Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry [2 ed.] 0128200138, 9780128200131

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Food Safety Management A Practical Guide for the Food Industry

Food Safety Management A Practical Guide for the Food Industry Second Edition

Edited by Veslemøy Andersen Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), Vienna, Austria

Huub Lelieveld Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), Vienna, Austria

Yasmine Motarjemi Food Safety Management Consultant, Nyon, Switzerland

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN 978-0-12-820013-1 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki Levy Acquisitions Editor: Nina Bandeira Editorial Project Manager: Ali Afzal-Khan Production Project Manager: Sujatha Thirugnana Sambandam Cover Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Contents Contributors Preface List of Abbreviations

1. Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry: The Story Behind the Book

xxiii xxvii xxix

3. Management of Safety in the Feed Chain 1

Yasmine Motarjemi

2. Fundamentals in Management of Food Safety in the Industrial Setting: Challenges and Outlook of the 21st Century

3

Yasmine Motarjemi, Veslemøy Andersen, and Huub Lelieveld Consumer Trust: The Corner Stone of a Food Business The 21st Century: A New Era in Food Safety The Concept of Food Safety and Its Definition Elements of Food Safety Management Government Industry Academia Challenges in Management of Food Safety and Outlook Complexity of the Subject Complexity of Food Operations Complexity of the Food Supply and External Environment Human Factor Outlook: Whistleblowing Conclusions References Further Reading

Section A Risks and Controls in the Food Supply Chain

3 3 5 5 5 7 9 10 11 12 13 13 15 16 16 16

19

Arnaud Bouxin Overview of the Feed Chain Characteristics of the Feed Chain Potential Hazards Biological Hazards Chemical Hazards Physical Hazards Risk Assessment/Risk Management Good Hygiene Practices in the Feed Sector Feed Safety Management Principles Prerequisite Programs Hazard Analysis and Monitoring Plans From Good Practices to Certified Feed Safety Assurance Systems Examples of Feed Safety Incidents and What Lessons to be Learned MPA in Glucose Syrup in 2002 Contamination of Bread Meal with Dioxins in Ireland in 2008 Dioxins in Feed Fats in Germany in 2010/2011 Conclusions References Further Reading

4. Naturally Occurring Contaminants and Inherent Toxicants of Plant Origin

19 20 22 23 23 25 27 27 28 29 30 31 31 31 32 33 34 34 34

37

Gerrit J.A. Speijers and Marijntje H.M. Speijers-Lafferty

v

vi

Contents

General Introduction Phycotoxins (Marine Biotoxins) Introduction Toxicology and Occurrence Risk Assessment Risk Management Mycotoxins Introduction Toxicology and Occurrence Risk Assessment Risk Management Inherent Plant Toxins Introduction Toxicology and Occurrence Risk Assessment Risk Management References Further Reading

5. Allergens

37 38 38 39 41 43 43 43 44 47 51 52 52 52 56 59 60 63

65

Stella Cochrane and Ren
e Crevel Introduction Food Allergy and Food Intolerance Mechanisms of IgE-mediated Food Allergy Symptoms of Food Allergy Prevalence of Food Allergy Allergenic Foods of Public Health Importance Evolution of Regulatory Allergen Lists across the World Legal/Regulatory Aspects Management of Food Allergens The Practice of Allergen Management Training Allergen Control Plans Assessing the Risk from Food Allergens Practical Aspects of Assessing the Risk from Allergenic Ingredients Analytical Aspects of Allergen Management Validation and Verification Allergen Detection Methods Design of Validation Studies Verification Interpretation of Validation Studies References

6. Milk and Dairy Products

65 66 67 67 68 69 69 70 71 71 73 74 75 76 77 77 77 78 79 79 81

85

Vincenzina Fusco, Francesca Fanelli, and Daniele Chieffi Introduction

85

Some History Outbreaks and Incidents Risks and Controls Feed Farm: Milk and Animal Health Industrial and Environmental Contaminants Cleaning Agents and Sanitizers Other Potential Chemical Hazards Transportation Processing and Manufacturing How to Minimize the Risks? Conclusion References Further Reading

7. Bakery and Farinaceous Products

85 86 93 93 93 99 103 104 104 104 104 105 106 115

117

Alexandrina Sıˆrbu Introduction Bakery and Farinaceous Commodities Baking Technology Insights into Food Safety Issues and HACCP Implementation General Requirements, and Implement Food Safety Management System Prerequisite Programs Infrastructure and Maintenance Operational Prerequisite Programs Physical, Chemical, and Biological Hazards Associated with Bakery and Other Farinaceous Products Physical Hazards Chemical Hazards Biological Hazards Control of Hazards and Risks Assessment within the Bakery Sector Conclusion References

8. Meat and Meat Products

117 117 119 120 121 123 124 125 126

129 129 129 132 134 137 137

141

Gry Carl Terrell and Marta Hernandez-Jover Introduction Hazards Associated with Meat and Meat Products Physical Hazards Chemical Hazards Biological Hazards Incidence of Foodborne Illness Product Contamination Foodborne Disease Outbreaks

141 142 142 143 144 156 156 158

Contents vii

Control of Hazards at Different Stages of the Meat Chain Introduction Prevent Eliminate Preserve The Issue of Pathogens Developing Resistance Other Areas Influencing Food Safety Regulatory Requirements and the Growing Role of 3rd Party Certifications Country Specific Legislation The Globalization of Food Safety Legislation and Standards Conclusions References

9. Poultry Meat and Eggs

160 160 162 165 167 172 174 174 175 178 179 180

185

Shai Barbut Introduction Microbial Hazards Chemical Hazards Physical Hazards HACCP Generic Model Importance of Equipment/Process Selection Advantages of Implementing HACCP Egg Harvesting and Breaking Operations References Further Reading

10. Seafood

185 186 187 188 188 195 196 198 203 204

205

 Filipec and Tibor Janci  Sanja Vidacek Introduction Statistics of Food Safety Incidents and Recalls of Seafood Products Production of Safe Seafood – Prerequisite Programs and HACCP Hazards Associated with Seafood Risks at Different Levels of the Supply Chain Hazards that Originate from the Marine (Aquatic) Environment or Naturally Occur and are Present at the Time of Catch Hazards Originating from the Processing Environment/Originating from the Fish as a Result of Mishandling the Fish or Inadequate Processing Practice Controls at Different Stages of the Food Chain

205 206 206 207 208

209

212 215

Aquaculture Processing Industry Transportation and Storage Other Food Safety Threads and Conclusions References

11. Food Safety Management of Insect-Based Foods

215 216 218 218 219

223

Abenaa A. Okyere Introduction Overview of Regulatory Framework of Insect-Based Foods Hazards Associated with Edible Insects and Its Products Overview of Production Chain of Insect-Based Foods Establishment of a HACCP System in Insect-Based Foods Production Traceability Labeling Conclusion References

12. Fruits and Vegetables (Including Herbs)

223 224 224 227 229 229 229 231 231

235

Vlasta Pilizˇota Introduction Food Safety Hazards Associated with Fruits and Vegetables (Including Herbs) Types of Hazards Factors Affecting Biological Contamination Foodborne Diseases Surface Characteristics Bacterial Attachment Bacterial Infiltration and Internalization Bacterial Biofilm Formation Contamination Along the Food Chain Pre-Harvest, Harvest, and Post-Harvest Measures Soil Water Fertilizers Plant Protection Products Control Measures in Preventing Contamination Cleaning and Washing Transport and Storage Packing

236 236 237 237 238 238 241 241 241 241 242 242 242 243 243 243 247 247 248 248

viii

Contents

Processing and Preservation Techniques Chemical-based Washing Treatments Combination of Various Agents UV-C Light Ultrasound Pulsed Energy Pulsed Electric Field Pulsed Magnetic Field Light Pulses Irradiation High-Pressure Processing (HPP) Hurdle Technology Application of the HACCP System A Case Study on the Application of the HACCP Approach for the Management of the Preparation of Fresh Tomatoes for Storage and Sale Scope of the Study Description of the Product Distribution and Intended Use HACCP Study Field Production Harvesting Transport Receiving of Raw Material Washing and Sanitizing Drying Inspection, Sorting, and Grading Waste Waxing Packaging Palletizing, Strapping, and Storing Degreening (Treatment with Ethylene Gas) Removal From Storage, Degreening Room, Depalletizing Transport to Distribution Center (Loading in Transport Vehicle) Conclusion References

13. Coffee, Cocoa, and Derived Products (e.g., Chocolate) Anett Winkler General Considerations Coffee Roast and Ground, and Instant/Soluble Coffees

†

Deceased

249 249 250 251 251 251 251 251 252 252 252 252 253

253 253 253 255 255 255 255 261 261 261 262 262 262 262 263 263 263 264 264 265 265

Dry Coffee Mixes Ready-to-Drink Coffee-Based Beverages Green Coffee Beverages Cocoa and Derived Products Salmonella in Cocoa/Chocolate Production (Low Moisture Products) Raw Cocoa Beans Cocoa Mass/Liquor Production Chocolate Individual Steps in Chocolate Manufacturing Good Manufacturing Practices/Hygiene Requirements in Cocoa/Chocolate Production Acknowledgments References

14. Confectionery and Bakery Products; Including Honey

272 273 273 273 273 275 276 280 281

284 287 287

291

Suchart Chaven Introduction Honey Processing Intrinsic Properties Hazard Analysis Confectionery Processing Intrinsic Properties Hazard Analysis Bakery Intrinsic properties Intermediate of Bakery Products Processing Hazard Analysis Additional Considerations Sensitive Ingredients and Inclusions High Moisture and Perishable Fillings Chemical Physical Concluding Remarks References

269 15. Edible Nuts, Oilseeds and Legumes

291 291 291 293 293 295 296 297 297 298 298 298 298 299 300 300 301 302 302 302 302

305

†

269 270

Wentzel C.A. Gelderblom , Gordon S. Shephard, John P. Rheeder, Shridhar K. Sathe†, Alireza Ghiasi, Yasmine Motarjemi, and John P. Rheeder

270

Part 1: Perspectives on Mycotoxins

305

Contents

Introduction Hazard Analysis Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins Control Measures Contamination Levels, Incidence of Diseases Part 2: Pistachio Nut Processing HACCP Study Introduction Description of the Product Distribution and Intended Use of the Product Pistachio Nut Processing – Commodity Flow Diagram (CFD) Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis HACCP Study Worksheet and HACCP Plan (CCPs) Verification, Validation and Implementation of the HACCP Plan Acknowledgments References Further Reading

16. Vegetable Oils and Fats

305 306 306 308 310 312 312 313 313 313 313 315 319 320 320 321

323

Gerrit van Duijn Introduction Functionality Supply Chain Contaminants in Extracted Oils and Fats Contaminants Pesticide Residues Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Mineral Oil Hydrocarbons Heavy Metals and Dioxins Phthalates Mycotoxins Residues of Previous Cargoes Risk Matrix Extracted Oils The Reduction of Contaminants during Oil Refining The Refining Processes Reduction of Pesticides Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Reduction Reduction of Mineral Oil Hydrocarbons Reduction of Dioxins, Furans, and Dioxinlike PCBs Reduction of Mycotoxins, Heavy Metals, and Phthalates The Refining Link Tables

323 323 323 324 324 324 325 326 327 327 327 328 328 329 329 331 331 331

By-Products Formed during Oil Refining Cis–Trans Isomerization 3-MCPD Esters Glycidyl Esters HACCP References

17. Bottled and Drinking Water

ix

332 332 334 334 335 337

339

Arnold F. Dijkstra and Ana Maria de Roda Husman Water and the Food Industry Definitions for Water Legislation Bottled Water Municipal Drinking Water Sources of Water Groundwater Surface Water Rainwater Saline Water Recycled Water Drinking-Water Applications in the Food Industry Water as End Product Water as Ingredient Water for Processing Water at Household Level Hazards Associated with Drinking Water Microbial Hazards Chemical Hazards Radiological Hazards Organoleptic (Taste, Odor, Appearance) Hazards Miscellaneous Hazards Risk Assessment and Risk Management HACCP Case Studies Determination of Water Safety Water Treatment Technologies for Safe Water Production Water Reuse in Food Processing Bottled Water Safety References Further Reading

18. Pet Food

332

Pablo A. Carrio´n

332 332

Introduction Biological Hazards

339 339 340 340 340 342 342 343 343 344 344 344 344 345 346 347 347 347 349 351 351 352 352 353 353 353 357 359 360 361

363 363 364

x Contents

Salmonella Contamination of Dry Pet Foods and Treats Other Potential Significant Microbial Hazards Chemical Hazards Mycotoxins Toxicities Caused by Cross-Contamination of Ingredients Economically Motivated Adulteration Euthanasia Drugs Nutritional Composition of Pet Foods Incorrect Vitamin Levels Ingredient Toxicity Incidents of Unknown Causes Conclusion References

19. Food Contact Materials

364 366 366 367 371 372 374 374 374 376 377 378 378

385

Carlos de la Cruz Garcı´a, Gloria Sa´nchez Moragas, and David Nordqvist Introduction Definitions Classification of Materials Type of Contact Type of Material Function of Material Hazard Identification Physical Hazards Biological Hazards Chemical Hazards Allergen Hazards Management of Safety of Food Contact Materials Regulatory Aspects Recycling and Reuse The Potential Environmental Impact Lessons from Case Studies Printing of Multi-Material Paperboard Bricks Bag in Box without Sufficient Barrier or Excess of Waxes in the Liner Extrusion of Retortable and Microwavable Plastic Bottles Equipment Reparation Biological Contamination of Pet Food Biological Contamination during COVID Period Annex References Further Reading

385 386 387 387 387 390 390 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 396 397 397 398 398 398 399 399 399 401 401

Section B Technologies and Food Safety 20. Thermal Treatment

405

Tibor Deak and Csilla Moha´csi-Farkas Introduction Heat Processing Fundamentals of Thermal Death of Microorganisms Heat Resistance of Microorganisms Determination of Heat Process Requirement Conventional Heat Preservation Sterilization Canning Pasteurization Factors Determining Heat Treatment Non-Traditional Heat Treatment Combined Treatments References

21. Non-Thermal Processing Technologies

405 405 406 408 410 412 412 413 414 416 417 418 419

421

Olga Martı´n-Belloso, Humberto Vega-Mercado, Robert Soliva-Fortuny, Pedro Elez-Martı´nez, and A. Robert Marsell
es-Fontanet Introduction: Identification of Risks in Non-Thermal Processes Overall Product Life Cycle Raw Materials Non-Thermal Food Processing Packaging Distribution Non-Thermal Treatments for Food Preservation Irradiation Supercritical Fluid Technology High Hydrostatic Pressure Pulsed Electric Fields Intense Pulsed Light Membrane Filtration Hurdle Technology Verification and Validation Methods for Non-Thermal Technologies Final Remarks References

421 421 422 423 423 424 424 424 426 427 429 431 433 433 435 436 436

Contents

22. Acids and Fermentation

439

Friedrich-Karl L€ ucke and Martin R. Adams Introduction: Acidity and pH Acidity and Foods Acidity and Microorganisms Control of Pathogens by pH and Acidity Fermented Foods Food Safety Problems with Acidic Foods Conclusions: Management of the Safety of Acid Foods References Further Reading

23. Chilling and Freezing

439 440 442 443 445 446 449 449 452

453

Stephen J. James and Christian James Introduction Effect of Chilling on Food Safety Effect of Chilling Rate on Food Safety Effect of Freezing on Food Safety Effect of Freezing Rate on Food Safety Chilling and Freezing Principles Chilling/Freezing Methods/Equipment Air Chillers/Freezers Immersion/Spray Chillers/Freezers Cryogenic Freezers Vacuum Chillers Plate Chillers/Freezers Belt Freezers Scraped Surface Freezers Stirred Jacketed Vessels Liquid Heat Exchangers Chilled Storage Frozen Storage Thawing (Defrosting) and Tempering Systems Refrigerated Transportation Chilled Retail Display Frozen Retail Display Domestic Handling Specifying Refrigeration Systems Hygienic Design of Equipment Managing/Production Principles for Refrigerated Foods Temperature Measurement and Monitoring Recommended Temperatures Recommended Controls Problem Areas References

453 454 456 457 458 458 459 460 461 462 462 463 463 464 464 464 464 465 465 466 466 467 467 468 469 469 469 470 470 472 473

Further Reading Relevant Websites

24. Detection of Physical Hazards

xi

474 474

475

Mikko Nuutinen Introduction Sorters and Detection Equipment Metal Detection Working Principle How to Ensure an Efficient Detection Technical Limitations X-Ray Detection Working Principle How to Ensure an Efficient Detection Technical Limitations Safety Equipment Selection User Requirement Specification (URS) Metal Detector or X-ray? Benefits of Primary Packaging Inspection Choice of Reject Unit Detection Equipment Management Product Classification The False Reject Rate (FRR) Representative Samples Probability of Detection (POD) Limit of Detection Detection Limitations and HACCP

475 476 478 478 478 479 479 479 482 483 484 486 486 487 488 489 489 490 490 491 491 492 493

Section C Food Safety Assurance Systems 25. Principles and Systems for Quality and Food Safety Management 497 Peter Overbosch and Sarah Blanchard Principles, Systems, and Schemes Background and Working Definitions Conclusion Principles and Associated Systems Integrated Schemes and Their Limitations Systems and the Value Chain The Future of Systems Laws, Methods, Schemes, Standards, and Systems References

497 497 498 499 504 505 507 509 512

xii Contents

26. The Use of Big Data in Food Safety Management: Predicting Food Safety Risks Using Big Data and Artificial Intelligence 513 Giannis Stoitsis and Nikos Manouselis Introduction Related Work Proposed Process Specifying the Food Safety Questions Selecting the Datasets Relevant to Each Question Pre-Processing Datasets to be Used for Testing Running Multiple Algorithms Over the Same Training and Testing Data Measuring Prediction Performance Deploying an Operational Service Conclusions and Future Work Acknowledgments References Web References

27. Hygiene in Primary Production

513 514 514 515 516 516 517 518 518 519 519 519 520

521

Gisela Kopper, Slavko Mirecki, Igor S. Kljujev, Vera B. Raicevic, Blazo T. Lalevic, Jelena Jovicic-Petrovic, Stojmir Stojanovski, and Dijana BlazekovicDimovska Introduction Part 1: Good Animal Husbandry Introduction Potential Health Risks on Animal Farms Foodborne Diseases Examples of Foodborne Pathogens Salmonella spp. Escherichia coli Campylobacter spp. Listeria monocytogenes Brucella abortus Helminths Other Animal Infections Control of Pathogens on Farms Good Farming Practices for Animal Husbandry Livestock Production Animal Health Prevention and Control of Diseases Principles of Biosecurity New Animals on a Farm Farm Visitors Risk from Wildlife Risk from Farm Equipment

522 526 526 526 526 527 528 528 529 529 531 531 531 531 532 532 532 532 533 534 534 534 535

Risk from Vehicles Good Hygiene Practices on the Livestock Farms Cleaning Disinfection The Cleaning and Disinfection Process How to Handle Disinfectants Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points Part 2: Good Agricultural Practices for Food Safety Introduction Sources of Microbiological Contaminations of Fresh Vegetables Microbiological Quality of Irrigation Water Presence of Pathogenic Bacteria on Fresh Vegetables Transmission of Pathogenic Bacteria from Contaminated Irrigation Water and Soil to Plants Good Agricultural Practices Basics Principles of GAP Part 3: Fish Hygiene Background Major Fish Diseases Fish Viral Diseases Fish Bacterial Diseases Fish Fungal Diseases Fish Parasitic Diseases Fish Helminth Zoonoses Diseases of Mollusca and Crustacea Legislation on Fish Disease Disease Prevention Disease Treatment Fish Toxicity Factors Affecting Toxicity Natural Toxins Scombrotoxin/Histamine Formation Environmental Chemical Contamination and Pesticides Pathogenic Bacterial Growth and Toxin Formation Time/Temperature Abuse Inadequate Drying Cooking or Pasteurization Processes Designed to Retain Raw Product Characteristics Cross Contamination of Fish and Fish Products Fish Quality Assurance and Control Time Temperature Contamination

535 535 536 537 539 540 540 540 540 541 542 542

543 547 548 551 551 551 551 552 554 554 555 556 556 561 561 562 562 564 566 566 567 567 568 568 569 569 569 571 571 571

Contents

Damage or Deterioration Hygiene and Sanitation Equipment and Methods Packing for Product Appeal and Correctness of Fill Yield and Efficiency Existing Techniques for Quality Control A. Sensory Evaluation Sensory Methods B. Microbiological Assessment Biological Contamination EU Implementation of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) in the Processing of Frozen Fishes The HACCP Concept The ISO-9000 Series Certification of the International Standards Organization C. Biochemical Assessment D. Biosensor Detection E. Toxin Detection F. Spectroscopy Method G. Machine Vision References Further Reading

28. Principles of Hygienic Practice in Food Processing and Manufacturing

571 571 571 571 572 572 572 572 573 573

576 576 577 578 578 578 579 579 582 585

587

John Holah Introduction Generic Prerequisites Factory Site Factory Building Food Defense, Biovigilance and Bioterrorism Process Lines Ventilation and Air Flows Equipment Utensils Services Waste Disposal Medical Screening Maintenance House Keeping Cleaning and Disinfection Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) Pest Control Personal Hygiene Operative Disease Spread Prevention Recommended Procedure for Developing a Processing Environment Plan Future Studies References

587 592 593 593 594 594 594 594 596 596 596 596 597 597 598 599 600 601 602 602 611 612

xiii

29. Site Selection, Site Layout, Building Design 615 Huub Lelieveld Introduction Regulatory Requirements Retailer’s Requirements Site Selection Site Layout Access to Production Areas Building Design Supporting Structure, Foundation, External Walls, and Roofs Entry and Exit Points Internal Walls, Floors, and Ceilings Lighting Temperature Control Noise Control Sewers, Gutters, and Drains Internal Zoning, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Walkways and Stairways Process Support and Utility Systems Food Storage Rooms References

30. Hygienic Design of Food Processing Equipment

615 615 616 616 617 617 617 617 618 618 618 619 619 619 619 620 620 621 622

623

Frank Moerman, Jacques Kastelein, and Timothy Rugh Introduction Legislation, Standards, and Guidelines Covering Hygienic Design European Legislation, Standards, and Guidelines US Legislation, Standards, and Guidelines Basic Hygienic Design Requirements Selection of the Correct Materials of Construction General Recommendations Materials of Construction Used in Fabrication of Food Processing Equipment Compatibility of Materials of Construction Surface: Hygienic Design Requirements Surface Finish Product Contact Surfaces Non-Product Contact Surfaces Hygienic Joining of Materials of Construction Weld Joints

624 624 625 625 626 626 626

627 628 629 629 629 629 630 630

xiv

Contents

Dismountable Joints Assembly and Disassembly of Equipment No Accumulation and Ingress of Liquids, Food Residues, and Bacteria Avoid Horizontal Surfaces Avoid Hollow Areas Avoid Dead Areas Avoid Too Long T-pieces Correct Mounting of Sensors Drainability of Surfaces and Equipment Components Drainability of Equipment Surfaces Drainability of Piping Drainability of Equipment Sufficient Access for Inspection, Cleaning, and Disinfection Accessibility of All Equipment Parts for Inspection, Cleaning, and Disinfection Clearance with Respect to the Floor, Walls, and Adjacent Equipment Application of Hoses Framework Feet Castors Hygienic Design of Open Vessels (Containers, Bins, Kettles) Hygienic Design of Open Vessels Hygienic Installation of Agitators in Open Vessels Hygienic Design of Closed Vessels Fully Drainable Vessels with Curved Corners Cleanable Top Surface Covers Cleanable Tank Ports Cleanable Baffle Design Top Mounted Installation of Agitators Hygienic Design of Permanently Installed Agitators Good Insulation Practices Hygienic Design of Valves Motors Hygienic Design and Installation of Enclosures and Control Panels Hygienic Design of Maintenance Enclosures Hygienic Design of Control Panels Covers and Guards Covers Guards Installation of the Food Processing Equipment in the Food Factory

634 639 640 640 640 641 641 642 646 646 646 648 648

648 651 651 651 653 657 657 657 657 658 659 659 659 661 661 662 662 664 664 665 666 666 668 669 669 672 673

Sealing Equipment onto the Floor and Walls Hygienic Integration of Process and Utility Piping in Food Factories Raised Walkways and Platforms, Stairs, and Ladders Conclusions References Further Reading

673 674 674 677 677 678

31. Development of a Comprehensive Cleaning and Sanitizing Program for Food Production Facilities 679 Robert Ryther and Rick Stokes Introduction: Cleaning and Sanitizing Operations in Food Processing Facilities Sanitation Standard Operating Procedure Development Food Production Facility Cleaning based on Sanitary Design Principles Types of Cleaning and Sanitizing Systems: CIP, COP, and Manual Cleaning and Sanitizing Systems Objectives: Food Contact Surface and Environmental Surfaces Cleaning Factors CIP Background CIP – Line Circuit Cleaning CIP – Tank Circuit Cleaning Single vs Multi-Use CIP Designs COP Cleaning Manual and Environmental Cleaning Foaming or Gelling Systems High Pressure Cleaning Systems Ancillary Cleaning Equipment Master Sanitation Schedule Cleaning of Allergens Cleaning of Dry or Low Moisture Foods Cleaning Chemistry Personal Protective Equipment and Safety Programs for Chemical Usage Environmental Issues with Chemical Cleaners Alkalinity Acidity Chelants and Sequestrants Surfactant and Solvent Systems Caustic – Oxidizer Enzymes Cleaner Sanitizers Common Cleaning Problems in Food Process Environments

680 680 680 681

681 681 682 683 683 683 684 684 684 685 685 685 685 686 686 686 687 687 687 688 688 688 688 689 689

Contents xv

Protein Cleaning Problems Fats and Oils Cleaning Starches and Polysaccharides Scale Removal Problems Cleaning Sensitive Equipment Sanitizing Chemistry Sanitizing Systems Thermal Sanitizing Oxidative Sanitizers Non-Oxidizing Sanitizers Miscellaneous Sanitizing Systems Application of Sanitizers in Food Processing Facilities Cleaning Validation and Verification Technology Allergen Validation: Prototype for Validation of Food Cleaning & Sanitizing Operations Validation of a Cleaning and Sanitizing Protocol Use of Surrogates in a Sanitizing Validation Protocol Dry Food Production Cleaning Validation Cleaning Verification Tests Conclusions References

32. Personal Hygiene and Food Worker Health

689 689 689 689 690 690 690 691 691 692 693 693 693

695 695 695 696 696 697 697

699

Ewen C.D. Todd Risks of Outbreaks Associated from Infected Food Workers Illnesses Caused by Infected Food Workers Food Operations and Foods Implicated Outbreaks Associated with Food Worker Errors Types of Food Worker-Related Outbreaks Examples of Outbreaks Caused by Food Workers Pathogens Carried by Food Workers Sources of Pathogens Incubation Periods Impacting Pathogen Excretion Duration Fecal Contamination of Hands and Transfer to Foods Hygienic Practices of Food Workers Compliance of Food Workers in the Food Industry Risk Factors and the Associated Food Safety Behaviors and Practices of Food Workers

699 699 701 701 701 702 705 705

Practical Aspects of Hand Hygiene Rationale for Hand Washing to Avoid Transmission of Pathogens Impact of Soil on Hand Hygiene Hand Hygiene Antiseptic Products Alcohol-based Antiseptics and Wipes Cleaning Long and Artificial Fingernails Duration and Frequency of Hand Washing Hand-Washing Water Temperature Skin Damage through the Adverse Effects of Hand Hygienic Procedures Double Hand Washing and Nail-Brush Use Issues at Hand-Washing Stations Drying of Hands Hand Hygiene Occasions Vigilance Required to Avoid Large Outbreaks Barriers in Food Operations to Limit Spread of Pathogens Physical and Chemical Barriers to Contamination of Food Gloves as Barriers to Spreading Pathogens Issues with Glove Use Food Shields, Utensils, Appropriate Clothing as Barriers against Contamination Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices for Improving Hand Hygiene Compliance Improving Compliance through Training Strategies to Improve Hand Hygiene Employment Issues Compounding the Risk of Infected Workers Food Worker Exclusions and Stool Testing Lack of Health Benefits and Employee Wellbeing Increasing the Risk of Food Worker Outbreaks Sanitation and Hand Hygiene Challenges under Primitive Conditions Conclusion References

710 710 711 712 712 713 713 714 714 715 715 715 716 716 717 717 718 719

720

721 722 724 724 724

726 727 728 729

707 707 708 708

708

33. Pest Management

735

Christopher H. Bell Introduction Pests of Food Processing and Production Facilities and the Risks They Impose Vertebrate Pests

735 735 736

xvi

Contents

Beetle Pests Moths Other Insects Mites Minimizing Pest Occurrence in Food Premises Pest Detection Strategies Sex Pheromones Aggregation Pheromones Food Volatiles Pheromones as Pest Management Tools for Detection and Monitoring of Pest Populations Pest Control Strategies Chemical Control Methods Physical Control Methods Biological Control Methods Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Emerging Threats for the Successful Maintenance of Pest Management References

34. Safe Handling of Food in Homes and Food Services

736 739 740 740 740 741 741 743 743

743 743 743 744 746 746 748 748

751

Patricia Desmarchelier Introduction Evidence of Foodborne Illness and Consequences Food Safety Hazards Food Safety Risk Factors Food Safety Management Application of HACCP Principles to Food Service and the Home Prerequisite Programs Design, Layout and Facilities Control of Incoming Materials Personal Hygiene Maintenance and Sanitation Hazard Analysis Product Flow Intended Use Potential Hazards Critical Control Points and Limits Monitoring and Corrective Action Validation and Verification Education and Training Conclusions References

35. Preventing and Managing TravelRelated Foodborne Disease

767

Christopher J. Griffith Introduction Global Nature of Travel and Foodborne Diseases Pathogens Causing IID/TD/FBD and their Routes of Transmission Pathogens Causing TD Routes of Transmission Transport and Travel Responsibility for TD Culinary and Sports Tourism Culinary Tourism “Street Vended Foods” and Food Markets Sports and Adventure Tourism Package Holidays: Food Safety and Defending a Claim of TD Legal Implications, Claimants and Social Media Defending a Compensation Claim for Causing TD Conclusions References

767 767 770 770 775 777 779 781 781 782 784 784 784 787 789 791

751 752 753 753 753 755 755 755 756 756 757 758 758 758 759 760 763 764 764 765 765

36. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System (HACCP)

799

Yasmine Motarjemi and Benjamin R. Warren Introduction Historical Background The Need for HACCP Principles of the HACCP System Application of HACCP Prerequisites to the Application of HACCP Guidance for the Application of HACCP System Implementation of the HACCP Plan and its Maintenance HACCP in Small Businesses or Less Developed Business Assessment of HACCP Conclusion References Further Reading

799 799 801 801 802 802 804 815 816 816 817 817 818

Contents xvii

37. HACCP Misconceptions and Shortcomings

819

Carol A. Wallace, Sara Mortimore, and Yasmine Motarjemi Introduction Misconceptions Misconception: HACCP is only a requirement for Authorities or Certification Bodies Misconception: HACCP is simply a documentation or “Paperwork” exercise, i.e., if a HACCP document is available then HACCP is in place Misconception: HACCP is one person’s job, or can be done by a consultant Misconception: HACCP is a Stand-Alone System Misconception: HACCP is a One-off Exercise Misconception: HACCP is expensive to implement Misconception: Documentation and Record Keeping are Bureaucratic Work Misconception: HACCP does not Work if there is no CCP during the Food Chain from Farm to Fork Misconception: HACCP is not suitable for small and developing companies – too big a burden Misconception: HACCP is only Qualitative Common Errors or Shortcomings in the Application of HACCP Shortcomings in Facility HACCP Support Structures, Planning, and Design Shortcomings Related to HACCP Principle Application and Understanding of Key HACCP Terminology Conclusions References

38. Detection of Microbiological Hazards

819 820

841 841 841 844 845 847 847 848

820

821 821 821 821 822

822

822

822 827 827 827

828 832 832

835

John Y.H. Tang Introduction Microbiological Hazards in Food Food Spoilage Food Safety Indicators for Food Pathogens Total Viable Count (TVC)

Total Yeast and Mold Count (TYMC) Methods for Microbiological Analysis in Food Culture Method Immunoassays Nucleic Acid Method Biosensor Method Conclusion References

835 836 836 837 837 839

39. Management of Microbiological Hazards: Role of Testing as Verification

851

Tim Jackson Introduction When Are Microbiological Testing Programs Useful for Verification? Prerequisites to the Development and Implementation of Microbiological Testing Programs Requirements of Regulatory Agencies and Customers Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Study Zoning of the Factory Environment and Hygienic Design of Equipment Microbiological Monitoring of the Factory Environment Selection of Pathogens and Indicator Organisms Processing Environments where Wet Cleaning is Conducted Processing Environments that are Dry Cleaned or Controlled-wet Cleaned Selection of Environmental Monitoring Program Sites Collection of Environmental Samples Analysis and Interpretation of Environmental Monitoring data Acceptance Criteria and Testing Programs for Finished Products and Raw Materials Microbiological Monitoring of Raw Materials Establishment of Microbiological Specifications for Raw Material Design of a Raw Material Testing Program Microbiological Monitoring of Finished Products

851 852

854 854 855 855 856 857 857 858 859 862 863

865 866 866 866 868

xviii

Contents

Application of Testing Programs to Fresh Produce Operations Development of Microbiological Specifications for Finished Products Root Cause Analysis and Corrective Actions References Further Reading

40. Management of Chemical Contaminants

868

869 870 870 872

41. Food Defense

42. Effective and Efficient Leadership 873 874 874 875 875 876 876 876 877 879 879 879 880 880 881 881 881 883 883 884 884 885

887

Ned Mitenius and Jennifer van de Ligt Description of Issues Definitions for Food Defense and Related Terms Farm to Fork Types of Risk and Hazards Perpetrators: Motivations, Capabilities and Targeted Mitigations Agents Methods of Vulnerability Analysis

894 895 896 897 897 900 901 901 902 902 902

873

Remy Tenud, Wolfram M. Br€ uck, and Yasmine Motarjemi Introduction Nature of Chemical Hazards Health Consequences Factors Affecting the Occurrence of Chemical Hazards Regulatory Requirements and Challenges Regulatory Compliance Management of Chemicals in Industry Prerequisites Supplier Management Application of the HACCP System to Management of Chemicals Identification of Hazards Analysis of the Hazards Control of Hazards Critical Limits CCP Monitoring CP Monitoring and Other Verification Monitoring Plans Corrective Action Validation Maintenance of the HACCP Plan References Further Reading

CARVER + Shock Alternative Assessment Methods Preventive Measures Comparison with HACCP Basic Mitigation Measures Management Systems Targeted Mitigation Measures Regulatory Requirements How to Manage the Case Acknowledgments References

887 888 889 890 890 893 893

905

Serge Imboden Introduction Theories and Models on the Subject of Leadership External and Internal Influencing Factors Personal Qualities Motives, Incentive, Volition, and Motivation Leadership Behavior Leadership Tools Leadership Competencies Leadership and Strategic Management Management Quality Management Project Management Entrepreneurship Leadership in the Digital World General Recommendations for Leaders Final Remarks References

43. Human Factors in Food Safety Management

905 906 907 907 909 909 910 910 911 912 912 913 914 914 914 915 916

919

Christopher J. Griffith and Yasmine Motarjemi Introduction Human Behavior and Food Safety Risk Factors Food Safety Risk Factors The Swiss Cheese Model of Accident Causation Root Cause Analysis Management Commitment and Organizational Food Safety Culture Management Commitment

919 920 920 921 922 927 927

Contents

Organizational Food Safety Culture (FSC) and Food Safety Leadership Understanding Food Handler Compliance: Causes, Failures, and Solutions Background Behavioral and Psychological Models of Behavior and Compliance Food Hygiene Training Summary and Conclusions References Further Reading

44. Assessment of Food Safety Management Systems

928 933 933 934 935 938 939 941

943

Yasmine Motarjemi and Sara Mortimore Introduction Background Definition and Purpose Scope and Frequency of Assessments Competence of Assessors The Procedure and Methodology The Planning Process The Desktop (Remote) Document Review Assessment On-Site Assessment Evaluation Process Reporting and Follow-Up The Development and Use of a Checklist Conclusions Acknowledgment Reference Further Reading

45. Incident Management and Root Cause Analysis

943 944 944 945 945 948 949 949 950 951 952 952 955 955 955 955

46. Crisis Management

957 957 958 959 959 960 961 964 969 970 970

971

Yasmine Motarjemi Introduction What is a Crisis?

47. Food Safety During Pandemics: A Focus on COVID-19

973 973 973 974 975 975

976 977 978 979 979 981 981 983 984 986 987 988 989 992 992 993 994

995

Lara Hanna-Wakim, Marc Bou Zeidan, and Aline Issa

Carol A. Wallace and Yasmine Motarjemi Introduction Prevention of Incidents Reporting an Incident Managing an Incident Investigation Root Cause Analysis Approaching a Root Cause Analysis Conclusions References Further Reading

What did We Learn from Our Crises? Perrier Mineral Water (1990) Animal Feed Contaminated with Dioxin (Belgium, 1999) Animal Feed Contaminated with Dioxin (Ireland, 2007) Coca-Cola (1999) BSE I and II (Europe, 1996–2000) Packaging Contaminants (Semicarbazide, 2003 and Isopropylthioxanthone, 2005) Melamine I and II (2007–2010) Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli (STEC) O104: H4 (Germany and France, 2011) Horsemeat Scandal (2013) Salmonella (France, 2017) Fipronil (Belgium, The Netherlands, 2017) Listeria (South Africa, 2017–2018, Canada 2008, USA 2015) COVID-19 (Global, 2019–2021) What Lessons for the Future? Essentials of Crisis Management Crisis Prevention Crisis Preparedness Crisis Management Recovery and Rebuilding after a Crisis Conclusions References Further Reading

xix

971 971

Introduction Food Safety in the Food Industry Context Evolution of Food Safety within the Food Chain Impact of Food Safety on the Food Industry Consumer Awareness and Perception of Food Safety Food Safety and Education Pandemic Outbreaks in Food Industry – History Preventing and Managing Pandemic Outbreaks at Workplace Food: Source of Infection, Hazards Transmission Employees’ Safety Visitors’ Safety Facilities’ Safety Guidance for Food Industry

995 995 996 996 996 997 997 998 999 1000 1000 1001 1001 1001

xx Contents

Conclusion References

1003 1003

48. The Role of International, Regional, and National Organizations in the Development of Standards 1005 F. Tracy Schonrock Introduction Leading International Standards Organizations Leading Regional Standards Organizations Leading National Governmental Organizations Leading Industry Organizations Leading Hygienic Design Standards Organizations Conclusions Further Reading

1005 1006 1009 1010 1012 1015 1017 1017

Section D Sustainability and Ethics 49. Sustainability and Food Systems

1021

Marianne Thomsen, Lilia Ahrn
e, and Thomas Ohlsson Introduction Sustainability – An Introduction Social Sustainability of Food Systems Economic Sustainability of Food Systems Environmental Sustainability Challenges in Food Systems Improving Sustainability in the Food Sector Sustainability of Food Systems in The Future Acknowledgments References

50. Climate Change and Food Safety

1021 1021 1023 1024 1029 1034 1035 1036 1036

1041

Cheng Liu and Gerald G. Moy Introduction What Is Climate Change? Possible Impact of Climate Change on Microbial Hazards

1041 1041 1042

Viruses Bacteria Protozoa Possible Impact of Climate Change on Chemical Hazards Mycotoxins Heavy Metals Marine Toxins Food Additives, Pesticides, and Veterinary Drugs Contribution of Food Production to Climate Change Management Considerations References

51. Nutritional Trends and Health Claims

1042 1043 1044 1045 1045 1047 1048 1049 1049 1049 1050

1053

Iuliana Vintila˘ Introduction The Evolution of Human Nutrition Trends in Modern Nutrition Nutrition Health Claims Food Health Claims References

52. Consumer Information and Labeling

1053 1054 1056 1058 1059 1061

1063

Marjana Peterman and Tanja Pajk Zˇontar Introduction Who Is the Consumer? Consumer Protection Global Trade Measures Consumer Choice, Information, and Education Labeling Is a Source of Information Clear and Legible Label, a Legal Requirement Product Information within a Food Chain Labeling of Allergens Labeling “May Contain” Precaution Consumer and Risk Consumer as a Risk Consumer Feedback Discussion for the Future References Further Reading

1063 1064 1064 1065 1065 1066 1066 1067 1068 1069 1069 1069 1070 1071 1071 1071 1072

Contents

53. Misinformation About Food Safety Nina Veflen, Veslemøy Andersen, and Huub Lelieveld Introduction Information Deficit Belief Formation and Transformation Cognitive Illusions Examples of Misinformation Irradiation Genetic Modification Chemicals How to Correct Misinformation? Conclusion References

54. Ethics in Food Safety Management

55. Whistleblowing: An Essential 1073 Element of Public Health and Food Safety Management 1089 Yasmine Motarjemi 1073 1074 1074 1075 1075 1075 1076 1076 1077 1078 1079

Introduction Importance of Whistleblowing for Food Safety Management and Fraud Definition, Perception, and Reality Legal Protections for Whistleblowers Internal Whistleblowing Systems Failures of the Internal Systems and Factors Leading to Public Disclosure The Credibility of the Employer and Trust in Respecting Internal Policies Organizational Culture Retaliatory Measures The Labor Law and Judiciary System Causes of Conflict Conclusions and Recommendations References

1081

Nina Veflen and Dia´na Ba´na´ti Introduction What Is Ethics? The Precautionary Principle Ethical Decision-Making Conclusion References

xxi

1081 1082 1084 1086 1086 1087

56. Training and Education

1089 1090 1091 1092 1094 1094 1096 1097 1100 1102 1102 1104 1105

1109

Yasmine Motarjemi, Huub Lelieveld, and Gerhard Schleining Index

1113

This page intentionally left blank

Contributors Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.

Martin R. Adams (439), University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom Lilia Ahrn
e (1021), Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Veslemøy Andersen (3,1073), Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), Vienna, Austria Dia´na Ba´na´ti (1081), University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary Shai Barbut (185), University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada Christopher H. Bell (735), The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York, United Kingdom Sarah Blanchard (497), Formerly Metro A.G. Dijana Blazekovic-Dimovska (521), Faculty of Biotechnical Sciences, University of Bitola, Bitola, Macedonia Arnaud Bouxin (19), European Feed manufacturers Federation – FEFAC, City of Brussels, Belgium Wolfram M. Br€ uck (873), Institute of Life Technologies, Sion, Switzerland Pablo A. Carrio´n (363), Nestle Purina PetCare, Product Technology Center, St. Louis, MO, United States Suchart Chaven (291), PepsiCo, Valhalla, NY, United States; International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) Daniele Chieffi (85), National Research Council of Italy Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), Bari, Italy

Ana Maria de Roda Husman (339), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven; Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Tibor Deak (405), Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary Patricia Desmarchelier (751), Food Safety Consultant, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Arnold F. Dijkstra (339), Dijkstra Food Consultancy, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands Pedro Elez-Martı´nez (421), University of Lleida – Agrotecnio-CeRCA Center, Lleida, Spain Francesca Fanelli (85), National Research Council of Italy - Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), Bari, Italy Vincenzina Fusco (85), National Research Council of Italy - Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), Bari, Italy Wentzel C.A. Gelderblom† (305), Medical Research Council, Tygerberg; Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Alireza Ghiasi (305), Food Safety Consultant, Tehran Christopher J. Griffith (767, 919), Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom Lara Hanna-Wakim (995), Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh, Lebanon Marta Hernandez-Jover (141), School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia

Stella Cochrane (65), Unilever, Bedford, United Kingdom

John Holah (587), Kersia Group, Bury, Lancashire, United Kingdom

Ren
e Crevel (65), Ren
e Crevel Consulting Ltd, Bedford, United Kingdom

Serge Imboden (905), University of Applied Sciences (HES-SO), Sion, Switzerland

Carlos de la Cruz Garcı´a (385), Nestec SA, Nestl
e System Technology Center, Orbe, Switzerland

Aline Issa (995), Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh, Lebanon

†

Deceased

xxiii

xxiv

Contributors

Tim Jackson (851), Driscoll’s, Inc., Watsonville, CA, United States

Sara Mortimore (819,943), Walmart, Bentonville, AR, United States

Christian James (453), Food Refrigeration & Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC), The Grimsby Institute of Further & Higher Education (GIFHE), Grimsby, United Kingdom

Yasmine Motarjemi (1,3,305,799,819,873,919,943,957, 971,1089,1109), Food Safety Management Consultant; Independent Consultant, Public Health Advocate, Nyon, Switzerland; Iranian Pistachio Research Institute, Rafsanjan, Iran

Stephen J. James (453), Food Refrigeration & Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC), The Grimsby Institute of Further & Higher Education (GIFHE), Grimsby, United Kingdom Tibor Janci (205), University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Technology & Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia Jelena Jovicic-Petrovic (521), Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Gerald G. Moy (1041), Food Safety Consultants International, Geneva, Switzerland David Nordqvist (385), Nestec SA, Nestl
e System Technology Center, Orbe, Switzerland Mikko Nuutinen (475), Mekitec Oy, Espoo, Finland Thomas Ohlsson (1021), Thoohls, Molndal, Sweden

Jacques Kastelein (623), Hygienic Consultant, Zeist, The Netherlands

Abenaa A. Okyere (223), Biotechnology & Nuclear Agriculture Research Institute, Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Legon-Accra, Ghana

Igor S. Kljujev (521), Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Peter Overbosch (497), Formerly Metro A.G.

Gisela Kopper (521), Latin American and Caribbean Association of Food Science and Technology, San Jose, Costa Rica Blazo T. Lalevic (521), Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Huub Lelieveld (3,615,1073,1109), Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), Vienna, Austria; Formerly Unilever, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands Cheng Liu (1041), Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands Friedrich-Karl L€ ucke (439), Fulda University of Applied Sciences, Fulda, Germany Nikos Manouselis (513), Agroknow, Athens, Greece A. Robert Marsell
es-Fontanet (421), University of Lleida – Agrotecnio-CeRCA Center, Lleida, Spain

Marjana Peterman (1063), Slovene Consumers’ Association, Ljubljana, Slovenia Vlasta Pilizˇota (235), Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, The Institute for Scientific and Art Research Work in Osijek, Osijek, Croatia Vera B. Raicevic (521), Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia John P. Rheeder (305), Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa Timothy Rugh (623), 3-A Sanitary Standards, Inc., McLean, VA, United States Robert Ryther (679), Food & Beverage R&D, ECOLAB, Eagan, MN, United States Shridhar K. Sathe† (305), College of Human Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States

Olga Martı´n-Belloso (421), University of Lleida – Agrotecnio-CeRCA Center, Lleida, Spain

Gerhard Schleining (1109), Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), Vienna, Austria

Slavko Mirecki (521), University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro

F. Tracy Schonrock (1005), Schonrock Consulting, VA, United States

Ned Mitenius (887), Periscope Canaveral, FL, United States

Cape

Gordon S. Shephard (305), Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa

Frank Moerman (623), Catholic University of Leuven – KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Alexandrina Sıˆrbu (117), Constantin Brancoveanu University of Pitesti, FMMAE Ramnicu Valcea, Romania

Csilla Moha´csi-Farkas (405), Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

Robert Soliva-Fortuny (421), University of Lleida – Agrotecnio-CeRCA Center, Lleida, Spain

Gloria Sa´nchez Moragas (385), Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Paterna, Valencia, Spain

Gerrit J.A. Speijers (37), General-Health Effects Toxicity, Safety Food (GETS), Nieuwegein, Netherlands

†

Deceased

Consulting,

Contributors

xxv

Marijntje H.M. Speijers-Lafferty (37), Strabane, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom

Gerrit van Duijn (323), Oil Processing Consultant, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Giannis Stoitsis (513), Agroknow, Athens, Greece

Nina Veflen (1073,1081), BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway

Stojmir Stojanovski (521), Hydrobiological Institute, Ohrid, Macedonia Rick Stokes (679), Area Technical Support Manager – Food & Beverage Tech Support, ECOLAB, Eagan, MN, United States

Humberto Vega-Mercado (421), Bristol Myers Squibb, Cells Therapies Development and Operations, Summit, NJ, United States

John Y.H. Tang (855), Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (Besut Campus), Terengganu, Malaysia

Sanja Vidacek Filipec (205), University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Technology & Biotechnology, Zagreb, Croatia

Remy Tenud (873), Institute of Life Technologies, Sion, Switzerland

Iuliana Vintila˘ (1053), University “Dunarea de Jos” Galati, Galati, Romania

Gry Carl Terrell (141), Danish Meat Research Institute at the Danish Technological Institute, Taastrup, Denmark Marianne Thomsen (1021), Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Ewen C.D. Todd (699), Ewen Todd Consulting LLC, Okemos, MI, United States Jennifer van de Ligt (887), Food Protection and Defense Institute, University of Minnesota; ToxStrategies, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, United States

Carol A. Wallace (819,957), University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom Benjamin R. Warren (799), Land O’Lakes, Inc., Arden Hills, MN, United States Anett Winkler (269), Cargill Deutschland GmbH, D€usseldorf, Germany Marc Bou Zeidan (995), Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh, Lebanon Tanja Pajk Zˇontar (1063), University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Preface We, the editors, are pleased to introduce the second edition of the book Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry. In 2015, its first edition received the PROSE Award: Honorable Mention. This is a distinction of the Association of American Publishers granted for the very best in professional and scholarly publishing. We thankfully acknowledge the endeavor of experts in producing the first edition of the book, and we hope that the second edition will continue to serve professionals working in food safety and would contribute to a safer food supply. As stated by the 10th-century Persian poet Ferdowsi, “knowledge is power.” 1 To empower food professionals to fulfill their responsibilities, knowledge of food safety that is commensurate with their tasks is a conditio sine qua non. However, at the outset, it should also be said that knowledge is not enough. As explained in Chapters 43 (Human Factors in Food Safety Management) and 56 (Training and Education), several other factors also come into play. In relation to knowledge, the questions that come to mind are what should food safety managers in the food industry 2 or officials overseeing industrial operations know? Or what should students of food safety courses be taught at minimum before starting their work? There are many books on food safety. For the most part, these books address specific aspects of food safety, such as food-borne pathogens, chemical contaminants, quality assurance systems, or sanitation procedures. Such books are often for specialists and provide readers in-depth information on a given subject. The goal of this book is different: to give the essentials about food safety management in the industrial setting that food safety professionals from any discipline should know, taking into consideration that food safety is a multidisciplinary subject and not all professionals have the same scientific and technical background. As such, together with the Encyclopedia of Food Safety, published by Elsevier in 2014, this book aims to be a practical resource for the education and training of present and future food safety professionals working in the food industry or have governmental roles, such as food inspectors or auditors verifying food operations. The book intends to give an overview and an integrated perspective of food safety management, including risk and control measures for various categories of foods. It describes the elements of the food safety assurance systems in the food industry and provides practical guidance for their implementation, all with references to more in-depth literature. More specifically, the book attempts to: l

l l l

Consolidate essential knowledge to manage food safety and facilitate its application, using practical examples and case studies. Use practical examples to create awareness of pitfalls and past incidents, their cause(s), and lessons learned. Provide observations on what works and what does not (do’s and don’ts). Bridge past experiences to state-of-the-art food safety assurance systems and anticipate potential future risks and mitigation steps.

The educational objectives of this book are to enable food safety professionals to: l l

Identify hazards and controls at various stages of the food chain. Understand food processing technologies to be able to determine which parameters need to be controlled, how they must be monitored, which limits must be observed, and which step of processing is critical.

1. Although in his work Religious Meditations, Of Heresies (1597), Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) has used the quote “Knowledge is Power,” the adage is first attributed to the Persian poet Ferdowsi (pseudonym of Abu al-Qasem Man ur (born c. 940, near us, Iran – died c. 1020). Ferdowsi is the author of the Persian national epic the Shah-nameh (“Book of Kings”), the historical and mythological tale of Persian kings and Iran’s heroes. Overall, Ferdowsi spent 35 years of his life composing the book, which initially contained 60,000 couplets. Another translation of this adage is “A learned human is a powerful one too; the old hearts grow young through knowledge.” 2. For the purpose of this chapter, the term “food industry” is defined as all relevant sectors associated with the production, storage, and handling of food, from primary production to retail and the food service level.

xxvii

xxviii

l

l

l l l

Preface

Get an integrated perspective on food safety and quality assurance in the food industry and the interactions and interrelation of the elements of food safety assurance systems (e.g., how suppliers should be audited in light of hazards identified in the HACCP study). Get an overview of food safety management in society, i.e., the respective functions of governmental and regulatory authorities, industries, and other stakeholders and how they need to interact with each other. Understand the role and responsibilities of each sector in the food chain. Bring specific issues to the attention of auditors and inspectors. Enable food safety professionals to anticipate and respond to future challenges.

The target audience of the book is food safety managers working in all food sectors (including pet food), from primary production to processing, transport, retail, and distribution as well as the food service sector. Secondary target groups of the book are students and future food safety professionals and food inspectors, auditors, trainers, and food safety consultants. Part I of the book reviews risks and control measures in specific food sectors along the food chain, providing food safety managers with an awareness of the significant risks with their raw material and operations. Part II describes technologies that may be used to ensure the safety of food and explain pitfalls and other factors that would be important for their application (i.e., control and monitoring parameters, critical limits, and validation). Part III describes elements of food safety assurance systems in the food industry and presents an overview of information on the role of various sectors in the management of safety of the food supply. Part IV discusses the more topical issues of sustainability and ethics as well as food safety trends in modern society. The book concludes with some final words on the training and education itself, which we hope are “words of wisdom.” An addendum to this guide is the book Food Safety Stories (published by Elsevier (2023)). It is recommended to be used together with this book in training and educational activities. The book is a collection of unusual events, or real-life situations, experienced or witnessed by professionals in the food sector, with a focus on food safety and related areas. The stories convey lessons of good or bad practices in a scientific, technical, operational, or management setting or provide a lesson in ethics. They would also illustrate the kind of mishaps that can happen in real life. Most of the chapters from the first edition have been updated, some chapters have been rewritten by other authors, and seven new chapters have been added, addressing new developments, such as insect-based food, the use of big data, problems caused by misinformation, and recent lessons from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. New chapters added are, e.g., The Food Safety During Pandemics, The Use of Big Data in the Food Safety Management: Predicting Food Safety Risks using Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, Food Safety Management of Insect- Based Foods, and Whistleblowing: An Essential Element of Public Health and Food Safety Management. Although the majority of the chapters have been written by authors in industrialized countries, the know-how presented in the book is also valid for developing countries. It also shows what is on the horizon in terms of best practices for less developed businesses and the improvements that can be brought to the management of food safety of companies of all sizes. For more information on individual pathogens and/or specific chemical contaminants, we refer to the Encyclopedia of Food Safety or other suggested reading material mentioned at the end of each chapter of this book. Readers will also find information on other products (e.g., spices, cereal products, and beverages) as well as many other subjects (e.g., risk analysis process) in these sources. To ease the use of the relevant sections of the book, at the risk of repetition, each chapter is written in a self-standing manner. This book focuses on food safety. However, we take this opportunity to deplore the abuse that animals and food animals are undergoing, and we call on the conscience of all individuals in the food industry to unite in putting a stop to such abuse and mistreatments as well as over-exploitation of the environment and work for the safeguard of the planet. At the same time, we appeal to the sense of responsibility of all individuals working in the food industry, in particular managers, to challenge company policies and practices that are favoring shortsighted benefits to the detriments of ethics, the good of the larger society, the planet, and humankind. Together with contributors, we have worked diligently to provide a valuable resource for food safety professionals and to share our vision, knowledge, and experience. As Ferdowsi expresses it for Persia, we hope to spread the seeds of knowledge with this book. Comments from the readers are welcome for improving future editions of the book and contributing to better practices. Much hard labor have I done for thirty years, In the end, I have revived Persia through this Persian verse. I shall not pass away since I will remain alive. Through the seeds of this language, I have spread everywhere. Ferdowsi

List of Abbreviations Technical Abbreviations ADI ADME AFB2 AFB1 AFs AFM1 AI ALARA ALOP ARfD ASP aw AZA AZP BMD BMDL BMDx BTX Bw CCP C-CTX CFP CFR CFU CG CIP C-PTX CTX CTX-4B DA DALY DAP DGGE DNA DON DSP DTX EA EAL EAM EAR ED50 ELISA EMRL FB1 FBs

Acceptable Daily Intake Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion Aflatoxin B2 Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxins Aflatoxin M1 Adequate Intake As Low As Reasonably Achievable Appropriate Level of Protection Acute reference Dose Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning Water activity Azaspiracid Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning Benchmark Dose Benchmark Dose at Lower Confidence Level Benchmark Dose at Xth percentile Brevetoxin analogues, metabolites formed in fish Body weight Critical Control Point Caribbean Ciguatoxin Ciguatera Fish Poisoning Case-Fatality Rate Colony-Forming Unit Cyanogenic Glycosides Cleaning in Place Pacific Ciguatoxin Ciguatoxin Gambier Toxin Domoic Acid Disability-Adjusted Life Year Domoic Acid Poisoning Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Deoxyribonucleic Acid Deoxynivalenol Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning Dinophysitoxin Erucic Acid Ergot Alkaloids Ergotamin Estimated Average Requirement Effective Dose 50% Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Extraneous Maximum Residue Limit Fumonisin B1 Fumonisins

xxix

xxx List of Abbreviations

FBx FSO FUS GAHP GAP GAqP GC GC–MS GHP GLP GLU GM GMOs GMP GTX GPVD GRAS HABs HACCP HBGV HBS Ag2 HBS Ag+ HBV HEAR HPLC HPLC–MS HPP HT-2 HTST HUS IEDI IESTI JECFA LA LD50 LEAR LOAEL LOD LOEL LOQ LSO mc MFFB ML MLST MLVA MOE MRL mRNA MS MSO MTX NEDI NMR NOAEL NOEL NSP OA

Fumonisin Bx Food Safety Objective Fusarium species Good Animal Husbandry Practice Good Agricultural Practice Good Aquacultural Practice Gas Chromatography Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Good Hygienic Practice Good Laboratory Practice Glucosinolates Genetically Modified Genetically Modified Organisms Good Manufacturing Practice Gonyautoxin Good Practice in the use of Veterinary Drugs Generally Recognized As Safe Harmful Algal Blooms Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points Health Based Guideline Value Hepatitis B virus negative for the antigen Hepatitis B virus positive on antigen carrier Hepatitis B virus High Erucic Acid Rapeseed oil High Performance Liquid Chromatography High Performance Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry High Pressure Processing HT-2 mycotoxin; Trichothecene High Temperature Short Time Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome International Estimated Daily Intake International Estimated Short-Term Intake Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives o-3-Linolenic Acid Lethal Dose 50% Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oil