared on earlier maps as flowing towards the Atlantic were now 'handed back to the Mediterranean'. But Schrader's skill as a topographer was better displayed in the large-scale maps of Gavarnie and Mont Perdu, all continuously improved for more than half a century. His contemporaries were unanimous in noting in his work the incomparable union of art and geometry, the perfection of the representation of the mountain summits. He successfully suggested through his drawing the smallest accidents of structure and relief, making the topographical map a truly morphological one. In this respect Schrader was the equal of the renowned Swiss cartographers Imfeld and Jacot-Guillarmod. Martel said of him, however: 'anxious to make his drawing more expressive, he did not base it on a large number of rigorously determined survey points; Schrader's maps are beyond imitation by virtue of the impression they give at first sight...' but Vallot's maps, though less spectacular, are more sound scientifically. The Atlas Universel was published in periodical instalments between 1884 and 1911. It was an original work and not merely one of plagiarism. Schrader wanted to achieve a 'work based on original research without borrowing from second-hand works'. He used not only published maps but also gazetteers, travel journals and geographical, historical, geological and statistical publications from all over the world. Europe was represented by a series of maps at scales ranging from 1:1,000,000 to 1:2,500,000, reduced from large-scale national topographic maps. For the other continents, where cartographic mapping was still in its infancy, the available materials were both numerous and unreliable: for the map of Tibet, for instance, no fewer than thirty-two maps and individual accounts were consulted. A kind of extensive inventory of the world at the end of the nineteenth century, Atlas Universel was essentially an atlas of place names, a chorographic atlas, and lacking thematic maps. Nevertheless it represents a remarkable work of synthesis which bears comparison with the great German atlases, in particular the famous Stieler

Handatlas.

Franz Schrader b. Drawings and

paintings

A draughtsman of great talent, Schrader produced hundreds of sketches, panoramas, circular horizons, paintings and relief maps. M. Held has published a complete inventory of these. His sketches are distinguished by their almost photographic precision. They are to be found as illustrations in Elisee Reclus' Giographie

Universellej

in the review Le Tour du Monde and above

all in the annual of the Club Alpin FranQais from 1878 to 1897. Of his panoramas in colour the most famous is that of the Gavarnie-Mont Perdu massif seen from Pimene (1877). As a scientific draughtsman, in that branch which de Margerie calls 'morphological iconography' Schrader was the equal of the greatest foreign specialists, such as the Swiss Albert Heim and the American William Henry Holmes, who produced the fine panoramas of Colorado.Schrader's circular horizons, drawn with the aid of his famous orographe, were produced at intervals between 1877 and 1913. They are the basis for most of the orientation tables which decorate many mountain summits. Of particular note is the orientation table of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, drawn by Schrader in 1908. M. Held counted 344 pictures attributed to Schrader, most of which were displayed to the Paris public in 1927 at a posthumous exhibition. These illustrate not only the Pyrenees but also the Alps, the Basque coast, Normandy, Algeria,Constantinople, Brazil and the Andes. Among them the Mont Blanc panorama (60m x 15m), which was greatly admired at the Universal Exhibition of 1900, is outstanding. Margerie wrote of it: 'The great panorama constructed, drawn and painted by M. Schrader ...shows the Mer de Glace as seen from the Periades glacier. The cascades of the Geant seracs, the differences between the massive forms of the gneissic granites and the schistose needles, the contrast between the lower slopes...where the roches moutonnees can be seen, and the highly fragmented upper parts... all these are in exact proportion and fully lit. M. Schrader has made this panorama into a scientific work of art'.

c. Physical

geography

Cartographic work inevitably led Schrader to the study of physical geography. In his view the topographic cartographer can appropriately illustrate only those landforms of which he knows the origin and development. From the beginning of his work he showed that the Pyrenees are not formed of two half-chains separated by the Val d'Aran, the theory which had been faithfully held since the time of Ramond at the end of the eighteenth century. He also abandoned the classical conceptions which compare the Pyrenees with a fern leaf or a fish spine. In 1890, together with Emmanuel de Margerie, he interpreted the structure of the Spanish Pyrenees, distinguishing the Mont Perdu zone, the Aragon depression and the Sierras zone, while on the French slope he recognized the Ariege region. In terms of tectonics, although he described very well the remarkable single and double folds to be seen on the walls of the cirque at Gavarnie, he never spoke of 'overthrust' but only of lateral thrust. In this connection, however, he was always extremely cautious: 'Let us be satisfied with saying what we believe we have seen, at the same time hoping that others might see better. There is in that place CGavarnieD an immense geological poem; it is

99

enough to have read—possibly the wrong way round—half of the first line'. Schrader must also be recognized for his studies of the neves and glaciers of the Pyrenees, and for the first descriptions of the grottoes, chasms, canyons, resurgent streams and limestone pavements at Marbore. Martel regarded Schrader as a pioneer of scientific speleology, before this was given the name of karstic morphology.

d. Human geography Schrader's geographical conceptions were clearly organic. In 1892 he wrote that the earth should 'no longer be considered as an inert mass in which each thing has simply taken its place once and for all, but on the contrary as an assembly of parts and of forces perpetually in action, whether in transformation or in conflict'. Again, in 1896, he affirmed: 'Thus France appears to be an organized entity, whose every limb has its own function, activity and thought, yet is combined in the life of the whole'. His organicism led to a fairly deterministic approach. For him, physical geography was not the study of permanent 'physical features' but of ceaseless 'planetary life'; it should be succeeded by 'the study of the distribution of population, of peoples, towns and nations...which this terrestrial organism enables to come into being and thrive; only after this...can we study fruitfully the activity of man upon the soil, trade, agriculture, industry... The earth should be the point of departure and man the point of arrival'. These lines contained the seed of the whole of Schrader's teaching at the Ecole d'Anthropologic. He persevered in giving a more precise shade of meaning to the very vague idea of terrestrial 'environmental influence'. He distinguished on the surface of the globe milieux of varying degrees of diversity and complexity, such as the especially monotonous polar or equatorial regions, which give rise to modes of life that have little variety since nature there leaves little choice to man. In the more complex temperate regions (according to Schrader) nature favours both human activity and man's intellectual adaptability. Under the visible influence of Ritter Schrader drew a series of pictures: man and mountains, man and plateaux, man and islands, man and deserts... and concluded: 'Each kind of earthly organism has an equivalent kind of human development, expressed in the man of the river, the man of the desert or the man of the sea'. Under the influence of Montesquieu and Buffon, Schrader's determinism expanded into true naturism. The idea that man can triumph over or conquer nature seemed to him not only absurd but monstrous: 'Those who destroy the general harmony are not only ignorant but are also criminal towards humanity'. Schrader pointed.out the dangers of introducing European techniques to tropical countries. For him as for Reclus, man shares in 'the general order of nature'; he must 'not only take the Earth as his landlady and nurse; he must marry her'. On the basis of his concepts Schrader can be regarded as representing what might be called geographical idealism.

e. Educational

work

Schrader was passionately interested in teaching and popularizing geography which he wanted to make truly descriptive and not a mere body of nomenclature. In elementary education he had no taste for the inductive

100

Franz

Schrader

method which was very much in fashion towards the end of the nineteenth century and which made the sole point of departure for geography the plan of the classroom and the topography of the village. He preferred to begin with the generalities of the earth and its movements, for the sun, day and night, and the horizon are as real to the child as the classroom or the village. A child's memory should not be overburdened, and he banned from the elementary courses the famous departements which up to then had formed the whole 'geographical luggage' of the small pupil; these were not introduced until the intermediate courses. In secondary education he warned against that kind of 'encyclopedic geography' in which statistics, political economy, social institutions, comparative production, budgets, law, the army and religion were inextricably intermingled. The former school manuals, dry and skeletal, had been replaced by books which were overloaded with facts and over-ambitious. The books written by Schrader and Gallouedec were distinguished by their selectivity and the care taken to avoid encyclopedic tendencies. After 1890 Schrader was one of the first teachers to give the regional study of France an important place, as the new educational programmes allowed. Comparing his Premiere (sixth-form) textbook with contemporary manuals by Lemonnier, Dubois or Foncin, the superior balance of his work can be seen: of its 520 pages, 220 are given to generalities, 170 to regional studies and 130 to political, economic and colonial geography. The great natural regions of France are not presented haphazardly but according to a logical sequence: areas of dispersion (Massif Central, Alps...), areas of concentration (Paris Basin, the Southwest...), areas of passage (Poitou, Saone-Rhone plains...). Departements and provinces are almost completely eliminated. In contrast, Levasseur's France (1895) disposes of the regions in a hundred pages and they are reduced to the well-known 'river basins', subdivided into departements.

to deliver before British geography teachers the first Herbertson Memorial lecture. After 1924 Schrader was largely forgotten, and he has not yet been rediscovered. As he worked outside the universities he did not give regular lectures and no body of students was formed who could propagate his ideas. His teaching at the Ecole d'Anthropologic appears to have had little impact and in the field of human geography he was quickly eclipsed by Brunhes and Vidal de la Blache. The dispersed character of his published work makes it difficult to comprehend as a whole. He never published the synthetic study of the Pyrenees which he was so well fitted to write and his work on human geography La Planete Humaine was left at the planning stage. His cartographic work has been superseded and although his detailed maps retain their value, the rather traditional character of his atlases has to be admitted. Unlike Vidal de la Blache, who tried to establish correlations by means of his maps, Schrader produced a repertory of geographical facts, just as his contemporaries Langlois and Seignobos isolated historical facts. Outside the mainstream of geography, Schrader belonged to the generation of talented amateurs, like de Margerie, Perret and Helbronner, who were able to achieve original work on the fringe of academic science. In this achievement he won more admirers than followers. On the whole his memory is better preserved by Pyrenean specialists, to whom he is virtually a cult figure, than by geographers, who regard him rather as a clever geographical craftsman than as a geographer. A curious mixture of positivism and idealism, the geographical philosophy of Franz Schrader, in which exact knowledge is tinged with moral and aesthetic discernment, appears to be set quite apart from current geographical trends.

At all levels of teaching Schrader's view was that the teacher must appeal to his pupils' powers of observation and reasoning; he should call upon their intelligence and imagination rather than their memory. As in history, the narrative of geography should be unfolded. Only under these conditions would the pupil retain a stock of images and facts and not merely a catalogue of names.

Bibliography and Sources

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS During his lifetime Schrader enjoyed a considerable reputation. Thanks to his strong position in the Societe de Geographie, in the Club Alpin and at Hachette he was known and appreciated by most geographers of his time. In 1912 he, a self-taught man, had only just failed to secure a chair in the College de France. For the public at large Schrader, author of the Atlas Universel and of numerous manuals, was the geographer par excellence. The public authorities used his abilities, and during the First World War he was frequently consulted by the Service Geographique de I'Armee. Abroad he was held in great renown. Many governments solicited his expertise as a cartographer and his manuals remained long in use in schools in Egypt and South America. In 1918 he accepted the invitation of the Geographical Association of Great Britain

1. REFERENCES ON F. SCHRADER Bulletin Pyreneen, no 174, janv.-fev. 1925 is entirely devoted to Franz Schrader, pyreneist, artist and writer. The book Pyrenees (Paris, 1936, 2 vols, 352p. and 461p.) edited by M. Held, pupil and friend of Schrader, lists most of the works on him up to 1936. Reference is also made there to obituaries, of which the most important were written by Maurice Heid, Emmanuel de Margerie, Edouard-Alfred Martel, Louis le Bondidier and Henri Beraldi. Another work of significance is Camena

d'Almeida's Les Pyrenees, developpement de la connaissance geographique de la chavne (Paris, 1891). Since 1936 the following have been published:

Club Alpin Francais, L'oeuvre

scientifique

du Club

Al-

pin Frangais (a collective work), C.A.F., Paris, 1936 Club Alpin Francais (Section du Sud-Ouest). Le Cen-

tenaire

de Franz Schrader,

Bordeaux, 1944

de Laget, G. 'La vie et l'oeuvre de F. Schrader', Bull. Soc. Geogr. Marseille, vol LXIII (1944-7), 91-102 Broc, N. 'Pour le cinquantenaire de la mort de F.

Schrader', Rev. Geogr. Pyrenees (1974), 3-16

et Sud-Ouest,

vol 45

2. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY F. SCHRADER The book Pyrenees, referred to above, records most of his written, cartographic and graphic work. This list is almost exhaustive; but it excludes the school manuals, for which reference can be made to the Catalogue of the Bibliotheque National. Pyrenees includes a selection of Schrader's principal articles, collected in two volumes, 1. Courses et ascensions; and 2. Science et Art; but nothing on his pedagogical work or his contributions to human geography. A number of important titles are listed below. a. Cartography 1882 Note sur la carte des Pyrenees centrales francaises et espagnoles, Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais, vol 9, 311-25 1911 Essai sur la representation topographique du rocher, Commission de Topographie du Club Alpin Francais, Paris, 35p b. Atlases 1884-1911 and 1922 Atlas Universel de Geographic, Paris 1890 Atlas de Geographic Moderne, Paris 1896 A^las de Geographie Historique, Paris c. Physical geography 1889 Les Pyrenees (published in Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel de Geographie, by Vivien de SaintMartin), Paris, 84p (includes a bibliography) 1892 'Apercu de la forme et du relief des Pyrenees', Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais, vol 19, 432-53 1894 'Sur l'etendue des glaciers des Pyrenees', Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais, vol 21, 403-23 d. Human geography 1893 'De 1'influence des formes terrestres sur le developpement humain', Rev. Ec. Anthropol. Paris, vol 3, 205-19 1917 'Essai de classification des phenomenes terrestres et de leurs influences sur la vie humaine', Rev. Ec. Anthropol. Paris, vol 27, 455-66 e. Geography teaching 1892 Quelques mots sur I'enseignement de la geographie (reprint in part of the article 'Geographie' in Dictionnaire de Pedagogie and in Manual General de l1 Instruction primaire (1890-1), Paris, 68p f. General 1898 'A quoi tient la beaute des montagnes', Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais, vol 25, 556-77 1918 'The foundation of geography in the twentieth century' (first Herbertson Memorial Lecture), Geogr. Teach., vol 10 (1919-20), 44-53 Schrader wrote obituary notices of many geographers and mountaineers, in particular those of Adolphe Joanne, Charles Durier, Ferdinand Prudent, Henry Russell, Albert de Lapparent and Elisee Reclus. Numa Broc is Universitaire

a lecturer in geography de Perpignan, France.

at the

Centre

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: FRANZ SCHRADER Dates

Life

and

career

1844

Born at Bordeaux 11 January

1854-64

Self-educated under a Rousseauist discipline

1864-76

Employed by a wine merchant and a shipowner in Bordeaux

travel,

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

First visit to the Pyrenees

1866 1870

Activitiesj fieldwork

Franco-Prussian War

Voluntary military service Association with the Pyreneists Russell, Wallon and Lequeutre; invented the orographe

1874

First map of Mont Perdu

Moved from Bordeaux to Paris; joined Hachette as cartographer and draughtsman

Worked with Adolphe Joanne and Emile Templier; awarded Silver Medal at Exposition Universelle for Panorama du Pimene

Panorama du Pimene; second map of Mont Perdu; Collaboration in Reclus' Geographie Universelle, Joanne Guides, Le Tour du Monde

Director of Cartographic Department of Hachette. Began work on Atlas Universel de Geographie; visited Val d'Aran and Encantats, Pyrenees

1880

Married Suzanne Goy

1884

Visited Germany, Algeria, Italy Began work on map of Central Pyrenees

1888

Les Formes du Terrain (G. No§ and E. de Margerie) Chevalier, Legion d'Honneur; visited Algeria, Switzerland

1889

Relief diagrams of Mont Perdu and Val d'Aran; L 'Annee Cartographique

1891 1892

begun

2nd Intern. Geogr. Congr., Paris

Joined Societe de Geographie de Paris

1876

1881

Universelle

Club Alpin Francais founded

1875

1877

Geographie by Reclus

Annates de Geographie established Teacher of anthropological geography, Ecole d*Anthropologic, Paris

(with de Margerie) Geological Map of the Pyrenees

1894

Atlas General Blache)

1896

Vice President, Club Alpin Francais

1898

Founder-member, Assoc. des Peintres de Montagne; visited U.S.A.

(Vidal de la

Atlas de Geographie Historique Paris Exposition Vidal de la Blache appointed at the Sorbonne

Franz Schroder Dates

Life

and

career

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

1901

President, Club Alpin Francais; topographic commission in Argentina (survey of Aconcagua)

1903

Founded Commission de Topographie du Club Alpin Francais

1907

Founded La Societe d'Etudes et Travaux topographiques

Publications

Contemporary events and publications

Tableau de la Geographie de la France (Vidal de la Blache)

Orientation table on Pic du Midi de Bigorre

1908 1909

Traite de Geographie (de Martonne)

1910

Commissions in Greece and Turkey

(with Gallou&dec) Atlas Classique

1912

1914

103

La Geographie (Brunhes)

Physique

Humaine

Jean Brunhes appointed Professor of Human Geography at College de France Operation for cataract

Vice President, Societe de Geographie de Paris

1918

Visited Great Britain

1922

Visited Great Britain

1923

Jubilee at Sorbonne

1924

Died in Paris, 18 October

1927

Interred at Gavarnie

Third map of GavarnieMont Perdu

Outbreak of war Death of Vidal de la Blache

Revised edition of Atlas Universel Last journey to Gavarnie

George Adam Smith 1856-1942

DOROTHY MIDDLETON

Sir George Adam Smith, theologian and Old Testament scholar, Principal of Aberdeen University from 1909 to 1935, contributed to geographical studies most notably

by his Historical

Geography of the Holy Land and

Jerusalem. He was born on 19 October 1856 at Calcutta where his father, Dr George Smith, was Principal of the Doveton College for Eurasian boys. Dr Smith was from 1857 to 1875 editor of the Friend of India and Indian correspondent of The Times; he was also the author of

numerous books, including Geography of British

India

written for his students. He settled in Edinburgh in 1875 and was closely concerned in the founding of the Scottish Geographical Society in 1884. Later his son was active in the Society's affairs, especially in Aberdeen, and was Secretary of Section E (Geography) at the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1885. George Adam Smith was a traveller and an observer of the natural scene from the age of two when his mother took him and his brother by sailing ship round the Cape of Good Hope home to Scotland. Here they were left with aunts at Leith and later joined by younger brothers and sisters. George was educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, and at Edinburgh University, graduating in 1875 and proceeding to New College, Edinburgh, for the divinity course which was the basis of his future career. At this time he laid the foundations of his lifelong interest in the Holy Land by travels in Egypt and Palestine and by learning Arabic. In 1880 he was directed to the temporary occupation of the Chair of Old Testament Exegesis at the Free Church College of Aberdeen, and in 1882 was inducted to the charge of Queen's Cross Free Church in that city.

In the years that followed Smith became widely known as a preacher of sermons which were as remarkable for their eloquence as for their intellectual excellence. His

Commentary on the Book of Isaiah

(1888-90) established

him as an Old Testament scholar with a unique gift for relating ancient history to modern times. His sensitive perception of the realities of geography helped him to assess certain constant factors in human affairs, and on his travels he was always aware of past influences on present scenes. An instance of his approach is the set of verses 'Attock-on-the-Indus: a rhyming geography' which he wrote in 1904 while encamped at the geographically and historically significant junction of the Indus and Kabul rivers: From distant angles of the Plain, Wind to their junction rivers twain. Charged by the high, eternal snow With wealth for all the land below, Indifferently her walls they force And trace invasion's destined course. Their waves reflect the double star, Highways at once of life and war. In 1892 Smith was elected Professor of Old Testament Language, Literature and Theology at the Free Church College, Glasgow, where he remained until he accepted a Crown appointment in 1909 as Principal of Aberdeen University. During his years at Glasgow Smith not only propagated and popularized his own subject, by means of both the written and the spoken word, but also became closely associated with movements for social reform in the city and with the development of Glasgow University. What is more, he found time for four important lecture tours in America, and published the works for which he

106

George Adam Smith

is best known, notably The Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1894), Book of the Twelve Prophets (1896-8), Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament (1901) and Jerusalem (1907-8). An Atlas to accompany the first of these was published in 1915. Smith's appointment to Aberdeen involved him in both administrative duties and public ceremonial, but he continued to publish and preach with undiminished effect. He also took an active part in church affairs: he served as Moderator of the General Assembly of the United Free Church in 1916 and was influential in the establishment of the great union of the Scottish Churches in 1929. Throughout he was supported by an exceptionally happy family life, clouded only by the loss of his two elder sons in the First World War. George Adam Smith was one of those geographers, more common in an earlier generation than today, who are led by enjoyment of the open air to an appreciation of landscape and thence to an understanding of its effect on mankind. As a young academic he found continual refreshment of mind and spirit in walking and climbing. He was elected a member of the Alpine Club in 1886 and it was when on holiday in Switzerland that he met his future wife, Lilian Buchanan, also an enthusiastic climber, whom he married in 1889. The Historical Geography was based on extensive fieldwork, notably his Middle East journeys of 1891-2 when his wife accompanied him. The book became a classic: it was completely revised for its 25th edition in 1931 and is still in print. C.J. Robertson has written of it: 'Smith integrated his material in a way that transformed it into geography... He was able to describe and interpret the landscapes of Palestine from his extensive personal observations and from a wide acquaintance with the archaeology, ethnography and history of the country and particularly his intensive scholarship in Biblical literature' LScott. Geogr. Mag.3 vol 89 (1973), 7D. Smith was knighted in 1916 and elected a Fellow of the British Academy in the same year. He received honorary degrees from the Universities of Edinburgh, Yale, Dublin, Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, Glasgow, Aberdeen and St. Andrews. He was made a Freeman of the City of Aberdeen in 1931 and Chaplain to the King in Scotland in 1933. In 1935 he and Lady Adam Smith retired to Balerno, near Edinburgh, where he died on 1 March 1942. He was a man of rare beauty of character, blending humour with piety, compassion with rectitude, in an unusual degree.

Bibliography and Sources Adam Smith, Lilian. George Adam Smith: a personal memoir and family chronicle^ London, 1943 Dictionary of National Biography Personal knowledge Dorothy Middleton was formerly Assistant Editor of the Geographical Journal and now undertakes research for the Royal Geographical Societyt London.

Jacques Weulersse 1905-1946

PIERRE GOUROU

Jacques Weulersse's contribution to geography is as important as it is perceptive. His untimely death occurred with his reputation already solidly established. A specialist on the Levant, familiar with the problems of colonization and decolonization, he was a scholar of great awareness and acumen. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WORK Jacques Weulersse was heir to a family tradition of university studies and more especially geography. His father, Georges Weulersse, was the first beneficiary of the 'Around the World' travel grant. In 1910, he presented a doctoral thesis in the history of economics Le

Mouvement physiooratique

en France de 1756 a 1770 (re-

printed 1974). Geography never ceased to fascinate him and he was to teach it for thirty years at the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure de Saint Cloud. Jacques Weulersse's grandfather, Alphonse Darlu, taught philosophy at the noted Lyc£e Condorcet and then became Inspecteur d'Academie: Marcel Proust was to recall 'his inspired words, a heritage more permanent than most writings'. His great uncle, Georges Renard, held the chair of 'History of Labour' at the College de France. His uncle, Elicio Colin, a professor at the Lycee Saint Louis, directed the International Geographical Bibliography from 1919 to 1949. The Weulersse family, originally Roman Catholic, turned from religion to faith in science and rationalism in the wave of free thought that swept through France at the turn of the century. For them free thought came to be closely associated with stern moral principles. Members of the family relaxed together in reading and conversation and on long walks on which

they took topographical and geological maps. This activity inspired Jacques Weulersse with a taste for field work and built his unerring sense for geography. Brought up to respect the craft of teaching and the vision of a world without borders, Jacques Weulersse maintained throughout his life the principles he had acquired as a child; his passion for field research and his feeling for human relationships only gave them added scope. In 1924, Jacques Weulersse continued a family tradition by graduating from the Ecole Normale Superieure. His class included many who are now famous: Raymond Aron, Paul Nizan, Jean Paul Sartre. With his friends Dresch and Perpillou, Jacques Weulersse chose to devote himself to geography. Together they benefited from the teachings of such eminent geographers as Albert Demangeon and Emmanuel de Martonne. Between 1928 and 1930, the 'Around the World' travel grant allowed Jacques Weulersse to give free rein to his insatiable curiosity and to develop his qualities as a researcher. He visited French West Africa, Nigeria, Cameroon, French Congo, Belgian Congo, Rhodesia, South Africa, Ceylon, India, Malaysia, Siam, French Indonesia, China, Japan, Canada and the United States. When the writer met him in Hanoi and Tokyo, he was impressed by his keen sense of observation. His first book Noirs et

Blancs a. trovers

I 'Afrique

nouvelle

de Dakar an Cap,

written when he was twenty-five (published in 1931) is a remarkable descriptive analysis of the dangers,, benefits and inherent weaknesses of the structure of colonization from western Africa to southern Africa. After his appointment at the Institut Francais in Damascus, in 1932, he travelled indefatigably throughout the Fertile Crescent. Within six years his accumulated research gave him

108

Jacques

Weulersse

a solid basis for a penetrating comparative study of the Alawite region which became the subject of his doctoral thesis. At the beginning of the war, Jacques Weulersse joined the army in the Middle East. On his return to France in 1940, he became lecturer in geography at various institutions of higher learning: Ecole Nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer, Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales vivantes, Institut d'Ethnologie, Ecole libre des Sciences Politiques. In 1943, he was appointed professor of colonial geography at the Uni- versity of Aix-Marseille. When the German occupation closed the University, Jacques Weulersse devoted himself to what was to be his last book, Pay sans de Syrie et du Proche Orient. As soon as the war was over, he returned to his field work: in 1945 he visited Palestine and Lebanon; in the spring of 1946 followed his nomination as French expert to the International Border Commission for Trieste and Venezia Guilia. In June 1946 he was sent to Dakar by the French government with a mandate from the Ministry of Education as President of the Examination Board for secondary school graduates. He took advantage of this opportunity to undertake field study and to compare the material he had previously collected with the reality of the situation in western Africa. Exhausting trips in the interior took a terrible toll of him. Worn out and unable to recover he died at forty-one. Jacques Weulersse was sparing neither of his physical energy nor of his passion for research. His desire to see and understand drove him to his premature end. As a man he was marked by a subtle blend of outward modesty and inner gaiety. Jacques Weulersse exhibited a deep concern for his fellow beings and always directed his intelligence, curiosity and sympathy to those around him. As a human geographer he was outstanding among his fellows; his work reflects his subtlety, his earnestness, his sense of aesthetic balance and his insight.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT a. Scientific

contribution

Above all, Jacques Weulersse made a major contribution to the social geography of the Fertile Crescent. The world of scholarship is richer for his perceptive and pertinent insight. Of his forty-six publications, twenty concern the region of Asia that lies between Zagros and the Mediterranean. This area had often been studied before it was for Jacques Weulersse to analyse the human terrain. Rural workers (one dare not call them •peasants') were the most numerous group in the area and the light Jacques Weulersse threw on their problems amply demonstrated that traditional rural and agricultural management and production techniques had gradually reduced this population to economic poverty and political nonentity. Our knowledge of the Fertile Crescent would have been considerably poorer without the major scientific contribution that assures Jacques Weulersse's place in geographical research. Jacques Weulersse also had the opportunity to witness the emergence of new states in the Middle East. This gave him a new occasion to display his talents as a political geographer. The birth of Iran (1932) permits us to observe the rare phenomenon of the ex nihito creation of a new

nation: the clash between political conceptions and geographical necessities appears with stark clarity, as do the roles of man and nature in the emergence of this complex organism known as the modern state.

b. Ideas on geography and other

sciences

The personal tastes of Jacques Weulersse drew him to study the human aspect of the landscape. The Levant, his favourite topic, gave him the wide scope of a land particularly rich in history. Careful study of physical conditions showed the limitations inherent in its relief, drought and soil composition; but these limitations do not necessarily impose a single, inevitable social structure. However, the accepted techniques of management and production bear the heavy influence of history and tradition. In the Fertile Crescent, because of nomadic supremacy, Arabism and Islam, we are confronted with the paradox of a rural society without feeling or respect for the soil...despising agriculture...rejecting the ploughshare...repudiating the village community in order to remain loyal to the tribe. The structure of domination and production that evolved from the opposition between the Fertile Crescent and the desert can be understood only in reference to historical factors. Happy to recognize his debts to earth sciences and the discipline of history, Jacques Weulersse nonetheless insisted upon the irreplaceable role of geography in a global explanation of human sites.

c. World view Jacques Weulersse had very definite views on the world and above all a warm sympathy towards the people he tried to know: ...a sympathy felt for human beings, a sympathy without which so-called human geography is nothing more than lists of names, cataloguing, classifications and scholarly hair-splitting. He extended his sympathy from man to things; his writings abound in expressions of the emotion he felt for the beauty of natural scenery. While living in a village perched over the plains of Iraq he wrote: 'no neighbour but the passing cloud, a good preparation for diplomacy' — a style akin to Japanese Haiku and a mocking reference to the cultural negotiations he was then undertaking in Iraq. With Jacques Weulersse aesthetic vision was never separated from moral insights. His lively curiosity, the pleasure he experienced from understanding the views of others, his lack of prejudice, his disdain for preordained systems, did not make him a mere pyrrhonist; he wanted geography to be useful. Indeed he ended the discussion on his thesis, Le Pays des A1aouites9 by saying: I should wish these pages could allow...those whose responsibility it is 'to orientate the Alawite destiny' to take their decision with a better understanding of the causes involved. What causes did Jacques Weulersse want to serve? He sought a higher degree of understanding between men, and the abolition of oppression and poverty. He was not a revolutionary but a man with a vision of the future (the two are not necessarily synonymous). His book, Noirs et BlancSy written forty years ago, was a herald of events to come in the last quarter of our century. The feelings and premonitions Jacques Weulersse experienced are expressed even more forcefully in a note on the history

Jacques of colonization, written in 1946 just before his fatal trip to West Africa: Too often...we see colonization only through metropolitan eyes...we should do the opposite: it is the study of colonized people that should rightly be our first concern. It is no longer possible to assume that we can study colonization from Paris or London. We must approach it with the eyes of Delhi or Dakar and even more so with the eyes of the bush village, the plantations...the factories... This reversal of perspectives reflects...the change of the colonial phenomenon itself. Today the initiative has passed from the colonizer to the colonized. 3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS Because he died at 41 Jacques Weulersse had no time to train many disciples, but the quality and strength of his writings has granted him a large audience as much with his students as with his peers. His books are still widely read and he is acknowledged to be the paramount French specialist of the geographical problems of the area between the Mediterranean and Zagros. Jacques Weulersse would have become one of the world's foremost geographers of decolonization and his death created an abrupt void which gives the measure of his importance and scope.

Bibliography and Sources 1. OBITUARIES Colin, E. 'Jacques Weulersse 1905-1946', Ann. de Geogr., vol 56 (1947), 53-4 Dresch, J. 'Jacques Weulersse', Inf. G&ogr., lie ann (1947), 118 Gottmann, J.'Jacques Weulersse', Geogr. Rev., vol 37 (1947), 507 Perpillou, A. 'Weulersse (Jacques) ne a Paris le 11 fevrier 1905, mort a Dakar le 28 aout 1946. Promotion de 1924', Bull. Anciens Eleves de l'Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris, 1948, 56-8 Robequain, C. 'Jacques Weulersse', Rev. Geogr. Hum. et Ethnol., lere ann (1948), 88-9 2. SELECTIVE AND THEMATIC BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS BY JACQUES WEULERSSE a. France 1928 'Le bassin d'Arcachon', Ann. de Giogr., vol 37, 407-27 1942 'Reflexions sur le probleme agricole en France', Rev. de I'Econ. Contemp.3 no 7, 4-8 1945 'Un exemple d'industrie en milieu rural. L'usine de la Societe savoisienne de construction electrique d'Aix les Bains', Rapports et travaux sur la decongestion des Centres industriels, Delegation generale a l'Equipement national, vol VI, 27-36 1949 'Un exemple d'industrie en milieu rural. L'usine metallurgique de Tillie?es sur Avre (Eure)', Materiaux pour une Geographie volontaire de I 'Industrie frangaise, Cahiers de la Fondation

Weulersse

109

Nationale des Sciences Politiques, Paris, no 7, Paris, 145-78 b. Middle East 1934 'Problemes de l'Irak', Ann. de G&ogr., vol 43, 49-75 'Le probleme des terres en Palestine', Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr., no 82, 118-22 'Un type de cite d'Islam: Antioche', Congr. Intern. Geogr. Varsovie, Resume des communications, Warsaw, 124 1935 'Antioche. Essai de geographie humaine', Bull. Etud. Orient. Inst. Fr. de Damas, vol IV, 27-79 1936 (with J. Sauvaget) Damas et la Syrie sud, Damascus, 43p. 'Damas. Etude de developpement urbain', Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr., no 93, 5-9 'Aspects permanents du probleme syrien: la question des minorites', Politique e'trange're, no 1, 29-39 1937 'La nouvelle geographie politique de la Syrie', Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr., no 107, 102-5 'Influences confessionnelles sur la demographie du Proche Orient', Congr. Intern, de la Population, vol VI, 23-6 1938 (with D. Schlumberger) Histoire et Geographie de Chypre, Haut Commissariat de la France au Levant, Beyrouth, 46p. 'Regime agraire et vie agricole en Syrie', Bull. Assoc. Gtogr. Fr., no 112, 58-61 'La primautl des cites dans l'&conomie syrienne', Congr. Intern. Geogr. Amsterdam, vol II, sect 3a, 233-9 'Un peuple minoritaire d'Orient: les Alaouites', La France Mediterr. et Afr., lere ann, 41-61 1939 'Deux cites de Syrie: Damas et Alep', L'Inf. d'Outre-Mer, lere ann, 12-16 1940 (with L. Dubertret) Manuel de Geographie: Syrie, Liban et Proche Orient, Beyrouth, 192p. Le Pays des Alaouites, Inst. fr. de Damas, These Fac. Lett. Univ. Paris, (1942) Tours, 418p. L'Oronte. Etude de fleuve, Inst. fr. de Damas, These Fac. Lett. Univ. Paris (1942), Tours, 89p. 1941 'Les genres de vie dans le Levant mediterraneen', Inf. Geogr., 5e ann, 45-50 1945 'L'Oeuvre de la France au Levant de 1919 a 1944', Ministere de 1'Information, Paris, Notes documentaires et etudes, no 147, 1-8 1946 Paysans de Syrie et du Proche Orient, Paris, 331p. 1950 'Lettres du Proche Orient', Le Monde frangais, vol XVIII, 361-72 and vol XIX, 124-43 c. South and East Asia 1931 Articles in Asie Frangaise: 'Les evenements dans l'Inde en 1930', 16-19; 'La revolte afridi et le probleme de la frontiere nord-ouest', 46-9; 'La question de Birmanie' £0-2; 'Entre les deux conferences de la Table Ronde',292-5; En Birmanie, 379-81 1932 Articles in Asie Frangaise: 'L'Inde et le marche mondial',12-15; 'La deuxieme session de la Table Ronde',83-8; 'La Conference de la Table Ronde birmane',172-5; 'L'evolution de la politique anglaise dans l'Inde', 282-4 'Autour de la Table Ronde', Rev. Polit. et Parlementaire, vol CL, 87-103 'Jeunesses d'Extreme Asie', Foi et Vie, le Monde non chretien, vol III, 92-100

110

Jacques

Weulersse

d. Africa 1930 'Le probleme indigene en Afrique australe: le Bassoutoland', Bull. Assoc. Geogr. Fr., no 45, 89-91 1931 Noirs et Blancs. A trovers I'Afrique nouvelte: de Dakar au Cap, Paris, 242p. 'Le probletoe indigene dans 1'Union Sud-africaine', Ann. de Geogr., vol 40, 47-51 — 'L'evolution des voies de communications et des moyens de transport en Afrique Centrale', Ann. de Gtogr., vol 40, 554-88 'L'Afrique noire. Sur les plateaux du Cameroun', La Grande Revue, 35e ann, 606-25 'Un exemple d'adaptation a la vie tropicale: la tribu des Bamilekes au Cameroun', Congr. Intern. G&ogr. Paris, vol III, sect 4, 501-5 'Sur 1'evolution recente des moyens de transport acceleri dans I'Afrique equatoriale', Congr. Intern. Geogr. Paris, vol III, sect 4,544-52 1934 I'Afrique Noire, Paris, 484p 1938 'Les lignes imperiales aeriennes anglaises en Afrique', Premier CongrSs de Gtographie A'erienne, Union syndicales des Industries aeronautiques, Paris, 241-55 1939 'La vraie solution: l'ecole', in L'Homme de Couleur(Presences), Paris, 62-73 Pierre Gourou is Honorary Professor College de France, Paris.

of Geography at

the

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: JACQUES WEULERSSE and

career

Activities3 fieldwork

travel3

Contemporary events and publications

Publications

Dates

Life

1905

Born at Paris

1924

Student at Ecole Normale Superieure

1928

Agregation: history and geography

Visited Great Britain and Morocco

1928-30

Awarded Albert Kahn Foundation Travel Grant 'Around the World'

Travelled in French West Africa, Nigeria, Cameroon, French Congo, Belgian Congo, Rhodesia, South Africa, Ceylon, India, Malaysia, Siam, French Indochina, China, Japan, Canada and the United States

1931

Columnist for Indian Noirs affairs (Chronique sur I 'Inde) attached to Asie Frangaise (monthly)

1932- 38 Appointed at Institut Francais, Damascus

Lived and worked in Syria

1933

Worked in Lebanon, Iraq and Palestine

1934

Worked in Lebanon, Iran and Iraq

L'Afrique Noire; 'Problemes de l'lrak'

1935

Worked in Lebanon, Transjordan, Palestine, Poland and U.S.S.R.

'Antioche'

1936

Worked in Lebanon and Cyprus

1937

Worked in Lebanon, Egypt and Palestine

1938

Worked in Lebanon; visited Netherlands for 15th Intern. Geogr. Congr. (Amsterdam)

15th Intern. Geogr. Congr. (Amsterdam)

Lebanon

Outbreak of Second World War

1939-40

Joined the Army in the Middle East

1941

Docteur es lettres

et

Blancs

14th Intern. Geogr. Congr. (Warsaw)

Lecturer in geography at Delegation Generale a Ecole libre des Sciences l'Equipement National politiques, Ecole Nationale de la France d'Outre Mer, Ecole Nationale des langages orientales vivantes, Institut d'Ethnologie Le Pays des Alaouitesj L'Oronte

1942 1943

1945

Professor of Colonial Geography, Univ. of Aix-Marseille Field work in Lebanon and Palestine

End of Second World War

112 Dates

Jacques Weulersse Life and career

1946

1947

Activities, fieldwork

travel.

International ItaloYugoslav Boundary Commission; Ministry of Education Mission to Dakar; visited Venezia Giulia and Trieste; Senegal, Mauritania, French Sudan, Upper Volta Died at Dakar

Publications

Paysans de Syrie et du Proche Orient

Contemporary events and publications

Naomasa Yamasaki 1870-1928

USAO TSUJITA

Without doubt Naomasa Yamasaki was the most distinguished geographer of modern Japan. He was the founder not only of the Department of Geography at Tokyo University but also of the Nippon Chirigakkai, the Association of Japanese Geographers. His influence on the modern development of geography in Japan was wide and deep. In 1971, at the annual meeting of the Association of Japanese Geographers the centenary of the births of Naomasa Yamasaki and Takuji Ogawa was celebrated and all those present recalled the brilliant work done by these two great geographers thirty to forty years earlier. 1. EDUCATION, LIFE AND WRK Naomasa Yamasaki was born on 10 March 1870 at what was then Asahi Mura (Asahi village), now part of Kochi City on Shikoku island. He was born and brought up in comfortable circumstances and in 1887 he left for Kyoto, the ancient coronation capital, to enter the Third High School. In his high school days he became deeply interested in archaeology and collected prehistoric stone tools and pottery on which he later wrote several

papers for the Anthropological

Journal

of Japan. Five

years later in 1892 he became a student at the Tokyo Imperial University, in the Geology Department under the leadership of Professor B. Koto. While still a student he worked for the foundation of the Tokyo Geological Society, which still exists. After graduating he was appointed to the Second High School at Sendai in northern Japan as a teacher of geology but in 1898 he left for four years of study in Europe as a geographer, aided by a grant from the

government of Japan. He travelled widely and met many renowned European geographers, spending long periods in Vienna and also in Bonn, where he became friendly with Johannes Rein (1835-1918) who in 1881 had published

Japan, nach Reisen

und Studien.

He assisted Rein with a

second edition. Rein advised Yamasaki to visit Albrecht Penck (1858-1945) in Vienna and it is thought that Penck advised him to study the evidence for glaciation in Japan, a subject which evoked enthusiastic discussion among Japanese geographers. In time this work on glaciation became widely known and in 1910 Yamasaki was invited to become a Correspondent of the Geographical Society of Finland. Later he was honoured by the geographical societies of Berlin and Vienna and by the American Geographical Society, New York. Penck's lectures at Vienna on the regional geography of the Netherlands and Belgium made a strong impression on Yamasaki and soon after his return to Tokyo he initiated lectures on the regional geography of Asia and Europe. As a result regional geography became part of the curriculum at Tokyo and other Japanese universities: for example at Tokyo (Imperial) University Dr Tsujimura, Yamasaki's successor, gave lectures on the geography of Europe and Professor Tada, once Yamasaki's assistant, still gives regional geography a significant place in his teaching work at that university. Fortunately during his stay in Europe Yamasaki was able to attend international congresses of geography in Berlin (1899) and of geology in Paris (1900). On both occasions his Japanese colleague Takuji Ogawa (who taught geology and geography at Kyoto University) was also present and both took part in the geological excursions associated with the congress in France.

114

Naomasa Yamasaki

Back home in Japan, Yamasaki began to spread the knowledge and methods of European geographers in educational circles. In 1902 he became Professor of Geography at Tokyo Higher Normal School, a much respected college for the training of high school teachers. He also lectured at Tokyo Imperial University, where he was given the first chair of geography in the Faculty of Natural Science in 1911. Eight years later he became the first chairman of an independent Department of Geography. Earlier, in 1907, Dr Takuji Ogawa had established a Department of Geography at Kyoto University but the development in Tokyo, as the capital city, gave geography considerable prestige. Personal fame came to Yamasaki through the publication between 1903 and 1915, with Denzo Sato and others, of the ten-volume

work Dai Nippon Chishi

(The Regional

Geography of Great

Japan). It is widely believed that Yamasaki was chosen to give lectures on geography to the Crown Prince (the present Emperor) as a result of the publication of this much-venerated work. From 1910 Yamasaki travelled abroad almost every year and used his newly acquired knowledge in his teaching. From 1920, in his mature middle age, he became even more active as a geographer. In 1922-3 he spent eight months travelling in Asia, Western Europe, Central Europe and North and South America and was particularly interested in the effects on various countries of the First World War. Three years later, in

1926, he published Seiyo mata Nanyo (The West and the

South Seas),an account of his travels which included many recollections of happy encounters with old and new friends. Among these were 'old Penck', who had postponed a visit to Finland to welcome him, Jean Brunhes in Paris and Alfred Philippson in Bonn. Another visit of general interest was to Dr Edward Morse (1837-1925) who made the first discovery of a prehistoric shell mound in Tokyo and is regarded as the father of Japanese archaeology. Convinced of the value of foreign travel for Japanese geographers, Yamasaki persuaded the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1924 to send four geographers to China, including Professor Fumio Tada, formerly of Tokyo University. This was the first of many research tours by Japanese geographers. Yamasaki's later years were packed with activities, including the foundation of the Association of Japanese Geographers in 1925 with the first publication of

its journal Chirigdku-Hyoron

(Geographical

Review of

Japan), and the organization of the Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress of 1926 in Japan. He had attended the first meeting in Hawaii in 1920 and the second in Australia in 1923, where he met Professor Griffith Taylor, then vigorously protesting against current settlement policy. The last sixty pages of Seiyo mata Nanya were given to an account of Australia and include the cartoon drawn and presented to him by Griffith Taylor. For the 1926 Science Congress Yamasaki was the General Secretary. His thorough preparations included the publication of a guide to Japan in thirty-six volumes having several thousand pages, and the provision of both public and private hospitality. Other guide books were compiled under Yamasaki's supervision at the request of the Ministry of Railways and published in eight volumes as Nippon Annaiki (The Japan Guide Book) during the 1930s. These rank with the famous Murray and Baedeker guides of the west but by the time they appeared, in July 1929, Yamasaki had died

from a heart ailment. His numerous books were given to Tokyo University as the Yamasaki collection.

2. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND GEOGRAPHICAL THOUGHT a. The published

work

Yamasaki's earliest publications were texts, both published in 1899, on Chimongaku (Physiography) and Gansekigaku (Petrology). Of these the latter was the first of its kind to be published in Japan and included many microscopic illustrations drawn by the author. But although Yamasaki deepened his knowledge through the years this book remained unchanged for two decades. Much of Yamasaki's published work is in articles, though the

famous Regional

Geography of Great Japan comprises ten

volumes with more than 10,000 pages. Ranking as the first detailed regional study ever produced for Japan it was written in collaboration with a colleague, Denzo Sato, and numerous students and others. It is said that assistance was also given by Katai Tayama, a writer renowned for an elegant and flowing literary style. The 500-page Seiyo mata Nanya of 1926 is a varied work of personal reminiscences, studies of observed economic and political situations in many countries and—in effect if not in intention—regional geography, for as Dr Tsujimura pointed out Yamasaki was a fine scientist-traveller who possessed sensibility backed by scientific thinking and a keen eye for the essential character of the landscape in any region he visited. Clearly the early influence of Rein and Penck was crucial in his work.

b. Geography and other

studies

Professors Tsujimura, Tada, Yoshikawa and others who succeeded him in Tokyo University all agreed that Yamasaki 's great work was the transformation of geography from a mere assemblage of knowledge into a scientific discipline. Though his initial training was in geology, he was a distinguished exponent of human geography, with a constant regional emphasis. However, he made a notable contribution to the geomorphology of Japan, summarized under three headings by Professor Torao Yoshikawa at the 1970 centennial celebrations. The first of those, on volcanoes, dealt with their historical development, the topographical features observed at various stages of their development and the petrological constituents at each stage. The second, on glaciation, established beyond doubt that there had been an alpine glaciation in the mountainous node of central Japan. In his third line of geomorphological research, Yamasaki dealt with tectonic landforms and assumed that the earth's crust is deformed acutely at times when earthquakes occur and chronically in seismic periods and that landform deformations currently visible are similar to those of crustal movements in recent geological time.

o. The world

view

Yamasaki was not only a sincere scientist concerned with world phenomena but also a great humanist keenly interested in the world's people, especially those lacking the modern amenities of existence. His articles dealt with many parts of the world, including the Arctic and Antarctic, the more remote areas of Eurasia and also Pacific islands, all unfamiliar to Japanese readers at the time. His aim was to open Japanese minds to the world and he often used such expressions as 'We are

Naomasa Yamasaki people of the world' or 'The world is our homeland'. He had a strong sense of history and was an eager visitor to museums all over the world in which visible records of past time were exhibited. His attendance at numerous international gatherings helped him to follow the trends of thought among geographers and others from a wide variety of countries and he wrote illuminating reports on his experiences for younger scholars. Of Yamasaki, as of Alexander von Humboldt, it has been said that he had the ideal of the Weltberger— the 'world citizen'—and this ideal he wished his own people to share.

3. INFLUENCE AND SPREAD OF IDEAS As the founder of the Department of Geography in Tokyo University and also of the Association of Japanese Geographers Yamasaki had an enormous influence on the geographers of Japan. Almost all those currently active studied geography with him, or with someone trained by him in Tokyo. Among them are Dr Taro Tsujimura, now an emeritus professor, who succeeded Yamasaki and shared his concern for geomorphology, on which he published a series of books from 1923 to 1933 as well as Lectures

on the geography of landscape.

He also wrote The Cul-

tural Geography (1942). Tsujimura had an interest in several fields of geography but many geographers were attracted to geomorphology, including Drs Fumio Tada, Jiro Katabira, Akira Watanabe, Toshio Okayama and Shuki Inoue, all of whom were Yamasaki's students. Yamasaki's wide geographical interests were reflected in the work of his students. His concern for regional geography was shared by Dr Keiji Tanaka, who developed a new method of regional description in his

book The Geographical

Regions of Japan (1927) and in a

number of essays. Other students of Yamasaki, such as Noboyuki Iimoto, became political geographers, and among those dealing with economic and historical geography were Hiroshi Sato and Kan'ichi Uchida. Yamasaki collected a number of old maps himself and had friendly contacts with Dr Takejiro Akioka (1895-1975), who became the authority on the history of cartography in Japan and also collected many old maps of Japan, other parts of Asia and also of Europe. From his appointment at the Tokyo Higher Normal School Yamasaki was in close touch with the Ministry of Education and he served on various committees dealing with educational institutions and the school curriculum. He was frequently asked to lecture on geography in education and his textbooks were widely used in schools. Internationally he became known personally to many geographers through his presence at congresses of the International Geographical Union. The 1957 Regional Conference in Japan, attended by almost one hundred foreign geographers, was largely organized by his former students. And of all his enterprises the foundation of the Association of Japanese Geographers provides a living memorial. Its total membership in 1925 was forty-nine, of whom some were geologists, seismologists or meteorologists, but when its jubilee was celebrated in 1975 there were 2,824 members. The Asso-

ciation's Journal, the Geographical

Review of

Japan,

has been continuously issued and an account of the first fifty years is published as The History of a Half

Century of the Association

of Japanese

Geographers.

115

Bibliography and Sources 1. REFERENCES ON NAOMASA YAMASAKI Tsujimura, Taro. 'Yamasaki Hakushi to Nippon no Chirigaku (Dr Yamasaki and geography in Japan)', Yamasaki Naomasa Ronbunshu, Tokyo, 1931, vol 2, 32-9 Tanaka, Keiji. 'Shodai Kaicho Yamasaki Sensei no Tsuioku (Memories of Professor Yamasaki, first President of the Association of Japanese Geograph-

ers) ', Chirigaku-Hyoron

(Geogr. Rev. Japan),

vol 28

(1955), 403-9 Tada, Fumio. 'Yamasaki Naomasa Sensei no Gyoseki (Achievements of Naomasa Yamasaki)', Chiri (Geography),vol 11 (1966), no 3, 50-5 Watanabe, Akira. 'Yamasaki Naomasa Kyoju to Nippon no Gendai Chirigaku (Naomasa Yamasaki and present-day geography in Japan)', Chiri (Geography), vol 15 (1970), no 12, 28-33 Ishida, Ryujiro. 'Yamasaki Naomasa to Ogawa Takuji (Naomasa Yamasaki and Takuji Ogawa)', Chiri (Geography), vol 15 (1970), no 12, 21-7 Yoshikawa, Torao. Yamasaki Naomasa Sensei to Hendo Chikei no Kenkyu (Yamasaki's contribution to tectonic geomorphology)', Chirigaku-Hyoron (Geogr. Rev. Japan), vol 44 (1971), 552-64

2. SELECTED REFERENCES BY NAOMASA YAMASAKI 1899 Gansekigaku (Petrology), Tokyo, 248p. 1903-15 Dai Nippon Chishi (Regional Geography of Great Japan), Tokyo

with Denzo Sato and others, 10 vols,

1916 Waga Nanyo (Our Southern Islands), Tokyo, 190p. 1926 Seiyo mata Nanyo (The West and the South Seas), Tokyo, 474p.

1930 Yamasaki Naomasa Ronbunshu (Collection of articles by Naomasa Yamasaki), Takeo Karo (ed), Tokyo, l,190p.

Usao Tsujita is Professor University, Nara, Japan.

Emeritus

of Nara Women's

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: NAOMASA YAMASAKI Dates

Life

and

career

1870

Born at Asahi-mura, Kochi, 10 March

1887

Entered the Third High School, Kyoto City

1892

Enrolled at Department of Geology, Tokyo Imperial Univ.

1895

Graduated B.Sc.

travel,

Teacher of geology, Second High School, Sendai City

1898

Travelled to Europe for four-year study in Germany

1899

7th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Berlin

1902

Contemporary events and publications

Publications

Visited Formosa

1896 1897

Activities, fieldwork

Chimongaku Gansekigaku

(Physiography) (Petrology)

Professor of Geography, Tokyo Higher Normal School (with Denzo Sato and others) Dai Nippon Chishi (Regional Geography of Great Japan)

1903-15

Establishment of Department of Geography, Kyoto

1907 1908

Lecturer in Economic Geography, Dept. of Law, Tokyo Univ. Corresponding Member, Geogr. Soc. of Finland; travelled in China

1910

1911

1913

Professor of Geography, Tokyo Univ. (concurrently with Lectureship); Professor of Geography, Faculty of Natural Science, Tokyo Univ.

10th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Rome-; visited Italy

Doctor of Science

1914

Corresponding Member, Vienna Geogr. Soc.

1915

Travelled in southern Pacific Islands

1916

Tutor to the Prince Imperial

1919

Professor and Chairman of Dept. of Geography, Tokyo Univ.

Visited China

Waga Nanyo (Our Is lands

Southern

Naomasa Yamasaki Dates

Life

and

career

Activities, fieldwork

travel,

117

Contemporary events and publications

Publications

1920

Member of Japanese Academy; First PanPacific Science Congress, Hawaii; visited southern Manchuria and Hawaii

1922

Toured around the world

1923

Second Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Australia

Great Earthquake, Tokyo, 1 September

First President, Assoc. Japan. Geogr.; Fellow, Am. Geogr. S o c ; visits to China

Foundation of the Association of Japanese Geographers

1925

General Secretary, Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo; visits to China

1926

1928 1929

1930

Seiyo mata Nanyo (The West and the Seas)

South

12th Intern. Geogr. Congr., Cambridge Died in Tokyo, 26 July

Emeritus Fellow, Geogr. Soc. of Berlin Yamasaki Naomasa Ronbunshu (Collection of articles by Naomasa Yamasaki) 2 vols

Index

The index is divided into three parts. ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourgignon d', 1697-1782, 84 1. PERSONAL NAMES as far as possible ARBOS, Philippe, 1882-1956, £ are given in full for both the subARON, Raymond Claude Ferdinand, jects and the authors of the individ1905, 107 ual studies, together with dates of ASSMAN, Richard, 1845-1918, 89f birth (and death). BABICZ, Jozef, 1926, 93 2. ORGANIZATIONS AND RELATED REFERBABINET, Jacques, 1794-1872, 91 ENCES is subdivided under Awards (of an academic nature); Colleges, Insti- BAKER, John Norman Leonard, 1893-1971, 85 tutes, Institutions, Museums and Research Organizations; Official Organ- BALBI, Adrien, 1782-1848, 84f izations; Periodicals; Political Com- BANKS, Sir Joseph, 1743-1820, 83f BARBOUR, George Brown, 1890, missions and Conferences; Scientific Conferences and Congresses; Societies; 75 Universities; and Universities—Foun- BARRELL, Joseph, 1869-1919, 9 dations of Departments or Chairs of BARROW, Sir John, 1764-1848, 85 Geography. BARROWS, Harlan H., 1877-1960, 9 BARTHOLOMEW, John George, 1860-1920, 3. SUBJECTS covers concepts, geo92 graphical theories and specific geoBARTLETT, Robert Abram, 1875-1946, 10 graphical research (including major BATTELL, Andrew, c . 1565- c . 1614, 82 locations). When a geographer inBAULIG, Henri, 1877-1962, 2, _7, 9 cluded in the main sequence has made BEAUFORT, Francis, 1774-1857, 85 a particular contribution to a subBEHAIM, Martin, 1459-1507, 80, 81 ject, his name is listed under the BEKETOV, Andrej Nikolaevic, 1825-1902, relevant entry in italics. 55 BELL, James, 1769-1833, 85 Page numbers in italic refer to the BENEVENT, Ernest, 1883, 1967, 6> Bibliography and Sources sections of the individual biobibliographies and, BERDOULAY, Vincent Raymond Henri 1947, 45 similarly, underlined numbers refer BERGHAUS, Heinrich Karl, 1797-1884, to the chronological tables. It is 62, 84 hoped that this Index can be amalgamated with indexes to future volumes BERSON, Arthur, 1859-1943, 89 to form a basis for research and inBERTHELOT, Pierre Eugene Marcellin, quiries in the history of geography 1827-1907, 43 and the whole field of geographical BERTRAND, Marcel Alexandre, 1847-1907, thought. 20 BEZOLD, Johann Wilhelm, 1837-1907, 89 BIROT, Pierre, 1909, 3,£ BLACHE, Jules, 1893-1970, 1-8 1. PERSONAL NAMES BLANCHARD, Raoul, 1877-1965, Iff, 16 BLOCH, Marc, 1886-1944, 3 AHLMANN, Hans Wilhelmson, 1889-1974, BOISSIER, Marie Louis Antoine Gaston, 2, 6 1823-1908, 43 AIRY, Sir George Biddell, 1801-1892, BOLTON, John, 1788-1873, 92 85 BOWMAN, Isaiah, 1878-1950, 9-18, 90,93 AKIOKA, Takejiro, 1895-1975, 115 BOYD, Louise Arner, 1887-1972, 10 ALAIN, see CHARTIER, Emile Auguste BRATESCU, Constantin, 1882-1945, 66,69 ALLIX, Andre Edouard, 1889-1966, £,_7 BRIGHAM, Albert Perry, 1855-1929, 9,11 ANTHOINE, 1837-?, 98

BROC, Numa, 1934, 101 BROOKS, Alfred Hulse, 1871-1924, iy-23 BRUCKNER, Eduard, 1862-1927, £,12f,91 BRUNHES, Jean, 1869-1930, 11,1^,92,98, 100, 103,114 BUCHANAN, John Young, 1844-1925, 73 BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, 1821-1862, 11,65 BUFFON, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de, 1707-1788, 99 BYRD, Richard Evelyn, 1888-1957, 10 CAMERON, Hugh, 1710-1763, 83 CHABOT, Georges, 1890-1975, 3 CHAMBERLIN, Thomas Chrowder, 1843-1928 92 CHARTIER, Emile-Auguste, 1868-1951, 1 CHISHOLM, George Goudie, 1850-1930, 12f CHO, George, 1946, 52 CHOLNOKI, Jeno, 12 CHRISTALLER, Walter, 1893-1969, 17_ CLIVE, Robert, 1725-1774, 83 COLIN, Elicio, 1874-1949, 107 COLUMBUS, Christopher, 1451-1506, 84 COMTE, Auguste, 1798-1857, 65 CONEA, Ion, 1902-1974, 68 COOK, James, 1728-1779, 84 COOKE, George Alexander, 1781-1834, 85 CVIJIC, Jovan, 1865-1927, 93 DALL, William Healey, 19 DALRYMPLE, Alexander, 1737-1808, 83f DARWIN, Charles Robert, 1809-1882, 74,89 DAVID, Mihai, 1886-1954, 69 DAVIS, William Morris, 1850-1934, 9f, 12,Ui,17_,25,28f,91 DEFFONTAINES, Pierre, 1894, 1 DELISLE, Leopold Victor, 1826-1910, 43 DEMANGEON, Albert, 1872-1940, 1,3,12, 107 DESJARDINS, Ernest Emile Anthoine, 1823-1886, 44 DION, Roger, 1896, 3,7_ DOBBY, Ernest Henry George, 50 DODGE, Richard Elwood, 1868-1952, 11 DOKUCHAEV, Vasily Vasilievich, 18461903, 55

120

Index

DOWNES, Alan, 1913, 86 DRESCH, Jean, 1905, 107 DRYGALSKI, Erich von, 1865-1949, 12 DUBOIS, Marcel, 1856-1916, 44,67,100 DURIER, Charles Henri, 1830-1899, 101 DUTTON, Clarence Edward, 1841-1912, 26 EAST, William Gordon, 1902, 13 ELLSWORTH, Lincoln, 1880-1951, 10 ENGELS, Friedrich, 1820-1895, 55 ERHART, M.H., 2,7_ EVEREST, Sir George, 1790-1866, 85 FARR, William, 1607-1883, 80 FAUCHER, Daniel, 1882-1970, (6 FENNEMAN, Nevin Melanchthon, 18651945, 13 FERREL, William, 1817-1891, 64 FONCIN, Pierre, 1841-1916, 100 FOUQUE, Ferdinand Andre, 1828-1904, 20 FRANKLIN, Sir John, 1786-1847, 84 FREEMAN, Thomas Walter, 1908, 75

HIMLY, Louis Auguste, 1823-1906, 43-7, 65 HINMAN, Russell, 1853-1912, 61 HO, Robert, 1921-1972, 49-54 HOBBS, William Herbert, 1864-1953, 2,6 HOLLAND, Samuel, 1722-1796, 84 HOLMES, William Henry, 1846-1933, 99 HORNEMANN, Friedrich Konrad, 17721801, 85 HOUGHTON, Daniel, 1740(?)-1791, 85 HOUSTON, Edwin James, 1847-1914, 60 HOYLE, Brian Stewart, 1936, 38 HUMBOLDT, Alexander von, 1769-1859, 60,62,67,74,84f,119 HUNTINGTON, Ellsworth, 1876-1947, 9, 11, 1(6 HUTTON, James, 1726-1797, 85 IIMOTO, Noboyuki, 1895, 115 ILYINA, Tatiana D„, 58 INOUE, Shuji, 1909, 115

LESGAFT, N.F., 55 LEVASSEUR, Pierre Emile, 1828-1911, 44,45 LEWIS, William Vaughan, 1907-1961, 13 LONGNON, Auguste, 1844-1911, 44 LUGEON, Maurice, 1870-1953, 90,92,93 LULL, Richard Swann, 1867-1957, 9 LYELL, Charles, 1797-1875, 27,84,85 MCBRIDE, George McCutchen, 1876-1971, 13 MACKINDER, Halford John, 1861-1947, 84,92 MACKINTOSH, W.A., 11 MACONOCHIE, Alexander, 1787-1860, 85 MAIORESCU, Titu Liviu, 1840-1917, 65 MALTE-BRUN, Conrad, 1775-1826, 85 MANNEVILLETTE, d'Apres de, 171071760? 84 MARGERIE, Emmanuel de, 1862-1953, 91ff,94,98f,102 MARKHAM, Sir Clements Robert, 18301916, 85 MARSH, George Perkins, 1801-1882, 27 MARSIGLI, Luigi Ferdinando, 16581730, 84 MARTEL, Edouard Alfred, 1859-1938, 98f MARTIN, Geoffrey J., 1934, 15 MARTONNE, Emmanuel de, 1873-1955, 6,12,

JACKSON, Robert Tracy, 1861-1948, 9 JACOT-GUILLARMOD, Jules, 98 JAMES, Preston Everett, 1899, 31 GALLOIS, Lucien, 1857-1941, 12,93 JEFFERSON, Mark Sylvester William, GALLOUEDEC, Louis, 98,100 1863-1949, 9,1.8 GAMA, Vasco da, 1460-1524, 80 JOANNE, Adolphe, 1813-1881, 97, 101 GEDDES, Patrick, 1854-1932, 74 JOERG, Wolfgang Louis Gottfried, 188536,69,71,91f,94,98,107 GIBBON, Edward, 1737-1794, 84 1952, 11 MARX, Karl, 1818-1883, 55 GIBERT, Andre, 1893, £ MAURY, Matthew Fontaine, 1806-1873, GILBERT, Grove Karl, 1843-1918, 25-33, JOHNSTON, Alexander Keith, 1804-1871 84 59-63, 84 91, 94 MAWSON, Sir Douglas, 1882-1958, 10 GILLMAN, Clement, 1882-1946, 35-41 KANT, Immanuel, 1724,1804, 74,89 MEAD, Joseph, fl. 1757, 84 GILMAN, Daniel Coit, 1831-1908, 10 KATABIRA, Jiro, 1900-1969, 115 MEHEDINTI, Simion, 1868-1962, 65-72 GOLDTHWAIT, James Walter, 1880-1948, KELLY, Christopher, 17807-1840, 85 MENSHUTKIN, Nikolay Aleksandrovich, 9f KELTIE, John Scott, 1840-1927, 74, 1842-1907, 55 GOSSE, Philip Henry, 1801-1888, 84 79 MERRILL, George Perkins, 1854-1929, 19 GOUROU, Pierre, 1900, 110 KIRCHHOFF, Alfred, 1838-1907, 89 MIDDLETON, Dorothy, 1909, 106 GREGORY, Herbert, Ernest, 1869-1952, 9 KIRWAN, Richard, 1733(?)-1812, 85 MIHAILESCU, Vintila, 1890, 70 KLUTE, Fritz, 1885-1952, 38 GRIGG, David Brian, 1934, 81 MILL, Hugh Robert, 1861-1950, 73-8 GUERARD, Benjamin Edme Charles, 1797- KOMAROV, Vladimir Leontyevitch, MONGE (MEDRANO), Carlos, 1884-7, 13 1869-1945, 55-8 1854, 43 MONTESQUIEU, Charles Louis, Baron de, KOTO, Bunjiro, 1856-1935, 113 GUIGNIAUT, Joseph Daniel, 1794-1876, 1689-1755, 99 KOVALEVSKY, Alexander Onufrievich, 43,44 MOODIE, Arthur Edward Frank, 1901-1970, 1840-1901, 55 GUTHRIE, William, 1708-1770, 85 13 GUYOT, Arnold Henri, 1807-1884, 59,60 MORSE, Edward, 1837-1925, 114 LAMBTON, William, 1756-1823, 84,85 MURRAY, Hugh, 1779-1846, 85 HARTSHORNE, Richard, 1899, 11,17 LANDER, John, 1807-1839, 85 MURRAY, Sir John, 1841-19L4, 74 LANDER, Richard Lemon, 1804-1834, 85 HAYDEN, Ferdinand Vandiveer, 1829LA PLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis de, 1887, 26 NAtfKOWSKI, Wacjaw, 1852-1911, 91 1749-1827, 89 HAYES, Charles Willard, 1858-1916, 19 NANSEN, Fridtjof, 1861-1930, 10 LAPPARENT, Albert de, 1839-1908, 101 HEAWOOD, Edward, 1864-1949, 74 NEWBERRY, John Strong, 1822-1892, 26 LATHAM, Donald Victor, 1898-1953, 38 HEID, Maurice, 1881-1957, 99 NICOD, Jean, 1923, 5 LATTIMORE, Owen, 1900, 13 HEILPRIN, Angelo, 1853-1907, J_6_ NIZAN, Paul, 1905-1940, 107 LAUNAY, Louis Auguste Alphonse de, HEIM, Albert, 1849-1937, 99 NOE, G.de, 1836-1902, 91,94,102 1861-1938, 20 HELBRONNER, Paul, 1871-1938, 98 LAURIE, James, 18057-1870, 85 HERBERTSON, Andrew John, 1865-1915, OBERHUMMER, Eugen, 1859-1944, 12 LAVISSE, Ernest, 1842-1922, 43,45 11, 74 LE COMPTE, Irville Charles, 1872-1957 ODOBESCU, Alexandru, 1834-1895 HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, 1744OGAWA, Takuji, 1870-1941, 113f 1872-1957, 11 1803, 65 OGILVIE, Alan Grant, 1887-1954, 74 LEDYARD, John, 1751-1788, 85 HERODOTUS, 484-424 B.C., 84 OGILVIE, Sir Francis Grant, 1858-1930, LEIGHLY, John, 1895, 64 HERSCHEL, Sir John, 1792-1871, 62 74 LEMONNIER, Henry, 1842-1936, 98,102 HESS, Hans, 1864-1940, 2,7_ OKAYAMA, Toshio, 1903, 115 LEQUEUTRE, A., 97 HETTNER, Alfred, 1859-1941, 67,71

Index

121

50 SCHUCHERT, Charles, 1858-1942, 9 PALK, Sir Robert, 1717-1798, 83 SCHURE, Edouard, 1841-1929, 43 WRIGHT, John Kirtland, 1891-1969, 12f PARK, Mungo, 1771-1806, 85 SCHWARZENBERG-CZERNY, Franciszek, WRIGLEY, Gladys Mary, 1885-1975, 75 PARTSCH, Joseph, 1851-1925, 12 WURTZ, Charles Adolphe, 1817-1884, 43 PELZER, Karl Josef, 1909, 13 1847-1917, 92 PENCK, Albrecht, 1858-1945, £,10,75, SCHWEIGHAEAUSER, Alfred, 1823-1876, 43 SEMPLE, Ellen Churchill, 1863-1932, 9, YAMASAKI, Naomasa, 1870-1929, 113-17 89,113f YOSKIKAWA, Torao, 1922, 114 11,1_6 PENCK, Walther, 1888-1923, 10 YULE, Sir Henry, 1820-1889, 84f PERPILLOU, Aime Vincent, 1902-1976, SHACKLETON, Sir Ernest Henry, 1874107 1922, 74,75 PERRET, Robert, 1881-1965, 98 SHALER, Nathaniel Southgate, 1841-1906, 2. ORGANIZATIONS AND RELATED PETERMANN, August Heinrich, 1822-1878, 9,1^,19 79f,84 SHERWOOD, Morgan Bronson, 1929, 21 REFERENCES PETRI, Eduard Yulevic, 1854-1899, 55 SMITH, Sir George Adam, 1856-1942, 105Awards PHILIP, George, 1870-1937, 80 06 PHILIPPS0N, Alfred, 1864-1953, 114 SMITH, Joseph Russell, 1874-1966, 1_6 Albert Kahn Foundation PINKERTON, John, 1758-1826, 85 SMYTH, William Henry, 1788-1865, 85 Around the World Travel Grant, 1928 PLATT, Raye Roberts, 1891-1973, 13 SPATE, Oskar Hermann Khristian, 1911(Weulersse), 107 PLAYFAIR, John, 1748-1819, 84f , 50,51 American Geographical Society POWELL, John Wesley, 1834-1902, 20,26f •STAMP, Sir Laurence Dudley, 1898-1966, Cullum Medal, 1929 (Mill), 78 3_2 75 Daly Medal, (Brooks), 19 PRICE, Archibald Grenfell, 1892, STEFANSSON, Vilhjalmur, 1879-1962, 9f Exposition Universelle, Paris 13 SZUJSKI, Jozef, 1835-1883, 89 Silver Medal, 1877 (Schrader), 102 PRUDENT, Ferdinand, 1835-1915, 97f, Geographical Society of Chicago 101 TADA, Fumio, 1900, 113ff Gold Medal, 1923 (Romer), 96 PTOLEMY, c„100-170 A 0 D 0 84 TAINE, Hippolyte Adolphe, 1828-1893, 65 International Academy of Botanical PURDY, John, 1773-1843, 84 TANAKA, Keiji, 1885-1975, 115 Geography TARR, Ralph Stockman, 1864-1912, 61 Medal (Komarov), 56 QUICHERAT, Jules Etienne Joseph, 1814- TAYLOR, Thomas Griffith, 1880-1963, 114 King's Jubilee Medal, 1935 (Gillman), 1882, 43 TEALE, Sir Edmund Oswald, 1874-1971, 36 37 TELEKI, Graf Paul, 1879-1941, 12 Robert Ho Gold Medal, University of RAMOND DE CARBONNIERES, Louis Francois TEMPLIER, Emile, 97 Malaya,Elisabeth, 1755-1827, 99 THOMSON, Sir Charles Wyville, 1830Kuala Lumpur, 51 RANKE, Leopold von, 1795-1886, 43 1882, 63 Royal Geographical Society RASMUSSEN, Knud, 1879-1933, 10 TILLO, Alexei Andreevich, 1839-1900, 90 Victoria Medal, 1902 (Ravenstein), RATZEL, Friedrich, 1844-1904, 65 TOLL, Eduard, Baron von, 1858-1903(7), 80 RAVENSTEIN, Ernst Georg, 1834-1913, 90 Victoria Medal, 1915 (Mill). 77 72-82 TOWER, Walter Sheldon, 1881-1969, 9 Royal Meteorological Society RECLUS, Jean Jacques Elisee, 1830-1905 •TROLL, Carl, 1899-1975, 36 Symons Gold Medal, 1918 (Mill), 77 44,60,63_, 80,85,97,99,202., 202 TSUJIMURA, Taro, 1890, 113ff Royal Scottish Geographical Society REDFORD, Arthur, 1896-1961, 81 TSUJITA, Usao, 1908, 115 Gold Medal, 1923 (Mill), 78 REHMAN, Antoni, 1840-1917, 89f,92,96 Research Medal, 1936 (Gillman), 37 REIN, Johannes, 1835-1918, 113f UCHIDA, Kanichi, 1888-1969, 115 Royal Society RENNELL, James, 1742-1830, 62^,83-8 Copley Medal, 1791 (Rennell). 87 REUSS, Edouard, 1804-1891, 43 VALLAUX, Camille, 1870-1945, J£ Russian Academy of Science RICH, Claudius James, 1787-1820, 84 VALLOT, Henri, 1850-1922, 98 Ber prize (Komarov), 56 RICHTHOFEN,' Ferdinand von, 1833-1905, VALLOT, Joseph, 1854-1925, 98 Russian Geographical Society 65,89,91,54 VALSAN, George, 1885-1935, 66,68f F.P.Litke Medal (Komarov), 57 RITTER, Carl, 1779-1859, 44,59,74,84f, VARENIUS, Bernhardus, 1622-1650, 74 N.M.Przhevalsky Prize (Komarov), 56 99 VEYRET, Paul, 3 Silver Medal (Komarov), 55 ROBERTSON., Charles John, 1900, VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, Paul, 1845-1918, St.Petersburg University 106 11,44,65,67,72,92,100,202., 203 Gold Medal (Komarov), 55 RODD, Lord Rennell of, 1895, 85 VIVIEN DE SAINT MARTIN, Louis, 1802Societe de Geographie de Paris ROMER, Eugeniusz, 1871-1954, 89-95 1897, 98 Maite-Brun Medal, (Brooks), 19 ROOSEVELT, Franklin Delano, 1882-1945, Prix Gallois, 1922 (Romer), 99 lOff, 13 WALCKENAER, Charles Athanese, Baron de, RUDOLPH, W.E., 13 1771-1852, 44,85 Colleges, Institutes, Institutions, RUHL, Alfred, 1882-1935, 12 WALLON, Edouard, 1821-1895, 97 Museums, Research Organizations RUSSELL, Sir E. John, 1872-1965, 50 WARD, Robert de Courcy, 1867-1931, 9 Academie des Sciences Morales et PolWATANABE, Akira, 1904, 115 RUSSELL, Henry, 1834-1909, 97,101 itiques, Paris, 47 WEBER, Adna Ferrin, 1870-1968, 80 Ben Nevis Observatory, 74 WEULERSSE, Jacques, 1905-1947, 107-12 SAINT-SAUD, Comte de, 97 WHEELER, George Montague, 1842-1905, 26 British Rainfall Organization, 74,75 SARTRE, Jean Paul, 1905, 107 WILKINS, Sir George Hubert, 1888-1958, College de France, 98 Ecole d1Anthropologic, Paris, 98ff SATO, Denzo, 114 10 Ecole des Chartes, 43,45 SATO, Hiroshi, 1897-1962, 115 WILLIS, Bailey, 1857-1949, 36 SCHRADER, Franz, 1844-1924, 97-103 WOOLDRIDGE, Sidney William, 1900-1963, Hachette, 97

122

Index

Heriot-Watt Institution, Edinburgh, 73f Institut de France, 84 Institut de Geographie Alpine, 1,6,^ Institut Francais, Damascus, 107 Institute of Commonwealth Studies, Oxford, ^8 Instytut Kartograficzny, Lwow, 90,92 International Academy of Botanical Geography, 56 Jagellonian Library, Cracow, 93 King George V Memorial Museum, Dar es Salaam, 41 V.L.Komarov Botanical Garden, Leningrad, 56,57 Ksiaznica-Atlas, Poland, 90 Maurice Lugeon Institute, Lausanne, 90 New York State Museum, Albany, 25 Oceanographic Museum, Monaco, 77 Rothamstead Experimental Station, 50 Scottish Marine Station, Granton, 73 Scott Polar Research Institute, 78 Smithsonian Institution, 29 U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, 57 Virginia Military Institute, Lexington 60

British Rainfall, 74 Bulletin Pyreneen3 100 Bulletin, Romanian Geographical Society, 66,71 Chirigaku-Hyoron (Geographical Review of Japan)3 114f Geographical Review, 10 Journal of Geography3 10 Journal of Tropical Geography, 51 Polski Przeglad Kartograficzny (Polish Geographical Review), 92 Symons's Monthly Meteorological Magazine, 74 Political

Commissions and

Conferences

American Commission to Negotiate Peace 1918-19, 11,13,20 Armistice Commissions (1919), 11 Dumbarton Oaks Conference on World Peace and Security 1944, 10 International Italo-Slav Border Commission, 108 Paris Peace Conference 1918-19, 13,90 Bowman, J u , 9-18 Romer, £., 89-96 Riga Peace Conference 1921, 90 Stettinius Mission to London 1944, 10 Foundation of Departments or Chairs U 0 N. Conference on International of Geography see Universities Foundations of Departments or Chairs Organizations, San Francisco 1945, 10 of Geography Official

organizations

France Service Geographieque de l'Armee, 100 Tanganyika Geological Survey, 36,37 United Nations UNESCO Advisory Committee on Humid Tropics Research, 51 U.S.A„ Council of Foreign Relations, 12 Geographical Surveys, 26 Geological Survey, 19,27,22,26 Brooks, A.H*, 19-23 Gilbert^ G.K. 25-33 National Observatory and Hydrographical Office, 59,52 National Research Council, Committee on Geographic Research, 12 Ohio Geological Survey, 26 Virginia Physical Survey, 60

Scientific

Conferences

and

Congresses

International Committee on the Prince of Monaco's Ocean Map, Wiesbaden, 77 International Council on the Study of the Sea, Christiana, 77 International Geographical Congresses, 10,93,115 6th I.G.Co, London 1895, 74f 7th IoG.C, Berlin 1899, 113 14th I.GoCo Warsaw 1934, 93 International Geographical Union, 12, 81 Regional Conferences Japan 1957, 115 Kuala Lumpur 1962, 50 International Geological Congresses St0Petersburg 1897, 19 Paris 1900, 113 Toronto 1913, 94 International Polar Congress, Brussels 1906, 77 International Polar Year 1881-2, 76 Maritime Conference, Brussels 1853, Periodicals 60,63 Pan-Pacific Scientific Congresses Annates de Geographie3 102 Hawaii 1920, 114 Annuaire du Club Alpin Francais3 99 Australia 1923, 20,114 Anthropological Journal of Japan3 113 Japan 1926, 114 Anuarul de geografie si antropogeografie (Annual Bulletin of Geography and Anthropogeography)3 71 Societies Archaeologia3 84 African Association, 84,S£ Bibliographie Geographique InterAlpine Club, 106 nationale, 107

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 12,29 American Geographical Society, 9f,llf, 14,59 Bowman, I., 9-18 Inquiry of 1917-18, 10,13,16 Research Series, 12f Transcontinental Excursion of 1912, 12f Association of American Geographers, 10,12, J£, 25,29 Association of Japanese Geographers, 113ff Yamasaki ,lf., 113-17 Association of Malayan Geographers, 51 Ho, R. , 49-54 British Association for the Advancement of Science, 26,74,76,79f,105 Club Alpin Francais, 99,102 Schroder, F.., 97-103 Commission de Topographie, 98 Dar es Salaam Cultural Society, 37 Geographical Association, 100 Geological Society of America, 29,32 Geological Society of Washington, 29 Hakluyt Society, 80 Nippon Chirigakkai (Assoc, of Japanese Geogr.), 113ff Philosophical Society, Washington, 26, 29 Raleigh Club, 88 Romanian Geographical Society, 65 Royal Geographical Society, 74,79,80, 85,88 Mill, H.R. , 73-8 Rennell, J ., 83-8 Royal Meteorological Society, 75 Royal Scottish Geographical Society, 105 Royal Society of Edinburgh, 73 Royal Society of London, 83 Russian Geographical Society, 55ff St.Petersburg Society of Natural Scientists, 55 Societe d'Etudes et Travaux topographiques, 103 Societe de Geographie de Paris, 98 Societe des Peintres de Montagne, 98 Society of Antiquaries, 84 South African Geographical Society, 37 Statistical Society, 79 Tokyo Geological Society, 113 Universities Aberdeen, 105f Aix-Marseille, lff,_7,108 Alaska, 21 Australian National University Research School of Pacific Studies, 50 Berlin, 43,65,89 Bonn, 113 Bucharest, 65f,68 Cambridge, 73 Cernauti, 69

Index Cluj, 69 Colgate, 20 Cornell, 26 Cracow, 89f,92,94 Edinburgh, 73,105 Glasgow, 105 Gottingen, 43,80,85 Grenoble, If,6 Halle, 43,89 Harvard, 7,9,12,19 Iasi, 69 Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 10,12,14f Kyoto, 113f Leipzig, 67 London Bedford College, 79 King's College, 49f University College, 85 Lwow, 89f,92 Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50f Moscow, 56 Nancy, If,7_ Nice, 2 Oxford, Depto of Agriculture, 50 Paris Ecole Normale Superieure, 43,65 Sorbonne, 20, 43f,65 Raffles College, Singapore, 49 Rochester, 25,27 St„Petersburg, 55f Singapore (Raffles College), 49 Tokyo, 113ff University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., 61 Vienna, 89,113 Wroclaw, 90 Yale, 9,11 Universities Departments

- Foundation of or Chairs of Geography

Cernauti, 69 Cluj, 69 Iasi, 69 Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 12 Malaya (Kuala Lumpur), 51 Paris (Sorbonne), 44 Tokyo, 114 3. SUBJECTS aerial photographs interpretation, Africa Rennell, J0, 83-8 climatology, 80 history of exploration, 80,84 human geography, 110 maps by Ravenstein, 79-80 Africa, East, 35ff,37-8 Gillman, C, 35-41 Kilimanjaro, 35 Tanganyika, 35f Africa, North maps by Rennell, 84f Alaska Brooks, A.H., 19-23

surveys of, 19f,21,21 Alps Blache, J., 1-8 glacial geomorphology, Iff,4 Mont Blanc Panorama, 99 mountain habitats, 2,4 America, South Bowman, I., 9-18 American Geographical Society Research Series, 12f boundary disputes, 13 1:1 million map, 10,13

123

temperature inversions, 4 thermal distribution, global, 91 comparative geography, 44,84 deserts Kara-Kum, 55 South American, 10-11,12 education geography in universities, 10,15, 43f,49f,66,69,90,92,113ff Himly, L.A., 43-7 Ho,R., 49-54 Mehedinpi, S., 65-72 Romer, E,. 89-96 Andes, 9-10,13 Xamqsaki, N., 113-17 anthropogeography, 68,91,99 geography teaching in schools, 45, Appalachian region, 26 68f,96,104,119 Asia, Central Himly, L.A., 43-7 Komarov, V.L., 55-8 Mehedinpi, S., 65-72 botanical exploration, 55f Romer, E., 89-96 Asia, Southeast, 49 Schroder, Fa, 97-103 atlases schools of geography Atlas Universel (Hachette), 98 Romanian, 69 Bengal Atlas (Rennell), 87 Romer (Polish), 93 Polish atlases, 92,94 school textbooks in geography, 60, school atlases, 80,94 61,63,66f,74,85,90,98,100,115 Stieler Handatlae, 98 environment Ben Nevis observatory, Scotland, 74 and man relationship, 50,68,80f,9S biogeography influence of, 9ff,44,57,99 botanical description and explorethnography, 68,69 ation, 56 exploration, history of, 44,80 Komarov, V.L., 55-9 Ravenstein, E.G., 79-82 Botanical Garden, St.Petersburg, Rennell, J., 83-8 56 Botanical Station, Hissar Mountains Far East Komarov, L„V., 55-^9 Tadzhikistan, 57 fieldwork, 36,37,51,55f,69,90,107 plant species classification, 57 France see also vegetation Blache, J„, 1-8 Bolivian altiplano lake system, 11 Himly, L.Aa, 43-7 Bonneville, Lake, 26,28 Schroder, F., 97-103 Canada Weulersse, J., 107-12 glaciation, 90 geography pioneer settlement, 11 definition and meaning of cartography Bowman, 11; Gillman, 36; Himly, Ravenstein, E.G., 79-82 44; Mehedinti, 65ff, 68; Mill, Romer, E., 89-96 74-5; Ravenstein, 80; Romer, Schroder, F., 97-103 92; Schrader, 99 history of, 80,115 distinction between human and cartographic techniques, 92,98ff physical, 36,44,49f,92 cartography of mountain areas, 98, relation to other sciences, 11-12, 99 51,66f,80f Instytyt Kartograficzny, Lwow, 90, theoretical 92 Mehedinpi, S., 65-72 Challenger expedition, 63,73 Ravenstein, E.G., 79-82 climatology Romer, E., 89-96 Ravenstein, E.G., 79-82 see also education Romer, E., 89-96 geology climate and geomorphology, 91 education in climate and vegetation, 57 Brooks, A.H., 19; Gilbert, G.K„, climatic cycles (W0M0Davies's 25; Yamasaki, 113 theory), 91 in university courses, 51 contribution by British Rainfall see Official Organizations - UoS.A Organization, 74 Geological Surveys, Index II contribution to African, 80 geomorphology, 4,30 contribution to Central Asian, 56 Bowman, I . , 9-18 diagram of wind belts, 60f,62,63 Gilbert, GoK* 25-33 regional classification of climates foundations of, 25ff 91

124

Index

bathymetric survey of English lakes 74 links with climatic phenomena, 91 fluvial processes, 3 Babinet theory, 91 delta formation, 83,85 divides, 27f meanders, 2,3 river capture, 2 river profiles, 28 soil creep, 28 transportation of debris, 27f glacial processes, If,4,26f,90ff,113f bergschrund hypothesis, 11 cirque formation, 10,99 fjords, 27,95 glaciated landforms, 2f,29,99 glaciation Blache, «/„, 1-8

Romer, E0y 89-96 Yamasaki, N., 113-17

landforms divides, law of, 27 drawing, 99 interpretation, 25ff,28 monoclinal escarpments, 3 slopes, evolution of, 2,28 marine processes, 28,87 coastal terraces, 11 dune formation, 11 structural

Blache, J*, 1-8 Yamasaki, Na, 113-17 laws of, 2f block diagrams, 51 earthquakes, 27,29-30,30,114 earth's crust, theories on, 29 laccolith formation, 27 globes Behaim's, 80 Romer's, 92 Great Basin, Utah, 26

Gilbert,

GaK.3 25-33

Gresivaudan, If handbooks, geographical, 80,81 Henry Mountains, 26f historical geography, 44,70

Himly, L.Aa, 43-7 Rennell, J., 83-8 Smith, G.A., 105-06

of Middle East, 88,105f history education in Blache, If; Himly, 43; Ho, 49; Romer, 89 hydrology, 36,37,74

Gillman,

C, 35-41

India, Survey of, 83ff

Rennell,

J., 83-8

islands, studies of, 3,4 Japan

Yamasaki,

N., 113-17

Kilimanjaro, 35,35 Gillman, C„, 35-41 Korea, exploration in, 56

Komarov, V.LOJ 55-9

land classification, 26 land tenure, 3,4 land use surveys in Malaya, 50 landscape drawing, 98f

Schroder,

F., 97-103

languages distribution maps, 81 laws of divides (Gilbert), 27 of migration (Ravenstein), 80-1 of monoclinal escarpments (Blache), 3 of structural geomorphology (Blache), 2f of uniform slopes (Gilbert), 28 Malaysia

Ho, Ro, 49-54

maps Africa, 80,84Great Britain, Census of 1851, 80, Hispanic America, 1:1 million, 10,

13,16,18

* India, 83f Malaya, land-use, 50 Pyrenees, 97f Tanganvika, vegetation-types, 36 U.S. topographic mapping, 26 World, Penck's, 1:1 million, 75 meteorology

Mill,

H.R., 73-8

sea charts, 59f,B3f surface water isotherms, 60 ontography, lOf

orographe,

97

patriotic activity

Blache, If,5,7 Romer, 89f pedology, see soils physiography

Bowman, I.,

9-18

place naming after Bowman, 12; Brooks, A.H., 20; Komarov, 57; Palk, 83; Rennell, 85 Poland

Romer, E., 89-96

Polar research, 10,74 political geography, 11,13,24,90,91, 108

Bowman, I., 9-18 Romer, E., 89-96

boundary questions, 10,llf,14,90, 108 see Political Commissions, Index II population

Ravenstein,

E.G., 79-92

Census of Great Britain, 80 distribution in Tanganyika, 36 migration studies, 79ff Pyrenees, 97ff

Ben Nevis Observatory, Scotland, 74 Schroder, F., 97-104 British Rainfall Organization, 74 railway development rainfall, scientific study of, 74 Brooks, A.H., 19-23 research in Poland, 92-3 Gillman, C., 35-41 methodology, 28f,30,67,70,81 Komarov, V.L., 55-8 Middle East in Alaska, 20,22 Smith, G.A., 105-06 in East Africa, 35-6 Amur railway, 56 Weulersse, J., 107-12 regional geography, 9f,14,67f,74-5, historical geography, 84,105f 113ff social geography, 108f military geography, 84 Mehedinti, S., 65-72 moon Yamasaki, N., 113-17 of Romania, 71 surface of, 29 mountaineering, 35f,99 regional diagrams, 10-11 see Club Alpin Francais, Index II regional synthesis, 11 mountain habitats, 2f,4,9-10,13,72 religious groups, distribution of, 81 Blache, J., 1-8 Romania navigation Mehedinti, S., 65-72 rural geography Maury, M.F.,59-63 agrarian structure, 3,4 Rennell, Ja, 83-8 rural habitats, 3,4 theory of, 59-60,61 rural society and economy, 50f,108 wind and current charts, 59f,84-5 Niagara River, 26,30 see settlement oceanography, 59,61 schools of geography, see education Maury, M.Fa, 59-63 settlement, 11,13,24 Mill, H.Ro, 73-8 colonization, 107,109

Rennell,

J., 83-8

Atlantic bathymetrical chart, 60 Atlantic currents, 84 Challenger expedition, 61 chemistry of sea water, 73-4 currents, 59f,61,84f deep-sea sediments, 60 Gulf Stream