Fishing Sites of North and East Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene: Environmental Change and Human Adaptation 9780860546627, 9781407348148

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·Fishing Sites of North and East Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Change and · Huinan Adaptation

Kathlyn Moore Stewart

Cambridge Monographs in African. Archaeology 34 BAR International ·series 521 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -5'521, 1989: 'Fishing Sites of Iorth and Bast Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene' © Kat�lyn Jloore Stewart, 1989 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546627 paperback ISBN 9781407348148 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546627 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

F ishing S ites o f N orth a nd E ast A frica i n t he L ate P leistocene a nd H olocene:

b y

K athlyn M oore S tewart

1

T his b ook i s d edicated t o M elissa K nauer, k illed i n B otswana e n r oute t o w ork w ith t he ! Kung, J une 1 985.

i i

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P age T itle P age D edication

i i

L ist o f C hapters

i ii

L ist o f T ables

v iii

L ist o f F igures

C HAPTER 1 :

x ii

I NTRODUCTION

1 .1

I ntroduction a nd S tatement o f P urpose

1

1 .2

T heoretical P erspective

3

1 .3

O utline o f M ethodology

4

1 .4

H istory o f R esearch

5

1 .5

C ritical O verview

7

C HAPTER 2 :

E NVIRONMENTAL A ND P ALEOENVIRONMENTAL R ESEARCH

2 .1

G eology

9

2 .2

C limate

9

2 .3

P aleoenvironmental R esearch-Introduction

1 2

2 .4

T he S ahara

1 2

2 .5

T he N ile

1 7

2 .6

E astern A frica

1 9

2 .7

W estern R ift a nd L ake V ictoria

2 0

2 .8

C entral R ift V alley

2 2

2 .9

N orth C entral R ift

2 3

2 .10 M icropaleontological C hange

2 7

2 .11 S ummary

2 9

i ii

P age C HAPTER 3 :

C ULTURAL R ECONSTRUCTION

3 .1

T he S ahara

3 1

3 .2

T he N ile V alley

3 4

3 .3

E astern A frica

4 0

C HAPTER 4 :

E COLOGY A ND Z OOGEOGRAPHY O F E ASTERN A FRICAN F ISH

4 .1

B ackground

4 8

4 .2

L ake T urkana

4 8

4 .3

L ake R utanzige

4 9

4 .4

E cology a nd S ystematics

5 0

4 .5

P rotopterus

5 2

4 .6

O steoglossiformes

5 3

4 .7

C ypriniformes

5 5

4 .8

C haraciformes

5 6

4 .9

S iluriformes

5 8

4 .10 P erciformes

6 1

4 .11 T etraodontiformes

6 3

C HAPTER 5 :

T RADITIONAL F ISH P ROCUREMENT

5 .1

I ntroduction

6 5

5 .2

T echnology

6 6

5 .3

P rocurement T echnology a nd T echnique

7 0

5 .4

H igh W aters

7 0

5 .5

R eceding a nd L ow W aters

7 3

5 .6

H igh a nd L ow W ater P rocurement

7 5

5 .7

R iver a nd L ake P rocurement

7 6

5 .8

M iscellaneous

7 6

i v

P age C HAPTER 6 :

T APHONOMY O F F ISH A SSEMBLAGES

6 .1

I ntroduction

7 8

6 .2

M ethodology

7 9

6 .3

B one S catter F requency

8 4

6 .4

S keletal E lement R epresentation

8 4

6 .5

T axonomic A bundance a nd D iversity

9 2

6 .6

D iscussion

9 6

6 .7

S ummary

9 8

C HAPTER 7 :

M ETHOD O F A NALYSIS

7 .1

T heoretical B ackground

7 .2

P rovenance o f F auna

1 03

7 .3

G eneral P rocedures

1 03

7 .4

I dentification - E lements

1 03

7 .5

I dentification - T axon

1 05

7 .6

S ize C lasses

1 05

7 .7

C ondition o f A ssemblages

1 06

7 .8

S tain I ndex

1 07

7 .9

W eathering C ategories

1 09

7 .10 A dditional C ategories

1 09

C HAPTER 8 :

9 9

T HE L AKE T URKANA F ISHING S ITES

8 .1

F xJj12

11

8 .2

G aJi3

1 23

8 .3

K oobi F ora S urface S ites

1 36

-

1 36 1 39 1 40 1 42 1 43

G aJj1 G aJj2 G aJj11 G aJj12 F xJj12N

P age C HAPTER 9 :

T HE L AKE T URKANA F ISHING S ETTLEMENTS: L OWASERA A ND L OTHAGAM

9 .1

L owasera

1 45

9 .2

L othagam

1 55

C HAPTER 1 0 :

P ROCUREMENT A ND P ROCESSING A T T HE L AKE T URKANA S ITES

1 0 .1

F ish P rocurement

1 60

1 0 .2

P rocurement o f O ther V ertebrates

1 70

1 0 .3

P rocessing a nd C onsumption

1 71

C HAPTER 1 1:

F ISH E XPLOITATION A T I SHANGO 1 1

1.1

I ntroduction

1 83

1 1.2

C ondition o f t he A ssemblages

1 88

1.3

B one S catter F requency

1 91

1 1.4

S keletal E lement R epresentation

1 91

1.5

T axonomic A bundance

2 00

1 1.6

F ish P rocurement

2 07

1 1.7

P rocessing a nd P reparation

2 11

C HAPTER 1 2:

F ISH E XPLOITATION A T I SHANGO 1 4

1 2.1

I ntroduction

2 14

1 2:2

C ondition o f t he A ssemblage

2 15

1 2.3

S keletal E lement R epresentation

2 16

1 2.4

T axonomic A bundance

2 19

1 2.5

P rocessing a nd P reparation

2 22

1 2.6

F ish P rocurement

2 22

1 2.7

C hanges i n T axa - I shango 1 1 a nd I shango 1 4

2 23

v i

P age C HAPTER 1 3 :

D ISCUSSION A ND C ONCLUSIONS : F ISH E XPLOITATION I N L ATE P LEISTOCENE A ND H OLOCENE E AST A FRICA

1 3.1

F ish E xploitation i n R esponse t o E nvironmental C hange

2 27

1 3.2

F ish P rocurement a nd F ishing a s S ubsistence S trategies

2 32

1 3.3

F ish E xploitation i n t he C ontext o f L ate P leistocene a nd H olocene C ulture H istory

2 33

1 3.4

F ish R emains i n A rchaeology

2 35

C HAPTER 1 4 :

S UMMARY

2 37

P ictures o f F ish M entioned i n T ext

2 41

P ictures o f F ishing I mplements

2 46

F OOTNOTES

2 48

R EFERENCES C ITED

2 50

A PPENDIX

2 66

L ist o f E lements R ecovered

2 66

A cknowledgements

2 73

v ii

L ist o f T ables P age 2 .1

L ate P leistocene a nd H olocene L ake L evels

1 8

4 .1

S pecies o f f ish f ormerly r ecorded i n L ake T urkana b ut n ot n ow p resent i n t he l ake

5 0

4 .2

H abitat, S pawning a nd T rophic P references o f M odern F ish i n E ast A frican R ift L akes

5 1

5 .1

T raditional A frican f reshwater f ishing p rocurement t echnology a nd g enera o f f ish c aptured

7 1

6 .1

B ony C ranial, V ertebral a nd P ostcranial E lements o f a G eneralised F ish S keleton

8 1

6 .2

B each Q uadrat s ites P S1, P S2, a nd T urkana E ating S ite A S1. N umbers o f e lements b y s keletal e lement c ategory

8 3

6 .3

B each Q uadrat s ites P 51, P S2, a nd T urkana E ating S ite A S1. N umbers, p ercentages a nd r atios a nd c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements, n umbers a nd p ercentages o f c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements o f g eneralised f ish g iven f or c omparison

8 3

6 .4

B each Q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement c ategory

8 7

6 .5

B each Q uadrat s ites P S1, P S2, a nd T urkana E ating S ite A S1. ' Universe' p ercentages o f e ach s keletal e lement c ategory

9 2

6 .6

L ist o f f ish g enera i n p resent d ay L ake T urkana w ith t heir m aximum l engths

9 3

6 .7

B each Q uadrat s ites P S1, P S2 a nd T urkana E ating S ite A S1. T axonomic A bundance i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages c alculated o n t otals

9 4

6 .8

B each Q uadrat s ites P S1, P S2 a nd T urkana E ating S ite A S1. T axonomic A bundance a s i ndicated b y t otal w eight

9 4

6 .9

M odern L ake T urkana f ish s pecies : T axonomic A bundance a s i ndicated b y t otal w eight

9 5

8 .1

F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. N umber a nd P ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-Identifiables E lements

v iii

14

P age 8 .2

F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

15

8 .3

F xJj12. E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement

1 17

8 .4

F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. T axonomic A bundance b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages a nd N ISP n umbers

19

8 .5

F xJj12.

1 20

8 .6

G aJi3 . E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. N umber a nd P ercentages a nd C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-identifiable E lements

1 24

8 .7

G aJi3. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites . N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

1 24

8 .8

G aJi3. E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement

1 26

8 .9

G aJi3. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages , a nd N ISP n umbers

1 31

8 .10

G aJi3.

1 32

8 .11

G aJi3. S urface a nd E xcavated S ites. e lements w ith c utmarks

8 .12

K oobi F ora S urface S ites . N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-identifiable E lements

1 37

8 .13

K oobi F ora S urface S ites. N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

1 38

8 .14

K oobi F ora S urface S ites . T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y N ISP n umbers a nd p ercentages

1 39

9 .1

L owasera . E xcavated S ite . N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N onI dentifiable E lements

1 47

9 .2

L owasera . E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

1 47

9 .3

L owasera . E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement

1 48

E xcavated S ite.

E xcavated S ite.

M eat W eight E stimates

M eat W eight E stimates

i x

L ist o f

1 34

P age 9 .4

L owasera. E xcavated S ite. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages, a nd N ISP n umbers

1 49

9 .5

L owasera.

E xcavated S ite.

1 51

9 .6

L othagam .

P resence/absence o f g enera b y l evel

1 0.1

C omparative l ist o f f ish, r eptilian a nd m ammalian e lements f rom a ll s ites d iscussed i n t he t ext

1 70

1 1.1

I shango 1 1. N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-identifiable e lement

1 89

1 1.2

I shango 1 1. N umber o f e lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

1 90

1 1.3

I shango 1 1. h orizon

1 91

1 1.4

I shango 1 1. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement c ategory

1 93

1 1.5

I shango 1 1. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement, c ompiled f rom G reenwood 1 959

1 96

1 1.6

I shango 1 1. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement, c ompiled f rom G reenwood 1 959 a nd T able 1 1.4

1 97

1 1.7

I shango 1 1. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages

1 99

1 1.8

I shango 1 1. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages c ompiled f rom G reenwood 1 959

2 01

1 1.9

I shango 1 1. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umber a nd p ercentages c ompiled f rom G reenwood 1 959 a nd T able 1 1.7

2 01

1 1.10

I shango 1 1.

M eat W eight E stimates

2 05

1 1.11

I shango 1 1. t o 3 .45

T axa a s s hown b y M NI's f rom L evel 2 .20

2 07

1 2.1

I shango 1 4. N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-identifiable E lements

2 15

1 2.2

I shango 1 4. N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories

2 16

1 2.3

I shango 1 4. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement

2 17

M eat W eight E stimates

1 986 B one S catter F requency b y c ultural

1 57

P age 1 2.4

I shango 1 4 . T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers a nd p ercentages

2 19

1 2.5

I shango 1 4 .

M eat W eight E stimates

2 20

1 2.6

I shango 1 4 . 1 7 t o 1

T axa r epresented b y M NI's f rom L evels

2 20

x i

L ist o f F igures P age 2 .1

M ap:

P re-Miocene E ast A frican d rainage s ystems

1 0

2 .2

M ap:

R ainfall M ap o f A frica

1 1

2 .3

M ap:

V egetation M ap o f A frica

1 3

2 .4

M ap:

G eographical M ap o f A frica

1 5

3 .1

M ap:

P leistocene a nd H olocene a rchaeological s ites d iscussed i n t he t ext

3 2

6 .1

B one s catter f requency o f L ake T urkana b each q uadrat s ites P S1, P S2, A S1

8 5

6 .2

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f L ake T urkana b each q uadrat s ites

8 6

6 .3

N umbers i n S keletal E lement C ategories : C ypriniformes

8 8

6 .4

N umbers i n S keletal E lement C ategories : S iluriformes

8 9

6 .5

N umbers i n S keletal E lement C ategories: L ates s p.

9 0

6 .6

N umbers i n S keletal E lement C ategories:

8 .1

M ap:

L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites

12

8 .2

M ap:

K oobi F ora A rchaeological S ites

1 13

8 .3

B one s catter f requency o f L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites

1 25

8 .4

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f G aJi3

1 28

8 .5

C ranial:

1 29

8 .6

T axonomic D iversity:

8 .7

T otal W eight D ivided b y M NI's a t F xJj12 a nd G ajI3

1 33

8 .8

C ranial:

V ertebral R atios f or S urface S ites

1 41

9 .1

C ranial:

V ertebral R atios f or L owasera

1 50

9 .2

S ize o f L ates t hroughout L owasera

1 53

1 0.1

T axonomic D iversity o f L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites

1 59

C ichlidae

V ertebral R atios f or F xJj12 a nd G aJi3 F xJj12 a nd G aJi3

x i T i

9 1

1 30

P age 1 0.2

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f K oobi F ora S ites

1 75

1 0 .3

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites

1 77

1 0 .4

C ranial t o V ertebral R atios o f L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites

1 78

1 0.5

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f L ake T urkana a nd B each q uadrat s ites

1 79

1 0.6

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f L othagam a nd o ther L ake T urkana a rchaeological s ites

1 81

1 1.1

B one s catter f requency:

1 92

1 1.2

T axonomic A bundance b y M NI's

2 02

1 1.3

T otal W eight D ivided b y M NI 's a t I shango 1 1

2 03

1 1.4

T axonomic A bundance t hrough I shango 1 1

2 04

1 1.5

S ize o f F ish i n Z PE o f I shango 1 1

2 08

1 2.1

C ranial:

2 18

1 2.2

T axonomic A bundance b y M NI's:

I shango 1 1, F xJj12, G aJi3

V ertebral R atios:

I shango 1 4 I shango 1 4

2 21

C HAPTER 1 :

I NTRODUCTION

I ntroduction a nd S tatement o f P urpose I n l ate P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene A frica, s ites a ppeared i n t he a rchaeological r ecord c ontaining a s imilar m aterial c ulture, a nd a s ubsistence b ase d ominated b y f ish r emains. T he u niqueness o f t he c ultural a nd f aunal a ssemblages l ed o ne r esearcher t o c haracterise t hem a s p art o f a n " aquatic c ivilisation" ( Sutton 1 977). M ost r esearch o n t he s ites h as f ocussed o n t he t ypology o f t he m aterial c ulture, w ith l ittle a ttention g iven t o t he s ubsistence b ase - f ish - o r t o t he e ffects o n t he s ites o f e nvironmental c hange. I t w as t hought t hat a nalysis o f t he a bundant f ish r emains w ould p rovide a n o pportunity t o i nvestigate t he s ites f rom a d ifferent p erspective, t hat i s, w ithin t he c ontext o f e cological r esource a vailability m odels. F urther, t his a nalysis w ould a lso a llow i nvestigation o f f ishing a nd f ish p rocurement, a ctivities w hich h ave b een l ittle c onsidered i n t he a rchaeological l iterature. T he f ishing s ites a ppear a cross t he s aharan-sahelian z one o f A frica, t entativ ly d ated t o t he e arly a nd m id-Holocene p eriod ( circa 9 000 - 4 500 B P). 1 T hey a re f ound a cross t he s outhern S ahara, i n t he N ile V alley r egion, a round L ake T urkana, K enya a nd a t I shango, L ake R utanzige, Z aire. T heir o ccupation s pans a p eriod o f a pproximately 5 ,000 y ears. T hey s hare a s imilar a nd u nique c eramic a nd b one i ndustry, a s w ell a s a pparently s imilar s ubsistence a daptations, c haracterised b y a bundant f ish r emains. C oncomitant w ith t he a ppearance o f t hese s ites i s a p eriod o f c limatic a melioration a nd o f m ore a bundant l akes a nd r ivers, c ontrasting w ith t he p revious c ooler, a rid p eriod. T he p eriod o f a melioration, h owever, i s l ater i nterspersed w ith p eriods o f s evere c limatic d eterioration a nd a ridification. S ubsequent d ecline, a nd i n m any c ases, a bandonment o f t hese s ites c oincides w ith a l ater p eriod o f c limatic d eterioration. T he a pparent s imilarity i n s ome c ultural t raits b etween t he s ites, a s w ell a s t he u nusual r eliance o n f ish a nd a quatic r esources, h as c aused s everal e arlier a rchaeologists t o s uggest t hat t hey a re t he m anifestation o f a s ingle c ultural g roup w hich m igrated a cross t he A frican w aterways i n t he e arly H olocene p eriod ( Arkell 1 949, 1 962; d e H einzelin 1 962; S utton 1 974, 1 977). M uch a rchaeological r esearch h as t herefore f ocussed o n f urther d ocumentation o f s imilarities b etween t he a ssemblages, a n a pproach w hich h as m asked i mportant a nd a cknowledged v ariations w ithin t he l ithic, b one a nd c eramic i ndustries f rom t hese s ites ( e.g., S utton 1 977). M ore r ecent w ork s uggests a n a lternative h ypothesis o rigins o f t he s ites. S tudies o n t he v ariation i n t he e arly

1

f or t he H olocene

l ithic ( e.g. P hillipson 1 977; 1 985: 1 08) a nd c eramic a ssemblages ( M .R. K leindienst p ers. c omm .) h ave d emonstrated c ontinuity o f l ocal t radit ions t hroughout t he a ssemblages, w ith l ittle e vidence o f i ntrusive e lements, a s w ould b e e xpected f rom a n i mmigrant c ultural g roup. T his e vidence s uggests t hat t he f ishing s ites m ay r eflect o nly a s tage i n a s eries o f l ong-term l ocal s ubsistence a nd c ultural a daptations. T his h ypothesis i s f avoured i n t his s tudy. T he f ishing s ites a re i mportant i n t he f ramework o f A frican p rehistory, i n t hat t hey: 1 ) p rovide s ome o f t he e arliest e vidence f or i ntensive f ishing a nd f ish p rocurement; a nd 2 ) h ave b een i nterpreted a s r epresenting t he f irst s tep t o a s emi-sedentary w ay o f l ife, e ncouraged b y t he g reater r eliability o f a quatic r esource e xploitation ( Phillipson 1 985). H owever t he f ocus o f p revious s tudies o n b one p oint, c eramic a nd t o a l esser e xtent l ithic i ndustries h as n ot p rovided a s atisfactory f ramework w ithin w hich t o a ssess e ither o f t he t wo h ypotheses o n t he o rigins o f t he s ites, o r t he n ature o f t heir e mergence, c ontinuity a nd d ecline. I n p articular, l ittle c onsideration h as b een g iven t o t he i mpact o f e nvironmental c hange o n t he r esource b ase o f t he s ites. C hanges i n t he l ithic, c eramic a nd b arbed b one p oint a ssemblages c annot b e a dequately a ssessed i n i solation o f t he w ell-documented c hanges i n t he e nvironment d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene. W hat h as b een l acking i n s uch a nalyses o f t he f ishing s ites, t herefore, i s a n i nvestigation o f t he n ature o f a quatic r esource e xploitation, p rimarily f ish, h ow t his e xploitation v aries w ith e nvironmental c hange, a nd h ow t he v ariation i s r eflected i n t he f aunal a nd m aterial c ulture a ssemblages. F ishing a nd f ish p rocurement h ave b een l ittle s tudied e ither a mong m odern A frican p eoples o r i n p rehistory, h aving b een e clipsed b y h unter-gatherer s tudies. T he t endency t o v iew t he " sudden" a ppearance o f a bundant f ish r emains i n t he e arly H olocene a s au nique s ubsistence a daptation, r epresentative o f a n i ntrusive c ultural g roup ( e.g. S utton 1 977) m ay o nly r eflect a l ack o f r esearch o n f ish p rocurement i n p revious p eriods. O nly r ecently h as t he l ongevity o f f ish p rocurement i n A frica b een e stablished, w ith r esearch d ocumenting f ish p rocurement a t N ile V alley s ites a t l east b ack t o 4 0000 B P ( Greenwood 1 968; V an N eer 1 986) a nd a t O lduvai G orge i n t he e arly P leistocene ( Stewart 1 987). E vidence o f s uch l ong-term e xploitation o f f ish r esources i n s everal a reas o f n orthern a nd e astern A frica i ndicates a f amiliarity w ith a nd a p artial d ependence o n t hese r esources. E cological m odels o f r esource a vailability s uggest t hat o rganisms n arrow o r w iden t heir p rocurement s trategies i n r esponse t o s carcity o r a bundance ( see T heoretical P erspective b elow). G iven t he l ong-term e xploitation o f f ish r esources i n e astern a nd n orthern A frica i t i s r easonable t o e xpect l arge a mplifications a nd r eductions i n a quatic r esource e xploitation i n r esponse t o d rastic c hanges i n e nvironment, s uch a s o ccurred i n t he l ate P leistocene o r H olocene. T he i ntention o f t his s tudy t herefore w as t hreefold: 1 ) t o i nvestigate f ish e xploitation i n r esponse t o a nd i ts i nteraction w ith e nvironmental c hange; 2 ) t o p rovide a c haracterisation o f f ishing a nd f ish p rocurement a s s ubsistence s trategies; a nd 3 ) t o e xamine t he

2

f ishing s ites w ithin t he c ontext o f e astern A frican c ulture h istory. T hese t hree g oals w ere i nvestigated w ithin t he c ontext o f t he h ypothesis t hat t he e arly H olocene s ettlements r eflect l ocal a mplificat ions o f a quatic e xploitation, r ather t han m igration o f a c ultural e ntity. F urther, i t w as e xpected t hat v ariation i n t he i chthyofaunal a nd c ultural a ssemblages w as i n r esponse t o, a nd t herefore c orrelated w ith, c hanges i n t he e nvironment a nd r esource a vailability, r ather t han w ith e vidence o f i ntrusive c ultural e lements. T he v ariation c an b e p redicted a ccording t o e cological m odels o n r esource a vailability: s electivity w ill c orrelate w ith r esource a bundance, a nd g eneralisation w ith r esource s tress . T he v ariation w ill b e b est r eflected i n t hat p art o f t he f ish a ssemblage a nd t hat p art o f t he m aterial c ulture c oncerned w ith r esource p rocessing a nd r esource e xtraction a ctivities.

T heoretical P erspective I n i nterpreting v ariation i n t he f aunal a nd c ultural a ssemblages, e nvironmental c hange, r esource a vailability a nd h uman r esponse a re c onsidered i nteractive v ariables. F urther, i t i s s uggested h ere t hat h uman r esponse t o e nvironmental c hange i s p atterned; t herefore, w ithin a c ertain r ange o f v ariation, h uman r esponse t o a p redetermined s et o f e nvironmental c onditions w ill b e p redictable. U sing t his a pproach, I h ave v iewed t he r esponses o f t he e arly t o m id-Holocene f ishing p eoples t o e nvironmental c hange i n t he c ontext o f a n e cological m odel o f r esource p redictability. T his m odel i s u sed i n e cological t heory t o d escribe a nd p redict n iche v ariability ( e.g. W att 1 973; P utman a nd W ratten 1 984). I n t he m odel a nimals a re c lassified a t o ne e nd o f t he s pectrum a s g eneralists, u tilising a v ariety o f r esources, a nd a t t he o ther e nd a s s pecialists, s electing a nd u tilising o ne o r t wo r esources; t here i s c onsiderable v ariation a long t he s pectrum b etween t he t wo. I n t erms o f n iche v ariability: " No o rganism c an a fford t o b ecome t oo m uch o f a s pecialist i n a n u nstable e nvironm ent w here c onditions a nd t he a vailability o f r esources m ay b e u npredictable a nd c hangeable; h ere i s a c lear c ase f or r emaining a g eneralist a nd p reserving a b road n iche" ( Putman a nd W ratten 1 984: 1 11). B eing a g eneralist " the g reater t he v ariety o f f ood e aten b y a s pecies, t he l ess v ulnerable t hat s pecies i s t o a n e nvironmental c hange e liminating i ts f ood" ( Watt 1 973: 2 1). T he c oncept o f g eneralist i s o ften a pplied i n h uman e cology t o h unting a nd g athering g roups w hich i nhabit e nvironmentally m arginal a reas, w ith a n u npredictable r esource b ase. L ee, f or e xample, d escribes s uch a s ituation f or t he : Kung S an i n B otswana w here t hey e xploit o ver 1 00 s pecies o f p lants a s w ell a s h unted a nimals ( 1968; Y ellen a nd L ee 1 976). I n c ontrast, s pecialists h ave b een f ound t o i nhabit a reas w ith p redictably p roductive, s table r esources. G roups c an m ove b etween t hese t wo c ategories, d epending o n r esource a vailability. V ery f ew m odern s tudies h ave i nvestigated t he i nterrelationship b etween f ishing p eoples a nd e nvironmental c hange ( exceptions i nclude S undstrom [ 1972] o n N iger f ishers, a nd S mith [ 1981] o n A mazon f ishers), p articularly h ow t hey c ope w ith e nvironmental s tress a nd r esource

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s carcity . A quatic r esources a re o ften d escribed a s s table, r enewable r esources ( e.g. H effley 1 981), a nd t herefore o ne w ould e xpect g roups e xploiting t hese r esources t o b e c lassified a s s pecialists. H owever w ithin t he A frican c ontext, s evere c limatic f luctuations h ave b een d ocumented i n m odern t imes ( discussed i n C hapter 2 ) w hich c an c ause t he d essication a nd o ccasional d isappearance o f l akes a nd r ivers. U sing t he n iche v ariability m odel, s uch f luctuations w ould e ncourage a g eneralist p rocurement s trategy. T herefore i n a pplying t he c oncept o f n iche v ariability t o e arly H olocene f ishers, w hen e nvironmental c onditions w ere s table a nd r esources ( or f ish) w ere a bundant, t he f ishers c ould b e s elective i n t heir c hoice o f f ish; h owever, a s s oon a s c onditions b ecame u npredicta ble, o r r esources b ecame l ess a bundant, f ishers w ould s tart t o e xpand t heir p rocurement b ase. S hould t he u npredictable p eriod b e p rolonged, h uman g roups m ay d eplete c ertain a spects o f t he r esources a nd d isrupt t he e cological b alance o f o rganisms w ithin t he a quatic e cosystem .

O utline o f M ethodology I n o rder t o i nvestigate t hese q uestions, o ver 2 4,000 f ish b one e lements w ere a nalysed , o btained f rom e arly t o m id-Holocene s ites a t L ake T urkana a nd L ake R utanzige. I nitially t his s tudy i ncluded o nly r emains f rom t he L ake T urkana s ites; h owever, i n 1 986 t he o pportunity a rose t o j oin t he S emliki R esearch E xpedition i n Z aire ; a nalyses o f r emains f rom I shango 1 1 a nd I shango 1 4 w ere i ncorporated i nto t he t hesis . T he s ites s tudied i nclude: t wo e xcavated s ites f rom K oobi F ora a t L ake T urkana ( FxJj12 a nd G aJi3), f ive s urface s ites f rom K oobi F ora ( GaJj1, G aJj2, G aJj11, G aJj12, F xJj12N), o ne e xcavated s ite f rom L owasera i n s outheast L ake T urkana, a nd t wo e xcavated s ites f rom I shango, L ake R utanzige ( Ishango 1 1 a nd I shango 1 4). A ll s ites a re c haracterised b y a n e arly t o m id-Holocene a ge ( but s ee f ootnote 1 f or I shango 1 1), b arbed b one p oints a nd a f aunal a ssemblage d ominated b y f ish r emains. I n t he a nalysis o f f ish r emains f rom t hese s ites n eed t o b e a ddressed i nclude:

p roblems

t hat

1 )

I nvestigation o f c hanges i n t he f ish b one a ssemblages i n c onjunc'don w ith e nvironmental c hange, a s r eflected i n l ake l evel f luctuations, a nd w ith v ariation i n a ssociated c ultural a ssemblages. A s p art o f t his g oal i s t he v erification o f t he p resumed a ssociation o f h igh l ake l evels , s udden p roliferation i n a quatic r esources a nd a ppearance o f f ishing s ettlements.

2 )

C haracterisation o f s ites. A l ack o f d etailed i nvestigation o f f aunal r emains h as g iven a ll s ites a u niform e conomy b ased o n f ish a nd a quatic m ammals . T his u niformity o bscures: a ) e cological c lassification o f s ites, i .e. f luvial o r l acustrine; b ) s ite f unction : e .g. p rocurement v s. p rocessing s ites ; c ) s easonality: m any s ites m ay o nly r eflect e xploitation o f s easonal s pawning r uns .

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3 )

C onstruction o f d atabases o n f ish p rocurement a nd f ish/fisher e cology w ith w hich t o i nterpret t he f ish r emains. L ittle d ata h as b een c ompiled p reviously f rom w hich t o d raw i nferences a bout a rchaeological a quatic-based a ssemblages.

4 )

C haracterisation o f a rchaeological v ersus n atural f ish b one a ssemblages. T hroughout t he a rchaeological l iterature m ention i s m ade o f t he d ifficulty o f d istinguishing n aturally-derived v ersus c ulturally-derived b one a ccumulations i n a quatic e nvironments ( e.g. B arthelme 1 981). W hile t his t ype o f t aphonomic r esearch w ould i deally r equire a w hole s eparate i nvestigation , s ome b asic i nvestigation i s n eeded t o b e a ble t o m ake s uperficial d istinctions b etween a ssemblages.

5 )

Z oogeographic i nformation. F ish a re s ensitive t o c hanges i n t heir e nvironment, a nd c an b e u sed t o i nfer l imnological c onditions, w hich i n t urn m ay i ndirectly r eflect b roader e nvironmental a nd c limatic c hanges.

H istory o f R esearch T he e xcavation b y A .J. A rkell a t E arly K hartoum i n S udan p rovided t he f irst d etailed d escription o f a n e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlement s ite ( 1949). P revious r ecognition o f e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlem ents h ad c onsisted o f r eports, p rimarily f rom t he c entral S ahara, o f i solated s urface a ssociations o f b arbed b one p oints a nd r emains o f a quatic f auna a ssociated w ith a ncient h igh b each l evels ( e.g., K elley 1 934; M archand 1 936). A rkell's e xcavations a t E arly K hartoum p rovided t he f irst e vidence o f a l ong-term p opulous s ettlement w ith a s ubsistence b ase d irected t owards a quatic r esources, p rimarily f ish . C oupled w ith t his w ere n ew p rocurement a nd p rocessing s trategies r eflected i n t he b arbed b one p oint a nd w avy-line p ottery a ssemblages, a nd e vidence o f am ore s edentary m ode o f l iving i n r emains o f w attle a nd d aub w alls. I n h is r eport, A rkell w ent b eyond E arly K hartoum t o l ink u p a ll k nown s ites w ith s imilar c ultural a nd e conomic m anifestat ions i nto a g eographically a nd t emporally r estricted e ntity w hich h e c alled t he " Wavy L ine C ulture". T hese " Wavy L ine C ulture" s ites w ere l ocated i n t he s ahelian-saharan z one o f A frica , d ating t o t he e arly H olocene. T hey s hared s imilar c ultural f eatures i ncluding p ottery w ith w avy l ine d ecoration , b arbed b one p oints a nd a s imilar s ubsistence p attern, t hat i s, a r eliance o n f ish a nd a quatic m ammals. F ollowing t he p ublication o f A rkell's r eport, t wo m ore i mportant f ishing s ettlement s ites w ere e xcavated w hich e xtended t he g eographic a nd t emporal r anges o f A rkell's " Wavy L ine C ulture" - E sh S haheinab, l ocated n ear E arly K hartoum ( Arkell 1 953), a nd I shango o n L ake R utanzige ( formerly L ake E dward) ( de H einzelin 1 957). E sh S haheinab w as d ated, s omewhat q uestionably, t o s ome 2 000 y ears l ater t han E arly K hartoum , a nd i ts m aterial c ulture, p rimarily t he b arbed b one p oints a nd p ottery, w ere c learly d erivative f rom t he E arly K hartoum f orms. A quatic r esources w ere l ess i mportant t han a t E arly K hartoum.

" Wavy

T he s ite o f I shango e xtended t he g eographic r ange o f A rkell's L ine C ulture" i n t hat i t i s s ituated w ell s outh o f t he

5

c onventionally-recognised s ahel z one. T he m aterial c ulture f rom I shango w as u nique c ompared w ith t hat f rom t he S udanese s ites i n i ts l ack o f p ottery a nd i n t he s trategraphic s equence f rom b iserial t o u niserial b arbed b one p oints. I shango w as t he o nly " Wavy L ine C ulture" s ite p rior t o t he 1 980 's w here t he f aunal r emains w ere n ot o nly i dentified b ut a lso c ompletely q uantified ( Greenwood 1 959; H opwood a nd M isonne 1 959). I n t he a pproximately 2 5 y ears f ollowing t he r eport o f t hese t hree s ites, m uch m ore e vidence o f e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlement s ites f rom a cross n orth-central A frica w as r ecovered, u sually i n t he f orm o f i solated b arbed b one p oint o r w avy l ine p ottery o ccurrences ( e.g. O akley 1 961). R esearch c oncerned w ith t his p eriod u sually f ocussed m ore o n t he c ultural m anifestations r ather t han o n t he s ubsistence b ase f or A rkell's o riginal " Wavy L ine C ulture". D ocumentation o f t ypological s imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween c ultural a ssemblages, e specially f or t he b arbed b one p oints a nd t he w avy l ine p ottery, w as t he c oncern i n t he l iterature ( Monod a nd M auny 1 957; d e H einzelin 1 957, 1 962; O akley 1 961; A rkell 1 962; W hitworth 1 965 ; C ourtin 1 966), u sually w ith t he i ntent o f p redicting m ovements o f t he " Wavy L ine C ulture" g roups a cross A frica. D iscussions o f d iffusion v ersus m igration a nd d irectionality i n t he s pread o f t he " Wavy L ine C ulture" w ere c ommon . L eakey, f or e xample, s uggested t hat d iffusion r ather t han m igration w as i nvolved: t hat t rading g roups w ere c arrying o ut t he m ovement o f c ultural i deas a nd t echniques ( in A rkell 1 962: 2 86). D e H einzelin ( 1962) u sed c hanges i n t he t echnological s equence o f b arbed b one p oints f rom I shango a s a b asis f or p redicting t he o rigins o f h arpoons i n A frica a t I shango, a nd t heir s ubsequent s pread n orthwest a nd n ortheast t o t he N ile a nd t he S ahara. A d etailed s ynthetic r eport b y H uard a nd M assip ( 1964) i nventoried k nown o ccurrences o f b arbed b one p oints a nd w avy l ine p ottery. T he a uthors s uggested t hat t he p ottery h ad i ts o rigins i n t he S udanian N ile r egion, a nd i ts k nowledge c arried w estwards b y i tinerant p otters w ho t hen r eturned w ith k nowledge o f f ishing a nd h unting t echniques, i n p articular t he d esign o f b arbed b one p oints. I n t he 1 970 's J . S utton a rgued t hat A rkell's " Wavy L ine C ulture" s ites r epresented s ubsistence a nd c ultural a daptations w hich w ere a s r evolutionary a s t he d omestication o f p lants a nd a nimals, a nd c oined t he t erm " aqualithic" t o d escribe t hem . H e s uggested t hat t he f ishing s ettlement s ites r eflected " a h ighly d istinctive w ay o f l ife" s een i n a " revolutionary e xploitation o f n atural r esources", " diagnostic c ultural t raits" a nd a " culinary r evolution" ( 1977: 2 9). H e s uggested t hat t his " aquatic c ulture" w as t he r esult o f a n e ast t o w est m igration o f p eople, a long t he w aterways o f t he s ahel-saharan z one. W hile u sing t he s ame l anguage o f d iffusion a nd m igration a s d id h is f ellow r esearchers, S utton's p apers r e-introduced t he i mportance o f t he r esource b ase o f t his " aquatic c ulture". H e e mphasised t he i mportance o f t he a daptation o f t he e arly H olocene f ishers t o t he n ewly p lentiful a quatic r esources i n t he s ahelian-saharan z one. I n t he p ast f ifteen y ears, n ew c oncern a mong a rchaeologists w ith h uman a daptations t o, a nd i nteraction w ith, t he e nvironment h as r esulted i n d ifferent a pproaches t o t he e arly H olocene f ishing s ites. R esearchers h ave b ecome l ess c oncerned w ith t ypological s tudies o f b arbed b one p oints a nd w avy l ine p ottery t han w ith i nvestigating

6

c hanges i n e xploitation s trategies a nd l and u se p atterns. T he e xcavation o f s everal s ites b oth i n t he S udanien N ile a rea a nd a round L ake T urkana a re e xamples o f t his " new" f ocus. I n t he S udan, s ites d ating t o t he t ime o f E sh S haheinab h ave b een r eferred t o a s t he S haheinab C omplex ( Clark 1 984). I nvestigation o f t he s ubsistence b ase f or t hese s ites h as b een d irected t owards u nders tanding s easonal a nd r egional v ariation . T hat o f E sh S haheinab, a s m entioned , i s b ased o n a quatic r esources a nd w ild a nimals, a s a re t he s ites o f Z akiab a nd G eili ( Clark 1 984), w hile f aunal e vidence f rom t he n earby s ite o f K adero i s c ompletely d ominated b y d omestic a nimals ( Krzyzaniak 1 978). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he f ormer s ites w ere d ry s eason s ettlements u tilising a quatic r esources w hile t he l atter w ere w et s eason h erding/hunting s ettlements ( Clark 1 984). I nvestigations a t L ake T urkana i ndicate m uch l ess d ense o ccupat ions t han a re s een i n t he S udanian N ile. R esearch h ere h as f ocussed m ore o n c hanges i n t he a ssemblages t hrough t ime i n r esponse t o e nvironmental c hange. T he e arliest e xcavation w as c onducted b y L . R obbins a t t he s ite o f L othagam n ear t he s outhwest e nd o f t he l ake ( 1974). R obbins ' r eport w as s ignificant i n i ts d etailed a nalysis o f f aunal a nd c ultural a ssemblages a nd f or h is a ttempts t o c orrelate v ariation i n t he l ithic a ggregates w ith l ake l evel c hanges. F urther, h is r eport s tressed s imilar a daptations t o a quatic e nvironments i n h is i nterpretation o f m aterial c ulture u sing a nalogies f rom t he p resent d ay f ishing g roup t he E l M ob . A s imilar a pproach w as u sed b y D . P hillipson a t L owasera , s outheast o f t he l ake ( 1977), i n t hat h e i nvestigated c o-variation i n t he l ithic a nd b arbed b one p oint a ssemblages i n r esponse t o l ake l evel a nd e nvironmental c hange. F urther n orth , n ear t he K oobi F ora s pit, J . B arthelme s urface c ollected s even e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlement s ites, a nd e xcavated t hreL o f t hese i n a n a ttempt t o i nvestigate r egional l and u se p atterns a s a c omplement t o t he s ingle s ite e xcavations c arried o ut f urther s outh ( 19C 1 . 1 985). W hile h e f ound o nly b each c amp o ccurrences a nd n o e vidence o f p . armanent l iving s tructures, h e w as a ble t o d emonstrate v ariation i n t he c e .ilisation o f r esources a t t he s ites, s uggesting t hat s ubsistence p references o r s ite l ocation m ay b e r esponsible f or t he d ifferences. T o a l esser e xtent d ifferences w ere o bservable i n t he c ultural a ssemblages : t wo s ites w ere a ceramic, a nd b arbed b one p oints v aried m orphologically b etween t he s ites. R ecently t he s ite o f I shango h as b een r e-excavated ( Brooks a nd S mith 1 986) w ith t he i ntention o f: 1 ) p roviding m ore s ecure d ating f or t he o ccupations ; a nd 2 ) a dding t o H einzelin 's d ata o n s tratigraphy a nd c ultural a daptations. F ieldwork i s i n p rogress; a n ew r adiocarbon d ate a t 2 5000 B P p uts o ccupation a t I shango e arlier t han p reviously t hought ( Brooks p ers. c omm .).

C ritical O verview W ithin a w orld-wide c ontext, t he a ppearance o f t he e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlements i n A frica a ppears t o p arallel s imilar o ccurrences i n m any a reas, i ncluding n orthern E urope, A merica , a nd t he L evant ( Clark 1 977). T he a ssociation o f i mplements s uch a s b arbed b one p oints

7

w ith a s ubsistence b ased o n a quatic r esources h as b een g enerally v iewed a s a r esponse t o h igher w ater l evels a nd a vailability o f a " new" r ich r esource b ase. A ssociated w ith e xploitation o f t hese r esources i s a t rend t oward s emi- o r p ermanent s edentism , a nd i ncreased p opulation g rowth ( Binford 1 968; C lark 1 977). W ithin A frica, h owever, d evelopment o f a s imilar u nified f ramework w ithin w hich t o v iew t he f ishing s ettlements h as i n g eneral b een l acking. I n p art t his l ack i s d ue t o e arlier r esearchers' v iew t hat t he f ishing s ettlements w ere a u nified c ultural e ntity: A rkell's " Wavy L ine C ulture", o r S utton's " aquatic c ivilisation". V ariation i n t he f aunal o r l ithic a ssemblages w as n ot a ddressed, a nd t hat i n t he b arbed b one p oint a nd w avy l ine p ottery a ssemblages w as v iewed a s s tylistic a nd t herefore a s g eographical o r t emporal v ariation. I gnoring v ariation e liminates p ossibilities o f e xamining h ow t he f ishers a dapted t o c hanges i n e nvironment o r c hanges ir esources o ver t ime. A s s uch i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he s ettle ents i n t he c ontext o f p receding o r s ucceeding c ultural a daptations. A m ore r ecent a pproach i s t o v iew t he f ishing s ettlements a s p art o f a s eries o f l ong-term c ultural a daptations, r ather t han a s a u nique e ntity w hich a ppeared a bruptly. P hillipson ( 1977, 1 985) a rticulates t his a pproach b y n oting t hat s ome c ommunities w ere e xploiting a quatic r esources l ong b efore t he a ppearance o f t he e arly H olocene c ommunities, a s f ar b ack a s a pproximately 4 0,000 y ears a go a t K hor M usa. H e h as f urth -x s uggested t hat t he f ishing s ettlements r epresent t he f irst s tep t o s emi-sedentism o r p ermanent s edentism , b y v irtue o f t heir d ependence o n a quatic r esources s een a s a s table, r enewable r esource ( Phillipson 1 985: 1 08). T his v iew h as b een c riticised f or e astern A frica o n t he g rounds t hat t here i s n o e vidence o f p ermanent s ettlement s tructures o r o f l ong-duration s equences i n t he e astern A frican s ites ( Marshall 1 986). H owever t here i s e vidence f or b oth s tructures a nd l ong-term , r easonably h eavily-populated s ites i n t he f ishing s ettlements i n S udan, a nd C lark ( 1984) h as d emonstrated a spects o f c ultural c ontinuity f rom t he e arliest f ishing s ettlements t hrough t o h istoric t imes. W hile t he f ocus o n e conomic a nd e cological a daptations p resents a m ore c omplete p icture o f e arly H olocene f ishing a daptations t han t he p revious c oncern w ith t ypological s equences, m ost r esearch h as c oncentrated o n l arge s cale r egional l and u se p atterns. L acking h ave b een m ore s pecialised s tudies i nvestigating l ocal a daptations t o e nvironmental c hange. I n p articular s tudies o f v ariation i n s ubsistence s trategies c haracterising t he f ishing s ettlements h ave b een l acking. W hile t he L ake T urkana r esearchers m ade p reliminary a ttempts t o e xplain v ariation i n t he l ithic a nd b arbed b one p oint a ssemblages i n r esponse t o e nvironmental c hange, n o p arallel i nvestigations i nto c ovariation i n t he f aunal a ssemblages h ave b een m ade a t a ny f ishing s ettlement. T his l ack c ontrasts s harply w ith p arallel s tudies c oncerni ng h unting a nd h erding i n t he s ubsequent P astoral N eolithic p eriod i n E ast A frica. R esearchers w orking i n t he P astoral N eolithic h ave b een a ble t o d istinguish d ifferent c ategories o f s ites b ased o n l ithics a nd p ottery, a nd e nvironmental z ones, a nd p rimarily o n v ariation i n t he f aunal a ssemblages, w here t he p resence/absence/mix o f d omestic a nd w ild m ammalian f auna i s d iagnostic ( Gifford e t a l. 1 980; M arshall 1 986). S imilar, d etailed a nalysis i s n eeded f or t he r emains f or t he e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlements.

8

C HAPTER 2 :

E NVIRONMENTAL A ND P ALEOENVIRONMENTAL R ESEARCH

G eology M uch o f t he A frican c ontinent i s c omprised o f t he r ocks o f t he P reCambrian S hield, w hich h ave u ndergone o ver t ime a v ariety o f t ectonic m ovements i ncluding u plifting , f aulting a nd m any v olcanic e ruptions. I n e astern a nd c entral A frica , t he m odern l andscape i s p rimarily a r esult o f t ectonic m ovements s ince t he M iocene. M ost s triking i s t he r ifting c reating t he h ighlands o f t he W estern a nd E astern R ifts, a nd t he s yncline i n b etween o f w hich t he L ake V ictoria B asin i s t he d ominant f eature. T he p ost-Miocene c hanges i n d rainage p atterns i n e astern A frica a re o f i mportance w hen s tudying t he f ish f auna. T he R ift V alley 's w alls , a nd o ther a ssociated u plifts , h ave a ltered t he p re-Miocene d rainage p attern o f p rimarily w estward-flowing r ivers b y i nterrupting t hem a nd c reating s hallow i nland d rainage b asins, k nown a s t he G reat L akes ( see F igure 2 .1) ( Beadle 1 981). F ish w hich w ere f ormerly a dapted t o f luviatile h abitats a nd e cology h ad t o a dapt t o l acustrine e nvironm ents, i f t hey w ere t o c olonise t he l akes.

C limate I n n orthern a nd e astern A frica t he v ariables o f r ainfall a nd e vaporation a re c rucial i n t he d etermination o f v egetation a nd r elated e conomic a ctivities . R ainfall i s d etermined t o ag reat e xtent b y t he m ovement o f t he I nter T ropical C onvergence Z one ( ITCZ), w hich s hifts s easonally b etween a bout 1 5° N a nd 1 5° S l atitude. E vaporation i s h igh i n t he h igher s ahel a nd s aharan l atitudes d ue t o h igher t emperatures a nd l ower h umidity t han i n m ore s outherly a reas. P resent r ainfall p atterns a re i ndicated i n F igure 2 .2. F luctuat i6ns o ver a f ew h undred y ears c ombined w ith o scillations t hroughout t he l ater H olocene h ave i ndicated a t rend t o r eduction o f m ean a nnual r ainfall a nd m ore f requent d roughts i n t he m arginal r ainfall a reas ( Grove 1 978). R ainfall a nd h umidity w ere h igher i n t he e arly H olocene , a nd R itchie a nd H aynes ( 1987: 6 47) h ave s uggested t hat s ummer r ainfall i n t he s ahara-sahelian z one w as d isplaced 4° t o 5 ° n orthwards f rom 1 0 ,000 t o 5 ,000 y ears a go. A t p resent t he L ake T urkana a rea r eceives 2 00 t o 4 00mm o f r ainfall p er y ear, a nd t he L ake R utanzige a rea r eceives 8 00 t o 1 400mm . B oth a reas h ave a " long" r ains ( from M arch t o M ay) a nd a " short" r ains ( October-November) i n e ach y ear, a lthough t he l atter i s o ften u npredictable.

9

VOLCAN IC H IGHLANDS

L . T angany ika

0 I

1 00 2 00 l l

F igur3 2 .1.

3 00 !

4 00 1

5 00 k m 1

S upposed p re-Miocene E ast A frican d rainage. P resent b asins s haded i n. ( From B eadle 1 981: 2 49).

1 0

( a bou t S in ) 2 -400 mm ( abou , 9 16 i n ) 4 -800 mm ( abou t1 6-32 i n ) 8 1400 mm ( abou t 3 2-56 i n ) 1 4-2200 mm ( abou t 5 6-88 i n ) 2 2-3200 mm ( abou t 8 8128 i n ) >3200 mm ( abou t1 28 i n )

F igu _e 2 .2.

R ainfall M ap o f A frica .

1 1

( From G rove 1 978:

1 5).

V egetation z ones i n m odern A frica a re p resented i n F igure 2 .3. T he p redicted v egetation f or t he e arly t o m id-Holocene w ould b e s hifted 5 ° n orthwards a long w ith r ainfall p atterns . T he l andscape a round e astern a nd s outhern L ake T urkana i s a rid a nd d esert-like, a nd v egetation i s s carce , c onsisting o f d otted s hrubs a nd a cacias; n ear t he l ake s hore t he g rass S porobolus s picatus i s c ommon . A round I shango t here i s m ainly s avanna v egetation, a nd r easonably d ense b ush a nd a cacia s tands n ear t he l akeshore.

P aleoenvironmental R esearch - I ntroduction I nvestigation o f h uman r esponses t o e nvironmental c hange i s d ependent o n k nowledge o f p rocesses i nvolved i n t he c hanges; s uch k nowledge i s f ar f rom c omplete i n s aharan a nd e astern A frica . M uch o f t he e arlier w ork o n p aleoenvironment w as c oncerned w ith c orrelating g eological a nd a rchaeological e vents 1 s aharan a nd e astern A frica w ith ac limatic a nd s tratigraphic f ramework b ased u pon e xtra-African g lacial s equences ( e.g . L eakey 1 931; W ayland 1 934 ; C ole 1 963). U tilisation o f r adiocarbon d ating p ost-1959 r esulted i n t he s upersession o f t hese c orrelations, a nd t he d evelopment o f r egional A frican s equences. N ew m ethodologies a nd t echniques h ave r esulted i n a ccess t o ap lethora o f p aleoenvironmental d ata f rom w hich d etailed r egional s equences a re c onstructed ( e.g. K endall 1 969; R ichardson a nd R ichardson 1 972). 7 Dst r ecently p aleoenvironmental r esearch h as b ecome m ore p roblemo riented; ar ecent e xample b eing t he i nvestigation o f p rehistoric a nd h istoric h uman r esponses t o d esertification ( e.g. H are 1 977). I n t he p ast t wenty-five y ears p aleoenvironmental r econstructions o f t erminal P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene e nvironments i n t he s aharan-sahelian z one h ave p roliferated; s ee s ummaries i n L ivingstone ( 1975), H amilton ( 1982) a nd W illiams ( 1984).

T he S ahara P aleoenvironmental r econstruction o f t he S ahara s uffers f rom p roblems u nique t o a rid e nvironments. P ollen s tudies, c rucial t o p aleoenvironmental r econstruction i n e astern A frica , a re h indered b y l ow p ollen p roduction o f d esert v egetation a nd h igh w ind v elocity . P aleoenvironmental r econstructions o f t he L ate Q uaternary P eriod i n t he s outhern S ahara, d efined h ere a s e xtending b etween 1 5° a nd 2 5° n orth l atitude, h ave b een m ade u tilising s tudies o f s and d unes ( Talbot 1 980; W illiams 1 984), l ake a nd r iver s ediments a nd l evels ( Faure 1 966 ; R ognon 1 980 ; S ervant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 980; W illiams a nd F aure 1 980 ; P etitM aire a nd R iser 1 981; R itchie e t a l. 1 985), a nd d eep s ea c ores ( Sarnthein a nd K oopman 1 980). T he g eneral c onclusions o f S aharan r esearch, n otwithstanding a s mall n umber o f s tudies w ith c ontradictory e vidence ( e.g. S arnthein 1 978), c oncur w ith t rends s een i n L ate Q uaternary s ub-saharan A frica a nd i ndeed w orld-wide i n r ecognising a c ooler, d rier p eriod r oughly f rom 2 0000 t o 1 2000 B P a nd a m oister, w armer p eriod f rom a bout 1 2000 t o 4 500 B P . W hile i t i s n ot t he i ntent o f t his s tudy t o i nvestigate t he Q uaternary i n t he S ahara i n d etail, a b rief s ummary o f p aleoenvironment i s g iven .

1 2

L ate t he

F igure 2 .3.

V egetation M ap o f A frica .

1 3

( From G rove 1 978 :

3 3).

D espite p roblems w ith p aleoenvironmental i ndicators i n d esert e nvironments, t here i s w idespread e vidence o f a n e xtremely a rid, c old e nvironment a cross t he s outhern S ahara i n t he T erminal P leistocene. D ata f rom d eep s ea c ores f rom t he E ast A tlantic s uggest t hat t he s tart o f t he p eriod w as a t c irca 1 8000 B P, w hen a m arked i ncrease i n w estward m ovement o f d esert d ust o ccurs c oncomitant w ith a d ecrease i n o cean t emperature ( up t o 8 °C) c aused b y i ntensification o f c old o cean c urrents ( Sarnthein a nd K oopman 1 980 : 2 50; W illiams 1 984). F urther e vidence o f t he t emporal a nd g eographic e xtent o f t he p eriod i s i ndicated b y a n i ntensive p eriod o f d une b uilding i n c oastal M auritania a nd S enegal i n t he w est, f rom L ake C had t o t he A tlas M ountains s outh t o n orth, a nd i n t he E gyptian W estern D esert i n t he e ast, f rom a t l east c irca 2 0000 t o 1 2000 B P . T he w idespread e xtent a nd n ature o f t he " sand s eas" a t t his t ime h ave b een n oted b y s everal r esearchers ( e.g. T albot 1 980: 4 2; S arnthein 1 978: 4 5; S treet a nd G asse 1 981: 1 5) a nd a ttest t o m inimal p recipitation a nd v ery v igorous n ortheast t rade w inds. T he d essication a nd d isappearance o f m ost h ydrological s ystems c an b e p redicted f rom e vidence f rom L ake C had, t he l argest l ake i n a rea i n t he s outhern S ahara a t t he p resent t ime, w here t he l ake l evel f ell a nd t he l ake v irtually d isappeared b etween 2 0000 a nd 1 3000 B P ( Servant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 980: 1 51). H owever, w hile e vidence a ppears u nequivocal t hat t here w as w ides pread a nd l ong-standing a ridity i n t he s outhern S ahara, r esearchers a re d ivided a s t o w hether a nd w hen w etter c onditions p revailed i n t he n orthern S ahara. M ost r esearchers i nfer w etter c onditions f rom l ake a nd f loodplain d eposits i n t he S aoura V alley ( Algeria) a nd l ake d eposits i n t he E rg C hech r egion ( Mali) u p t o c irca 1 6000 B P, f ollowed b y a 3 ,000 y ear p eriod o f a ridity i nferred f rom d owncutting o f t he S aoura s ubsequently ( Street a nd G asse 1 981: 1 5; W illiams 1 984) ( see F igure 2 .4). A lternative, b ut n ot a s w idely-held v iews, s tate t hat d u- , a ctivity w as a t am aximum l evel i n t he S aoura V alley a nd E rg C hech r egion d uring t he 1 9,000 t o 1 6,000 y ear p eriod, f ollowed b y a " cool l ake-formi i " p eriod, i mplying e xtreme a ridity w ith a w etter p eriod f ollowing ( Sarl i :-h ein 1 978: 4 5). I n a ny c ase, m ost r esearchers a gree t hat t here i s e vidence f or w etter c onditions i n t he m ountainous T ibesti a rea, s tarting a t c irca 1 6000 t o 1 5000 B P, m ainly b ased o n f ine-grained a lluviation a nd t errace f ormation, a nd l ake f ormation ( Jakl 1 979: 3 0; R ognon 1 980 : 1 23; S treet a nd G asse 1 981: 1 5). P robably h igh m ountainous a reas s uch a s T ibesti p rovided r efuge f or h uman g roups t hrough t he a rid t erminal P leistocene p eriod. E vidence o f a c hange t o m ore p luvial c onditions i n t he s outhern S ahara i s s een a t 1 1000 B P i n h igh l ake l evels a t L ake C had ( Servant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 980: 1 33), a lthough a p eriod o f a ridity i s s een a t a bout 1 0500 t o 9 500 B P ( Lezine a nd C asanova 1 987: 6 ). A fter a bout 9 500 B P, w idespread s catters o f f ossil b ones o f a quatic a nimals a ssociated w ith c ultural r emains a nd o ld b each r idges d ating f rom t his p eriod a re k nown f rom m any p arts o f t he S ahara , i ncluding n orthern M ali ( Petit Maire e t a l. 1 983), A drar B ous ( Clark e t a l. 1 973), n orthern N iger ( Faure 1 966), a nd E ast T orha ( Libya) ( Barich 1 980). P aly rological e vidence f rom n orthwestern S udan i ndicates a m oister ( t .i lan a t p resent) s avanna g rassland f rom 9 500 B P ( Ritchie a nd H aynes

1 4

L ist o f G eographical A reas

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3.

1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2.

S aoura R iver E rg C hech T ibesti L ake C had E ast T orha A drar B ous A ir M ountains N ile R iver K or n O mbo F ayum L ake M obutu L ake V ictoria L akes S hala a nd Z iway

F ig ir _e 2 .4 .

2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

L ake A bhe L ake T urkana L ake R utanzige L ake K ivu R uwenzori M ountains M uchoya S wamp M t. E lgon M t. K enya L akes N akuru, E lmenteita, N aivasha L akes M agadi, N atron R iver O mo A baya-Chamo L akes L akes B aringo, B ogoria

G eographical A reas M entioned i n T ext.

1 5

1 987: 6 45). T he p eriod o f p luviality i s i n f act r epresented b y t wo p hases t hroughout t he S ahara, a lthough d ates o f t he i ntervening a rid p hase v ary. L ake C had l evels a re h igh b etween 9 000 a nd 8 000 B P a nd a gain a t 6 000 B P ( there i s a lso a t hird h igh a t 3 500 t o 3 000 B P) ( Servant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 980: 1 46). O ther h ydrological s ystems a lso s how d ecline b etween 8 000 a nd 7 000 B P ( Street a nd G asse 1 981: 1 6). T hese d ates a re g enerally s upported b y d une s tudies w hich s how r eactivation o f d une m ovement a round L ake C had ( indicating a ridity) a t c irca 8 000 t o 7 000 B P , a nd a t 4 000 B P , a nd b etween 8 000 a nd 6 000 B P i n S enegal ( Talbot 1 980: 4 3). C onfirmation o f t he a rid p eriod i s s een i n s tudies o f l ake s ediments f rom n orthern N iger w here d iatomites i ndicate m oderately d eep l akes o verlain b y l imestones a nd s alts i ndicating a ridity a nd r apid e vaporation ( Faure 1 966: 1 75). IT T ibesti i ndicators s uch a s i ncreased d ownwash a re i nterpreted a s , igns o f i ncreasing a ridity f rom a bout 8 000 t o 7 000 B P ( Jakl 1 979: 3 0). O ther p ossible i ndicators o f a ridity a re s een i n t he a bandonment o f a rchaeological s ites b etween c irca 8 000 a nd 7 000 B P, a s a t A drar B ous a t 7 310 B P ( Clark e t a l. 1 973), a lthough t his o ccurs s omewhat l ater f urther n orth ( Petit Maire e t a l. 1 983). S mith s uggests t hat t he A ir M ountains m ay h ave a cted a s a r efuge f rom h uman g roups d uring t his p hase ( 1984: 8 5). T he w idespread r emains o f o ld h ydrological s ystems a nd o f a ssoc , ated a quatic a nimals i n w hat t oday a re d esert a reas t estify t o b oth t he g reat p roductivity o f t he e arly H olocene h ydrological s ystems, a nd t o t heir d esirability a s h uman h abitation s ites. T his i s p articularly t rue i n t he " first" p luvial p eriod, w here w ater l evels w ere h igher t han d uring t he " second" p luvial. T he e xtent o f r ainfall a nd h umid c onditions c reated n ew r ivers a nd l akes a nd e xpanded e xisting l akes f ar b eyond t heir p resent-day s ize. L ake C had, f or e xample, a t i ts m aximum l evel i n t he e arly H olocene w as t he s ize o f t he C aspian S ea ; t his r epresents a bout f ifty t imes i ts p resent s ize ( Beadle 1 981). T he p resence o f b ones o f L ates n iloticus ( Nile p erch) i n n ow w aterless a reas i ndicates r elatively d eep w ell-oxygenated w ater; N ile p erch h ave a p oor t olerance f or l ow o xygen c onditions ( Fish 1 955). F urther, r emains o f e lephant, h ippo, c rocodile a nd t he t urtle a s w ell a s p ollen o f a M editerranean-type f lora i n t he d esert n ortheast o f L ake C had t estify t o m uch m oister c onditions n ortheast o f L ake C had ( Daget i n B eadle 1 981: 1 98). P art o f t he d esirability o f t he s outhern S ahara a t t his t ime m ay h ave a lso b een d ue t o c hanged e nvironmental p atterns. D ata b ased o n s tream s ediment l oads i n n orthwestern N igeria s uggest t hat t he c hange f rom b raided t o m eandering s treams i ndicates t hat t he p recipitation w as b oth h igh a nd r elatively e venly d istributed t hroughout t he y ear, p rimarily i n t he f irst p luvial p eriod. S uch a r egime w ould f oster a p ermanent v egetation c over, r educing e rosion ( Talbot 1 980). T his r egime c hanged t o m ore s easonal r ainfall a bout 7 500 B P ( Lezine a nd C asanova 1 987:

1 0).

P ollen s tudies f rom L ake C had s uggest t hat t he f irst p luvial p eriod w as c ooler, w ith d omination o f S udano-guineean p ollen d uring t he s econd p eriod r eflecting m ore h umid c onditions ( Maley 1 977). T his e vidence i s s upported b y f indings o f P etit Maire a nd R iser ( 1981)

1 6

s uggesting t hat t he p resence o f l akes a t E rg I ne S akine i n 6 500 t o 7 500 B P i mplies h umid c onditions a long t he 2 1° p arallel i n t he S ahara. I n t he e astern S ahara t here a re s imilar t rends b ut d ifferent d ates. I n n orthwestern S udan t here i s e vidence o f d eciduous s avanna v egetation f rom 8 500 t o 6 000 B P w hen i t i s r eplaced b y A cacia s avanna a nd s hrub g rassland. V egetation d isappeared a t a bout 4 500 B P ( Ritchie e t a l. 1 985: 3 53). W hile l ake l evels i n t he s econd p luvial p eriod o ften r eached t he h igh l evels a ttained i n t he f irst p eriod t hroughout t he S ahara, t here i s e vidence t hat p recipitation w as m ore s easonal, a nd t hat t he h igh l ake l evel p eriod w as o f s horter d uration t han p reviously ( Street a nd G asse 1 981: 1 6). M ost s tudies i ndicate a t rend t o d essication a t a bout 4 500 B P, i nterrupted b y a t hird s hort p luvial p eriod a t c irca 3 500 B P. A t t his t ime, i nitial o ccupation o f s everal s outherly W est A frican s ites, f or e xample K intampo, i s a pparent, a nd S mith s uggests a s outherly m igration o f t he s outhern S ahara g roups o ccurred a s t he s outhern S ahara b ecame u ninhabitable ( 1984 : 8 7; P osnansky 1 984 : 1 49).

T he N ile I t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his s tudy t o d iscuss t he N ile i n d etail, b ut a b rief o utline o f p aleoenvironmental e vents w ill b e g iven. T here a re m any c onflicting v iews i n t he i nterpretation o f N ile s ediments ( for a d i f _cussion s ee W illiams a nd A damson 1 974); h owever, h ere B utzer's ( 1980 0 s cheme w ill b e o utlined ( see T able 2 .1). T here i s e vidence o f a h igh p hase o f t he U pper a nd L ower N ile f rom c irca 2 5000 t o 1 8000 B P a nd t hen i ntermittently h igh t o 1 1500 B P , w ith b rief f alls a t 1 8000 t o 1 7500 B P, a nd a gain a t 1 5000 B P ( Butzner 1 980 ; C lark 1 980). E vidence i ncludes a ggradation o f s ediments a t t he h igh p eriods a nd e vidence o f " dissection" o f N ile a nd w adi s ediments a t t he l ow p eriods. B utzer n otes t hat t here a re h igh f lood l evels a nd e vidence o f " vigorous h igh c ompetence s ummer f loods" a t t his t ime ( Butzer 1 980b: 2 67, 2 72). T hese d ates c orrespond r easonably w ell w ith e vidence p resented b y W endorf a nd S child ( 1976: 2 29). T he

N ile V alley m ust h ave p rovided o ne o f t he f ew a reas

s uitable

f or h uman h abitation d uring t he a rid t erminal P leistocene, a nd C lark ( 1980) s peculates t hat p opulation g roups f rom t he d essicated e astern a nd w estern d eserts m oved t o t he N ile V alley d uring t his p eriod. B ased o n a nalysis o f f auna f rom K or n O mbo P lain f rom s ites d ated b etween 1 7000 a nd 1 2000 B P, C hurcher s uggests t hat t he p lain w as b etter w atered t han p resent w ith a b ush s avanna a nd w oodland a long c hannels o f t he N ile ( 1972:

1 42).

A t a bout 1 1500 B P e vidence f rom N ile s ediments s uggests t hat t he l evel o f t he r iver w as e xtremely h igh; B utzer i n f act d ubs i t t he " wild N ile" ( 1980 : 2 67). T here i s t hen e vidence o f e xtreme N ile d issection ( 20 m eters) a nd " total d essication o f F ayum D epression" f rom 1 1500 t o 1 1200 B P ( Butzer 1 980b: 2 72). T he r iver l evel t hen r ecovers, a lthough n ot t o i ts f ormer l evel, w ith d issection i ndicating l ow s tands a t 7 700 a nd 6 000 B P . T he F ayum l ake B irket Q arun w as p articularly l ow b etween c irca 7 000 a nd 6 000 B P ( in B rewer 1 986: 1 8), a lthough B utzer d ates t his r egression e arlier ( circa 7 300 t o 7 700 B P) ( 1980: 2 71). B utzer s uggests t hat d uring t he e arly H olocene t here w ere " less v igorous

1 7

T able 2 .1. L ake V ictoria

L ake l evels i n L ate P leistocene/Holocene L ake K ivu

L ake A lbert

Y ears B P

L ake N akuru , N aivasha E lment eita

L akes Z iwayS hala

L ake T urk ana

L ake C had

N ile R iver

1 4500 1 4000

V ery L ow

L ow 1 3000

N o O utlet

V ery l ow

1 2000

O verf low

N aiL ow R ising

H igh V ery

R ising 1 1000

O utlet

1 0500 1 0000

N akR ising

N o O utlet

R ising F all

H igh

8 500

R ising

N akH igh N aiH igh E lmH igh

8 000

H igh H igh

H igh L ow

7 500

H igh

7 000 6 500 6 000

N aiF all

5 500 5 000

F all

H igh

L ow

L ow

H igh

H igh

4 500 4 000 3 500

H igh

N akF all

L ow H igh

3 000

L ow

F all

9 500 9 000

H igh

N aiD ry

1 8

L ow

f loods" t han i n t he p receding t erminal P leistocene p eriod, s uggesting l ess d rastic s easonal c hanges i n r iver l evel ( 1980b: 2 69). S lowly f alling r iver l evels a re i nferred t hroughout t he H olocene u ntil h istorical r ecords s how a m ore d rastic f all i n r iver l evel a t a bout 5 000 B P ( Butzer 1 980: 2 72). T he k nown s equence o f t he W hite a nd B lue N ile f ollows t he m ain r iver r easonably c losely. T he " wild N ile" s een b y B utzer i n t he m ain v alley a t 1 1500 B P h as b een l inked w ith o verflow i nto t he W hite N ile f rom b oth L ake A lbert a nd L ake V ictoria a t t his t ime ( Discussion b elow), a nd c an a lso b e d ated a t h igh l evels a long t he W hite N ile a t 1 1630 a nd 1 1250 B P ( Williams a nd A damson 1 980: 2 98). T he B lue N ile i s a lso h igh a t t his p oint. T he t wo r ivers r emain h igh t hrough t he s ubsequent 7 ,000 y ears, w ith h igh s tands a t 7 500 a nd a gain 5 500 B P ( Williams a nd A damson 1 980).

E astern A frica W hile p aleoenvironmental r esearch i n e astern A frica i s l ongs tanding i n d uration, i nterpretation o f m uch o f t he e arlier d ata w as b ased o n t he n ow l argely d iscredited P luvial T heory ( Leakey 1 931; W ayland 1 934), w hich c orrelated s tratigraphic d eposits w ith p luvial a nd i nterpluvial p eriods. C onstruction o f t hese s equences w as b ased o n g lacial f ormations a nd a nalysis o f b each/river l evels a nd s ediments ( Cole 1 963: 6 4). T hese w ere i nterpreted a ccording t o t he p resumed s equence o f g lacial a nd i nterglacial p eriods i n E urope, s uggesting t hat A frican p luvial p eriods c ould b e c orrelated w ith E uropean g lacial p eriods. T he i ntroduction o f 1 4C d ating s howed t hat t he o pposite m ay i n f act o ccur ( Flint 1 959, H amilton 1 982: 4 4); s ubsequent r econstruct ions o f t he p aleoenvironment a re m ore d ependent o n r egional r ather t han u pon e xtra-African c orrelations ( but s ee a lso L ivingstone 1 967: 4 7-48). D uring t he l ast 2 0 y ears, c onstruction o f d etailed p ollen p rofiles i n c onjunction w ith s ediment a nalysis h as b een u seful i n d istinguishing c limatic f rom t ectonic c hange, a nd t hese t aken t ogether p resent a r easonably d etailed p icture o f e nvironmental c hange i n t he p ast 2 0,000 y ears. A s t he f ocus o f t his s tudy i s a quatic r esources a nd h ydrol ogical s ystems, t he e ffects o f e nvironmental c hange o n t hese s ystems w ill b e e mphasized. U nfortunately t he g eographic c overage i s p atchy: w hile t he R uwenzori-Lake V ictoria a nd C entral R ift a reas a re w ells tudied, p aleoenvironmental r econstruction o f t he L ake T urkana a rea h as m ainly r elied o n d ating a nd a nalysis o f a ncient b each r idges. T he t erminal P leistocene i n e astern A frica w as, a s i n t he S ahara, h yper-arid a nd c ooler t han i n s ucceeding p eriods. T he l ack o f e vidence f or l akes, r ivers o r h uman a ctivity i n t he W estern D esert o f E gypt b etween c irca 2 2000 a nd 1 2000 B P a ttests t o t he s everity a nd a ridity o f t he c limate t here ( Wendorf a nd H assan 1 980; C lark 1 980). A nalysis o f l ake l evels i n t he E thiopian h ighland l akes s how t hat L ake A bhe s tarted t o d ry u p a t c irca 2 0000 B P, a nd w as n early o r c ompletely d ry a t 1 7000 B P , asse a nd S treet 1 978; W illiams a nd A damson 1 980), w hile L ake S hala s ho i s a l ow l ake l evel f rom c irca 2 1000 t o 1 2000 B P ( Gasse a nd S treet 1 978).

1 9

A nalysis o f K ibish F ormation s ediments i n t he n orthern L ake T urkana b asin i ndicates s imilar t rends t o a ridity: B utzer s uggests t hat l ack o f d eltaic o r l ittoral s ediments s uggests a " relatively l ow" l evel o f t he l ake ( 1980). A nalysis o f f ish f auna f rom t he e astern l ake d eposits a t t his p eriod s hows a p reponderance o f c ichlids, h ighly t olerant f ish, w hich S chwartz s uggests m ay b e t he o nly o nes t o t olerate t he h igh a lkalinity/salinity v alues ( 1983: 1 37). F urther s outh , c ores f rom L ake N aivasha s uggest l ow l ake l evels f rom a t l east 2 8000 t o 1 2500 B P ( Richardson a nd R ichardson 1 972), w hile c ore s amples f rom L ake V ictoria s how a v ery l ow o r n on-existant l ake f rom c irca 1 4500 ( base o f t he c ore) t o 1 2000 B P ( Kendall 1 969). L ake K ivu i s a lso e xtremely l ow ( -300m?) f rom 1 3700 ( base o f t he c ore) t o 1200 B P ( Hecky a nd D egens 1 973; S toffers a nd H ecky 1 978), a nd L ake M obutu i s l ow f rom 2 5000, t o 1 2500 B P ( with a b rief r ise a t c irca 1 8000 B P), a t w hich t ime i t i s a t l east 5 3 m eters b elow p resent l evel ( Harvey i n H amilton 1 982). P ollen p rofiles, w hile n ot c omplete f or t he t erminal P leistocene p eriod, s how a d ominance o f d rier h abitat, o pen v egetation t axa p rior t o 1 1000 t o 1 2000 B P . R esults f rom M uchoya S wamp i n s outhwest U ganda s how a p eak o f G ramineae p ollen w ith b ush t axa ( e.g. E rica, P hilippia) f rom 1 7000 t o 1 1000 B P ( Morrison 1 968). A s imilar r elatively o pen v egetation i s s een a t M ahoma L ake i n t he R uwenzori M ountains a t c irca 1 5000 t o 1 2700 B P ( Livingstone 1 967). A gain a p rofile d ominated b y G ram inaeae i s s een a t L aboot S wamp o n M ount E lgon, f rom c irca 2 3000 t o 1 3000 u ntil 7 000 B P ( Hamilton 1 982: 1 3). T hese p rofiles a ll i ndicate a rid c onditions. A s w ell a s b eing h yperarid, t he c limate w as a lso a pparently c ooler; M orrison 's p ollen d ata f rom M uchoya S wamp i n s outhwestern U ganda ( 1968) s uggests t hat t he p resence o f S toebe i ndicate t hat t emperatures w ere 5 t o 8 °C l ower t han t oday , f or t he p eriod o f 1 7000 t o 1 1000 B P. T his i s s upported b y p ollen p rofiles f rom S acred L ake o n M t. K enya, w here t he t axa p resent s uggest t hat t emperatures w ere 5 °C l ower t han t oday ( the M t. K enya H ypothermal) ( Van Z inderen B akker a nd C oetzee 1 972: 1 53). P aradoxically, H amilton h as n oted t hat m oister-loving f orest t axa w ere p resent i n s ome l ocalities o n M ount K enya t hrough t his v ery d ry p eriod ( 1982: 2 15). T hese a reas m ay a lso h ave p rovided r efuges f or h uman h abitation d uring t his p eriod. E vidence o f a c hange t o m ore p luvial c onditions i n e astern A frica i s f ound i n a v ariety o f p aleo-environmental i ndicators a nd d ates t o b etween c irca 1 2500 a nd 1 0000 B P ( see T able 2 .1).

W estern R ift a nd L ake V ictoria E vidence o f p luvial c onditions i s f ound f irst i n t he w estern r ift, i n t he R uwenzori-Lake V ictoria a rea. C hanges i n v egetation c an b e o ne o f t he m ost s ensitive i ndicators o f c limatic c hange, a nd L ivingstone ( 1975: 2 59) n oted t hat a c hange f rom d rier t o m oister-loving v egetation t ypes o ccurred e arlier i n t he w etter a reas o f t he R uwenzori M ountains ( see F igure 2 .2) a nd L ake V ictoria t han i n t he d rier a reas s uch a s t he C entral R ift A rea . A t M ahoma L ake ( 1,740 m eters i n

2 0

a ltitude) i n t he w ell-watered R uwenzori M ountains, a s harp c hange a t 1 2700 B P f rom a p rofile d ominated b y g rasses a nd h eliophytic t rees ( interpreted a s o pen v egetation a nd t herefore a rid) t o o ne d ominated b y c losed m ontane f orest t axa p rovides t he e arliest w ell-dated i ndication o f p luvial c onditions ( Livingstone 1 967). S imilarly a t P ilkington B ay, n orthern L ake V ictoria, a t c irca 1 2000 B P p ollen p rofiles i ndicate d ominance o f s emi-deciduous a nd e verg reen f orest t axa, i ndicating i ncreasingly h umid c onditions ( Kendall 1 969: 1 61). C oncomitant w ith t his e vidence o f m oister c onditions i s e vidence f rom s ediment a nalyses a t L ake V ictoria a nd L ake K ivu w hich i ndicate t hat a t 1 2000 B P i n t he l akes t here i s a n i ncrease i n s tability o f t he d iatom p opulations, a l ack o f c arbonates, a nd a n i ncrease i n d epth o f w ater, s uggesting f resher w ater a nd r ising l ake l evels. L ake V ictoria o verflows i ts o utlet a t t his t ime ( Kendall 1 969; S toffers a nd H ecky 1 978). T hese s ed m ents f rom L ake K ivu r epresent a c hange f rom t he " thin v eneer o f s ea . i e nts" f ound i n t he c ore a t c irca 1 3700 B P , i nterpreted a s r epresenting a h ighly c oncentrated c losed l ake, p ossibly a t a s l ow a s 300 m eters ( Stoffers a nd H ecky 1 978). H owever a t 1 0500 B P t here i s e vidence f or a r egression a t b oth l akes. A t L ake V ictoria, b ased o n a r elative c orrelation o f g reen a lgae g enera , w ater d epth a nd s ediment a ccumulation, K endall s uggests a d ecline i n l ake l evel t o 1 2 m eters b elow i ts p resent l evel, a nd l oss o f o utlet a t a bout 1 8 t o 2 1 m eters a bove p resent l ake l evel, f rom c irca 1 040 L t o 9 500 B P ( 1969). A t L ake K ivu, a ragonite d eposition b etween c irca 1 1000 t o 1 0000 B P , a nd a gain j ust b efore 9 300 B P i ndicates a f all i n l ake l evel, c oinciding w ith t he L ake V ictoria d ecline. D ating t o a bout t he s ame t ime i s a d ecline i n m esic f orest t axa a t P ilkington B ay, s uggesting a f all i n p recipitation a s c ause f or t he d ecline. M ontane f orest t axa r ecovers a t 9 500 B P , a nd c ontinues u ntil a bout 6 000 B P. O f i nterest i s t he l ake l evel d ecline d ated a t 1 0400 B P , w hich s hows c hemical a nd f aunal s imilarities t o t he d ry p eriod p rior t o 1 2700 B P. C arbonates a nd o rganic p ercentages a re h igh, a nd w ater c ontent i s l ow , a ll o f w hich l ed K endall t o s uggest a h igh p H ( above 9 .5) f or t he p re-12700 B P p eriod a t L ake V ictoria. S hould t his b e t he s ituation f or t he 1 0400 B P p eriod, a h igh p H m ay h ave r esulted i n a n a ttenuated f ish f auna, p ossibly c ausing t he d isappearance o f s ome g enera. W aters r ose a gain i n b oth l akes a fter 1 0000 B P a nd t here i s e vidence o f e xpansion o f t he L ake K ivu b asin s outhward ( except f or t he c irca 9 300 B P d edline); L ake V ictoria h ad a n o pen o utlet t o t he N ile f rom t his p eriod o n. R elatively s table c onditions o ccur f rom 9 000 t o 5 000 B P , a nd b ased o n d iatom c hanges a w arming t rend i s h ypothesised. A t L ake K ivu, a t c irca 5 000 B P , e ither v olcanic a ctivity o r a d rier c limate o r b oth r esult i n a l ake l evel f all, l oss o f o utlet a nd a t ermination o f t he s table s tratification o f t he l ake; t here i s e vidence o f v olcanic a ctivity a t 5 000 B P ( as w ell a s a t 1 2000 B P) ( Stoffers a nd H ecky 1 978). U nfortunately s imilar d ata a re n ot a vailable f rom L ake R utanzige ( formerly L ake E dward), w here c ores t aken a re n ot a s d eep o r a s w ell d ated. S hards f rom o ne c ore i ndicate v olcanic a ctivity a t 5 600 B P ( Hamilton 1 982). H igh l ake l evels a re k nown a t 1 2 m eters a bove p resent l ake l evel ( de H einzelin 1 957) b ut t heir d ating i s i n q uestion ( Brooks a nd S mith 1 986) ( see F ootnote 1 ). V olcanic a ctivity s ubsequent t o t he

2 1

h igh l evels i s b lamed f or t he d isappearance o f s ome s pecies o f f ish , b ut a gain d ating i s q uestionable ( de H einzelin 1 957; G reenwood 1 959). A t L ake M obutu t here i s e vidence o f ah igh l evel a nd o verflow a t 1 2500 B P ( Hecky i n H amilton 1 982); t he p resence t oday o f a f ully N ilotic f ish f auna i s a dded p roof o f a n o verflow c onnection w ith t he W hite N ile. P ollen p rofiles f rom L ake V ictoria ( Pilkington B ay) a nd M uchoya S wamp i ndicate a c hange t o a d rier, s emi-deciduous f orest t axa a t a bout 6 000 B P, c ontrasting w ith t he c losed m ontane f orest t axa p reviously s een ( Kendall 1 969, M orrison 1 968). P odocarpus, a d rier m ontane g enus, a ppears i n g reater n umbers t hroughout t he a rea , a nd K endall s uggests t he o ccurrence o f am ore s easonal r ainfall r egime. A t M uchoya S wamp M orrison n otes a n a brupt c hange a t c irca 6 000 B P f rom a p rofile d ominated b y w et-loving H agenia t o a d rier-loving t axa, i ncluding P olyscias, u sually w ith a l ife s pan o f 4 0 y ears a nd u sually s ucceeded b y o ther l onger l asting t rees, w hich p redominates f or t housands o f y ears. M orrison ( 1968: 3 79) s uggests t he e nduring p resence o f t his g enus i s d ue t o h uman i ntervention , o f i nterest g iven t he e arly d ates. A t M ahoma L ake i n t he R uwenzoris t he c hange t o P odocarpus d oes n ot o ccur u ntil 3 000 B P , a nd L ivingstone s uggests t his t oo m ay b e t he r esult o f h uman i nterference ( 1967: 5 0).

C entral R ift V alley E vidence o f m oister c onditions o ccurred l ater n orth o f t he R uwenzoris/Lake V ictoria a reas, s upporting L ivingstone's s uggestion o f w etter a reas c hanging t o a m oister c limate f irst. A c hange f rom a p ollen p rofile d ominated b y g rasses t o o ne d ominated b y m oister-loving m ontane f orest t axa i s s een a t L ake K imilili o n M t. E lgon a t 1 0500 B P ( Hamilton 1 982), a nd a t c irca 1 0600 B P a t S acred L ake o n M t. K enya ( Coetzee 1 967). I n t he C entral R ift V alley l akes, B utzer e t a l. ( 1972) s ee a r ising l ake l evel t rend a t L ake N akuru ( corresponding t o + 60 m eters a bove l ake l evel) s tarting a t c irca 1 2000 B P, b ased o n s ediments t aken f rom a n a rea s outh o f t he p resent-day l ake. C ontrary e vidence c omes f rom a c ore t aken f rom L ake E lmenteita, a m ere 1 0 m iles a way, w hich s hared t he s ame b asin a s L ake N akuru a t h igh w ater t imes: a t 1 2200 L ake E lmenteita w as n ot r ising a t a ll, b ut w as " near e nd o f a l ong p hase o f a lkalinity a nd s mall s ize" ( Butzer e t a l. 1 972: 1 073). A s w ell, e vidence o f i ncreased m oisture d oes n ot a ppear o n n earby M t. K enya u ntil a fter 1 1000 B P, n or i s t here e vidence o f s horelines i n t he L ake N akuru b asin c orresponding t o t he c irca 1 2000 B P l evel o f + 60. T herefore f irst e vidence o f m oister c onditions i n t he C entral R ift L akes i s f ound a t 9 200 B P a t L ake N aivasha ( Richardson a nd R ichardson 1 972), a t 8 740 B P a t L ake E lmenteita ( Butzer e t a l. 1 972) a nd a t 9 650 B P a t L ake N akuru ( Washbourn-Kamau 1 971). D ates o f c irca 1 0500 B P f rom L ake B ogoria ( formerly L ake H annington) a nd 9 120 B P f rom L ake M agadi c onfirm t he h igh w ater c onditions t hroughout t he C entral R ift a t t his t ime ( Butzer e t a l. 1 972: 1 073; Y oung a nd R enalt 1 979). T he l akes a t t his t ime a ppear t o h ave b een g reatly e nlarged i n a rea a nd d epth c ompared w ith t he p resent d ay. B ased o n a ncient h igh l evel b eaches, L ake N akuru a nd L ake E lmenteita w ere j oined i n o ne b asin w hich c overed a n a rea o ver 1 0 t imes t he s ize o f p resent-day L ake N akuru a lor3, a nd w ith a d epth o f u p t o 1 80 m eters a bove t he p resent d ay l evel J1 t he l ake ( Butzer e t a l. 1 972: 1 070-1071). T he l evel o f t he

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c ombined l ake w as h igh e nough t o o verflow n orth i nto t he B ahatiM enengai D ivide; t he h eight o f t he o verflow i s e stimated a t a bout 1 80 m eters ( Washbourn-Kamau 1 971r 5 28). P resence o f f ish r emains a t G amble's C ave a nd L ion H ill C ave ( Leakey 1 931: 9 3, 2 47) i ndicate t hat t he l akes w ere m uch f resher t han t oday; u ntil f ish w ere i ntroduced i n t his c entury, t here w as n o f ish f auna i n t he l akes. S imilarly a t L ake B ogoria t here a re f ish r emains a ssociated w ith t he h igh b each l evels ( Young a nd R enalt 1 979: 2 43) b ut t he m odern l ake i s s aline a nd c ontains n o f ish. F rom t he a ncient l evels v isible a round t he N akuru-Elmenteita b asin i t i s n ot c lear h ow l ong t he h igh 1 80 m eter l evel, a nd t herefore t he o utlet, w as m aintained b y t he c ombined l ake. B utzer e t a l. s uggest i t w as o pen p ossibly t o c irca 8 000 B P ( 1972: 1 071). A l ower 4 9 m eter s horeline ( now c alled M isonge, p robably t he s ame a s L eakey's 1 931 N akuran s horeline) h as n ot b een d ated. W hat i s o f i nterest i s t hat t his 1 80 m eter l ake l evel f or N akuru/ E lmenteita w as a pparently o nly a chieved i n t he f irst p luvial p eriod; t hereafter t he t wo l akes w ould h ave r emained a s s eparate, c losed, i ncreasingly s aline a nd a lkaline b asins f rom c irca 8 000 y ears o n. I f t hese t wo l akes e xperienced t he s ame d rop i n l evels a nd p ossibly t otal d essication f rom a bout 5 500 t o 3 000 y ears a go a s d id L ake N aivasha ( see b elow), n ot u nreasonable g iven t heir p roximity, t he f ish f auna w ould h ave b een e liminated w ith l ittle c hance f or r ecovery. E xactly t he s ame s ituation a ppears t o h ave o ccurred i n L ake B ogoria , a nd i s i n t he p rocess o f o ccurring a t L akes M anyara, M agadi a nd N atron , w hich c ontain o nly o ne d warfed c ichlid s pecies. R ichardson a nd R ichardson ( 1972) s uggest t hat L ake N aivasha w as f our t imes i ts p resent a rea a nd s tood a bout 5 8 m eters a bove t he p resent s hore l ine. T he p otential o utlet f or L ake N aivasha i s a t a bout t his a ltitude a nd i t i s s uggested i t o verflowed a t c irca 9 000 B P. A t c irca 5 650 B P e vidence f rom c ores a t L ake N aivasha r ecords a d rop i n l ake l evel f rom 5 700 u ntil 3 040 B P ; i n f act R ichardson a nd R ichardson ( 1972) s uggest t hat t he l ake d ried o ut c ompletely a t a bout 3 000 B P , a ttributi ng t he c ause t o h igher t emperatures a nd r educed p recipitation. A fter 3 000 B P, t he l ake b asin r efilled. T his t rend t o a ridity i s s upported b y t he e vidence f rom L ake K imilili o n M ount E lgon a nd f rom S acred L ake o n M t. K enya, w hich i ndicates a r eturn t o d rier c onditions s hortly a fter 4 000 B P w ith a d ramatic i ncrease i n d rier-loving m ontane t axa ( particularly P odocarpus) ( Hamilton 1 982; C oetzee 1 967).

N orthern C entral R ift T he U pper Q uaternary e nvironmental c onditions o f t he E thiopian h ighlands a re o f p articular i nterest, m ainly d ue t o t heir p roximity t o t he c atchment a reas o f t he R iver O mo, w hich t oday p rovides o ver 9 8% o f t he i nflow t o L ake T urkana ( Beadle 1 981: 1 76). T he l akes i n t he Z iway-Shala b asin - Z iway, L angano , A biyata a nd S hala - a re f ed b y r uno ff w ater f rom t he h ighlands, a nd t he f irst e vidence o f r efilling s ubsequent t o t he t erminal P leistocene a ridity i s a t c irca 1 2000 B P ( Str e t a nd G asse 1 981). I nterrupted b y a b rief r egression, t he l akes c ontinue t o r ise u ntil t hey f orm a s ingle h igh l ake a t c irca 9 400 t o ' 3 500 B P a t 12 m eters a bove t he p resent-day L ake S hala l evel ( Gasse,

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R ognon a nd S treet 1 980 : 3 89). T he l akes r emained h igh u ntil 4 000 B P , w ith r egressions f rom 8 400 t o 6 500 B P, a nd b riefly a t 5 800 B P . A d rop t owards p resent-day l evels o ccurs a fter 4 000 B P ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet 1 980: 3 89). T hese d ates c orrelate r easonably w ell w ith p ollen d ata f rom n earby M ount B adda, w hich s hows m oist c onditions a t c irca 1 0000 B P ( Hamilton 1 982: 1 54, b ut s ee h is d iscussion), a nd f rom L ake A bhe i n t he A far R ift, w hich i s d ry p rior t o 1 0000 B P , a fter w hich h igh l evels o ccur u ntil 4 000 B P ( Street a nd G asse 1 981), w ith a r egression a t 8 400 t o 7 600 B P a nd a s light r egression a t 5 800 B P ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet 1 980: 3 89). H owever, t he a ridity s een p rior t o 1 0000 B P b oth a t L ake A bhe a nd o n M t. B adda c onflicts w ith e vidence o f a r ising l evel i n t he Z iway-Shala b asin, a s w ell a s w ith e vidence f rom o ther l akes f rom t he m id-Awash a nd A far R ifts, w hich s how r ises a t c irca 1 1200 B P ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet, 1 980 : 3 91). A s i s t he c ase a t L akes N akuru a nd E lmenteita, t here i s e vidence o n t h . . 1 h igh b each l evels o f t he f our l akes o f f ish r emains; t oday L ake S hala h as f ish o nly i n i ts i nflow , b ecause i ts s alinity i s e xtremely h igh ( conductivity = 2 0,400 t o 3 3,360 u mhos). 2 D uring b oth t he f irst a nd s econd p luvials i n t he E thiopian M ain a nd A far R ift l akes, d iatom p opulations a nd s ediments i ndicate h ighly p roductive l ake e nvironments. S ponges, g astropods, c rabs a nd f ish w ere a bundant, a nd s ediments i ndicate d eep w aters a nd l ittle e rosion . D ense m acrc)hytic v egetation e xisted a long t he s hores. T his c ontrasts s trongly w ith t he m eso- t o h yper- s aline l akes a t t he p resent t ime ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet 1 980: 3 89-390). F urther s outh, a s m entioned, t he p aleoenvironmental r econstruction o f L ake T urkana r elies o n a nalysis a nd d ating o f b each r idges, s upported b y s ome s ediment a nalyses b y O wen e t a l. ( 1982). A p lethora o f d ates f rom s hell a nd b one a patite h ave b een r ecorded f rom a round t he l ake. W hile d ates f rom t hese m aterials s hould b e t reated w ith c aution ( e.g., C ollett a nd R obertshaw 1 983), t heir o verall t rends a re c onsistent. B each r idge d ating n orth o f L ake T urkana b y B utzer ( 1971, 1 980; e t a l. 1 969, 1 972), c ombined w ith a v ariety o f d ates f rom a round t he l ake i ndicate a h igh l ake l evel f rom c irca 9 500 t o 7 000 B P, a nd f rom 6 200 t o 3 900 B P ( Butzer 1 980: 5 2). D irectly d ated r idges i ndicate t hat w ater i n t he H olocene K ibish L ake B asin r eached a h igh l evel a t 8 800 B P o f 4 30 t o 4 60 m eters a bove s ea l evel ( 55 t o 8 5 m eters a bove t he 1 968 L ake T urkana l evel) ( Butzer 1 980: 4 6). T here i s e vidence o f a s light r egression j ust p rior t o 9 300 B P . S imilar e vidence f or h igh l evels l asting u ntil c irca 7 000 B P c omes f rom s ites a round L ake T urkana. S outhwest o f L ake T urkana a round t he L othagam a rea a c lustre o f s ix d ates i ndicates a h igh l evel f rom 8 600 t o 7 000 B P, w ith a pproximate h eights r anging f rom 4 30 t o 4 60 m eters a bove s ea l evel ( 55 t o 8 5 m eters a bove l ake l evel) ( Robbins 1 972: 3 66; B utzer 1 980 : 5 2). I n t he S uguta t rough , a lthough p robably n ot j oined w ith L ake T urkana, a h igh s tand o f c irca 4 82 m eters i s r ecorded a t 9 660 B P ( Truckle 1 976: 3 82). A t L owasera, s outheast o f t he l ake, a d ate o f c irca 9 470 B P i s a ssociated w ith a l evel o f 7 3.8 m eters ( circa 4 50 m eters a bove s ea l evel), a nd w ith a nother h igh l evel a t c irca 7 785 B P ( Phillipson 1 977: 6 , 8 ). A t K oobi F ora , n ortheast o f t he l ake,

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t he 4 50 t o 4 60 m eter

s hores

h ave b een v ariously d ated a round 9 500 B P ( Vondra a nd B rown 1 978: 8 6 ; B arthelme 1 981, 1 985; O wen e t a l. 1 982), p roviding c onfirmation o f t he e arliest o f B utzer's i ndirect K ibish d ates. T he s light r egression s een b y B utzer p rior t o 9 300 B P m ust p ost-date t he K oobi F ora l evels. B utzer ( 1980) h as s uggested t hat t he h eight o f t he o verflow o utlet t hrough t he L otagippi s wamps a nd L okwanya p ass i s a t 4 50 m eters. T he d ates f rom c irca 9 500 t o 7 000 B P, w ith l evels f luctuating b etween 4 30 a nd 4 60 m eters a bove s ea l evel, t herefore i ndicate a p eriod o f i ntermittent c onnection b etween L ake T urkana a nd t he W hite N ile, v ia t he L otagippi s wamps a nd t he S obat R iver. T here i s a lso e vidence f or a nother c onnection t o t he n ortheast f rom L ake T urkana, b oth i n t he p resence o f a n o therwise u nexplained s oudanien f auna i n t he A baya-Chamo l akes, a nd i n L andsat p hotos w hich i ndicate a n a ncient d rainage c onnection f rom t hese l akes v ia p aleolake C hew B ahir t o L ake T urkana, p resumably a t c irca 9 000 B P ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet 1 980 : 3 91; B eadle 1 981: 1 91). B oth t his c onnection a nd t he L otagippi s wamps c onnection w ould h ave e nsured a f reshened L ake T urkana a nd e xchange o f f auna, p articularly w ith t he W hite N ile; a nd i n f act t his i s c onfirmed b y d iatom a nd p ollen s tudies. B ased o n s tudies o f d iatoms, O wen e t a l. ( 1982) g enerally i nfer a s alinity o f l ess t han t wo p arts p er t housand, a nd a p H o f 7 t o 8 .5. P ollen s tudies i ndicate t hat t he K oobi F ora a rea w as c overed b y a s ub-desert s teppe w ith h erbaceous v egetation, w ith a rboreal f orms m ore c ommon a t 9 880 B P ( Owen e t a l. 1 982: 5 26). , vidence o f r egression i s s een a round L ake T urkana b etween 7 000 a nd 6 000 . I n t he K ibish b eaches a l evel o f o nly + 15 m eters, s howing a c hange f rom s ilts t o g rits a nd g ravels, i s d ated a t 6 600 B P ( Butzer e t a l. 1 972: 1 070). A t L othagam t here i s a n a pproximate 1 ,000 y ear g ap i n h igh l evel d ates f rom 7 000 B P t o 6 200 B P ( Robbins 1 972: 3 66; B utzer 1 980: 5 2), a nd a t L owasera P hillipson ( 1977: 1 0) i nfers " the f irst s ubstantial d rop o f t he l ake" o ccurring a t L owasera b etween 7 785 B P a nd t he n ext d ate o f c irca 4 460 B P . A t K oobi F ora n o l evels a re d ated b etween 8 355 a nd 4 560 B P ( Barthelme 1 981, 1 985), a lthough d iatom c hanges g ive e vidence o f ad rop i n l ake l evel a t t his t ime ( Owen e t a l. 1 982: 5 24). I t i s o f i nterest t hat O wen e t a l. ( 1982: 5 27) d ispute t he m agnitude o f t he l ake l evel f all s een b y B utzer e t a l. a t c irca 6 600, s uggesting t hat l ack o f e vidence f rom s outh o f t he l ake, a nd l ack o f e rosional e vidence e verywhere i s c ontradictory. T hey a lso n ote t hat l akes d id n ot f all a nywhere e lse i n e astern A frica a t t his t ime. H owever, l akes i n t he E thiopian H ighlands s how a " pronounced r egression" b etween 8 500 a nd 6 500 i n t he M ain R ift, a nd b etween 8 400 a nd 7 600 B P i n t he L ake A bhe B asin ( Gasse, R ognon a nd S treet 1 980: 3 89, d iscussion a bove); t hese a re n ear t he O mo R iver c atchment a rea a nd i t w ould b e s urprising i f t he O mo d id n ot a lso f all, p roviding t hat t he d rops i n l evel w ere d ue t o l ack o f p recipitation a nd n ot t o t ectonic a ctivity. A s t he f ormer a ppears t o b e t he c ase f rom t he E thiopian e vidence, t he O mo i nflow w as l ikely r educed, r esulting i n a d rop i n t he l evel o f L ake T urkana. I n f act, w hile n o l ow b eaches a re d ated a round t he l ake, e xcept t he + 15 m eter K ibish o ne d ated a t 6 600 B P , t here a re a lso n o h igh o r m iddle b each r idges d ated b etween 8 355 a nd 5 060 B P b y O wen e t a l. ( except f or o ne b one a patite d ate w hich i s y ounger t han t he a ssociated s hell d ates). T here a re a lso n o h igh o r m iddle l evels r ecorded a t L othagam , L owasera o r K oobi F ora b etween c irca 7 900 a nd

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6 010 B P w ith t he e xception o f o ne d ate a t 7 000 B P . I ndeed c hanges i ndicate t hat a f all d id o ccur ( Owen e t a l. 1 982).

d iatom

I s uggest t hat i n f act t his p rovides e xcellent e vidence f or a f all i n l ake l evel a t s ome p oint b etween 8 000 a nd 6 000 B P . A s B utzer's d ate o f 6 600 B P i s b ased o n s hell w hich c an d ate t oo y oung ( e.g. C ollett a nd R obertshaw 1 983), i t i s p ossible t herefore t hat t he r egression m ay h ave o ccurred s lightly e arlier. H owever f rom t he e vidence a round t he l ake a nd b ased o n t he r egression i n t he E thiopian M ain R ift, t here a ppears t o b e l ittle d oubt o f t he e xistence a nd e xtent o f a s ubstantial r egression, a s B utzer r eported. F ollowing t he r egression , t he s econd p eriod o f h igh l ake l evels b egins a t c irca 6 000 B P w ith a h igh s tand d irectly d ated a t 5 700 B P a t a bout 4 56 m eters a bove s ea l evel ( Butzer 1 980: 4 6). T he h igh l evel a ppears t o c ontinue u ntil t he l ake f alls a gain a round 4 400 B P , w ith a f inal h igh a t 3 250 B P o f 4 50 m eters ( Butzer 1 980: 4 7). T his s econd h igh l ake l evel p eriod i s c onfirmed a round t he l ake: i n t he L othagam , L owasera a nd K oobi F ora a reas, c onsistent d ates f rom 6 010 B P t o 3 720 B P, r ecord a l evel o f a n a verage o f c irca 4 22 t o 4 35 m eters. ( Robbins 1 974; P hillipson 1 977; B arthelme 1 981, 1 985; O wen e t a l. 1 982). H owever t he r egression s een b y B utzer a t c irca 4 400 i s n ot r ecorded e lsewhere. A ccording t o t he K ibish d ata, f rom c irca 7 000 t o 6 000 B P t he r egression a ppears t o b ring t he l ake l evel d own t o p resent l evels, w here b y m odern a nalogy t he p H w ould b e h igh, a t c irca 9 .5, w ith a c onductivity o f 3 300 u mhos ( Beadle 1 981: 6 1). T he s econd p eriod o f t ransgression , w hile g enerally s howing l ower l evels t han t he e arlier o ne, m ay h ave a t l east o nce f luctuated a bove t he 4 50 m eter o utlet, s uggesting a r econnection w ith t he N ile, a r efreshening o f t he l ake a nd an ew f aunal e xchange. D ates a nd a ltitudes f rom O wen e t a l. h owever d o n ot s upport t he i dea o f a n o verflow c onnection . T o s ummarise t he t rends s een, e vidence o f p luviality i s f irst i ndicated i n p ollen p rofiles i n t he p resently m oist a reas o f R uwenzoriL ake V ictoria a t c irca 1 2000 t o 1 2700 B P . F urther n orth a nd e ast t he o nset o f m oister c onditions c omes l ater : c irca 9 500 t o 1 0000 i n t he c entral R ift, a nd a t c irca 9 500 a t L ake T urkana, b ut i s p ossibly e arlier i n t he E thiopian h ighlands. A r ise i s s een i n s ome E thiopian h ighlands l akes a t 1 2000 B P w ith a ll s haring h igh l evels a t c irca 9 500. A t t his t ime r ainfall i s h igher, t emperatures a re h igher, v egetation i s m oister-loving, a nd t he l akes a re f our t o t en t imes l arger a nd m uch f resher t hat a t p resent. S tudies i n n orthern S udan b y R itchie, E yles a nd H aynes ( 1985) i ndicate a " significantly m ore h umid" p eriod t han n ow ; t hey s uggest t hat t he i sohyets h ad s hifted a bout 4 00 k ilometers n orthward. P eriods o f r egression r elated t o a f all i n p recipitation a nd a d rier v egetation c an b e s een i n t he n orth ( Ethiopian h ighlands a nd L ake T urkana) a t a bout 8 500 t o 6 500, a nd a re w idespread t hrough e astern A frica a t 5 500 t o 6 000 B P . A g eneralised t rend t o a ridity a nd f alling l ake l evels i s s een a fter 4 000 t o 3 000 B P.

2 6

M icro-paleoenvironmental c hange S tudies o f l ake/river s ediments, t heir l evels, a nd p ollen p rofiles c an u sually o nly i ndicate c hanges o ver h undreds o f y ears, a nd t herefore a t b est o nly l ong t erm p aleoenvironmental t rends. D ocumentation o f l ake l evel a nd c limatic c hanges i n t he S ahara a nd e astern A frica i n h istorical t imes s uggests t hat c limatic, a nd t herefore l ake a nd r iver f luctuations o n a v ery w ide s cale, o ccur a s am atter o f c ourse b oth s easonally a nd p erennially ( e.g. N icholson 1 980). W hile f luctuations i n w ater l evels d uring p eriods o f h igh w ater w ill n ot u sually s eriously a ffect t he p roductivity o f t he h ydrological s ystems, a t l ow p eriods, a s s een i n o ur p resent c entury, e xtreme d ownward s easonal a nd p erennial f luctuations c an c ripple t he a quatic f auna, o ften i rreparably. T his i s p articularly t rue w hen l akes l ose t heir o utlets, a nd t he w aters b ecome i ncreasingly s aline a nd a lkaline. T he d iscussion a bove i ndicates t hat s uch v ulnerable p eriods o ccurred i n t he m ore a rid p eriods f rom a bout 8 000 t o 7 000 B P i n t he S ahara a nd v ariously i n e astern A frica f rom 8 000 u ntil 6 000 B P, a fter 4 000 B P, a nd a t p resent. T his s ection w ill o utline p resent-day e xamples o f s uch f luctuations a nd t heir e ffects; t hese w ill s erve a s m odern d ay a nalogues f or p revious p eriods o f l ow w ater l evels. T he g reat s ize a nd p roductivity o f t he S aharan l akes a nd r ivers i n t he f irst p luvial p eriod i ndicates t hat s easonal o r p erennial f luctuat ions i n p recipitation a nd w ater l evel w ould n ot h ave g reatly a ffected t he c omposition o f t he a quatic f auna. T his i s b orne o ut b y d iatom e vidence f rom L ake C had w hich i ndicates a s table f resh l ake i n t his p eriod. H owever a nalogies w ith h istoric L ake C had i ndicate t hat i n p eriods o f r egression , s uch a s t hat a t a round 8 000 t o 7 000 B P , t he f auna o f t he l ake w ould h ave b een d rastically a ffected b y c hanges i n l ake l evel a nd t herefore o f l ake c omposition . L ake C had i s s ituated o n t he p resent d ay e dge o f t he S ahara, a nd i n t he 1 960 's o ccupied t wo b asins w ith a t otal a rea o f c irca 2 0,000 k m 2. I t h as a r ainfall o f c irca 3 00mm p er y ear a nd i s v ery s hallow, b eing 2 t o 7 m eters d eep. I n t he f loodwater s eason a n a dditional 5 ,000 k2 o f v egetated l and i s i nundated, p roviding b reeding a nd n ursery a reas f or f ish , a nd t herefore e nsuring v ery h igh p roductivity o f f ish a nd o ther a quatic o rganisms ( Beadle 1 981: 2 10). B eing s hallow i t i s h ighly s usceptable t o t he e ffect o f c hanges i n p recipitation o n i ts i nflows. T herefore i ts l evels h ave f luctuated w idely o ver t he p ast 1 ,000 y ears ( Nicholson 1 980: 1 92; S ervant a nd S evant-Vildary 1 980: 1 45), a nd p resumably t hroughout i ts h istory. I n t hese f eatures, L ake C had i s p robably n ot u nlike m any o f t he l arge, s hallow e arly H olocene S ahara l akes w hich h ave s ince d ried u p. A fter 1 963, d rought c onditions r esulted i n a m uch r educed i nflow f rom t he C hari R iver i nto L ake C had, a nd t he l ake l evel f ell d rastically, r esulting i n c omplete d essication o f t he n orth b asin i n 1 975 ( Beadle 1 981: 2 25). P rior t o t otal d essication, t he d epth i n t he n orth b asin f ell f rom 3 .5 t o 1m eter, a nd c onductivity r ose f rom 9 00 t o 3 ,500 ' mhos ( 1981: 2 27). W hile t he l ake l evel h as f allen i n t he s outh b asi r, t he c onductivity i s 3 50 u mhos a nd t he w ater i s s till r elatively r resh. T he s hallowing o f t he s outh b asin m ade i t s usceptible t o s tirring b y w inds a nd s ubsequent d eoxygenation. E ffects o n t he f ish

2 7

f auna w ere d rastic: t hey w ere e liminated f rom t he N orth B asin a ltogether, a nd i n t he s outh b asin m any s pecies h ave d isappeared, p resumably i nto t he C hari R iver. T he f irst g enera t o l eave t he l ake w ere t hose w hich n eed w ell-oxygenated c onditions s uch a s L ates a nd H ydrocynus. B eadle 1 981: 2 30) r eported t hat: " Immense n umber o f f ish h ave b een k illed b oth f rom d eoxygenation o f t he w aters a nd s edimentary p articles c logging g ills". T he h ighly p roductive f ishery o f t he 1 960 's, p roducing u p t o 1 00,000 t ons a nnually, w as d ecimated. A n e xamination o f r ecords o f l ake l evels f or t he p ast t housand y ears i ndicates t hat t his d ecimation o f t he f ish p opulation o ccurs o n a n a verage o f a t l east o nce a c entury i n L ake C had, a nd o ften m ore f requently ( Servant a nd S ervant-Vildary 1 980: 1 45; N icholson 1 980: 1 92). E xtrapolation o f t his d ata t o o ther S aharan l akes i n t he r egression p eriods o f t he e arly H olocene s uggests g reat f luctuations i n l evels, a nd p eriodic s easonal a nd p erennial e xterminations o f f ish a nd o ther a quatic f auna. E ffects o n t he m id-Holocene l ake f auna w ould h ave u ndoubtedly b een m ore d rastic t han i n L ake C had a s m ost w ould n ot h ave a p ermanent i nflow a s d oes C had, n or u nderground s eepage w hich k eeps t he l ake c omparatively f resh . I n e astern A frica t he h ydrological s ystems m ost a ffected b y s easonal/perennial c limatic f luctuations a re t he l akes w ith c losed b asins, t hat i s, w ithout o utlets. T his w ould i nclude m ost o f t he s outhern E ast A frican l akes, w ith t he e xception o f L akes M obutu, R utan,ige a nd V ictoria. L akes B aringo a nd N aivasha, a lthough c losed b asins, a re f resh, p resumably d ue t o u nderground s eepage ( Beadle 1 981: 3 33). B oth L ake T urkana a nd t he C entral R ift l akes h ave b een s tudied o ver t he p ast c entury a nd t he e ffects o f l ake l evel c hanges o n t heir f aunas c an b e u sed a s a nalogues f or t he e arlier r egression p eriod. B oth L ake T urkana a nd t he C entral R ift l akes h ave e xperienced w ide f luctuations i n l evels o ver t he p ast 1 00 y ears; B utzer i n f act h as s aid t hat t he a mplitude o f t he f luctuations i n L ake T urkana's l evel i n t he p ast 7 5 y ears h as e xceeded t hat o f a ny o ther n atural l ake i n t he w orld ( in B eadle 1 981: 1 77). A t t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury t he l ake w as r ecorded a t + 15 m eters, b ut d ropped t o a bout 5 b etween 1 950 a nd 1 960, 9 i n 1 972 a nd i s e ven l ower a t p resent ( Beadle 1 981: 1 77; H opson 1 982: 7 5). I n t his c entury a lkalinity h as f luctuated a round 2 0 t o 2 4, a nd c onductivity a t a round 2 860 t o 3 330 u mhos r espectively ( in H opson 1 982: 9 9; B eadle 1 981: 1 78). - S easonal e ffects o f l ow l evels w ere o bserved i n t he 1 980 's w hen l evels w ere a round 10 m eters ( unofficial r ecording). T he b reeding/ n ursery a reas a round t he l ake w ere h ighly p roductive, p articularly f or t he t ilapias, d uring t he l ast h igh l evel p eriod i n t he m id 1 970's. L ike L ake C had, t his p roductivity w as d irectly d ue t o s easonal f looding o f v egetated a reas w hich p rovided f ood a nd s helter f or b reeding f ish a nd t heir f ry. I n t he 1 980 's t he s easonal i nundation b y t he O mo w as m inimal, r esulting i n l ittle a nnual c hange o f l ake l evel. L ow p recipitation d enuded t he l ittoral s hores o f v egetation , s o t hat e ven w ith a m inimal r ise i n l ake l evel, n o n ew v egetated l and w as i ncorporated i n t he l ake. T hose g enera d ependent o n s heltered i nshore a reas f or b reeding a nd f eeding, u sually t he i nshore h erbivores s uch a s C itharinus a nd D istichodus h ave b een s everely r educed i n n umbers. T he t ilapia f ishery h as d eclined b y 9 0% i n 1 0 y ears ( Stewart 1 988).

2 8

S uch l ow l evels a re a ssociated w ith h igh a lkalinity a nd s alinity v alues, w hich f ew f ish t olerate. O ne g roup o f f ish - t he M ormyroidea a re n o l onger p resent i n t he l ake, p resumably d ue t o h igh s alinity, w hich c auses d isfunction o f t heir e lectric o rgans ( Beadle 1 981: 1 86). O ther g enera s uch a s C larotes, f ormerly k nown t hroughout t he l ake, a re n ow o nly r eported f rom t he O mo D elta a rea. T herefore, w hile m ass e xterm ination o f f ish a s s een i n L ake C had i s n ot l ikely t o h ave o ccurred i n a r egression p eriod a t L ake T urkana, a l arge r eduction i n n umbers w ould o ccur, p articularly o f t he i nshore h erbivorous f ish a nd t hose i ntolerant o f h igh a lkalinity a nd s alinity v alues. M ore s pecialised g roups s uch a s t he M ormyroidea m ight h ave d isappeared. L akes E lmenteita a nd N akuru h ave f luctuated w idely i n t he p ast c entury, r esulting i n t otal d essication o f L ake N akuru w ithin t he p ast 7 0 y ears ( Hamilton 1 982: 5 7). A s a r esult L akes N akuru, E lmenteita a nd B ogoria a re w ithout f ish ( excluding i ntroduced s pecies), r esulting f rom p eriodic d essication ( Beadle 1 981) a nd i nsufficient r efreshening t o a llow f ish t o r ecolonise. F ormerly r ich f ish f aunas a re a ttested t o f rom t he f ish r emains a ssociated w ith h igh l ake l evels a t b oth L ake N akuru a nd E lmenteita ( Gambles C ave, L ion H ill C ave [ Leakey 1 931: 9 3, 2 47]) a nd L ake B ogoria ( Young a nd R enalt 1 979). S imilarly, a s n oted a bove, L akes M agadi, N atron a nd M anyara, a lso c lose' b asins, a ll c ontain a f auna r educed t o o ne s pecies o f f ish, a v ery u warfed h ighly s pecialised c ichlid w hich c an s urvive t he v ery h igh a lkalinity/salinity o f t hese l akes. N o s tudies o f f ossil f ish f rom t hese l akes h as b een c onducted. T he f auna i n t hese l akes i s s o h ighly s pecialised t o t he u nique c onditions o f t hese l akes t hat a ny s hift i n a lkalinity o r s alinity o r d issolved o xygen c an a ffect t heir s urvivability. C oe ( 1966) d escribes o n s everal o ccasions m ass k illings o f t he t ilapia i n L ake M agadi f ollowing w ind s torms w hich s tirred u p m ud a nd d eoxygenated w ater. S imilarly a t t he e nd o f a p articularly a rid d ry s eason M .D . L eakey d escribed t housands o f d ying f ish i n d ried p ools a t t he e dge o f L ake J ilori, K enya ( 1971: 4 3). P eriodic e vents s uch a s t hese c an r educe o r e xterminate t he f auna o f a l ake, s hould t hey o ccur w ith a ny r egularity. W hile l ake l evels w hich a re h igh e nough t o o verflow t he o utlet c an t hen b e r estocked a nd r efreshened, s uch a n e vent w as a pparently r are f ollowing t he m id-Holocene r egression. T hese l akes h ave t herefore l ikely b een w ithout a f ish f auna, o r w ith a v ery i mpoverished o ne d uring o r s ubsequent t o t he r egression.

S ummary P leistocene p eriod w as h yperarid w ith r educed T he t erminal c ooler t emperatures a cross t he S ahara a nd e astern p recipitation a nd orld w ide c limatic p attern. E vidence o f l ocalised A frica , f itting a w owever i s s een i n t he n orthern S ahara a nd i n w etter c onditions h s uch a s T ibesti a nd c ertain a reas o f M ount K enya, m ountainous a reas efuge f or h uman g roups. p ossibly p roviding r R econstruction

o f

t he s ubsequent p luvial p eriod s uggests

2 9

a

f ar

l ess s table c limatic r egime w ith p eriods o f g reater o r l esser p luviality i nterspersed w ith p eriods o f a ridity. I n b oth t he S ahara a nd e astern A frica t he i nitial p eriod o f p luviality, s tarting a bout 1 2500 t o 9 500 B P a nd l asting u ntil b etween 7 000 t o 8 000 B P ( with l ocal o scillations) i s t he m ost m oist a nd h umid, w ith i ncreased r ainfall a nd v ery h igh l ake/river l evels a nd a quatic p roductivity. R itchie e t a l. ( 1985) s uggest t hat t he i sohyets s hift 4 00 k ilometers n orthward a t t his t ime, b ased o n t heir s tudies i n n orthern S udan. F alling l ake l evels a nd c hanges t o d rier-loving v egetation a ssociated w ith d ecreased r ainf all o ccur i n t he S ahara a t a bout 8 000 t o 7 000 B P , a nd i n e astern A frica a t t wo i ntervals b etween 8 500 a nd 6 500 B P . T hese c onditions c ontinue, w ith b rief m oister s pells u ntil p resent. T he f irst p luvial p eriod i s o ne o f h igh h ydrological p roductivity w ith l akes a nd r ivers a ttaining s izes m any t imes t heir p resent s ize, a nd w ith e vidence o f r ich a quatic f aunas. H owever, t he s ubsequent p eriod o f a ridity d essicated s maller w ater b odies a nd r educed m any o f t he m edium t o l arge l akes a nd r ivers t o s aline a nd a lkaline b asins w ith a ttenuated h ighly s pecialised f auna. B y a nalogy w ith m odern l akes t he f aunas m ust h ave o ften b een e xterminated o r m uch r educed. T he s econd p luvial p eriod i s l ess m oist t han t he f irst a nd t he h ydrological s ystems a re n ot a s p roductive a s i n t he e arlier p luvial p eriod. I n s ystems w here t he o utlet i s n ot r e-opened, t he l ake f auna w ould n ot r ecover f rom t he r egression p eriod. A d rier c limatic r egime a fter a bout 4 500 t o 4 000 B P r esults i n p resent d ay f aunas a nd c onditions. R ecent r esearch o n d esertification i n n orthern A frica d ocuments t he s teadily d ecreasing p roductivity o f m any l ake a nd r iver s ystems, p articularly i n t he s ahel z one ( e.g. H are 1 977).

3 0

C HAPTER 3 :

C ULTURAL R ECONSTRUCTION

T he S ahara C ultural a nd f aunal a ssemblages a nd s equences f or t he t erminal P leistocene/Holocene p eriod a re o utlined i n t his s ection. O ther a uthors h ave d iscussed t he m aterial c ulture o f t his p eriod i n d etail ( e.g . C lark 1 980, 1 984; H assan 1 980), a nd t he e mphasis h ere w ill b e o n e xamining t he s ubsistence b ase o f t he s ites. M ost o f t he s outhern S ahara w as c ool a nd h yperarid i n t he t erminal P leistocene, a nd t he l ack o f c ultural r emains d ated t o t his p eriod s uggests i ts i nhospitality f or h uman h abitation. S ites d escribed a s " Iberomarusian" a re k nown f rom e astern M orocco a nd A lgeria a t t his t ime, s uggesting t hese a reas w ere e xperiencing m oister c onditions. S mith ( 1984: 8 5) h as s uggested t hat m ountainous a reas s uch a s t he A ir M ountains m ay h ave a cted a s r efuges f or h uman g roups. S lightly l ater, a t a bout 1 2000 B P, s mall s urface s ites a re k nown t hroughout t he s outhern S ahara, f rom M auritania t o t he w estern d esert o f E gypt. T hese a re a ceramic, u tilising a s mall b lade t echnology o ften w ith s pecialised p oints ( Ounananian a nd B ou S aada t ypes) ( Clark 1 980 : 5 62). J udging f rom s ites i n t he E gyptian W estern D esert t he f ood s ources a t t his t ime w ere p rimarily h unted m ammals, i ncluding a uroch ( Bos), h are ( Lepus) a nd g azelle ( Gazella) ( Gautier i n W endorf a nd S child 1 980: 3 28-329). A t a bout 9 500 B P s ites a ppear i n t he s outhern S ahara a ssociated w ith h igh l ake a nd r iver l evels. F inds f rom t hese i ndicate a s ubsistence s trategy b ased o n a quatic r esources, c ontrasting w ith t he e arlier f ocus o n h unted t errestrial m ammals. F auna f rom A drar B ous, d ated t o > 7310 B P, ( Smith 1 976), s eem t o b e r epresentative o f t he f auna a t t his t ime. F auna i ncludes L ates a nd C larias, c rocodile ( Crocodilus), t urtle ( Trionyx) a nd h ippopotomus ( Hippopotomus). O ther s ites f rom t his f irst p luvial p eriod w ith a s imilar f auna i nclude T orha ( Barich 1 980), I n G uessam ( Niger) ( Marchand 1 936), T amaya M ellet ( Niger) ( Kelley 1 934), A mekni ( Camps 1 977: 8 ) a nd A sselar i n M ali ( in S mith 1 980: 4 52) ( see F igure 3 .1). P etit Maire e t a l. a dd l arge b ovids, e lephants ( Loxodonta) a nd r hinoceros ( Diceros) t o t his l ist, b ased o n f auna f rom t heir A Z , A R a nd M K s urface s ites i n n orthern M ali ( 1983: 1 08). U nfortunately i n t his l atter r eport t he f aunas f rom t he e arlier a nd l ater H olocene p luvial p hases a re n ot d istinguished; t hese p hases a re d ated b etween a bout 3 ,800 a nd 8 ,400 B P . T his a quatic-based f auna w as t ypical o f d eep, p ermanent a nd p roductive w aters a nd w as n ot t he s ame a cross t he s outhern S ahara ( see F igure 3 .1). P etit Maire e t a l. n ote t hat t he f ish f rom s ites o f c entral n orthern M ali w ere s ignificantly s maller t han t hose t o t he

3 1

L ist o f S ites

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

A rouane A sselar A mekni I n G uezzam T amaya M ellat M eniet A drar B ous U an M uhuggiag, U an T elocat D akleh F ayum N abta I sna

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5.

I dfu W adi K ubbaniya K or n O mbo C atfish C ave K hor M usa E sh S haheinab G eili E arly K hartoum K adero, Z akiab S habona T agra G uli M atupi C ave

2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 3 5. 3 6. 3 7.

F igure 3 .1.

K oobi F ora L owasera L othagam L akes N akuru a nd N aivasha L ukenya O lduvai G orge M umba-hohle K isese I shango A tbara R iver T i-N-Torha , T i-N-Torha E ast S aggai

M ap o f P leistocene a nd H olocene a rchaeological s ites d iscussed i n t he t ext ( Adapted f rom P hillipson 1 985:

3 2

1 18)

n ortheast, o r s outhwest; u nlike o ther a reas t here w ere n o c rocodiles o r l arge a nimal r emains. P etit Maire e t a l. ( 1983: 1 14) s uggest t he c entral a rea w as m ore a rid, a nd t herefore t he l akes a nd r ivers l ess p roductive a nd r eliable f or r esource e xploitation t han w ere o ther a reas . T his i s s upported b y d ata f rom D aget ( 1959, 1 961) w ho r eported L ates a nd a v ariety o f c atfish e xisting i n a n a rc s tretching f rom L ake C had t o A rouane, b ut w ith a n a bsence o f f ish w est o f A ir a nd e ast o f A rouane. T he p resence o f L ates s uggests r easonably d eep w ello xygenated w aters ( Daget 1 959: 1 105). F urther, a t t he s tratified s ites o f T i-N-Torha, L ibya, d ated a t c irca 9 000 t o 8 000 B P, o nly t wo g roups o f f ish w ere i dentified - c ichlids a nd C larias. T hese t wo g roups a re u sually t he l ast s urvivors i n i ncreasingly s aline w aters; b ecause t he T i-N-Torha c ichlids w ere o f d warfed s ize, a c ommon r esponse t o h ighly s aline w aters, i t w as s uggested b y t he a uthors t hat t he f ish w ere t aken f rom p ermanent i solated w aters o r a s pring ( Gautier a nd V an N eer 1 982: 1 23). S uch a w ater s ource w ould f luctuate b oth s easonally a nd p erennially. A lthough t he a bove e vidence i s s canty, i t i s c lear t hat t he a vailability o f a quatic r esources w as p atchy a nd i n m any a reas o nly s easonally a vailable i n t he e arly H olocene p eriod. W hile m any o f t he l arge h ydrological s ystems, s uch a s L ake C had, w ould h ave b een p erenr 4a lly p roductive i n t his f irst p luvial p eriod, o ther l akes a nd r ivers, p articularly f urther n orth, w ould h ave b een l ess d ependable a s s ources o f f ood. A ssociated w ith t hese S aharan s ites i s a m icrolithic a ssemblage b ased o n g eometrics, a nd p ottery, u sually g lobular v essels w ith a w avyl ine d ecoration; t hese a re f irst s een a t t he e arliest s ites, s uch a s a t T i-N-Torha i n 9 080 B P ( Barich 1 980). A lso a ssociated a re b one h arpoon a nd s pear p oints, a lthough t he f irst a ppearance o f t he l atter i s q uestioned; H uard a nd M assip s uggest t hey o riginated i n t he e ast a nd d iffused w estwards ( 1964 : 1 19). B oth u niserial a nd b iserial f orms a re k nown, w ith d iverse b asal f abrication ; t hose w ith a h ole p resumably f unctioned a h arpoon h eads w hile p ointed b ases i mply a f ixed s pearhead u tilisation.' T here a re d ivergent o pinions o n t he o rigins o f t he S aharan f ishing p eople. B arich ( 1980) h as s uggested t hey d erived f rom t he I beromarusian c ultural g roup o n t he b asis o f s tone t ool t ypology. S mith ( 1984), h owever, n otes t hat t here i s n o p recedence o f b arbed b one p oints i n t he I beromarusian s ites, a nd s uggests t he U pper N ile V alley a s a n a lternative, b ased o n s imilarity i n p ottery d ecoration. A s m entioned p reviously, m uch o f t he r esearch h as b een c oncerned w ith t his q uestion, a nd t he f ocus h as u sually b een o n t ypological l inks c onnecting p ottery a nd b arbed b one p oint s tyles w ith t he U pper N ile s ites ( e.g. H uard a nd M assip 1 964). A r ecent t rend i n r esearch , h owever, h as b een t o c onstruct r egional s equences ( e.g. t he T ilemsi V alley); d ata f rom t his a pproach s hould b e m ost u seful i n p roviding m ore i nsight i nto t he q uestion o f o rigins. F ollowing t he a rid p eriod a t 8 000 t o 7 000 B P a d iversification o f t he m ammalian s ubsistence b ase o ccurs, w hile f ish a pparently b ecome l ess i mportant. A t t he s ites o f U an M uhuggiag a nd U an T elocat, d ated t o a bout 6 000 a nd 6 700 B P r espectively ( Smith 1 980: 4 54), r emains a re

3 3

d ominated b y d omestic B os a nd c aprines. A t A drar B ous d omestic a nd w ild m ammal r emains p redominate, i ncluding a ntelopes ( Gazella), h ippo ( Hippopotomus), r hinoceros ( Diceros) a nd w arthog ( Phacochoerus) ( Smith 1 976). W hile f ish r emains a re k nown f rom t he A ir M ountains ( Lhote i n S mith 1 980 : 4 57), a t M eniet i n H oggar t hey w ere r are ( Hays 1 975 : 3 1). I n C entral C had, f our s ites w ith w avy-line p ottery c ontain o nly t he b ones o f C larias ( Courtin 1 966:

2 73).

I n t he E gyptian W estern D esert, t he f irst u nequivocal e vidence o f d omestic a nimals i s f ound a t 7 500 B P w ith B os a nd o vicaprids; a lthough a p revious o ccupation d ated t o 8 100 B P i s i nterpreted t o i nclude b ones o f d omestic B os, e vidence i s e quivocal. W ith t he 8 100 B P " Bos", t he r easons g iven f or d omestication w ere t hat t he b ones w ere f ound o utside t he p resumed e cological t olerance o f w ild B os, a nd t he b ones a ppeared s maller t han t hose o f t he w ild a uroch ( Gautier i n W endorf a nd S child 1 980: 3 32; d iscussion i n S mith 1 984: 9 0). T he m aterial c ulture a ssemblages o f t his s econd p luvial p eriod a re a lso d iversified a nd s how r egional v ariation . T ool t ypes f ound i nclude b ifacially f laked d isc k nives, p olished s tone a xes a nd a dzes, h ollowb ased p oints a nd g rindstones. P ottery s hows a v ariety o f f orms a nd d ecoration. A t a bout 4 500 t o 4 000 B P s ites i n t he s outhern S ahara a re a bandoned d ue t o i ncreasing d essication, a nd t he i nitiation o f o ccupat ion i n w estern A frica s uggests t hat S ahara i nhabitants m igrated s outhw ards ( Smith 1 984: 8 6). I n s ummary, f ollowing t he t erminal P leistocene h yperarid p eriod a nd c oncomitant w ith t he f irst p luvial p eriod, a rchaeological s ites w ith a s ubsistence b ased m ainly o n f ish , a quatic r eptiles a nd m ammals a re f ound, a ssociated w ith c eramics w ith w avy-line d ecoration a nd b one h arpoon/spear p oints. T he p resence o f L ates n iloticus i n s ome s ites s uggests p ermanent d eep w aters a nd a r eliable r esource b ase t hroughout t his p eriod, w hile d epauperate a nd d warfed f auna a t o ther s ites s uggests t hese a reas e xperienced s easonal a nd p erennial r esource i nstability. W hile t he i nhabitants h ave b een p ostulated t o h ave m igrated f rom t he n orthern I beromarusian c ultural g roup a nd/or f rom t he U pper N ile V alley, r egional s equences a re n ot w ell e nough k nown t o c onfirm o r r efute t hese i deas. T he p ossibility o f i n s itu d evelopment m ust a lso b e c onsidered. F ollowing t he a rid p eriod, w hen f ew s ites a re k nown, t he s econd p luvial i s m arked b y a rchaeological s ites w ith a s ubsistence b ase d iversified t o i nclude d omestic a nimals, w hile f ish a re l ess i mportant i n t he d iet.

T he N ile V alley A p lethora o f s ites ( dating f rom 2 5000 t o a bout 1 1000 B P) a long t he U pper a nd L ower N ile r ivers i llustrates t he c omparatively i ntensive o ccupation t here ( see F igure 3 .1). F rom a bout 2 5000 u ntil 1 5000 t o 1 7000 B P, s ites a re k nown f rom b oth N ubia a nd E gypt n orth o f A swan w here t he i nhabitants u tilised a s mall b lade t echnology. T heir e conomy w as b ased o n h unting, f ishing a nd s hellfish c ollecting, a nd f rom a bout

3 4

1 7000 B P o n , c ollecting o f w ild g rains ( Clark 1 980: 5 52-553, 5 57). T he s ites a t W adi K ubbaniya. n ear A swan a nd d ating t o a bout 1 7000 B P , p rovide a n i ndication o f t he e conomy o f t hese p eople a t t his t ime. H unting o f m edium-sized m ammals s uch a s w ild c attle ( Bos p rimigenius) a nd h artebeest ( Alcelaphus b ucephalus), a s w ell a s b irds o ccurred ( Gautier e t a l. 1 980: 2 88-289); f ish r emains b y f ar d ominate t he a ssemblages. T he d iversity o f f ish i s l ow , w ith C larias ( catfish) c omprising o ver 9 5% o f t he t otal f ish r emains; c ichlids, B arbus a nd A nguilla a re r epresented i n v ery s mall n umbers ( Van N eer 1 986: 1 10). T his d ependence o n f ish, a s w ell a s t he c oncentration o n o ne g enus - C larias - r eflects a s ubsistence s trategy s een e arlier i n t he K hor M usa s ites n ear W adi H aifa. K hor M usa s ites d ate f rom a bout 4 0000 t o 2 5000 B P a nd c ontain m any f ish r emains, m ainly C larias ( over 8 0% o f t he f ish) ( Greenwood 1 968: 1 00-101). F rom a bout 1 8000 B P u ntil t he " wild N ile" o f a bout 1 1400 B P ( see s ection o n P aleoenvironment) a nd t he s ubsequent f all i n r iver l evel, t he N ile i s i nterpreted a s h aving b een g enerally h igh , w ith s trongly s easonal s ummer f looding ( Butzer 1 980b: 2 72). N umerous s ites d isplayi ng a pparently u nique c ultural a ssemblages a re d ocumented f rom a long t he N ile; h owever C lark n otes t hat t he l ithic a ssemblages a re e ssentially m icrolithic a nd a re b ased o n a " true b ladelet t echnology" ( 1980: 5 53). W endorf a nd S child s uggest t hat t he t ypological a nd t echnological d ifferences i n i ndustries, d espite e xploitation o f s imilar m icroenvironments, r eflect s everal d iverse g roups w ith a lready e stablished t ool k its w ho m igrated t o t he N ile i n t he a rid B allamaM asmas p eriod ( 1976: 2 43). U nfortunately t he g reat d iversity i n l ithic a ssemblages h as n ot b een c orrelated w ith e ither e thnic o r a ctivity-related d ifferences; p robably s everal p rocesses a re i nteracting. A n i ncreasing r eliance o n a quatic r esources a t t hese s ites m ay b e r elated t o b oth t he h igh N ile l evel a nd t he s trong s easonal f looding. F ish f orm a n i mportant s ubsistence c omponent o f t he v ast m ajority o f s ites a long t he N ile a t t his t ime, w ith C larias b eing t he m ost i mportant g enus r epresented. A t s ites n ear I sna a nd E dfu d ating t o a bout 1 7000 B P, b oth h igh w ater a nd l ow w ater s ites a re k nown, a s w ell a s t wo d ifferent i ndustries ( Idfuan a nd F akhurian) ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 976: 2 49+). T he f ish e xploitation a t t hese s ites i s s imilar: o f t he 1 7 s ites, r eported C larias e lements c omprise 9 9 t o 1 00% o f t he t otal n umber o f f ish r emains. A t s everal s ites t he a mount o f f ish r epresented i s h uge: a t E 71K3 t he r emains o f o ver 1 00 l arge c atfish a re r epresented ( Greenwood a nd T odd 1 976: 3 84-388). A t t hese s ites t he f ish r emains o utnumber m ammalian r emains; f or e xample a t E 71K3 f ish r emains c omprise a bout 9 6% o f t he t otal n umber i n t he a ssemblage. H owever a t o ther s ites r epresentation o f f ish a nd m ammals a re e qual ( Greenwood a nd T odd 1 976; G autier 1 976). A t s ites o n t he K or n O mbo p lain, d ated f rom a bout 1 2000 B P t o 1 7000 B P, o ver 9 9% o f t he f ish r emains r ecovered w ere f rom C larias, w hile a s mall n umber o f f ragments w as a ssigned t o B arbus a nd t o L ates n iloticus. R emains o f T rionyx a nd 2 2 s pecies o f b irds, m ainly a quatic a re a lso k nown. H unted a nimals i nclude p rimarily w ild c attle ( Bos) a nd h artebeest ( Alcelaphus) ( Churcher 1 972). I n t he N ubian s ites, d ated f rom c irca 1 7000 B P t o 1 1000 B P , C larias a gain p redominates w hile v ery

3 5

s mall n umbers o f B arbus, S ynodontis, L ates a nd c ichlids a re a lso f ound ( Greenwood 1 968). H unted m ammals i nclude w ild c attle ( Bos), h artebeest ( Alcelaphus), g azelles ( Gazella) a nd h ippopotamus ( Hippopotomus) ( Gautier 1 968: 9 8). R emains o f f ish a nd m ammal a re a bout e qually r epresented. A t t he K or n O mbo a nd N ubian s ites, C larias c omprises a t l east 8 0% o f t he f ish r emains a t e ach s ite, a nd m ore o ften 9 5 t o 1 00% o f t he r emains. A t o ver 9 5% o f t he s ites i t i s t he o nly g enus r ecovered; a t o nly o ne s ite n ear K hor M usa d o L ates, B agrus a nd c ichlids a ppear ( Greenwood 1 968). A s t he a verage s ize o f t hese f ish w as b etween 3 0 a nd 6 0 c entimeters, t hey f ormed a s ubstantial p art o f t he t otal d iet. H owever m ammal r emains d o o utnumber f ish r emains . T he f aunal r emains f rom a bout 1 8000 t o 1 1000 B P a t t he N ile s ites a ppear t o r eflect a k nowledge o f a nd a daptation t o t he s easonal e cology o f t he f auna e xploited. T he h igh s easonal f lood l evels p ostulated b y B utzer a t t his t ime w ould c reate g reater o pportunity f or s pawning a nd f eeding o f C larias, a nd t herefore i ncreased o pportunity t o e xploit t he f ish . A s d iscussed i n t he s ection o n E cology, t he s pawning h abits o f C larias m ade i t e asy t o c atch e ither w hen i t s pawns w hen t he N ile f loodwaters r ise i n l ate s pring/early s ummer, o r e lse w hen t hey a re t rapped b y r eceding w ater i n t he f all ( Van N eer 1 986: 1 08; B rewer 1 986: 1 50-151). T he a pparent r eliance o n C larias s uggests n o n ecessity t o o btain o ther, h arder t o c atch s pecies. M ost b irds r epresented a ppear t o b e w inter r esidents ( September t o A pril) a lthough s ome c ould b e y ear-round r esidents ( such a s f lamingoes) ( Churcher 1 972: 1 24-1;3). B oth C lark ( 1980) a nd H assan ( 1980) p ostulate t hat t he N ile V alley c ould p rovide y ear-round s ettlement, w ith w inter c amps e stablished o n t he f loodplain a nd c amps o n t he r iver f or t he r est o f t he y ear. A n i ncreasing r eliance o n f ish a nd a quatic r esources a nd g rain u tilisation d uring t his p eriod i s e quated b y H assan ( 1980: 4 38) w ith a n i ncreasing n umber o f s ites a nd d ensity o f o ccupation. J ust a fter 1 1500 B P t here i s e vidence t hat t he N ile R iver l evel f ell d rastically, p erhaps 3 0 m eters ( Clark 1 980: 5 56), a nd t otal d essication o f t he F ayum D epression o ccurred ( Butzer 1 980b: 2 72; C lark 1 980: 5 56). V ery f ew s ites a re k nown f rom t his t ime, a nd t hose t hat a re k nown s eem t o b e c oncentrated o n o r n ear t he n orthern S udanese N ile. P resumably t he l ow r iver l evel a nd m inimal s easonal i nundation o f t he f loodplains r estricted o r e liminated t he s easonal a vailability o f. f ish, b irds a nd o ther a quatic f auna. P ossibly t oo s ites a t t his t ime h ave b een d estroyed b y s ubsequent t ransgressive o r r egressive r iverine c ycles. O ne g roup o f s ites i s l ocated s outh o f t he S econd C ataract o n t he A tbara R iver, d ated t o b etween 7 500 a nd 1 0000 B P. T hese s ites a re i mportant i n t hat t hey r eflect d ifferences i n t he s ubsistence b ase b etween e arly H olocene s ites a nd t erminal P leistocene s ites. T he e arly s ites, d ated a round 1 0000 B P a nd l ocated a bout 1 5 m eters a bove t he f loodplain s how a s ubsistence s trategy a lready s een i n t he T erminal P leistocene. F ish r emains c onsist s olely o f c atfish , i ncluding c atfish o ther t han C larias h owever. M ammals c onsist o f l arge m ammals s uch a s h artebeest ( Alcelaphus), w ild a uroch ( Bos), g azelle ( Gazella) a nd h ippo ( Hippopotomus).

3 6

F auna a t t he l ater s ite, l ocated a bout e ight m eters a bove t he f loodplain s hows a t rend s een i n l ater e arly H olocene s ites: f irst, f ish r emains o utnumber m ammalian r emains a bout 8 :1, a nd s econd, m uch m ore d iversity i s s een i n t he f ish a ssemblages. E ight d ifferent g enera o f f ish a re e xploited, a s a re s ome 1 6 g enera o f m ammals. T he m ammals h ere a re s maller t han i n t he e arlier s ites, b eing m ainly s mall a ntelopes. W hile b acked b lades a nd g eometrics d ominate a ll l ithic a ggregates, r aw m aterial c hanges f rom t he e arlier t o l ater s ites. B urned s tones a t t he l ater s ite a re s uggested t o r elate t o a n ew c ooking t echnique n ot s een i n e arlier s ites ( Marks e t a l. 1 987: 1 37). A nother s ite, l ocated i n N ubia a nd d ated a t c irca 9 500 B P a lso c ontains o nly c atfish r emains, b ut o f s everal g enera i ncluding C larias ( Greenwood 1 968). S imilar r emains a re f ound a t C atfish C ave a nd E l K ab i n s outhern E gypt ( in C lark 1 980: 5 59). A t a bout 8 000 B P s ites a re k nown a long t he l ength o f t he N ile f rom F ayum t o K hartoum . T he e conomic b ase o f t hese e arly H olocene p ost-low N ile s ites h as c hanged c onsiderably f rom t he p revious t erminal P leistocene p eriods. T rends j ust d iscussed i n t he l ater A tbara s ites a re r eflected i n o ther N ile s ites: t here i s am uch h igher f ish t o m ammal r atio t han p reviously; a nd c ollections s how a m uch g reater d iversification o f s pecies o f f ish t han p reviously. T he r emains a re n o l onger a lways d ominated b y C larias, b ut o ften b y L ates n iloticus, w hich w as a lmost n ever r epresented p rior t o t he e arly H olocene p eriod. M ammals e xploited a re g enerally s maller a nd m ore d iversified t axonomically ( Clark 1 980). A t t he F ayum B s ites d ating t o a bout 8 000 B P , t he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals ( MNI) o f f ish o utnumbers m ammals 1 5 t o 1 . W ithin t he f ish r epresented, C larias, S ynodontis, L ates a nd T etraodon d ominate a nd a re a lmost e qually r epresented, w hile a c yprinid, t wo s iluroids a nd s ome c ichlids a re p resent i n l esser n umbers ( based o n c alculations i n B rewer 1 986: 8 6). A S udanian N ile s ite d ated a t a bout 7 500 B P c ontains o nly N ile p erch r emains ( Greenwood 1 968: 1 06). F urther s outh a t t he E arly K hartoum s ite, r oughly d ated a t 9 000 B P ( see N ote i n C lark 1 984: 1 15), t here a re " immense q uantities" o f f ish r emains ( Arkell 1 949: 2 7) w hich o utnumber t hose o f a ll o ther c lasses; i n k eeping w ith o ther e arly H olocene s ites a gain t here i s a d iversity o f s pecies. M ost a bundant a re C larias, S ynodontis a nd L ates, w ith P olypterus, t wo c ypriniforms, a nd t wo o ther c atfish a lso w ell r epresented ( Arkell 1 949: 1 6-17). S imilar a bundance o f f ish r emains o ccur a t o ther K hartoum C omplex s ites l ocated n ear K hartoum , i ncluding S habona, w here f ish ( and m olluscs) a re t he " largest c omponents o f t he f auna" ( Clark 1 984 : 1 16), a nd S aggai. A t S aggai t he t otal n umber o f f ish r emains i s g reater t han m ammal r emains o n a n o rder o f a bout f our t o o ne, w ith P olypterus, C larias, S ynodontis, a nd L ates, b eing m ost c ommon. P rotopterus ( lungfish), a m ormyroid, H ydrocynus ( tigerfish), a c atfish a nd c ichlids a re a lso r epresented ( Gautier 1 983: 5 4, 6 3); a gain t his i llustrates t he g reat i ncrease i n d iversity c ompared w ith t he t erminal P leistocene p eriod. W hile t he t ransition t o a n i ncreased a nd m ore d iversified f ishing e conomy w ill b e d iscussed m ore f ully l ater, s ome o bservations a re a ppropriate h ere. T he p rocurement o f s uch f ish a s L ates, B agrus a nd

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B arbus i mplies u tilisation o f a d eep-water f ishing s trategy i n c ontrast t o t he r elatively s imple c apturing b y h and o r s pear o f C larias f rom s hallow i nundated f loodplains. T he u se o f m ore s ophisticated t echnology s uch a s b oats, h arpoons, b askets a nd/or n ets m ust h ave b een v ariously a pplied. T he r easons f or t he c hange t o a m ore c omplex t echnology w ill a lso b e d iscussed f urther, b ut t he p ossible e ffects o f a l ow l evel N ile m ust b e c onsidered. C orrelation o f a l ow N ile l evel w ith m inimal s ummer f looding w ould r esult i n a g reat r eduction o f s easonal i nundation o f f loodplain a rea. T his i n t urn w ould r educe t he s pawning/breeding a rea o f C larias a nd b y i nference o pportunities t o c apture t hese f ish . E vidence f rom t erminal P leistocene s ites c learly i ndicate t he i mportance o f C larias i n t he d iet; i ts d isplacement a s am ajor f ood s ource w ould r equire a lternate f ood s ources. T he " new" g enera s een i n t he p ost-Terminal P leistocene s ites c ould b e c aught i n t he c entral r iver w ith h arpoons, s pears o r w ith n ets, a nd I s uggest t hat t hese a lternative p rocurement s trategies w ere i nitiated a s a r esponse t o a d ecline i n a vailability o f C larias. H unting o f l arge m ammals c ontinues i n t he e arly p eriod o f t he e arly H olocene a s i t d id i n t he t erminal P leistocene, w ith r emains o f h artebeest ( Alcelaphus), w ild a uroch ( Bos) o r b uffalo ( Syncerus), g azelle ( Gazella) a nd h ippopotomus ( Hippopotomus) c ommon ( Arkell 1 949; B rewer 1 986). H owever a s m entioned, t he r elative p roportions o f f ish t o m ammal i ncreases s ubstantially o ver t he t erminal P leistocene. R eptiles a nd b irds c ontinue t o b e h unted a nd v ery l arge q uantities o f m olluscs, e specially t he s nail P ila, a re k nown f rom s ome s ites, e specially f rom E arly K hartoum ( Arkell 1 949). C lark s uggests t hat t he E arly K hartoum s ettlement w as o ccupied y ear-round e xcept p ossibly i n J uly a nd A ugust ( 1980 : 5 60), a nd a s imilar o ccupation s trategy w as s uggested f or t he F ayum B s ites b ased o n o btaining c atfish i n t he l ate s pring a nd f all p eriods, a nd o btaining b irds i n t he w inter m onths ( Brewer 1 986: 1 51). I n t erms o f m aterial c ulture t he C entral S udan s ites s how i nnovat ions p reviously u nknown a long t he N ile V alley. A t E arly K hartoum l arge o pen-mouthed p ots w ith c haracteristic w avy-line, d otted w avy-line o r r ocker s tamped d ecoration a re k nown ( Arkell 1 949: 8 1), a s a re o ver 2 70 u niserial a nd b iserial h arpoon/spear h ead f ragments ( Arkell 1 949: 7 5+). T he m ajority o f t he b one p oints a ppear t o b e " ordinary s pearh eads" w ith b ases p resumably b ound i n t he s pear s haft, b ut a f ew h ave b asal p erforations p resumably f or h arpoon a ttachment. O thers a re s uggested t o b e a rrowhead b arbs. T he l ithic i ndustry i s m ainly c omprised o f c rescents, a s w ell a s s crapers, t riangles, t rapezes, a nd p erforators ( 1949: 4 3+). G rinders a nd g rindstones a re c ommon , a s a re r ubbers, s tone r ings a nd g rooved s tones, p resumably u sed a s n et s inkers. F ragments o f f ired c lay a re i nferred t o b e p art o f w attle a nd d aub l iving s tructures ( 1949: 7 9). O ther c entral S udan s ites s how s imilar a spects o f m aterial c ulture. B arbed b one p oint f ragments a nd c haracteristic w avy-line p ottery s herds, a s w ell a s a s imilar l ithic i ndustry c omprised o f g eometrics, b acked p ieces a nd s crapers i s f ound a t S habona, d ated a t c irca 7 000 B P ( Clark 1 984: 1 16-117). B arbed b one p oints a re a lso k nown f rom T agra ( dated a t 8 370 B P) ( Adamson e t a l. 1 974: 1 20) a nd

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f rom C atfish C ave i n E gypt, b ut t he p oints a t t his l atter s ite b ear " only g eneral r esemblance" t o t he c entral S udan h arpoon/spear p oints ( Adamson e t a l. 1 974: 1 23). T he c haracteristic w avy-line p ottery i s k nown f rom f ar b eyond t he c entral S udan, a s f ar w est a s M ali ( Huard a nd M assip 1 964: 1 19) a nd n orth a s f ar a s t he E gyptian W estern d esert a t N abta P laya ( at c irca 8 100 B P) ( Wendorf a nd S child 1 984: 9 6). T his p ottery i s a lso k nown f rom N ubia ( Shiner 1 968). N either p ottery n or b arbed b one p oints a re k nown f rom t he F ayum B s ites. T he g reat i ncrease o f f ish r emains v is a v is m ammal r emains, a nd t he i ncreased d iversity o f g enera, s uggests t hat t he i ntroduction a nd u tilisation o f p ots a nd b arbed b one p oints i s a r esponse t o t he n eed t o p rocure a nd p rocess g reater n umbers a nd d iversity o f f ish. T his s uggestion w as a lso m ade b y C lark ( 1984), w ho r efers t o t he f ish s tews i n p ots d escribed b y S trabo ( in B udge 1 928: 6 7) f rom a bout 2 ,000 y ears a go a long t he N ile. T he b one h arpoon/spear p oints a nd p resumed n et s inkers s een a t E arly K hartoum a nd o ther s ites a re t he m ost o bvious m anifestations o f a t echnology d esigned t o c atch d eep w ater a nd/or f aster-moving f ish s uch a s L ates o r c ichlids. T he l ack o f h eavy-duty l ithics f or w oodworking w ould s uggest t hat w ooden b oats w ere n ot b eing m ade; t hese t ools a ppear a t l ater s ites. A d iversification i n t he m ammalian f aunal a ssemblages i s s een t hroughout t he E gyptiaa a nd S udanese N ile v alleys d ating t o c irca 6 000 B P. I n t he N ile V alley t his d iversification f ollows a nother f all i n t he l evel o f t he N ile d ated e ither j ust b efore o r j ust a fter 7 000 B P , d epending o n t he r esearcher ( see d iscussion i n P aleoenvironment). A t a bout t his t ime r emains a ppear o f d omesticated a nimals, i ncluding c attle ( Bos), s heep/goats ( Ovicaprini) a nd d ogs ( Canis), t ogether w ith s maller n umbers o f h unted a nimals i ncluding h artebeest ( Alcelaphus) a nd g azelle ( Gazella) s een i n e arlier s ites. W hile f ish a re s till e xploited, t hey a re n ot a s n umerous. M ost o f t he U pper a nd L ower N ile V alley s ites a t t his t ime w ere l ocated o n t he e dge o f t he f loodplain o r s lightly i nland ( Hassan 1 980: 4 39). I ntensive a rchaeological i nvestigation h as r evealed a p attern o f r egional v ariation w here s ummer a nd w inter o ccupation s ites c an h e d istinguished, a lthough t he l arge s ize o f m any l ower N ile s ites i ndicates p ermanent y ear-round o ccupation. I n t he c entral S udan, o ne o f t he b est k nown s ites i s E sh S haheinab, d ating t o a bout 5 500 t o 5 000 B P, w here t he l ithic, c eramic a nd w orked b one a ssemblages a re s imilar t o t hose a t E arly K hartoum . F auna e xploited i ncludes m ainly h unted m ammals, f ish a nd s hellfish, a lthough 2 % o f t he m ammalian f auna i s d omesticated ( Clark 1 984 : 1 18+). T he e conomic b ase o f t he s ite o f G eili, a nother c entral S udan s ite, i s s imilar t o, a nd a pparently d erivative o f, t hat o f E sh S haheinab, w ith a l arge c omponent o f a quatic r esources, i ncluding f ive d ifferent g enera o f f ish ( Gautier 1 983). T he n earby s ite o f K adero, h owever, s hows l ittle e xploitation o f a quatic r esources, w ith v irtually a ll f auna b eing o f d omesticated a nimals. T he m aterial c ulture a ssemblages o f t hese t wo s ites r eflects t heir d ifferent u tilisations : C lark s uggests t hat t he p resence a t E sh S haheinab o f a dzes a nd s tone a xes i ndicates w oodworking , p ossibly f or b oat-making, w hile t he K adero a ssemblages a re d ominated b y s crapers a nd g rinding e quipment, p resumably f or g rain a nd h ide p reparation ( Clark

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1 984 : 1 19). K adero i s i nterpreted t o b e a w et S haheinab a nd G eili t o b e d ry s eason s ites. O ther s ites s uch a s G uli a nd Z akiab c an s imilarly b e a quatic-based o r i nland-based s ites w ith a ppropriate

s eason s ite; E sh S haheinab C omplex c lassified a s t o t echnology.

M ore d etailed d iscussion h as b een g iven f or t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a rchaeological a ssemblages h ere b ecause: 1 ) t hey a re w ell d ocumented; 2 ) t he f ish a ssemblages h ave n ot b een d iscussed i n t erms o f i nter-site c omparison ; a nd 3 ) t he t rends s een a re r eflected t o a l arge e xtent i n e astern A frica. I n s ummary, t hese t rends i ndicate a t erminal P leistocene p rocurement s trategy t hat w as o pportunistic a nd a ttuned t o t he s easonal e cology o f t he a nimals c aught. B irds a nd t he l arger m ammals w ere c aught i n t he d ry s eason, t he l atter p ossibly a s t hey c ame t o w ater a t t he r iver, a nd C larias i n t he b eginning a nd e nd o f t he w et s eason a t t ime o f i nundation a nd r ecession o f t he f loodplain w aters. H ippopotomi, s hellfish a nd s ome b irds c ould b e t aken t hroughout t he y ear ( e.g. C hurcher 1 972: 1 24+). T hese s ites a re p rimarily k nown f rom s outhern E gyptian a nd t he n orthern S udanian N ile. A t a bout 1 1500 B P t he N ile f ell p ossibly 3 0 m eters, a nd s ites a re o nly k nown f rom t he n orthern S udan a rea, d ating f rom a bout 1 0000 t o 8 000 B P . T hese r eflect c ontinuation o f t his e xploitation s trategy, a lthough t here i s s ome d iversification i n t he f ish r emains, w here n ow c atfish o ther t han C larias a re p rocured. S ubsequent e arly H olocene s ites c an b e d ivided i nto " early" s ites, d ated t o a round 8 000 B P a nd " later" o nes, a t a round 6 000 B P . T he e arlier s ites a re p oorly k nown, b ut t hose f rom n orthern E gypt a nd c entral S udan s how a s imilar s trategy o f h unting o f m ammals a s t hat i n t he t erminal P leistocene, b ut f ishing m ethods c hange r adically. D eep-water f ish a nd s hallow f ast-moving f ish a re n ow w ell-represented, i ndicating t hat n ew p rocurement t echnologies w ere u tilised. I t i s s uggested t hat t he l ow N ile a nd c oncomitant d ecline i n C larias a vailability r esulted i n d evelopment o f n ew t echnologies t o e xploit o ther m ore d ifficult-to-catch f ish. A ccompanyi ng t hese f aunal c hanges i n t he c entral S udan s ites i s a c hange i n t he m aterial c ulture, i n t he i ntroduction o f c eramic p ots a nd b arbed b one p oints, u ndoubtedly a ssociated w ith p rocurement a nd p rocessing a spects o f t he n ew s ubsistence b ase. L ater e arly H olocene s ites, w hich a ppear f ollowing a nother N ile l ow , s how a f urther d iversification o f t he s ubsistence b ase i n t he i nclusion o f d omesticated a nimal r emains, a s w ell a s l esser n umbers o f w ild m ammals, f ish a nd s hellfish . S ettlement s izes i ncrease a nd o ften b ecome p ermanent, w ith s easonal c amps l ocated e lsewhere.

E astern A frica S imilar t o s outhern s aharan A frica , r elatively f ew a rchaeological s ites a re k nown i n e astern A frica f rom t he t erminal P leistocene, t hat i s f rom a bout 2 0000 t o 1 2000 B P. S ites k nown a re s mall a nd o ften l ocated i n r ockshelters; t hose m ore c ompletely r eported i nclude G vJm 2 2 a t L ukenya H ill ( Gramly 1 976), t he N aisiusiu B eds a t O lduvai G orge ( Leakey e t a l. 1 972), K isese ( in P hillipson 1 985), M umba R ock S helter ( Mehlman 1 979) a nd M unyama a nd M atupi C aves ( Van N oten 1 982). T he f aunal a ssemblages f rom t hese s ites s how a s imilar s ubsistence b ase t o t erminal P leistocene s ites f urther n orth , w ith l arge w ild b ovids a nd

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e quids d ominating t he a ssemblages, b ut s upplemented b y a d iverse a rray o f s maller r eptiles a nd m ammals, b irds, f ish a nd s hellfish. T his t rend i s w ell-documented a t L ukenya H ill w here t he f auna i s d ominated b y h artebeest ( Alcelaphus s p. a nd/or D amaliscus s p.), z ebra ( Equus) a nd w ildebeest ( Connochaetes t aurinus), w ith e land ( Taurotragus o ryx) a nd l esser k udu ( Strepsiceros i mberbis) a lso r epresented. S maller f auna r eported i nclude w arthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus), r eedbuck ( Redunca r edunca), a v iverrid ( ?Genetta), m ice a nd r ats ( Gramly 1 976). A t O lduvai G orge z ebras d ominate t he a ssemblages ( Leakey e t a l. 1 972: 3 35); a t M umba z ebras ( Equus), g reater k udu ( Tragelaphus), t opi ( Damaliscus) a nd b uffalo ( Syncerus) d ominate ( Mehlman 1 979: 8 5); a nd a t M atupi l arge b ovids i ncluding w aterbuck ( Kobus) a nd b uffalo ( Syncerus) a re i mportant. S maller a nimals i nclude s mall a ntelopes, w arthog, g uinea f owl, t ortoise, h yraxes, h ares, r ats a nd c atfish a t M umba. M ehlman a lso n otes t he h uge a mounts o f A chatina s hells - t he g iant A frican l and s nail - t hat w ere c onsumed i n t his p eriod a t M umba ( 1979). T he l ithic c omponent o f t hese s ites i s s imilar i n t he r epresented, b eing d ominated b y b acked b ladelets a nd s crapers.

c lasses

S ites w ith a L ate S tone A ge ( LSA) b acked b lade i ndustry a nd d ating f rom a bout 1 2000 t o 6 000 B P a re k nown f rom t he C entral R ift. T hey w ere o riginally c lassified b y L eakey a s " Kenya A urignacian" ( 1931) b ut t hen a s " Kenya C apsian" ( 1952), a nd h ave n ow b een r edefined a nd r enamed a s t he E burran I ndustry P hases 1 t o 4 " ( Ambrose e t a l. 1 980). T hese s ites a re k nown f rom t he N akuru a nd N aivasha b asins o f t he c entral R ift V alley a nd i nclude s elected h orizons f rom N derit D rift, M aasai G orge R ockshelter, G amble's C ave, N aivasha R ailway R ockshelter, L ion H ill C ave, S alasun a nd P rospect F arm a nd s urface c ollections ( Marshall 1 986 : 1 9-20). A mbrose s tates t hat t he e conomic b ase o f t hese s ites w as a " broad-spectrum h unting a nd g athering a daptation" ( 1982: 1 23) f ocussing o n s mall s olitary a ntelopes ( Marshall 1 986: 2 0). H e n otes t hat f ishing " played a n e xtremely m inor r ole" i n t he e conomy ( 1982: 1 23). T his s tatement w ill b e r e-examined s hortly. A n a pparent h iatus i n t he o ccurrence o f a rchaeological s ites o ccurs i n t he L ake V ictoria a rea u ntil c irca 8 000 B P ( Ambrose 1 984: 2 25; R obertshaw e t a l. 1 983). T his p ossibly r elates t o v ery l ow o r n o w ater i n L ake V ictoria f or m uch o f t his p eriod. I n n orthern K enya L SA s catters o f l ithics, d ominated b y b acked m icroliths, w ere m apped e ast o f L ake T urkana, i n r iver d rainages a nd n ear p ermanent w ater s ources w ithin t he v olcanic h ighlands ( Barthelme 1 981: 5 00). T hese s ites h ad n o b one p oints o r p ottery a nd p robably p redated t he f ishing s ites, t herefore w ere o lder t han 9 000 B P . O ther s ites s outhwest o f t he l ake h ave a lso b een r eported b ut n ot d escribed. P rior t o w idespread a ppearance o f P astoral N eolithic a nd E burran P hase 5 a a nd b s ites i n K enya a nd n orthern T anzania a t c irca 3 000 t o 4 000 B P, k nowledge o f a rchaeological s ites i n t hese a reas i s p atchy. S ites w ith a ssociated h arpoon/spear h eads, a quatic r emains a nd l ater w ith p ottery a re o nly k nown i n e astern A frica f rom n orthern K enya, f rom o ne s ite i n t he C entral R ift a nd f rom n orthwestern L ake R utanzige a t I shango. T hey d ate f rom a bout 9 500 t o 4 000 B P . I n t he C entral R ift s ubsequent t o t he L SA s ites j ust m entioned t here i s a h iatus i n

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a rchaeological s ites f rom a bout 6 000 t o 3 000 B P, w hile a t L ake V ictoria t here i s ah iatus u ntil a bout 8 000 B P , a t w hich t ime s hell m idden s ites a ppear ( Ambrose 1 984). T he e arliest a ppearance o f f ishing s ettlement s ites i s i n n orthern K enya a t > 9000 B P ( but s ee F ootnote 1 f or d iscussion o n t he d ating o f I shango). T he e arliest d ated o ccurrences a re f rom M ember I Va o f t he K ibish F ormation a t H arpoon H ill j ust n orth o f L ake T urkana, d ated i ndirectly t o > 9100 B P ( Butzer 1 980 : 5 5). H ere e ight b arbed b one p oint f ragments w ere f ound: t hree b iserial a nd f ive u niserial. O ther i solated f inds i nclude s ix b one p oints f rom M ember I Vb i n t he s ame a rea ( Brown 1 975: 1 45) d ated t o 5 750 B P b y B utzer ( 1980: 5 5), a nd s ix f ragments o f b one p oints f rom 2 5 m iles w est o f t he l ake, u ndated ( Whitworth 1 965). B etter i nvestigated a re a g roup o f s even s urface a nd e xcavated s ites l ocated t o t he e ast o f L ake T urkana n ear K oobi F ora ( Barthelme 1 981, 1 985), a s w ell a s t he s ite o f L othagam s outhwest ( Robbins 1 972, 1 974) a nd L owasera s outheast o f t he l ake ( Phillipson 1 977). F our o f t he K oobi F ora s ites a re d irectly d ated; F xJj12 h as 1 4C d ates r anging b etween 8 355 a nd 9 660 B P ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 41), G aJj11 h as d ates i nterpreted t o b e b etween 8 000 a nd 9 000 B P ( 1981: 1 10), w hile G aJi3 h as a d ate o f 4 560 B P ( 1981: 1 78), a nd F xJj12N i s 3 245 B P ( 1981: 1 65). T he o ther f our s ites a re a ll a ssociated w ith t he h igh b each l evel o f 7 5 t o 8 0 m eters; w hile B utzer's d ata s uggest t hat s uch a l evel w as r eached b etween 9 500 a nd 7 000 B P a nd a gain a bout 5 700 B P ( 1980: 4 6-48), O wen e t a l. ( 1982: 5 24) s tate t hat l evels a bove 7 5 m eters w ere o nly r eached p rior t o a bout 7 500 B P. T o a ccommodate b oth i nterpretat ions t herefore, t hese s ites c an o nly b e d ated g enerally b etween a bout 9 500 a nd 5 700 B P . L othagam h as a p robable e arly a ceramic f ishing o ccupation w hich i s d ated t o 6 300 B P ( Robbins a nd L ynch 1 978: 6 19), a s w ell a s a l ater m ain o ccupation ( Robbins 1 974: 1 68). L owasera i s t he m ost c ons istently d ated s ite, w ith a s eries o f 1 1 s ilty a nd s andy h orizons c ontaining c ultural r emains d ating f rom a bout 9 500 t o > 4000 B P , w ith a h iatus s omewhere b etween 7 000 a nd 5 000 B P ( Phillipson 1 977: 9 ). I t i s n ecessary t o m ention h ere t hat d ating o f a ll t he s ites i s p roblematic, w ith v irtually a ll 1 4C d ates b ased o n s hell o r b one a patite, a nd n one o n c ollagen. R obertshaw a nd C ollett ( 1983) h ave d iscussed d ating t echniques i n E ast A frica a nd s tate t hat o nly d ates t aken f rom c ollagen a nd c arbon d ates s hould b e a ccepted. U nfortunately n o s uch d ates a re a vailable f or t hese L ake T urkana s ites, d ue t o a l ack o f s uitable d ating m aterial. R elative d ating t o h igh b each l evels i s u tilised, b ut t hese l evels t oo a re d ated f rom s hell. C haracteristic o f t he f aunal a ssemblages o f a ll b ut t wo o f t hese n ine s ites i s t he p redomination o f f ish r emains o ver m ammal/reptile r emains . O nly i n t wo o f t he K oobi F ora s urface s ites, a nd a t s ubsequent P astoral N eolithic ( PN) s ites a t K oobi F ora, d o m ammal r emains g enerally o utnumber f ish r emains i n t he H olocene p eriod. I n t erms o f m aterial c ulture, t he l ithic a nd b arbed b one p oint a ssemblages s how s ome i nter- a nd i ntra- s ite v ariation t hrough t his H olocene p eriod; t he c eramic a ssemblages l ess. T he l ithics f rom a ll s ites w ere d ominated i n t he s haped t ool c ategory b y m icroliths, s crapers a nd c ore t ools ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 51). A m ore c areful

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a nalysis o f t he s haped t ool c ategory s hows s everal t rends w hich a re s hared b y b oth t he L owasera a nd L othagam s ites, a nd t o s ome e xtent b y t he K oobi F ora s ites. R obbins n oted s ome " significant c ontrasts" ( 1974: 1 88; L ynch a nd R obbins 1 977) b etween t he p resumed a ceramic U pper E xcavation a ssemblages a nd m ain f ishing s ettlement a ssemblages a t L othagam . P hillipson a lso n oted t hat t he a ceramic-associated l ithic a ssemblages s hared f eatures w hich c ontrasted w ith t he l ater m ain o ccupation a t U nits 2 a nd 4 ( 1977: 1 9-20). A t b oth t he e arly a ceramic L othagam s ite a nd t he e arly U nits ( pre-Unit 4 ) a t L owasera b acked b ladelets a nd b acked f lakes f orm a m ajor c omponent o f t he s haped t ool c ategories. I n s ubsequent o ccupations h owever, t hese t ools d o n ot a ppear a gain a t L othagam ( Robbins 1 974: 1 89-190), a nd d rop f rom 4 1% o f t he s haped t ool c ategory p re-Unit 4 t o a bout 1 0% i n t he l ater o ccupation a t L owasera ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 9). T heir d ecline i s c omplemented b y a p roportional i ncrease i n g eometrics a t b oth s ites. A t L owasera t he c hange o ccurs b efore 5 000 B P. A t L owasera t he a ceramic l ithic a ggregates i nclude m ore c hert, o bsidian a nd c halcedony t han l ava ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 9). I n t he K oobi F ora s ites t he t rend i s a lso c ontinued a t t he a ceramic F xJj12 s ite, w here b acked f lake t ools a re p roportionally g reater a nd g eometrics p roportionally f ewer a mong t he m icrolithic t ools t han a t t he o ther, l ater f ishing s ites ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 60). T he o ther e arly o ccupation s ite, G aJj11, h ad a v ery s mall l ithic a ggregate w ith o nly s ix " microlithics", n ot f urther d escribed. G eometrics a nd s crapers d ominate a t a ll s ites t hrough m ost o f t he m id-Holocene. A f urther t rend i s s een i n t he d ecline o f a ll t ypes o f s crapers a nd a f urther i ncrease i n t he p roportion o f g eometrics, p articularly c rescents. T his c an b e s een i n t he u pper h orizons o f b oth L owasera ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 6) a nd a t L othagam ( Robbins 1 974: 1 87), p articularly a t t he l atter w here s crapers a re n umerous. S crapers a re n ot c ommon a t t he K oobi F ora s ites, b eing m ost c ommon a t F xJj12N, q uestionably d ated a t a bout 3 200 B P ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 63). T he o ther m ajor t rends, n oted b y a ll r esearchers, i s a n o verall d ecrease i n s ize o f t ools t hrough t ime ( e.g. R obbins 1 974: 1 85, 2 08; P hillipson 1 977: 1 9). T here a re g enerally d ifferences b etween t he s ites i n r aw m aterial u sage: e ighty-seven p ercent o f t he r aw m aterial u sed f or l ithics a t L othagam i s l ava, w hile i t c omprises o nly 5 5% o f t he i ndustry a t L owasera a nd a bout 2 0% a t K oobi F ora s ites, w here c hert p redominates ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 50). A nother d ifference i s t he o verall g reater s craper:microlith r atio i n t he L othagam a ssemblages c ompared w ith t he o ther s ites. R easons f or t his t rend c an o nly b e s uggested; p ossibly h ollow s crapers w ere u sed t o m ake b arbed b one p oints. T hese p oints a re v ery a bundant a t L othagam ( over 2 60 r ecovered), a nd t his s uggestion m ay h ave v alidity. R obbins h as n oted t he s imilarity b etween t he s crapers a nd l arge c rescents a t L othagam w ith t hose a t E arly K hartoum ( 1974: 2 09). A l arge n umber o f b one h arpoon/spear p oints a re k nown f rom a round L ake T urkana. A s m entioned, o ver 2 60 f ragments o r w hole p oints w ere r ecovered f rom L othagam ( Robbins 1 974: 1 91), 2 65 f rom t he K oobi F ora s ites ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 65) a nd 7 3 f rom L owasera ( Phillipson 1 977: 2 0). S everal o ther i solated f inds h ave a lso b een d escribed. W hile m uch a nalysis o f s tyle a nd t echnology o f h arpoon/spear p oints h as b een

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u ndertaken, s till l ittle i s u nderstood o f m eans o f m anufacture o r o f s tylistic c hanges t hrough t ime ( e.g. R obbins 1 972: 1 92-200). T wo t rends c an h owever b e n oted. P hillipson d ocumented t hat b arbed b one p oints w ith n otched b ases ( n=5) w ere s tratigraphically l ower t han t hose w ith g rooved l ine b ases ( n=44). B oth b asal t echniques a re k nown a t L othagam . A t t he K oobi F ora s ites t he e arly a ceramic s ite G aJj11 h as p oints w ith o nly b asal n otching. S ixty-two o f t he 1 40 b one p oints c ollected a t t his s ite h ad i ntact b ases, a ll o f w hich w ere n otched, a nd t here c an b e l ittle d oubt o f a ssociation. T his s ite a lso c ontains t he o nly k nown t riserial b one p oints o f t he e astern/northern A frican a rea. T he e nigmatically d ated F xJj12N s ite a lso c ontained o nly b arbed p oints w ith n otched b ases. H owever, u nlike a t G aJj11, t he e xcavator s tates t hat t here w as s ome m ixing o f a rchaeological h orizons; t his a ssociation t herefore i s u nconfirmed. A t t he E arly K hartoum s ite, v irtually a ll o f t he h arpoon/spear h eads h ad t he g rooved l ine t ype b ase; o nly t wo h ad a n otched b ase, a nd t hese a re o f a d ifferent c onstruction t han t he L ake T urkana o nes ( others h ad a p erforated b ase; n ot k nown a t t he L ake T urkana s ites) ( Arkell 1 949: 7 5, s ee h is P late 4 8: 1 , 2 ). A t I shango o nly n otched o r u nmodified b ases a re k nown; g rooved l ine b ases a re c ompletely a bsent. T he s econd t rend i nvolves u niserial v ersus b iserial v ersus t riserial b arbed b one p oints. O nly u niserial b arbed p oints a re k nown f rom L othagam . A t L owasera , o f t he 7 3 h arpoon/spear h eads r ecovered, a ll b ut t wo ( one f rom t he s urface a nd o ne f rom U nit 2 ) a re u niserially b arbed. A t t he K oobi F ora s ites, 2 43 p oints w ere u niserial, n ine w ere b iserial a nd f ive w ere t riserial ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 70). F our o f t he b iserial a nd a ll o f t he t riserial d erived f rom G aJj11, a s w ell a s 1 23 o f t he u niserial p oints. A t t he E arly K hartoum s ites t hree o f t he a pproximately 2 60 b arbed b one p oints w ere b iserial, t he r est u niserial ( Arkell 1 949: 7 5). A t I shango t he b iserial p oints c omprised 2 90 o f t he t otal 3 79 p oints ( the r est w ere u niserial); b iserial p oints w ere s tratigraphically b elow t he u niserial o nes. U ndecorated p ottery s herds a re k nown f rom t he s ites o f G ajJ1, G aJj2, G aJj12, F xJj12N , a nd t hroughout L othagam a nd L owasera ( Robbins 1 974; P hillipson 1 977; B arthelme 1 981). D ecorated s herds a re k nown f rom G aJj2, G aJj12, G aJi3 a nd F xJj12N ( Barthelme 1 981); m any s herds f rom t he l atter s ite h ave t he c haracteristic w avy-line d ecoration. A gain s ome t rends c an b e n oted a round L ake T urkana. A t L owasera n o s herds a re k nown b efore U nit 5 , a nd t he v ast m ajority i s f ound i n U nits 2 a nd 4 , ( from a bout 5 000 B P o n). S herds a re k nown t hroughout t he L othagam s equence, d ating t o > 6000 B P . A t F xJj12N s herds o f w avy l ine p ottery a nd a n N derit-type w are w ere r ecovered. T hese a ppear t o d erive f rom t wo v ery d ifferently d ated a rchaeological h orizons. A s m entioned p reviously, t he e arliest d ates f or p ottery a round L ake T urkana a re t hose r eported b y R obbins a t t wo s ites n ear L othagam : 8 420 a nd 7 960 B P ( 1972: 3 62). A t b oth s ites t he p ottery i s s tamped a nd/or w avy-line t ype. H owever u ndecorated p ottery o nly a ppears a t L owasera a t a bout 5 000 t o 6 000 B P, a nd a t t he L othagam s ites, d ated f rom a bout 6 000 B P ; a t b oth s ites o nly u ndecorated s herds a re k nown.

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W hile w avy-line s herds a re k nown f rom K oobi F ora s ites, t hey a re n ot w ell d ated. T here d oes n ot t herefore s eem t o b e a ny k nown s tratified c ontext a t L ake T urkana f or e arly d ecorated p ottery. L acking a ny i nformation a bout t he s ites r eported o n b y R obbins, t hese e arly o ccurrences m ust b e c onsidered t entative. I n t he N aivasha-Nakuru a rea o f t he C entral R ift s everal s ites a re k nown w hich d ate f rom c irca 8 000 t o 1 2500 B P a nd w hich h ave a c hequered t axonomic h istory. O riginally n amed t he " Upper K enyan A urignacian" b ased o n e xcavation a t G amble's C ave ( Leakey 1 931: 9 0-171), i n 1 952 t he i ndustry w as r enamed a s t he " Kenya C apsian", d ue t o p urported l inks w ith t he N orth A frican C apsian ( Leakey 1 952). A r e-excavation o f s everal s ites i n t he 1 960 's a nd 1 970's a nd s everal r e-analyses o f t he l ithic a ggregates ( e.g. B ower e t a l. 1 977; A mbrose e t a l. 1 980, H ivernel i n A mbrose e t a l. 1 980) h ave r esulted i n i ts r eclassification a s t he E burran I ndustry ( Ambrose e t a l. 1 980). U nfortunately l ack o f c orrelation b y A mbrose e t a l. b etween L eakey's e xcavation a t G amble's C ave a nd m ore r ecent e xcavations m ake s ynthesis o f t he t wo b odies o f d ata d ifficult. H owever, A mbrose e t a l. ( 1980) r ecognised t wo e arlier E burran p hases - P hase 1 a nd P hase 2 - d ating f rom a bout 1 2000 t o 1 0500 B P a fter w hich a h iatus o ccurs. O f c oncern h ere a re t heir P hases 3 a nd 4 , d ating f rom a bout 6 000 t o 8 500 B P, a nd i ncluding s elected l evels f rom G amble's C ave, M arula, N aivasha R ailway R ockshelter, L ion H ill C ave, S alasun a nd s urface s catters i n t he N aivasha-Nakuru a rea ( Ambrose e t a l. 1 980; A mbrose 1 984: 2 15; M arshall 1 986: 1 9-20). A s s uch t he i ndus.ry i s r estricted t o a g eographically p roscribed a rea , t hat i s, t he N aivasha-Nakuru b asins. T he P hase 3a nd P hase 4 l ithic i ndustry i s d ominated b y b acked b lades a nd b ladelets, b urins, m icroliths, a nd a v ariety o f s crapers ( Leakey 1 931; A mbrose e t a l. 1 980). A nalyses o f t he l ithics a t G amble's C ave s how c hanges i n t he s haped t ool c ategories t hrough t ime. F rom e arly t o l ate , c rescents d ecrease, m icroliths a nd b urins d ouble, a nd s crapers d ecrease ( Bower e t a l. 1 977: 1 23). D ates o f 8 000 t o 8 500 B P a re g iven f or t hese h orizons ( Washbourn-Kamau, 1 971: 5 32). W hile A mbrose e t a l. s tate t hat C apsian s ites w ere o ccupied d uring t he p eriod o f t he " expanded l akes" ( 1980: 2 82), A mbrose a lso s tates t hat f ishing " played a n e xtremely m inor r ole", i f a ny i n t he e conomy ( 1982: 1 23). C ontra A mbrose, L eakey i n f act s tates t hat " fish r emain9 a re a lso v ery c ommon" ( 1931: 9 3) i n l evel 1 4 a t G amble's C ave 4 ( c9rresponding t o E burran P hase 3 a nd 4 ); f urther t hey a re a lso c ommon i n t he l ower h orizon a t L ion H ill C ave ( Leakey 1 931: 2 47). M ammals r epresented a t G amble 's C ave i nclude a v ariety o f s mall m ammals i ncluding w ater m ongoose ( Atilax p aludinosus), r ats ( Tachyoryctes), h are ( Lepus), j ackals ( Canis a dustus), a nd o tters ( Lutra) a s w ell a s a h ippopotomus ( Hippopotomus) ( Leakey 1 931: 2 73-274). I n f act f rom t his e vidence i t w ould a ppear t hat t he e arly H olocene N aivasha-Nakuru r esidents m ade e xcellent u se o f t he a quatic r esources a round t hem , m uch a s d id o ther n orthern a nd e astern A frican r esidents d uring t his p eriod. T wo b one p oint f ragments w ere d iscovered a t t he t op o f L eakey's L evel 1 4 , o ne r eported b y O akley ( 1961) a nd t he o ther u nreported b ut i n L eakey's p ossession ( in O akley 1 961: 8 7). F ragments o f p ottery w ere a lso r ecovered f rom L evel 1 4, o ne s imilar t o t he K hartoum s tyle o f d otted w avy-line p ottery, a lso a cknowledged b y A rkell ( see P late XI II -

4 5

1 i n L eakey 1 931). A mbrose s tates t hat t hese f indings w ere n ot c onf irmed i n s ubsequent e xcavations ( 1982: 1 23); n evertheless t he p resence o f t wo b one p oints a nd a s herd o f d otted w avy-line p ottery c annot b e s ummarily d ismissed, n or c an t he a bundant f ish r emains. T heir p resence i ndicates e ither c ontact w ith o ther g roups m anufacturing t hese i tems, o r d evelopment o f t hem i ndependently b y t he E burran r esidents. T hese E burran I ndustry o ccurrences a re t herefore d ifficult t o a ssess b oth i n s ubsistence t erms a nd i n r elationship t o o ther e arly H olocene o ccurrences, p rimarily b ecause o f f ocus o n l ithic a ggregates a nd i nsufficient k nowledge o f t he f auna o f t he s ites. T he p resence o f t he t wo b one p oints, a p ottery s herd a nd f ish r emains a t G amble 's C ave s uggest a s imilar s ubsistence a daptation t o t hat i n o ther s aharan a nd e astern A frican s ites; h owever t he l imited p resence o f t hese a rtifacts r elative t o o ther e arly H olocene s ites i s e nigmatic. T he " abundant" p resence o f f ish r emains a t G amble's C ave a nd L ion H ill C ave s uggest a s imilar s ubsistence f ocus a s a t o ther e arly H olocene s ites, b ut t he d ifferent t ypes o f f ish a vailable m ay h ave e ngendered a t echnology o ther t han b one p oints a nd p ots. H arpoon a nd s pear p oints a re u sed t oday i n L ake T urkana f or n ile p erch a nd l arge c ichlids; t his s ize o f f ish w as l acking i n t he C entral R ift l akes a nd t he p oints m ay n ot h ave b een a ppropriate t echnology f or s maller f ish . L ittle i s k nown o f e arly H olocene s ites i n e astern c entral A frica, m aking t he s ites o f I shango 1 1 a nd 1 4 u nique. U nfortunately i t a lso s uffers f rom t he p roblem p laguing i nterpretation o f o ther f ishing s ettlement s ites: i ts d ating h as a lways b een i n q uestion ( see F ootnote 1 ). T he I shango 1 1 s ite c onsists o f c ontinuous o ccupation f rom t he t hree e arly " Ishangian" h orizons t o r elatively r ecent " Modern B antu" h orizons ( de H einzelin 1 957: 9 -13). T he u pper I shango h orizons w ere t hought t o h ave b een d eposited a s a n ear-shore k itchen m idden. T he I shangian l evels w ere d ated b y 1 4C d ates o n s hell a t 2 1000 B P, c orrected t o 1 8000 B P b ased o n t he d ating t oo o ld b y 3 ,000 y ears o f m odern b each s hell ( de H einzelin 1 957: 1 7). D e H einzelin ( 1957: 1 9) h owever r ejected t his d ate a s b eing t oo o ld o n t he b asis o f c omparison w ith o ther e arly H olocene s ites; f rom a s omewhat s ubjective a ssessment o f v olcanic c arbonates h e e stimated t he d ate a t a bout 8 000 t o 8 500 B P . B ased o n t he o riginal c orrected d ate o f 1 8000 B P, t he a ffinities o f t he q uartz i ndustry, a nd a n ew a mino a cid r acemisation t est, B rooks a nd S mith ( 1986) s uggested t hat t he m ain I shangian h orizons d o d ate t o t he t erminal P leistocene, p ossibly t o a bout 1 800 B P . A m ore r ecent u npublished d ate f rom o strich e ggshell n ow d ates t he m ain I shangian h orizons a t 2 5000 B P ( Brooks, p ersonal c ommunication). V an N oten s upports t hese e arlier d ates b ased o n c omparison w ith t he l ithics f rom M atupi C ave ( 1982: 3 6). I shangian l ithics a re d ifficult t o c ompare w ith o thers; t he a ggregate i s o f q uartz a nd c omprised o f f lakes, c ores a nd f ew s haped t ools. O f t he s haped t ools, i n t he M ain f ossiliferous L evel ( NFP) a nd s ubsequent N iveau t uface h orizon ( NT) n o m icroliths o r b urins a re k nown a nd s crapers d ominate. I n t he n ext m ain f ossiliferous l evel Z one p ost e mersion ( ZPE) s crapers a re a lso i mportant b ut s ome m icroliths a nd b urins a ppear ( de H einzelin 1 957: 2 8-31). A bove t hat, m icroliths b ecome v ery c ommon a nd s crapers d ecline i n i mportance. T he

b arbed

b one

p oints

a re

4 6

k nown

f rom

t he

t hree

e arliest

f ossiliferous l evels ( GI, N FP , N T) a nd a d evelopment f rom b iserially b arbed t o u niserially b arbed h arpoons c an b e t raced. T hey a re n ot k nown f rom t he Z PE l evel. T he G I h arpoons a re b iserial w ith e ither n otched o r u nmodified p ointed b ases. T he f ormer a re i nterpreted a s h arpoon p oints a nd t he l atter s pear p oints. I n t he N FP l evel t he p oints a re a gain b iserial b ut a ll h ave n otched b ases. I n t he t hird N T l evel t he h eads a re u niserial, b ut w ith b oth n otched a nd u nmodified b ases. B ased o n c omparison w ith b one p oints r ecovered f rom t he S ahara , e astern A frica a nd t he N ile V alley, d e H einzelin p roposed t he i nvention a nd d evelopment o f t he b one p oints a t I shango a nd t heir s ubsequent d iffusion t o t hese a reas ( 1962). N o p ottery i s k nown i n t he I shangian h orizons. F ish f auna w ill b e d iscussed i n C hapter 1 1, b ut s pecimens n umber i n t he t housands w hile m ammal r emains o nly n umber i n t he h undreds. A nalysis o f m ammalian f auna i ndicates t hat i n t he I shangian l ayers b ushbuck ( Tragelaphus s criptus), b uffalo ( Syncerus c aff e r, S .nanus), t opi ( Damaliscus l unatus) a nd s maller a ntelopes s uch a s d uiker ( Cephalophus s p.) a nd r eedbuck ( Redunca r edunca) w ere h unted. H ippopotomi ( Hippopotomus a mphibius) a re c ommon, a nd s maller a nimals s uch a s h are ( Lepus), o tter ( Lutra m aculicollis), a nd w arthogs ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus) w ere a lso c aught, a s w ell a s m olluscs a nd b irds ( de H einzelin 1 957: 1 4-15). T he r eduction i n n umbers a nd e ventual d isappearance o f s ome s pecies o f f ish , i s s een t o b e a r esult o f a w idespread v olcanic e ruption f rom t he K utwe c raters c ausing c ontamination o f t he l ake ( Greenwood 1 959).

4 7

C HAPTER 4 :

E COLOGY A ND Z OOGEOGRAPHY O F E ASTERN A FRICAN F ISH F AUNAS

B ackground T he p resent-day f reshwater f ish f auna o f t ropical A frica i s m ainly d escended f rom a p re-Miocene f auna w hich w as w idespread a cross t ropical A frica ( Greenwood 1 976 ; B eadle 1 981). T he s imilarity o f t he f ish f auna f rom t he N iger, V olta, S enegal, G ambia, N ile, Z aire a nd Z ambezi R ivers i ndicates t he f ormer u niformity a nd e xtent o f t his f auna . T he h istory o f e volution o f t he a ncestral f auna i s n ot c lear, b ut f ossil r emains s uggest c lose c onnections w ith t he S outh A merican f reshwater f ish f auna, p resumably d ating b ack t o a p re-Cretaceous G ondwanaland f auna ( Roberts 1 972; G reenwood a nd H owes 1 975; S tewart i n p ress). T ectonic a nd c limatic c hanges d uring a nd s ubsequent t o t he M iocene i n m any r egions h ave s ubstantially a ltered w hat w as f ormerly a p redominantly f luvially-adapted f auna. D epauperate f aunas i n s ystems s uch a s L ake R utanzige t oday d emonstrate t he r ecent a ge o f s ome o f t hese c hanges, w hile r ichly d iverse f amilies i n L akes T anganyika a nd M alawi d emonstrate t he a daptive r adiations w hich l ong-term i solation o f l ake b asins c an p roduce. T he w idespread p re-Miocene f auna w as o riginally t ermed " Nilotic", b ased o n t he m istaken n otion t hat f auna f rom t he N ile R iver c olonised t he G reat L akes a nd o ther s ystems ( e.g., W orthington 1 937: 3 11-313). I n f act t he M obutu, R utanzige, V ictoria a nd T urkana b asins w ere p robably a ll c olonised f rom w estward- f lowing r ivers w hich d rained i nto t he Z aire b asin o r p roto-Nile s ystem ( Bishop a nd T rendall 1 967: 4 04 ; B eadle 1 981: 1 74-175), a nd w hich c ontained t he p re-Miocene f ish f auna . T his w idespread f auna i s n ow t ermed " soudanien" ( Beadle 1 981: 1 44) t o a void m istaken a ssociations. T ypical s pecies o f t he f auna i nclude H ydrocynus f orskalii ( tigerfish), B arbus b ynni ( barbel), C larias l azera ( mudfish), L ates n iloticus ( Nile p erch) a nd O reochromis n iloticus ( tilapia).

L ake T urkana C ollections o f f ish r emains f rom t he P lio-Pleistocene s ediments n ortheast o f L ake T urkana h ave i ndicated t hat a r ich a nd d iverse s oudanien f auna h as e xisted t here a t l east s ince P liocene t imes ( Schwartz 1 983). T hroughout t he p eriod f rom t he P liocene t o t he p resent t he c omposition o f t he f auna h as b een s trongly i nfluenced b y p eriodic e xistence o f a c onnection w ith t he N ile v ia t he S obat R iver. P resence o f t he c onnection h as f reshened t he l ake w aters a s w ell a s a llowing i nterchange o f f ish b etween t he t wo s ystems. L ack o f t he c onnection o ver l ong p eriods h as d eprived t he l ake o f a n o utlet a nd t urned i t i nto a h ighly a lkaline a nd s aline b asin w ith a n i ncreasingly d epauperate f ish f auna. I n t he t erminal P leistocene p eriod i n

4 8

p articular t he t axonomic d iversity o f f ish d eclined d ramatically, a s d id n umbers o f c rocodiles a nd h ippopotomi. S chwartz s uggested t hat " intolerably h igh a lkalinities o r s alinities" p resumably d ue t o l ow l ake l evels, w ere r esponsible f or t hese c hanges ( 1983: 1 37), a nd t his i s s upported b y t he d ominance o f c ichlids a nd c lariids, f ish m ost a ble t o s urvive a dverse c onditions. T he r e-establishment o f a c onnection w ith t he N ile s ystem v ia t he S obat R iver b etween 9 000 a nd 7 900 B P ( Butzer 1 980) a llowed t he i nflux o f f auna f rom t he N ile a s w ell a s f reshening o f t he l ake w aters. T his i nflux i s r eflected i n t he p resent-day f auna o f L ake T urkana. T here a re a t p resent 4 8 s pecies o f f ish o f w hich a ll b ut 2 0 e ndemic s pecies a re s hared w ith t he N ile R iver ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 2 83+). T he n umber o f g enera - 3 3 - i n L ake T urkana i s h igh i n r elation t o t he n umber o f s pecies, i ndicating a l ow l evel o f e ndemism . L ow e ndemism i s c haracteristic o f f luvial f aunas, a nd s upports t he i dea o f a r elatively r ecent f aunal e xchange w ith t he N ile R iver. L ake T anganyika, f or e xample, h as 8 4 g enera a nd 2 55 s pecies, w hich i s c haracteristic o f a n e volved l acustrine f auna ( Schwartz 1 983: 1 9). T he L ake T urkana f auna t oday h as u ndergone c onsiderable i mpoverishment s ince T erminal P leistocene t imes. T wo g roups a re a bsent f rom t oday's l ake, a nd a re c onfined t o t he O mo d elta r egion. M ormyroidea h ave b een k nown f rom d eposits t hroughout L ake T urkana 's h istory, i ncluding t he H olocene-aged G alana B oi B eds ( Schwartz 1 983) a nd i-o m s ites i n t he p resent s tudy, b ut w ith o ne e xception t hey e xist o nly i n t he O mo D elta t oday ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 2 92). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t heir e lectrosensory s ystem i s d isfunctional i n h ighly s aline w ater ( Beadle 1 981: 1 86), a lthough t heir e xact t olerance l imits a re u nknown. S imilarly C larotes l aticeps h as a h istory o f e xistence i n t he l ake b ut i t t oo i s n ow k nown o nly f rom t he O mo d elta ( Schwartz 1 983: 5 2). R easons f or i ts a bsence i n t he l ake a re u nknown a s i t d oes n ot u se e lectrosensory o rgans. T able 4 .1 l ists t he s pecies n ow a bsent f rom t he l ake w hich h ave b een r ecorded p revious t o t his t ime. R easons f or t heir d isappearance f rom t he l ake a re u nknown, b ut i ncreasing a lkalinity a nd s alinity i s u sually c ited a s i ndirectly r esponsible ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982).

L ake R utanzige L ake R utanzige's f ish f auna h as a m ore c hequered h istory t han t hat o f L ake T urkana. P liocene a nd e arly P leistocene d eposits c ontain a t ypically s oudanien f auna ( Greenwood 1 959; S tewart i n p ress), b ut e ither t ectonic o r c limatic e vents i n t he M iddle P leistocene c aused t he d isappearance o f m any o f t he g roups. E vidence o f s urvival o f s ome s pecies, o r a lternatively o f a f aunal c onnection w ith L ake M obutu i n l ate P leistocene t imes, i s s een i n t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene b eds a t I shango, w here r emains o f t ypical s oudanien s pecies s uch a s L ates n iloticus a nd S ynodontis s chall w ere r ecovered ( Greenwood 1 959). M any o f t hese f ish h owever a re n ot n ow p resent i n t he l ake, i ndicating a n e xtinction e vent s uggested b y d e H einzelin t o b e v olcanic ( 1957).

4 9

T able 4 .1.

S pecies o f f ish f ormerly r ecorded i n L ake T urkana, b ut n ot n ow p resent. D ata t aken f rom H opson a nd H opson ( 1982). L ast r ecord:

S pecies f ormerly i n l ake: H yperopisus b ebe

H istorically n ever i n l ake, b ut k nown i n f ossil d eposits

M ormyrus k annume

H istorically n ever i n l ake, b ut k nown i n f ossil d eposits

G ymnarchus n iloticus

ortheast c orner o f l ake 1 908 - N

H ydrocynus l ineatus

ast s hore, n ear M oite 1 931 - E

A lestes m acrolepidotus

outh o f t he R iver O mo 1 932 - M

A uchenoglanis o ccidentalis*

erguson's G ulf 1 964 - F

H eterobranchus l ongifilis

H istorically n ever i n l ake, b ut k nown i n f ossil d eposits

S ynodontis f rontosus*

1 964 - F erguson 's G ulf

*

T hese s pecies h ave h istorically b een k nown i n t he L ake, b ut i n t he l ast 2 0 y ears t heir d istribution i s m uch m ore r estricted a nd t heir n umbers m uch d iminished.

T he p resent d ay f auna o f L ake R utanzige i s d epauperate, d ominated b y c ichlids a nd c atfish. F amilies c haracteristic o f t he N ile a nd o ther s oudanien f aunas s uch a s C haracidae, M ochokidae a nd C entropomidae a re c ompletely a bsent. O ther t han w ith L ake G eorge, a s mall n ortheast e xtension o f L ake R utanzige, t he l ake h as n o p assable f aunal c onnect ions w ith t he o ther G reat L akes a nd t hrough t hem t o t he N ile. I ts f ish f auna t herefore w ill l ikely c ontinue t o d evelop i n i solation .

E cology a nd S ystematics M uch o f t he f auna r epresented i n t he a rchaeological d eposits a t I shango i s n ot n ow p resent i n L ake R utanzige, b ut i s r epresented i n p resent-day L ake T urkana, t herefore e cological d ata f rom T urkana w ill b e u sed t o i nterpret t he I shango f auna. T he b ehaviour a nd h abitat p references o f t he f ish r epresented i n t he L ake T urkana a nd I shango s ites a re d iscussed b elow i n s ystematic o rder, a s w ell a s t heir b ehaviour a nd h abitat p references. P ictures o f s ome f ish a re p resented i n A ppendix 2 . F or b oth l akes i t m ust b e e mphasised t hat t he s pecies d iscussed d o n ot r eflect t he t otal f ish f aunal c omposition, b ut o nly t hose r ecovered i n t he a rchaeological s ites. I n f act t his m eans t hat f ish u nder 3 0cm i n t otal l ength ( TL) a re r arely i ncluded; 3 0cm a ppears t o b e t he m inimum l ength f or ' survivability' i n t hese d eposits ( Chapter 6 ). T hose e cological a spects o f m ost r elevence t o i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological r emains a re s ummarised i n T able 4 .2.

5 0

T able 4 .2. H abitat, S pawning a nd T rophic P references o f M odern F ish i n E ast A frican R ift L akes. D ata p rimarily c ompiled f rom G reenwood ( 1966), H opson a nd H opson ( 1982) a nd S chwartz ( 1983). P r=Protopterus; H n=Heterotis n iloticus ; H b=Hyperopisus b ebe ; M k=Mormyrus k annume ; G n=Gymnarchus n iloticus; H f=Hydrocynus f orskahlii; A b=Alestes b aremose; C c=Citharinus c itharis ; D n=Distichodus n iloticus; L h=Labeo h ourie ; B b=Barbus b ynni; B a=Barbus a ltianalis; B g=Bagrus b ayad; B d=Bagrus d ocmac; C o=Clarotes l aticeps ; A o=Auchenoglanis o ccidentalis ; S u=Schilbe u ranoscopus; C 1=Clarias l azera ; S s=Synodontis s chall; S f=Synodontis f rontosus; L n=Lates n iloticus; T z=Tilapia z illii; S g=Sarotherodon g alilaeus ; O n=Oreochromis n iloticus; T f=Tetraodon f ahaka .

H abitat P reference: L ittoral

L ittoral I n/OffS hore

P elagic I n/OffS hore

D emersal I nshore

D emersal O ffshore

D emersal I n/Off S hore

A ll

T axon: P r H n H b M k G n H f A b C c D n L h B b B a B g B d C o A o S u C l H 1 S s S f L n T z S g O n T f

+ + + 1 + 1 + 1 + + + 3 + 3 + 3 + + + + + ? + + + + ? + + 1 + + 2 + 3 + +

+

5 1

T able 4 .2 c ontinued

S pawning H abitat: L itt o ral

O pen L ake

T rophic P reference:

U priver

P isci v ore

H erbi v ore

I nsect i vore

Z oo p lank t on

D etri t i v ore

M oll u sci y ore

T axa : P r H n H b M k G n H f A b C c D n L h B b B a B g B d C o A o S u C l S s S f L n T z S g O n T f

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1- I n L ake 2-P refers 37 P refers 4-I n L ake

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T urkana r estricted t o O mo D elta r ocky s hores s oft s ubstrates T urkana, s pawns i n O mo R iver

C lass O steichthyes S ubclass D ipneusti F amily P rotopteridae P rotopterus s p . ( African L ungfish)

R emains o f P rotopterus, e asily i dentified b y t he r elatively m assive s tructure a nd c haracteristic r idges o f t heir t oothplates, w ere s carce a t a ll s ites. A t F xJj12 o ne t oothplate w as i dentified, a nd s ix w ere r ecovered a t I shango 1 1. T he f ish r epresented w ere b etween 5 0 a nd 8 5 c entimeters l ong.

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T he r easons f or t he s carcity a re p robably t wofold. F irst, P rotopterus r epresents o ne o f t hree s urviving g enera o f a rchaic l ungfish , a g roup e xtending b ack t o t he D evonian. T he c ranial a nd p ostcranial e lements o f t his g roup h ave s hown i ncreasing r eduction i n o ssification r esulting i n l argely c artilagenous e lements w hich o f c ourse r arely s urvive d iagenetic p rocesses. F or t his r eason o nly t he c haracteristically r obust b ony t ooth p lates a re f ound i n s ites . S econd , w hile P rotopterus i s w idespread a cross t ropical A frica, i t i s n ot p resent i n l arge n umbers. A lthough n ot p resent t oday i n L ake T urkana, P rotopterus i s p resent i n m odern L ake R utanzige. R emains e xtent b ack t o t he O ligocene a nd a re a lso k nown t hroughout t he A frican c ontinent ( Greenwood 1 974). F our s pecies a re k nown , b ut a s d istinction i s b ased p rimarily o n m eristic c haracteristics, i solated b one e lements c an o nly b e i dentified t o g eneric l evel ( Greenwood 1 986 : 1 64). W hile I m ade a n a ttempt t o d etermine s pecific d ifferences i n t oothplates, t he w eathered n ature o f m aterial a llowed o nly g eneric i dentification . P rotopterus i s o ne o f t he l argest f ish i n A frican f reshwaters, t he l argest k nown b eing 1 ,800cm T otal L ength ( TL) ( Greenwood 1 986 : 1 63). T hey p refer s wampy i nshore l ake, s wamp o r r iver h abitats a nd c an b e s peared o r h arpooned i n l ow w aters. H owever t hey a re m ost v ulnerable t o h uman p redation w hen t hey e stivate, w hich o ccurs a t t he o nset o f t he d ry s eason . A t t his t ime t hey m ay e xcavate a b urrow a bout 3 0 a nd 2 50mm b elow t he m ud/water i nterface, w here t hey s tay f or s even t o e ight m onths, d epending o n t he l ength o f t he d ry s eason . G reenwood n otes ( 1986: 1 66-67) t hat t he e ssentially E ast A frican s pecies o f P . a ethiopicus r arely d oes m ake e stivation b urrows, a s t heir a ssociation w ith l arge l akes a nd r ivers f ound i n E ast A frica p recludes t otal d essication c onditions . H owever s ome b urrows a re k nown n orth o f L ake K ioga . P rotopterus a lso c onstructs b reeding n ests, s imilar t o s mall p its, a t t he o nset o f r ains. T hese a re g uarded b y t he p arents, w ho a re t hen v ulnerable t o p redators. P rotopterus h ave b een d escribed a s " omnivorous c arnivores" ( Greenwood 1 986 : 1 76). H owever t hey t oo a re p rey, m ainly t o h umans , l eopards, s erval c ats a nd h yenas ( Greenwood 1 986: 1 77). T heir f lesh i s v alued a s w ell-flavoured.

S ubclass A ctinopterygii S ubdivision T eleosteii • O rder O steoglossiformes F amily O steoglossidae H eterotis s p.

O nly t wo e lements - b oth l eft o percula - b elong t o t his g enus. B oth w ere r ecovered f rom t he s urface c ollections a t F xJj12. B oth w ere f rom l arge i ndividuals , b etween 8 5 a nd 1 15cm T L . O percula f rom H eterotis a re u nique i n b eing r elatively m assive w ith a r idged s culpturing o f t he l ateral s urface.

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H eterotis i s a t p resent r epresented b y o ne s pecies - H . n iloticus - i n A frica, a nd i s w idespread t hroughout t he t ropical z one, a lthough i n s mall n umbers. I t i s a bsent f rom p resent-day L ake R utanzige, a nd s carce i n L ake T urkana e xcept i n t he O mo a nd K erio R iver d eltas. F ossil r emains a re k nown i n A frica f rom t he l ower M iocene-Pliocene t o l ower P leistocene d eposits i n L ake T urkana a nd K enya; t his s tudy r eports t he f irst r emains d ated b etween t he e arly P leistocene a nd p resent-day. H eterotis a t p resent g rows t o 9 0cm T L i n L ake T urkana. I t i s l ittoral d welling i n s wampy a reas w ith a bundant m acrophytic v egetation, e ating p lankton a nd i nsects. I ts h abit o f c onstructing u nique g rass n ests, w here e ggs a re l aid a nd g uarded b y b oth p arents ( Daget a nd I ltis 1 965), m ake i t v ulnerable t o i nshore p redation.

F amily G ymnarchidae G ymnarchus s p. O ne v ertebral c entrum f rom L owasera w as a ssigned t o t his g enus, b ased o n b oth t he d elicately w ebbed t rabeculae c haracteristic o f m ormyroidea a nd t he s ize ( 85 t o 15cm T L), w hich i s o nly c ommonly a chieved b y G ymnarchus o f t his g roup. G ymnarchus i s a m ono-typic g enus, o nly r epresented b y G ymnarchus n iloticus. I ts d istribution i s w idespread t hrough t ropical A frica, b ut a gain o nly i n s mall n umbers. I t i s n ow n ot k nown i n L ake R utanzige o r L ake T urkana, a lthough i t i s p resent i n t he O mo d elta. I ts f ossil d istribution e xtends t o t he M iocene i n K enya ( Schwartz 1 983) a nd t he P liocene i n L ake R utanzige ( Stewart i n p ress). T his s tudy r eports t he o nly f ossil r emains o f G ymnarchus i n A frica o ther t han f rom t he L ower P leistocene d eposits a t T urkana ( Schwartz 1 983). G ymnarchus s enses i ts e nvironment u sing e lectro-sensory o rgans; i ts a bsence i n L ake T urkana i s a ttributed t o t he l ake's h igh s alinity w hich r ender t he w eakly e lectric o rgans d isfunctional. I t g rows t o a bout o ne m etre i n l ength i nthe O mo D elta, a lthough o ver 1 .5 m eters e lsewhere, a nd i nhabits i nshore s wampy a reas. I t i s u sually f ound i n l ake f ringes, r ivers o r r iver d eltas ( Lowe-McConnell 1 987: 2 66). I t i s c arnivorous, e ating s mall f ish, m olluscs a nd i nsects. I t a lso c onstructs a nd g uards n ests, m aking i t v ulnerable t o i nshore h arpooni ng. I ts f lesh i s " highly e steemed" ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 2 94).

M ormyroidea I ndet. T wenty-four v ertebrae w ere c learly c haracteristic o f t he m ormyroidea; 2 3 a re o f a s ize r ange ( up t o 8 5cm) t hat c ould p lace t hem i n a ny o f s everal g enera, w hile o ne i s a ssigned t o G ymnarchus n iloticus. C ranial m aterial i s n eeded f or g eneric i dentification. F ourteen v ertebrae w ere f rom U nits 2 , 4 a nd 8 a t L owasera, a nd n ine f rom t he u pper l evels ( 2 t o 1 .70) a t I shango 1 1. I n L ake T urkana t he m ormyroidea a re a bsent b ut a re p resent i n t he O mo D elta, a nd i nclude

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t he g enera H yperopisus, M ormyrus, a nd G ymnarchus; t he f ormer t wo a nd m any o ther g enera a re a lso k nown f rom p resent-day L ake R utanzige ( Greenwood 1 966). I n g eneral t he m ormyroidea u tilise e lectro-sensory o rgans t o s ense t heir s urroundings a nd t herefore a re e xcluded f rom h ighly s aline w aters, s uch a s e xist i n p resent-day L ake T urkana . T hey a re i nshore f ish w hich p robably s pawn i n m igrations i n r ivers a nd s treams a t h igh w aters, a lthough l ittle d ata i s a vailable. T hey a re s aid t o p refer r ocky a reas ( Boulenger 1 901), e ating i nsects a nd m olluscs. T here a re a v ariety o f l ocal t aboos o n m ormyroids. I n t he K avirondo G ulf o f L ake V ictoria l ocal g roups s ay t hat m ormyroids g ive t hem d iarrhoea ( Brelsford 1 946), w hile i n L ake R utanzige t hey a re s aid t o m ake w omen s terile ( Greenwood 1 966: 2 4). B relsford a ttributes t he r ange o f t aboos t o t heir v ery h igh f at c ontent a nd t he p ossibly d eleterious e ffects o f e ating t oo m uch o f t heir f lesh. S uperorder O stariophysi O rder C ypriniformes F amily C yprinidae L abeo s p. F ive e lements o f t his g enus - f our v ertebrae a nd o ne p haryngeal t ooth - w ere r ecovered f rom G aJi 3 . T hey d erived f rom i ndividuals o f b etween 5 0 a nd 8 5cm T L. W hile t he b ones a re v ery d elicate, a s w ith m any c yprinids, t he d istinct p haryngeal t eeth a re r obust a nd p reserve w ell. H owever i dentification b eyond t he g eneric l evel w as n ot p ossible d ue t o f ragmentary n ature o f t he m aterial. L abeo i s r epresented b y o ne s pecies - L . h on e - i n L ake T urkana, w here i t i s c ommon . A nother s pecies - L . f orskalii - i s k nown i n p resent d ay L ake R utanzige. L abeo s pp. a re w idespread a nd c ommon t hroughout t he N ile R iver b asin. I t h as h owever a p oor f ossil r ecord, d ue u ndoubtedly t o t he p oor ' survivability' o f i ts b one e lements a nd t he l ack u ntil r ecently o f a dequate m ethods f or r ecovering s mall e lements s uch a s t eeth. I t i s k nown i n P liocene t o e arly P leistocene d eposits i n L ake T urkana, E gypt a nd L ake R utanzige. L abeo i s a n i nshore d emersal f ish p referring s oft s ubstrates i n b oth l akes a nd r ivers w here i t e ats a lgae a nd o rganic d etritus. A t t he o nset o f r ains i t m igrates t o t he m ouths o f l arge a nd s mall r ivers a nd s treams. I ndividuals m ature a t a bout 5 5cm F ork L ength ( FL) i n L ake T urkana . T he l argest r ecent s pecimen k nown f rom L ake T urkana w as a bout 9 0cm T L .

B arbus s p.

( Barbel)

A t otal o f 1 ,039 e lements w ere r ecovered b elonging t o t his g enus: 9 39 f rom I shango 1; 4 8 f rom I shango 1 4; 5 f rom L owasera ; 5 0 f rom G aji3; 2 f rom F xJj12N ; 1f rom F xJj12; a nd 5 f rom G aJj1. P haryngeal t eeth, v ertebrae a nd d orsal p terygiophores w ere t he b est p reserved e lements, i n p articular t he t eeth w hich a re v ery r obust. D ermal c ranial e lements w ere l ess w ell p reserved, t he m ost f requent o nes b eing t he h yomandibulare, a rticulare a nd d entare.

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B arbus i s r epresented b y t hree s pecies i n L ake T urkana , a nd f our i n L ake R utanzige. O nly B . b ynni g rows t o as ize g reater t han 1 0cm T L ; t he l argest k nown i s a bout 9 0cm T L ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 09). I n L ake R utanzige B . a ltianalis r eaches a l ength o f a bout 9 0cm ; t he o thers d o n ot g row m uch p ast 1 0cm i n l ength . W hile G reenwood ( 1959) w as a ble t o d istinguish B . a ltianalis f rom B . b ynni o n t he b asis o f p haryngeal t eeth, s uch d istinctions w ere d eemed n ot s tatistically v alid , a nd G reenwood ( pers. c omm .) h as s ince s uggested t hat t he c riteria h e u sed w ere n ot c learcut. B arbus h as a w ell d ocumented f ossil r ecord f rom t he P liocene i n E gypt, K enya a nd Z aire ( Lake R utanzige) t o ( Greenwood 1 959; S chwartz 1 983).

M iocene a nd t he p resent

B arbus i s a n i nshore d emersal s pecies, l iving o n b oth s oft a nd h ard s ubstrates, a lthough y oung a re o ften f ound i n d eeper o ffshore w aters . I ts d iet i s v aried, i ncluding o stracods, m olluscs, a quatic v egetation, i nsects a nd o ccasionally f ish ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 09; G reenwood 1 966 : 6 0-62). I t m atures a t a bout 5 0cm F L i n L ake T urkana , a nd s pawns a t t he o nset o f r ains i n r ivers ; i n L ake T urkana B . b ynni m igrates i nto t he R iver O mo . B arbus c ongregates i n s till p ools, a s w ell a s a t t he f oot o f r apids o r f alls, b efore l eaping t hem . T here a re m any s tories i n t he e thnographies o f c apturing B arbus e ither w ith w eirs o n m igration r uns, o r b y a ttracting t hem i nto q uiet p ools b y b eating t he w ater, a nd t hen s pearing o r c lubbing t hem ( e.g. B oulenger 1 901: 2 29 ; G offin 1 909).

C yprinidae i ndet . T wenty-five e lements w ere f ound f rom a ll s ites, p redominantly v ertebrae. W hen o nly f ragments o f v ertebrae a re r ecovered , t he s imilarities b etween L abeo a nd B arbus e lements m ake g eneric d istinction d ifficult.

O rder C haraciformes F amily C itharinidae C itharinus s p. O nly o ne e lement w as a ttributed t o t his g enus, a v ertebral c entrum f rom I shango 1 4. T he f ossil r ecord f or t his g enus i s e xtremely p oor, d ue u ndoubtedly t o t he f ragile n ature o f i ts b one a nd t eeth e lements. T he o nly f ossil r ecord i s f rom e arly P leistocene E ast T urkana ; t his s tudy i s t he f irst r ecord o f i ts f ossil e xistence i n L ake R utanzige. C itharinus i s p resently n ot k nown i n L ake R utanzige, b ut i s i n L ake T urkana . I ts a bsence i n a rchaeological s ites i n t he l atter l ake i s p uzzling b ut i s l ikely a ttributable t o p oor p reservation . C itharinus g rows t o a bout 7 0cm T L i n L ake T urkana , a nd i s a n i nshore d emersal g enus. I t f eeds o n p lankton a nd m olluscs . I ndividuals m ature a t a bout 5 0cm F L a nd m igrate u p r ivers t o s pawn a t t he o nset o f r ains ; t hose i nhabiting L ake T urkana m igrate u p t he R iver O mo ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 06).

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F amily C haracidae H ydrocynus s p. ( Tigerfish) H ydrocynus w as n ot c ommon i n t he a rchaeological s ites, w ith o nly 2 0 e lements r ecovered, f rom f ish b etween 3 0 a nd 8 5cm i n t otal l ength . T hese i nclude o ne e lement f rom F xJj12, 1 5 f rom G aJi3 a nd f our f rom G aJj1. A ll b ut t wo o f t he e lements w ere t eeth . T hese a re t riangular, p ointed, a nd w hile a ppearing u ni cusped, a ctually a re d erived f rom m ulticuspid t eeth ( Roberts 1 967: 2 41). N o s pecies c ould b e d etermined b ased s olely o n t eeth o r v ertebrae. N o r emains w ere r ecovered f rom t he I shango s ites. H ydrocynus i s n ow r epresented b y o nly o ne s pecies i n L ake T urkana -H . f orskalii; a nother s pecies o nce p resent i n t he l ake - H . l ineatus - i s n ow c onfined t o t he O mo d elta ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 2 96). H ydrocynus r emains a re k nown f rom d eposits i n t he O mo d elta a nd L ake T urkana f rom t he P liocene t o p resent ( Schwartz 1 983), b ut o nly f rom P liocene d eposits a t L ake R utanzige. H ydrocynus g rows t o a l ength o f a bout 6 5cm i n L ake T urkana ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 2 96). I t i s c ommon t hroughout t he l ake b oth i n i nshore a nd o ffshore s uperficial p elagic w aters, o ften i n s hoals. H ydrocynus m ature a t a bout 3 0cm F L , a nd m ost m ature i ndividuals s pawn i n t he l ake a lthough H opson a nd H opson ( 1982: 2 96) r eport t hat s ome d o m igrate t o t he R iver O mo t o s pawn. I t h as v ery s harp t eeth, i s a v oracious c arnivore, a nd a f ighting f ish w ith h ook a nd l ine ( Greenwood 1 966: 3 8). H owever i t i s u npalatable, b eing d escribed a s t asting l ike " cotton w ool f illed w ith n eedles" ( Greenwood 1 966: 3 8), a lthough t he f ish i s e aten a mong t he T urkana ( pers. o bservn.).

A lestes s p. T welve v ertebrae w ere r ecovered f rom K oobi F ora s ites: 1 1 f rom G aJi3, a nd o ne f rom F xJj12. W hile A lestes v ertebrae r esemble H ydrocynus v ertebrae, t hey h ave e xtra l ateral f oramina w hich a re d istinctive. H owever t hese a re n ot u seful f or d istinguishing s pecies. A lestes i s r epresented i n L ake T urkana b y s ix s pecies, o f w hich o nly t wo - A . d entex a nd A . b aremose - g row t o b etween 4 0 a nd 5 0cm T L ( the o thers h ave a m aximum g rowth o f u nder 2 0cm T L). A . d entex h owever i s v ery r are. T here a re n ow n o A lestes i n L ake R utanzige. T he f ossil r ecord i s p oor, w ith r ecords o nly f rom t he l ate P liocene a t L ake T urkana, a nd f rom t he P liocene a nd e arly P leistocene d eposits o f L ake R utanzige ( Schwartz 1 983; S tewart i n p ress). A lestes i s a n i nshore a nd o ffshore i nhabitant o f t he s uperficial p elagic l ayer, a nd i s r elatively c ommon t hroughout L ake T urkana. A t t imes o f h igh w ater m ature i ndividuals m igrate u p t he R iver O mo; t hey m ature a t a bout 3 0cm F L. A lthough v ery s imilar i n h abits a nd a ppearance t o H ydrocynus i t i s n ot a c arnivore a nd i ts t eeth a re m olariform a nd o ften m ulticusped, u nlike t he s harp p ointed t eeth o f H ydrocynus. I t c hiefly e ats z ooplankton a nd i nsects.

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C haracidae i ndet. T wenty v ertebrae w ere r ecovered, f rom G aJi3, w hich c ould n ot f urther i dentified t o g enus. T his i s t he o nly s ite w here n umbers H ydrocynus a nd A lestes w ere r ecovered. W hen o nly f ragments v ertebrae a re r ecovered, d istinction b etween t he t wo g enera d ifficult.

b e o f o f i s

C haraciformes i ndet. A s ingle v ertebra w as f ound f rom G aJi3. m ade f urther i dentification i mpossible.

I ts

f ragmentary

n ature

O rder S iluriformes ( Catfish) F amily B agridae B agrus s p. A t otal o f 2 28 e lements w ere a ttributed t o B agrus. T wo h undred a nd o ne w ere r ecovered f rom I shango 1 1, 1 5 f rom F xJj12, 1 0 f rom G aJi3 a nd t wo f rom L owasera. N one w ere r ecovered f rom I shango 1 4. A ll r emains, e xcept t hose f rom G aJi3, w ere f rom i ndividuals w hich r anged f rom 5 0 t o 1 15cm T L, a veraging a bout 8 5cm . H owever m ost o f t he G aJi3 r emains w ere f rom i ndividuals r anging f rom 1 0 t o 5 0cm , b ut m ainly u nder 2 0cm . V ertebrae a nd c ranial f ragments w ere t he m ain e lements r ecovered, a s w ell a s p ectoral s pines. B agrus p ectoral a nd c ranial s pines a re l ess r obust t han t hose o f m ost o ther s iluroidea a nd t herefore p reserve l ess f requently. R obust d ermal e lements p reserved i ncluded c eratohyales, a rticulares a nd d entarias; e lements o f t he W eberian c omplex w ere a lso q uite c ommon. B agrus h as a w ell d ocumented f ossil r ecord P liocene t o t he p resent i n L ake T urkana a nd L ake ( Greenwood 1 974; S chwartz 1 983).

f rom t he R utanzige

M iocened eposits

T wo s pecies o f B agrus a re p resent i n L ake T urkana t oday; B . b ayad a nd t he m uch l ess c ommon B . d ocmac. T he t wo s pecies a re s o o steologically s imilar t hat m eristic c haracteristics a re u sually u sed t o d istinguish t hem , t herefore s peciation o f i solated e lements i s n ot u sually p ossible. B . d ocmac c an a ttain a l ength o f 1 10cm w hile B . b ayad i s o nly k nown t o g row t o 9 0cm . B agrus i s a lso r epresented b y t he s ame t wo s pecies i n p resent-day L ake R utanzige. B agrus i s p redominantly a n o ffshore d emersal l ake f ish , c ommon b elow t he 1 5 m etre d epth c ontour, a lthough i mmature f ish a re f ound i nshore. I t i s a c arnivore, f eeding m ainly o n f ish a nd p rawns. I t i s t hought t o s pawn w ithin t he m ain l ake d uring h igh w aters, m aturing a t a bout 4 0cm F L ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 16). I t i s k nown t o b e a f atty f ish a s w ith m ost s iluroids ( Brelsford 1 946: 3 9).

5 8

C larotes s p. O nly f ive c ranial e lements w ere r ecovered , a ll f rom G aJi3. W hile s ome e lements w ere f rom l arge ( circa 1 00cm T L) f ish, o ne e lement w as f rom a f ish o f u nder 2 0cm . C larotes h ave v ery r obust c ranial e lements, a s d o m ost o ther s iluroids, w ith t he d orsal s hield e lements h aving a c haracteristic n obbled p attern . C larotes i s n ot n ow p resent i n L ake T urkana , a lthough i ts r emains a re w ell-preserved a nd a bundant f rom t he M iocene t o t he p resent i n n orthern , e astern a nd c entral A frica , a nd i n p articular f rom P liocene t o H olocene t imes a t L ake T urkana ( Schwartz 1 983). I t i s a lso k nown f rom P liocene d eposits a t L ake R utanzige ( Stewart i n p ress). C larotes i s o nly r epresented i n A frica t oday b y o ne s pecies, C . l aticeps. I t r eaches a s imilar l ength a s d oes C larias o f a bout o ne m eter. L ittle e lse i s k nown a bout t he b ehaviour a nd h abitat o f t his u ncommon s pecies.

B agridae i ndet. E leven e lements c ould b e i dentified o nly t o f amily l evel. T hese e lements c ould b elong t o B agrus, C larotes o r A uchenoglanis „ a ll w hich a re l arge m assively-built c atfish . A uchenoglanis i s ar are d eep w ater f ish a nd i ts c apture r equired s pecial t echnology a nd d etailed k nowledge o f i ts m ovements.

F amily C lariidae C larias s p. ( Mudfish) S even h undred a nd s ixty-eight e lements w ere a ssigned t o t his g enus. T he m ajority - 5 80 - w ere r ecovered f rom I shango 1 1; o ne h undred w ere f rom I shango 1 4 ; 6 3 f rom F xJj12; 1 4 f rom L owasera ; o nly f our f rom G aJi3 a nd t he r emaining s even f rom t he K oobi F ora s urface s ites. M ost a bundant w ere v ertebrae, a lmost a ll f rom I shango 1 1, h ighly u nusual i n t hat C larias r emains i n v irtually a ll A frican a rchaeological s ites c onsist a lmost t otally o f c ranial e lements, a f inding c ommented o n b y s everal a nalysts ( e.g . G reenwood 1 968; V an N eer 1 986; S tewart i n p ress). T his l atter p attern i s s een i n a ll o ther s ites, i ncluding I shango 1 4 . O ther w ell r epresented e lements i nclude t he v ery r obust a nd d istinctive p ectoral s pines a nd c ranial s hield e lements, a s w ell a s a rticulare, p refontales, f rontales, c leithra , c eratohyales a nd d entarias . P ectoral s pines a re b est f or d etermining M NI f igures, a s t heir p roximal a rticular e nds p reserve w ell a nd s ide c an b e e asily d etermined. T he d istinctive d orsal c ranial e lements h ave a n obbled p attern w hich , a lthough s imilar t o S chilbe, C larotes, a nd S ynodontis c an b e r easonably e asily d istinguished. M ore d ifficulties a re e xperienced i n d istinguishing i t a n H eterobranchus, t o w hich i t i s q uite s imilar. T he e lements i dentified c ame f rom f ish w hich r anged f rom 2 0 t o 15cm T L , w ith t he g reat m ajority r anging f rom a bout 5 0 t o 9 0cm T L . T he

r obust

n ature

o f t he C larias c ranial

5 9

s hield

a nd

p ectoral

s pines h as r esulted i n a r ich f ossil r ecord. C larias t he l ower M iocene i n K enya a nd n orthern A frica, a nd t o L ake T urkana. H owever r emains d ate o nly t o H olocene R utanzige ( Greenwood 1 959). T he r ecord i s c ontinuous t he p resent. C larias i s r epresented C . l azera, w hich i s s carce. t hree s pecies, i ncluding C . l ength o f 1 10cm T L .

r emains d ate t o t he P liocene a t l evels a t L ake i n a ll a reas t o

i n p resent d ay L ake T urkana o nly b y I n L ake R utanzige i t i s r epresented b y l azera. I n L ake T urkana i t r eaches a

C larias i s a l ittoral/inshore g enus w hich i nhabits b oth s oft a nd h ard s ubstrates. I t m atures a t 6 5 t o 7 0cm T L i n L ake T urkana a nd s pawns i n b oth l arge a nd s mall r ivers a t t he o nset o f r ains ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 21). I ts p ossession o f a n a ccessory a ir b reathing o rgan a llows i t t o i nhabit e xtremely d eoxygenated w aters, a s i t o ften d oes i n b reeding s eason ( Jubb 1 967) o r i n t he d ry s eason. F ish ( 1955) f ound t hat i n a s tudy o f t he a ffinity o f h aemoglobin i n b lood f or o xygen, C larias c ould w ithstand l ow o xygen a nd h igh c arbon d ioxide c onditions b etter t han v irtually a ny o f t he o ther f ish s tudied ( including M ormyrus, B agrus, L ates, a nd T ilapia), e xcept P rotopterus w hich a lso p ossesses a ccessory b reathing o rgans. T his a bility t o l ive a nd s pawn i n e xtremely s hallow w aters m akes i t v ulnerable t o p redation e ither f rom f our-legged v ertebrates o r f rom s pearing a nd h arpooning b y h uman p redators. C larias h as b een d escribed a s b eing a " highly e steemed f ish" ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 21).

H eterobranchus s p. O ne e lement r eferred t o t his g enus w as r ecovered f rom F xJj12. H eterobranchus i s w idespread i n t ropical A frica, b ut i s r are. I t h as b een k nown f rom L ake T urkana, b ut i s n ow c onfined t o t he O mo D elta ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 21). L ittle i s k nown o f t his l ittle-studied f ish, o ther t han t hat i t a chieves t he s ame l ength a s C larias i n L ake T urkana. B relsford s ays t hat p eople a round t he B angweulu S wamp w ill n ot e at H eterobranchus, b ecause o f d isgust a t i ts " yellow f at" ( 1946: 3 8). H owever L ake R utanzige f ishermen d o e at i t r oasted ( pers. o bservn .).

C lariidae i ndet. F orty-four e lements o f C lariidae w ere r ecovered f rom I shango 1 1 a nd f rom G aJi3 w hich c ould n ot b e f urther i dentified. T he t wo C lariidae o f i nterest h ere a re C larias a nd H eterobranchus. U sing m odern f aunas a s a nalogues, H eterobranchus s hould b e r are c ompared w ith C larias i n l acustrine s ituations ( Greenwood 1 966; H opson a nd H opson 1 982). T hus, a ll a rchaeological r emains w hich a ppear t o b e C larias h ave b een s o a ssigned, a nd o nly s lightly q uestionable r emains h ave b een a ssigned a s C lariidae i ndet. O nly o ne e lement w as r eliably a ssigned a s lthough s ome o f t he c lariid r emains m ay t herefore b e Heterobranchus , a H eterobranchus

6 0

F amily M ochokidae S ynodontis s p. ( Squeaker) T hree h undred a nd s ixty-nine e lements w ere a ssigned t o t his g enus. N inety d erived f rom G aJi3, o ne f rom F xJj12, t wo f rom G aJj11, o ne f rom G aJj12, t hree f rom G aJj2, 2 2 f rom L owasera , 2 40 f rom I shango 1 1 a nd t en f rom I shango 1 4. S ynodontis i s w idespread a nd n umerous t hroughout t ropical A frica. I t i s r epresented i n L ake T urkana b y t wo s pecies, S . s chall a nd t he m uch r arer S . f rontosus. T he l atter u sed t o b e m ore c ommon i n t he l ake, b ut i s n ow c onfined t o t he O mo d elta ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 23-324). I t i s a bsent f rom p resent-day L ake R utanzige, b ut w as p resent i n t he e arly H olocene l ake. W hile G reenwood ( 1959) w as a ble t o d istinguish t he t wo s pecies o n t he b asis o f c leithra, t he d iagnostic c haracteristics w ere j udged b y b oth o f u s t o b e i nvalid w ithout a l arge s ample o f c omplete e lements; n ot p resent i n a ny o f t he s ites r eported h ere. T he r obusticity o f m any o f i ts e lements h as e nsured a g ood f ossil r ecord f or t his s pecies t hroughout e astern a nd c entral A frica, f rom P liocene t imes o n. S ynodontis i nhabits a ll z ones i n t he l ake, b oth i nshore a nd o ffshore, b oth p elagic a nd d emersal. I t i s o mnivorous, e ating i nsects, s mall f ish, m olluscs a nd z ooplankton. I t s pawns i n b oth l arge a nd s mall r ivers a t h igh w aters, a nd m atures a t a bout 2 0cm F L ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 24). T he a nterior t hird o f i ts b ody i s c overed b y a f ormidable c ranial s hield, a nd c ombined w ith t he i nterlocking p ectoral a nd d orsal s errated s pines g ives i t a g ood d efence. H owever i ts f lesh i s s aid t o b e v ery g ood ( Jubb 1 967).

S iluriformes i ndet. O ne t housand, o ne h undred a nd n inety-five e lements w ere a ttributed t o t his o rder. T he r obusticity o f t he c ranial e lements o f t he s iluriforms m eans t hat e ven s mall f ragments a re l ikely t o b e p reserved. W hile n ot i dentifiable t o g enus o r f amily, t hey a re r ecognisable a s c atfish.

O rder P erciformes F amily C entropomidae L ates s p. ( Nile p erch) A t otal o f 1 250 e lements w ere a ssigned t o t his g enus. S eventeen d erived f rom F xJj12N, 3 67 f rom G aJi3, 2 42 f rom F xJj12, o ne f rom G aJj11, e ight f rom G aJj12, 1 7 f rom G aJj2, 3 28 f rom L owasera, 2 60 f rom I shango 1 1 a nd 1 8 f rom I shango 1 4. f t he l arger M ost L ates e lements a re r obust, p articularly o a nd t herefore h ave g ood p reservation p otential. L ates

i s

aw idespread a nd w ell k nown g enus

6 1

t hroughout

f ish,

t ropical

A frica. I t i s r epresented i n L ake T urkana b y t wo s pecies - t he l arge L . n iloticus a nd t he s maller L . l ongispinis. I t i s a bsent i n m odern L ake R utanzige, b ut w as p resent i n t he e arly H olocene l ake. I ts f ossil r ecord e xtends b ack t o t he E ocene i n n orthern A frican , a nd t he M iocene i n e astern a nd c entral A frica. L . n iloticus c an r each a T L o f 2 50cm , a nd a w eight o f o ver 1 00kg. F ish o f 1 00 t o 1 50cm T L a re c ommonly c aught i n L ake T urkana, a lthough s everal f ishers h ave m entioned t hat f ew f ish o f o ver 2 00cm T L - n ot u ncommon i n t he H olocene a rchaeological a ssemblages - a re t aken t oday i n t he l ake. I ts l arge s ize a nd g ood f lavour m ake i t a s ought a fter f ood. L ates h as a dapted w ell t o a l acustrine e nvironment, s pawning i n t he l ake t hroughout t he y ear, p ossibly w ith a s light p eak a t t he o nset o f r ains ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982). I t m atures i n L ake T urkana a t 6 5 t o 7 0cm ( males o r 8 5 t o 9 0cm ( females). L ates n iloticus i s a p iscivore, a nd ' hunts' p rey b y l urking i n d ark c hannels w aiting f or p assing f ish. I t i s k nown f rom a ll r egions o f L ake T urkana, b ut p refers m ore o pen w ater. F ish ( 1955) h as s hown t hat L . n iloticus p refers w ell-oxygenated w aters, b eing l ess t olerant o f d eoxygenated w aters t han m ost o ther m edium- t o l arge-sized f ish.

F amily C ichlidae ( Tilapias) O ne t housand, f our h undred a nd f ifty f our e lements w ere a ssigned t o t his f amily, 2 32 f rom G aJi3; 1 33 f rom F xJj12; 1 3 f rom F xJj12N ; o ne f rom G aJj12; t wo f rom G aJj1; 3 30 f rom L owasera ; 5 0 f rom I shango 1 4 a nd 6 93 f rom I shango 1 1. M ost a bundant w ere v ertebrae, f ollowed b y t he f irst a nal p terygiophore, a nd t hen a w ide r ange o f d ermal c ranial b ones. S yncranial b ones w ere t he o nly e lements t o b e p oorly p reserved i n t hese c ichlid a ssemblages. T he p reservability o f t he a nal p terygiophore e lement i s s urprising, a s t he s imilar e lement i n L ates i s a lmost n ever f ound i n a rchaeological s ites. T hese e lements a re u seful i n c alculating M NI's. T he f amily i s t he m ost p rolific i n f reshwater A frica f or r adiat ions a nd n umbers o f s pecies. P articularly i n t he l arger g reat l akes T anganyika, M alawi a nd V ictoria - t heir n umbers h ave o ften r eached o ver 2 00. I n L ake T urkana t hey a re r epresented b y 5 g enera a nd 7 s pecies, o f w hich o nly T ilapia, S arotherodon a nd O reochromis r each l engths o f o ver 1 5cm T L . I n L ake R utanzige t he l arge n umbers o f s pecies a re b eing r evised a nd i nclude r ecent e ntries i nto t he l ake. W hile c ichlids a re r epresented i n t he I shango a ssemblages, t heir g eneric i dentities a re n ot k nown ; t heir l arge s ize m akes i t l ikely t hat a t l east s ome o f t hem a re O reochromis. I nitially s ome a ttempt w as m ade t o i dentify t he b one e lements t o g eneric l evel, h owever i ndividual v ariation a nd t he l ack o f c omparative s keletal m aterial o ther t han f or O reochromis f rustrated t hese a ttempts. H owever, T ilapia a nd S arotherodon d o n ot g row a bove 3 5cm T L , t herefore f ish l arger t han t hese a re l ikely O reochromis. W hile

c ichlids

a re

n umerous a nd w idespread

6 2

t oday

i n

t ropical

A frican w aters, t he d elicacy o f t heir b ones m eans t hat t heir f ossil r ecord p robably d oes n ot r eflect t heir a bundance. T hey a re h owever k nown f rom t he M iocene i n e astern a nd c entral A frica ( Van C ouvering 1 982; S chwartz 1 983). F ortunately c ichlid b ehavious i s s imilar e ven a t t he l evel o f f amily. A ll t hree g enera, T ilapia, S arotherodon, a nd O reochromis, b uild n ests f or l aying e ggs. F emales o f t he l atter g enus b rood t heir e ggs i n t heir m ouths; m ales a nd f emales o f t he g enus S arotherodon b rood t he e ggs; T ilapia a dults d o n ot b rood b ut g uard t he e ggs i n t heir n ests ( Fryer a nd I les 1 972). A dults o f a ll g enera s pend t ime g uarding t heir n ests, a nd i t i s a t t his t ime t hat t hey a re v ulnerable t o p redation w ith s pears, n ets o r b askets. A s t hey a re y ear-round b reeders, t his m akes t hem m ore v ulnerable t han o ther s easonal s pawners. A dults m ature a t a bout 3 0cm T L f or S arotherodon a nd O reochromis, a nd f rom 8 cm T L u p f or T ilapia. F urther t hese a re l ittoral-dwelling f ish, a nd p articularly a t l ow o r r eceding w aters f eed i nshore. O reochromis f eeds o n b lue-green a lgae, w hile t he o ther t wo g enera f eed o n i nvertebrate, z ooplankton a nd m acrophytic v egetation ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 31+).

P erciformes i ndet. T wo t housand, f our h undred a nd f ourteen e lements c an b e a ttributed t o t his o rder. O f t hese, 8 7 d erive f rom F xJj12, t hree f rom G xJj12N, 9 45 f rom G aJi3, t wo f rom G aJj12, 3 4 f rom G aJj2, 3 0 f rom G aJj1, 5 01 f rom L owasera, 7 7 f rom I shango 1 1 a nd 3 6 f rom I shango 1 4. T he p reserved p erciform e lements c omprise m ainly s pines, i ncluding d orsal a nd a nal l epidotrichia, p elvic s pines a nd d orsal a nd a nal p terygiophores. T hese e lements c annot b e d istinguished b etween L ates a nd t he c ichlids, e xcept w ith c omplete, p ristine s pecimens, a nd e ven h ere i ndividual v ariation m ay b ias i dentification. T hese e lements a re r obust, d ense, c ompact b one a nd t herefore p reserve b etter t han o ther l ess d ense e lements.

O rder T etraodontiformes F amily T etraodontidae T etraodon s p. ( Pufferfish) F orty-four e lements w ere a ssigned t o t his g enus. F our d erived f rom L owasera, s ix f rom F xJj12, t wo f rom F xJj12N, 2 8 f rom G aJi3 a nd f our f rom G aJj11. N one w ere r ecovered f rom t he I shango s ites. T oothplates a nd v ertebrae a re t he b est p reserved e lements, a nd a re v ery d istinctive. W hen f ossilised, t he t oothplates h ave a c haracteristic s triated p attern w hich i s n ot a pparent i n l ife. T etraodon i s a n a nomaly i n A frican f reshwater l akes, b eing f rom a p redominantly m arine o rder, t he p uffers. I t h as a s piny s kin a nd a lso p uffs i tself u p w hen a ttacked. I t i s w idely d istributed i n t ropical A frica, b ut i s n ot c ommon. I t i s q uite r are t oday i n L ake T urkana, p ossibly a r esult o f c hemical i ntolerance, a s t he H olocene

6 3

a rchaeological s ites r eflect a r easonably l arge n umber o f i ndividuals. T here i s s ome q uestion a bout t he u se o f T etraodon a s a f ood s ource. C ertain o f i ts o rgans a re p oisonous, b ut i ts f lesh i s r eputed t o b e e xcellent, a s w ith s ome o f i ts J apanese r elatives. B rewer b elieves T etraodon t o b e a ' garbage' f ish ( personal c ommunication), b ut I f ind t his h ard t o b elieve b ased o n t he f act t hat i t w as t he s econd m ost c ommon t axon i n h is F ayum s ites ( Brewer 1 986). I ts p ersistent p resence i n t he m id—Holocene K oobi F ora s ites s uggests t hat i t s erved s ome c ulinary o r o ther p urpose, a lthough h ow t his c an b e d etermined i s u nknown. P resumably t he p oisonous o rgans w ere r emoved a nd t he f ish b oiled i n a s tew . T etraodon i n m odern L ake T urkana r eaches a T L o f o nly a bout 2 5cm , a lthough t he a rchaeological r emains a re f rom s ome i ndividuals w hich a re o ver t wice a s l arge. I ts s pawning a nd f eeding h abits a re p oorly k nown, b ut i t i s k nown t o e at m olluscs.

6 4

C HAPTER 5 :

T RADITIONAL F ISH P ROCUREMENT I N T ROPICAL F RESHWATER A FRICA

I ntroduction T he c oncern o f p resent d ay e thnographic a nd e thnoarchaeological r esearchers w ith h unters a nd p astoralists i n A frica ( e.g. B unn a nd K roll 1 986; S hipman 1 986; B lumenschine 1 987) h as l eft a v oid i n t he i nvestigation o f o ther s ubsistence s trategies, s uch a s f ishing. W hile t he i mportance o f f ishing a s a p rehistoric s ubsistence s trategy i s b ecoming i ncreasingly e vident i n a rchaeological r emains, e thnographic a nd e thnoarchaeological w ork h as l agged b ehind i n p roviding d ata o n t he s ubsistence a nd e conomic s trategies o f p resent d ay f ishers. T here a re e xceptions, s uch a s S undstrom 's e xcellent w ork o n t he f ishing g roups o f t he N iger R iver ( 1972) o r B relsford's o n t he B angweulu f ishers ( 1946), a nd f ishing p ractices a re d iscussed i n t he c ontext o f o ther s easonal a ctivities ( e.g. E vans-Pritchard 1 940: 7 0-72), b ut i n g eneral t here i s l ittle t o a id a rchaeologists a ttempting t o i nterpret l arge f aunal a ssemblages c omprised a lmost w holly o f f ish r emains. G iven t he p aucity o f d ata o n f ishing g roups a nd p ractices, t he u se o f e thnographic a nalogy h ere w ill b e i nductive a nd o pportunistic, i n t hat f ish r emains w ere i dentified, a nd t hen t he a vailable e thnographic s ources p erused f or e vidence o f t echnology, m ethodology a nd l ocal l ore u tilised b y f ishers i n A frica i n t he p rocurement o f t he i dentified t axonomic f ish g roups. T his i s i n f act Y ellen 's " buckshot a pproach", o r " grab-bag a nalogy" a pproach ( 1977: 7 ), c ommonly u sed i n a rchaeol ogical i nterpretation a nd u seful i f u sed w ith c are. M ost o f t he i nformation p resented a nd d iscussed i n t he f ollowing s ection i s b ased o n i nformal o bservations m ade b y e arly c olonial r esearchers o r o fficials, o r o n d ata c ollected b y f isheries o fficers i n t heir i nvestigations o f l ocal f isheries. M ost o f t hese o bservations w ere m ade i n t he l ate n ineteenth o r e arly t wentieth c entury, a nd t heref ore a re p robably a b etter r eflection o f l ocal p re-contact f ishing t han i s .l ater w ork. S ome d ata i s b ased o n r ecent f ormal e thnographic w ork s uch a s t hat b y S undstrom ( 1972). T he p urpose o f t his " ethnographic t ouring" w as t o c orrelate p re-contact t raditional f ishing t echnology a nd m ethodology w ith t he e cology a nd b ehaviour o f d ifferent g enera o r f amilies o f f ish. W hile t here i s a bsolutely n o s uggestion t hat f ishers o f t he n ineteenth a nd t wentieth c enturies a re r elated t o t he e arly t o m id-Holocene f ishers o f L akes T urkana o r R utanzige, t he p erspective t aken, a s d iscussed p reviously, i s t hat s imilar e cological a nd e nvironmental c ircumstances e ngender s imilar m odes o f a daptive h uman b ehaviour. T herefore, g iven p re-industrial t echnology, p rocurement s trategies u sed i n t he l ast c entury t o e xploit t he b ehaviour a nd e cology o f s imilar g enera o f f ish i n s imilar e nvironmental s ettings s hould i n t he m ain b e g eneraliseable t o f ish p rocurement 4 ,000 t o 8 ,000 y ears a go.

6 5

T his h ypothesis i s e choed b y W hitehead w ho s tated i n h is r eview o f t raditional K enyan r iver f isheries t hat: " The f ishing m ethods d escribed h ere...have b een e mployed o n K enyan r ivers f or h undreds, p erhaps t housands, o f y ears.. . many o f t he f ishing d evices u sed h ave a w ide d istribution t hroughout t he A frican c ontinent. I ndeed t he p rinciple u nderlying a lmost a ll t rapping d evices i s f ound i n m any w idely s eparated r egions..." ( 1958: 1 11). I n f act t his i s t he r ationale b ehind r ecent e thnoarchaeological r esearch i nvolving l ongt erm o bservations o f h unters a nd t heir s trategies v is a v is t heir p rey a nd e nvironment ( e.g. B artram e t a l. 1 987; O 'Connell e t a l. 1 988). W hile i n-the-field o bservations a re c learly s uperior t o a rmchair e thnog raphic t ouring, t he l atter h as t he a dvantage o f o bserving p rem arginalised g roups, i n t hat t he h abitat a nd e nvironment o f f ishing g roups i n t he l ate n ineteenth a nd e arly t wentieth c entury h ad n ot y et b een s ignificantly a ltered b y c olonialisation a nd b urgeoning p opulation g rowth. T he w ealth o f d ata a vailable f rom t he e thnographies f ar o utweighed t he g oals o f t his t hesis, s o c ertain l imitations h ave b een o bserved. O nly p rocurement m ethods o f f ish t axa r ecovered i n t he a rchaeological s ites a re d iscussed, a nd o nly i n e cological a nd e nvironmental s ituat ions w hich a ppear t o d uplicate t hose r econstructed f or a rchaeological s ites. W hile t here a re s ome d ata d irectly a pplicable t o f ish p rocurement a t L akes T urkana a nd R utanzige, i t i s s canty, t herefore d ata f rom o ther A frican f reshwaters i s u sed. A reas c overed b y t he e thnographies i ncluded L ake T urkana ( Von H ohnel 1 894; E mley 1 927; W orthington 1 932; D yson a nd F uchs 1 937; B ayley 1 982); L ake R utanzige ( Worthington 1 932; M arvel 1 948); r ivers o f K enya ( Whitehead 1 958); t he Z aire ( Congo) R iver ( Boulenger 1 901; G off i n 1 909; W eeks 1 913); L ake T anganyika ( Burton 1 860; F osbrooke 1 934); L ake V ictoria ( Roscoe 1 911; D obbs 1 927); L ake B angweulu ( Brelsford 1 946); l akes a nd r ivers o f s outhern A frica ( Jubb 1 967); r ivers o f Z ambia ( Stefaniszyn 1 964); t he N iger R iver ( Harris 1 930, 1 942; D aget 1 949; L igers 1 966; S undstrom 1 972); t he r ivers o f C had a nd C ameroon ( Thomas 1 934); a nd s ynthetic a rticles o f w ide g eographic c overage b y L eth a nd L indblom ( 1933), L indblom ( 1939), H ornell ( 1950) a nd M acLaren ( 1958). T his l ist b y n o m eans e xhausts t he i nformal l iterature o n f ishing i n t ropical A frica. T he r eferences i ncluded w ere c hosen f or t heir e xplicit d escriptions o f f ish g enera , h abitat a nd p rocurement s trategy. S ome l icence i s t aken w ith t he e cology o f t he f ish d iscussed i n t hat b ehaviour i s d escribed a t t he g eneric l evel. J ustification i s t hat b ehaviour a nd h abitat a t t he l evel b eing d iscussed i s s hared o n a g eneric l evel. S uch a n a pproach i s a lso t aken b y L owe-McConnell ( 1987: 4 6-49).

T echnology T he i nformal e thnographies a s w ell a s s everal s ynthetic w orks s how t hat s even f ishing i mplements o r m ethods a re m ost w idespread a cross t ropical A frica, a nd a re o f p re-contact a ntiquity, s uggesting t hat t hese m ethods o f f ishing h ave p roven m ost s uccessful o ver t ime. T hese

6 6

i mplements i nclude t hrust b askets, s tationary b asket t raps, w eirs, s mall n ets, s pears o r h arpoons, h ooks o r g orges a nd p oison . O ne a spect t hat i s e mphasised i n t he l iterature i s t he c ommunal i nvolvement i n t raditional f ishing t echniques, v irtually a ll o f w hich a ppears t o b e c ommunal, e xcept w hen h arpooning o r u sing h ook a nd l ine ( Jubb 1 967; S undstrom 1 972). P robably t he m ost w ide-spread i mplement u sed i n l ocal f ishing i s t he t hrust b asket. I n a v ery d etailed s tudy g leaned f rom r eports d ating f rom 1 633 t o t he 1 920 's, L eth a nd L indblom ( 1933) c onclude t hat t he w idespread u se o f t he b askets i n A frica, a nd t he r egional d ifferences o f e ach b asket t ype, i ndicate l ocal i ndependent i nvention a cross t he c ontinent. G reat a ntiquity i s a lso i mplied. T he d istribut ion o f t hese b askets i s t hroughout A frica, b ut i s h eavily c oncentrated b etween 2 0°N a nd S l atitude. T hese b askets a re c ommonly s imple c onical o r t rumpet-shaped s tructures m ade o f g rass, b amboo, r eeds o r t wigs t ied t ogether w ith v ines, w ith a pertures a t e ach e nd. T hey a re t hrust i nto l ow s wampy w aters a nd f ish t rapped a re r emoved f rom t he t op e nd. T his i s t herefore w hat w ould b e t ermed a s elective p rocurement t echnique, i n t hat c apture i nvolves d irectional m ovement b y t he f isher t owards a s elected f ish o r g roup o f f ish. T his t echnique i s c learly b est a dapted f or s hallow w aters a t t he e dge o f a r iver o r l ake, i n r eceding o r l ow w aters, w here i ndividual f ish c an b e s potted a nd t aken. O nly s lightly d ifferent f rom t he t hrust b asket i s t he d rag b asket, v ery s imilar b ut u sed w ith a s ideways d ragging m otion, r ather t han a d ownward t hrusting m otion. R elated i n c onstruction t o t he t hrust b asket, w ith a s w idespread a g eographic d istribution, a re s tationary b askets. T hese c an b e o f a ll s hapes a nd s izes, b ut a gain a re m ade o f g rass r eeds o r t wigs, a nd t ied w ith f ibre o r v ine. T hey o ften h ave o ne o r t wo n on-returnable v alves t o p revent e scape, a s w ell a s s everal c hambers. B eing s tationary t hey a re e ither u sed o n t heir o wn o r i n c onjunction w ith w eirs. O n t heir o wn t hey c an b e s uspended i n d eep w ater a nd b aited, o r i n c hannels o r a long r iver b anks a nd l ake s hores, a lso b aited. T he s ize a nd s hape v aries w ith t he s ize a nd s hape o f f ish b eing c aught; t hat f or P rotopterus f or e xample i s o ften l ong a nd l oaf s haped. B eing s tationary, t hey a re n on-selective i mplements, a s i t i s t he m ovement o f t he f ish n ot t he f ishers w hich c auses e ntrapment; t herefore n o s election i s i nvolved. T hese b askets a re e xtremely c ommon a nd w ides pread t hroughout c entral a nd s outhern A frica ( MacLaren 1 958); t hey a re u sed p rimarily i n l arge r ivers ( such a s t he C hari - T homas 1 934) b ut a lso i n l arge l akes ( such a s L ake V ictoria - D obbs 1 927). G offin ( 1909) n otes t heir u biquity i n t he U pper C ongo a nd c ontrasts t his w ith t heir s carcity o n t he L ower C ongo, w here o pen w ater a nd t he u se o f n ets p revail. W eirs a re a nother c ommon w idespread m ethod. T hey a re s tationary, a nd a re u sed e ither a lone o r i n c onjunction w ith b askets, a s m entioned. T hey a re v ariously c onstructed o f s ticks, r eeds, r eed m ats, g rass, m ud, a nd s tone. T heir p urpose, a s s tated b y M acLaren ( 1958: 4 36), i s t o " intercept t he n atural m ovements o f f ish t o a nd f rom b reeding, f eeding o r n ursery g rounds". W eirs c an b e o f a ny s ize, a nd a re u sed i n a s d iverse s ettings a s a cross a r iver m outh ( Whitehead 1 958) o r i n a n i solated s wampy p ool ( Brelsford 1 946). M acLaren r ecords w eirs f rom t hroughout c entral a nd s outhern A frica, a nd t his i s s upplemented b y

6 7

r eports o f t heir w idespread e xistence i n W est A frica a nd t he S ahel z one ( Harris 1 930; T homas 1 934 ; S undstrom 1 972). W eeks ( 1913: 1 25) n otes t heir u biquity o n t he u pper Z aire R iver. W eirs a re c learly a n ons elective p rocurement s trategy, b est-adapted f or o pen r unning w aters w here l arge n umbers o f f ish p ass, s uch a s d uring m igrations. B ased o n t he l ack o f e vidence f or a s huttle a nd m esh g auge a nd t he l ack o f e vidence o f a ntiquity o f w idespread u se o f n ets, M acLaren s uggests t hat t he u se o f n ets i n A frica, e xcept s mall h and o r d ip n ets, d ates t o c ontact w ith E uropeans. W hile n ets m ay n ot b e a s w idely u sed a s w eirs a nd b askets, t he r eporting o f t hem i n m arginally p re-contact a reas s uch a s L ake T anganyika p rior t o 1 860 ( Burton 1 860: 3 21) a nd L ake T urkana p rior t o 1 900 ( Neumann i n D yson a nd F uchs 1 937: 3 21) i ndicates a t l east a l ocalised p re-contact e xistence. T heir u biquity a long t he o pen w aters o f t he l ower Z aire R iver a nd t he A tlantic s uggests t hat t he m ore c losed w aters o f C entral A frica m ay n ot b e a s s uitable f or u sing n ets a nd e xplains t heir s carcity t here. S mall d ip o r s coop n ets, o n t he o ther h and, a re w idespread a nd d o a ppear t o b e o f g reat a ntiquity. T hese a re u sually t riangular, m ade o f l ocal f ibres, u sually w ith a w ooden o r b amboo h andle a ttached. T hese a re u sed b y h and, a nd a re p robably s uited f or m igrations o f s mall f ish. T hey a re o ften u sed a t n ight i n c onjunction w ith t orches ( MacLaren 1 958: 4 52, 4 61). S pears a re r eported t o b e u sed b y a lmost a ll g roups t hroughout t ropical A frica, a nd w ith t hrust b askets a re p robably t he m ost c ommon o f a ll i mplements ( MacLaren 1 958). T hese u sually h ave a w ooden s haft w ith f ixed h eads o r p oints w hich v ary w idely i n m ake a nd m aterial. P oints c an b e b arbed o r u nbarbed; i f b arbed, t hey c an b e b ilateral, u nilateral o r t rilateral ( e.g. D aget 1 949). L eisters a re a lso c ommon, a nd c an h ave t wo t o u nlimited n umbers o f h eads, a gain e ither b arbed o r u nbarbed ( Appendix 3 ). S pears a re u sed e ither b y t hemselves f rom t he s hore, i n s hallows o r f rom b oats, o r i n c onjunction w ith o ther f ishing i mplements, s uch a s t o s tab f ish c aught i n w eirs o r b askets. O f g reat i mportance b ut u nfortunately n ot p reserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a re t he s hafts. T he w eight a nd l ength o f t he s haft i s i mportant a s i t r elates t o t he d epth o f w ater a nd s ize o f f ish b eing p rocured. S pear a nd h arpoon h eads a re n ow c onstructed o f m etal ( usually i ron), b ut s everal o f w ood a nd b one h ave b een r ecorded ( Lindblom 1 939). W hile f orm a nd d ifferential f unction r ecorded. O ne o f t he d ifferent s pear t ypes h arpoon t ypes f or f ish,

f abrication o f s pears i s w ell d ocumented, o f t he v ariety o f t ypes o f s pears i s p oorly f ew a ccounts w hich d oes a ttribute f unction t o i s D aget ( 1949) w ho l ists d ifferent s pear a nd a s f ollows:

6 8

T ype F ixed H ead L eister

F ixed H ead L eister

F ixed H ead L eister

#P oints 2 /3

4

1 /2

B arb/less

U se:

W ater T ype

B arbed

S chools o f f ish

S hallow

B arbless

I ndividual o r g roups

D rying P ools

R idged

T o s tab a t f ish c aught i n n ets

A ny

H arpoon

2

B ilat/ T rilat b arbed

L arge f ish

D eep w aters

H arpoon

1

B ilat/ T rilat b arbed

L arge f ish/ m ammals

D eep w aters

H arpoon

1

B arbed

H ippos/Crocs

A ny

T homas ( 1934) l ists s imilar c ategories f or f ishers i n t he s outhern C had a nd t he C ameroons.

r ivers

i n

T he a pparent d ifference b etween b arbed a nd u nbarbed l eisters i s t hat t he b arbed l eisters a re u sed t o s tab a t s chools o f f ish i n m idw ater, w here t here i s n o c hance o f t he b arbs b eing c aught i n t he b ottom s ediments; a s w ell t he b arbs s erve t o h old t hese p elagic f ish . U nbarbed l eisters a re u sed i n d rying p ools w here f ish c annot e scape; b arbs a re u nnecessary a nd w ould b ecome s tuck i n t he s ediments. D aget ( 1949) m entions t wo t ypes o f h arpoons f or f ish , a nd T homas m entions m any m ore ( 1934), h owever M acLaren s tates t hat " records o f t rue f ish h arpoons.. . are s parse i n A frica" ( 1958: 4 71). H e m entions h arpoons o nly a mong t hree g roups, a ll i n Z aire, a nd o ne p ossible g roup i n L ake T anganyika ( 1958: 4 72). A gain t his m ay b e a c ase o f t he l ocalised u tility o f a t echnology; a lternatively M acLaren w as n ot a ware o f t he u biquity o f h arpoons i n s aharan/sahelian A frica ( Thomas 1 934 ; D aget 1 949), a s w ell a s i n L ake T urkana ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937). H arpoons, w ith t heir d etachable h eads, a re u sed f or l arge f ish i n m ore o pen w aters w hich h ave a m uch b etter c hance o f s ounding a nd e scaping; t he h arpoon s haft s erves a s am eans o f h indering t he f ish 's e scape a nd a ids i n r ecapture b y t he f isher. S undstrom m entions t hat t he S orko o f t he N iger R iver u se b ident b arbed h arpoons f or d eep w ater c atching o f t he l arge c atfish C larotes a nd B agrus ( 1972). A nother v ariation o n t he s pear/harpoon t heme i ncludes b ows a nd a rrows. T hese a re a pparently s carce i n A frican e thnographies; o ne e xtensive a rticle o n h arpoon a rrows f ound t heir u se l imited t o Z aire a nd T anzania ( Lindblom 1 939). T hese a re o ften m ulti-purpose, w ith f ish b eing o nly o ne o f t he p ossible t argets ; o thers i nclude h yraxes . W hile

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s ome p oints a re o f i ron, o thers a re o f w ood. T he u se o f f ixed-head a rrows a nd b ows a ppears e ven m ore l imited, a nd M acLaren r ecords o nly o ne i nstance o f f ishing w ith b ows a nd a rrows ( 1958: 4 73). H ooks o r g orges w ere i n w idespread u se t hroughout A frica a ccording t o M acLaren ( 1958), a lthough B oulenger s tates t hat t hey w ere l ittle u sed a long t he Z aire R iver ( 1901: X XXIII). T hese t ook m any s hapes a nd w ere c onstructed o f m any m aterials, i ncluding b ones, s pines a nd t eeth , a cacia s pines, c hips o f s tone, a nd w ood ( MacLaren 1 958: 4 67-468 ; R obbins 1 974: 2 07). T hese a re t ied t o f ibres o r v ines a nd t he " hooks" a re u sually b aited. O ften s everal " hooks" a re a ttached t o t he s ame l ine, a nd i n s ome r egions c urved f loats a re u sed w hich t urn o ver w hen a f ish i s " hooked" ( Weeks 1 913: 2 40). T hese a re u sually u sed i n d eep w aters f or l arge f ish: L ates, B agrus, B arbus a nd o ther f ish w ith c arnivorous o r i nsectivorous h abits a re u sually a ttracted. F inally p oison i s o f w ide u se i n A frica, u sually m ade f rom t wo g enera o f p lants. M ost c ommon i s T ephrosia , a n h erbaceous l egume. I ts l eaves a re p owdered a nd p ut i n w ater; i n t hirty m inutes t he f ish a re d ead f rom p aralysis ( Weeks 1 913). A s imilar p oison i s m ade f rom t he E uphorbia g enus. T hese p oisons a re o nly u sed i n e nclosed o r s emie nclosed q uiet w aters. A ll f ish e xcept C larias a re a ffected, a s C larias c an s urface a nd b reath a tmospheric o xygen ( Weeks 1 913).

P rocurement T echnology a nd T echnique I n a ny d iscussion o f t raditional A frican f ishing, i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he i ntermeshing o f s eason, a quatic h abitat t ype a nd f ish e cology a re b asic t o h ow t he f ishers e xploit t heir f ish. C lear d istinctions a re m ade b etween h igh w ater a nd l ow w ater f ishing ( correlated w ith r ainy a nd d ry s easons), a nd l ake v ersus r iver v ersus d elta f ishing ( still v ersus r unning w ater). F or f ish, d istinctions a re m ade b etween s pawning a nd q uiescent v ersus i mmature f ish, a nd i nshore v ersus o ffshore f ish. A s t he a rchaeological s ites e xamined w ere v ariously l ocated i n l acustrine, r iverine a nd l acustrine/riverine d elta s ituations, f ish p rocurement i n a ll t hese s ettings w ill b e e xamined.

H igh W aters T he o nset o f t he r ainy s eason a nd t he s ubsequent h igh w ater p eriod i n t ropical A frica i s am ixed b lessing t o f ishers. O n o ne h and, t he s pawning m igrations o f a g reat n umber o f f ish a re i nitiated, m aking r iver d eltas a nd c ertain u priver a reas v ery p roductive f ishing a reas; t his i s r elevent t o i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological s ites o f I shango 1 1 a nd 1 4. H owever, o n t he o ther h and, e xcept f or t he d eltas, i n t he l akes a nd m ost r iver a reas f ishing b ecomes m ore d ifficult b ecause o f v aried f actors. T hese t wo p atterns w ill b e e xplored s eparately. E xploiting t he m igrating s pawning f ish a t t he o nset o f h igh w aters r equires r elatively s ophisticated t echnology. A s c an b e s een i n T able 5 .1, d uring h igh w aters t he u se o f b oth w eirs a nd n ets i s c ommon , i ndicating t hat n on-selective t echnology p redominates. A t t he o nset o f h igh w aters n ets o r w eirs a re s tretched a cross a ll o r p arts o f r iver

7 0

T able 5 .1. T raditional A frican f reshwater f ishing p rocurement t echnology a nd g enera o f f ish c aptured. D =Delta ; L =Lake; R =River. D ata t aken f rom a uthors l isted i n t he I ntroduction t o t his C hapter. P r=Protopterus; H t=Heterotis; M m=Mormyroidea ; G y=Gymnarchus ; H y=Hydrocynus ; A 1=Alestes; D i=Distichodus ; B b=Barbus ; L b=Labeo; B g=Bagrus; C 1=Clarias; S y=Synodontis ; L a=Lates ; C i=Cichlidae ; T e=Tetraodon .

T hrust B askets

S tationary B askets

S coop N ets

H igh W aters R ing S tationary N ets/ N ets/Weirs W eirs

T axon : P r H t M m G y H y A l D i B b L b B g C l S y L a C i T e

S pears/ H arpoons

H ooks &L ine

L R

L R

L R

L R

L R L R

L R

L R

L R

L R

L ow W aters P r H t M m G y H y A l D i B b L b B g C l S y L a C i T e

R

L

L L L L L

L

L R

R

R L L

7 1

R

L R L L R

L R L R

L R L R

L R

m ouths, u sually w ith b asket t raps p ositioned i n a ppropriately l ocated g aps. T hese a re t o c atch s maller m igrating f ish s uch a s m ormyroids, A lestes a nd m any s maller g enera c ommon i n e ffluent/affluent r iver d eltas o f l akes a t t his t ime ( Fosbrooke 1 934: 1 6; B relsford 1 946: 6 3 ; L igers 1 966; J ubb 1 967: 1 97; S undstrom 1 972). L arger m igrating f ish r equire t echnology m ore s pecialised t o t ake a dvantage o f t heir m ovements. B arbus, C larias a nd L abeo e specially a re s o l arge a nd n umerous w hen m igrating t hat t hroughout c entral A frica p articular e ffort i s g iven t o t heir p rocurement. B arbus t ends t o c ongregate b oth a t r iver m ouths i n s pawning t ime a nd i n p ools a t t he f oot o f r apids a long t he m igration r oute, m aking t hem v ulnerable t o c apture. L arge c one t raps a re p ositioned i n w eirs o f b ranches a nd B arbus a re c aught i n t hese w hen s wimming u pstream ; a lternatively t hey a re c lubbed o r s peared w hile c ongregating i n p ools ( Boulenger 1 901: 2 29; G offin 1 909: 6 11; D obbs 1 927: 1 01, 1 04; F orsbrooke 1 934: 1 6; W hitehead 1 958: 1 19). B oulenger i n p articular r eports e ntrapment o f B arbus m igrating u p t he L u-Fuko r iver f rom L ake T anganyika f rom J anuary t o M ay, n oting t hat l ocal f ishers h ad e rected w eirs w ith s everal v ery l arge b askets a nd t raps i n t hem , s et i n a reas w here B arbus c ongregates, u sually i n f ront o f p ools. A fter 4 8 h ours, a t t he p eak o f t he m igration, 1 08 B arbus h ad b een c aught i n t he w eirs a nd b askets, t otalling 6 00kg o f m eat ( 1901: 2 29). B oulenger n oted t hat t he f ishers h ad t aken a dvantage o f t he s everal r apids t hat B arbus j ump i n t heir p ositioning o f t he w eirs. F osbrooke ( 1934 : 1 6+), G reenwood ( 1955: 5 16-518), M acLaren ( 1958: 4 40), a nd B relsford ( 1946: 6 3) a ll a lso e mphasise t he i mportance t o l ocal f ishers o f t he C larias s pawning r uns. A t m ouths o f r ivers t hey c onstruct w eirs a nd u nique c onstricting t rumpet-shaped ( MacLaren 1 958: 4 42) o r c one-shaped ( Brelsford 1 946: 6 3) b askets w hich a re u sed w ith w eirs o n t hese r uns a t o nset o f r ains. B relsford ( 1946: 6 4) n otes t hat u sually n ew w eirs a re e rected a t t he o nset o f s pawning, e specially f or t he C larias r un. F urther u pstream C larias c an b e c aught q uite e asily a s i t s pawns i n v ery s hallow w aters. J ubb n otes t hat C larias " in a dvanced b reeding c ondition h ave b een o bserved m igrating i nto i nundated p ools, m any s truggling t hrough g rass i n w ater t hat b arely c overs t heir b odies" ( 1967: 1 33). A nother s pawning s ite w itnessed b y G reenwood n ear L ake V ictoria w as a f ull s tream i n h igh w aters, b ut u sually s pawning C larias a re m ost v ulnerable t o c apture i n d rying p ools i n r eceding w aters ( 1955: 5 16-517). O ther l arge m igrating f ish c ommonly c aught a t t his t ime i nclude L abeo a nd r iverine c ichlids ( Dobbs 1 927: 1 05; F osbrooke 1 934: 1 6+ ; W hitehead 1 958: 1 19; J ubb 1 967: 1 97); L abeo w as s een i n " dense s hoals" w hen m igrating u p l arge r ivers i n s outhern A frica , a nd J ubb m entions t hat t housands w ere k illed b y l ocal f ishers o n t hese r uns ( Jubb 1 967: 1 97). M ethods o f p rocurement i nclude w eirs m ade o f s takes d rilled i nto t he d elta b ottom w ith t raps r egularly p ositioned w ithin, o r s imply s pearing i ndividuals f rom t he s hores a s t he m igration i s s o d ense. I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t hese m igrations o f d ifferent g enera a re n ot n ecessarily s ynchronous b ut o ccur v ariously t hroughout t he h igh w ater p eriod. W hile

p roductivity c an b e v ery h igh a t r iver m ouths

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d uring

h igh

w aters, p articularly j ust a fter t he o nset o f r ains, i t i s g enerally v ery p oor i n i nshore l akes a nd s ome r iver a reas, l ess s o i n t he l atter. S undstrom s ums t his u p b y h is o bservation o n t he N iger R iver f ishing t hat " the h igh w ater s eason ...is t he l east p roductive s eason i n t he f ishing s eason c ycle" ( 1972: 2 2). A long t he s ame l ines D obbs o bserves t hat a t L ake V ictoria t he h igh w ater m onths " are n ot g ood f ishing m onths, a nd d uring t hese m onths t he n atives e ntirely g ive u p f ishing i n t he l ake...and c onfine t hemselves...to c atching f ish i n t he r iver w eirs" ( 1927: 9 9). R easons f or t his l ack o f p roductivity a re s everal. F irst, a s m entioned, g reat n umbers o f f ish - u sually o f t he o rder O stariophysi - m igrate t o r ivers t o s pawn a nd a re t herefore a bsent f rom t heir u sual h abitats. T able 4 .2 i ndicates t hat 1 0 o f t he 1 8 L ake T urkana g enera w hose h abitats a re k nown m igrate f or s pawning r uns. F urther s ome n on-migrating f ish m ove t o d eeper w aters f or s pawning o r, i f t hey a re p iscivorous, t o e xploit m igrating f ish. I n L ake T urkana, p resent d ata i ndicates t hat t here a re m ovements o f B agrus, S ynodontis a nd L ates f rom i nshore t o o ffshore d uring t he h igh w aters o f M arch t o J une, a nd t he r everse m ovement i n l ow w aters ( Hopson a nd M acLeod 1 982: 5 91). S econd, i n l acustrine a nd r iverine s ettings, t he o nset o f r ains a nd t herefore o f h igh w aters m eans t hat w aters a re d eeper a nd o ften v ery w indy w ith h igh w aves a nd c hoppiness ( Lake T urkana - p ersonal o bservation) a nd t herefore t echnology u sually u sed f or r eceding/low w aters i s d isfunctional. E ven c ichlids w hich a re i nshore a ll y ear r ound a re d ifficult t o p rocure, g iven d eeper w ater a nd p oor w eather a nd w ind c onditions. F inally, t he f ish t hemselves a re " small" a nd u ndernourished a t t his t ime b ecuase t hey a re i n t he b reeding c ycle a nd o ften d o n ot f eed f or l ong p eriods o f t ime ( Brelsford 1 946: 5 2). S everal t imes d uring t he h igh w ater p eriod a t L ake T urkana I s aw T urkana f ishers t hrowing b ack n etted f ish b ecause t hey w ere " too t hin". T herefore, o ther t han a t r iver m ouths a nd s lightly u priver, f ishing i s g enerally p oor d uring t he h igh w ater m onths, a nd f ishers o ften t urn t o o ther f orms o f p rocurement ( Sundstrom 1 972). T his h as p articular r elevence f or t he K oobi F ora a nd L owasera s ites, s ituated o n t he l ake s hore.

R eceding a nd L ow W aters B y f ar t he m ost p roductive t ime f or f ish p rocurement i s w hen t he w aters a re r eceding a t t he e nd o f t he w et s eason, a nd a t l ow w aters i n t he d ry s eason. B oulenger r eports t hat n ear t he Z aire R iver t he r eadying o f t raps a nd n ets t owards t he e nd o f " la h aute c rue a nnuelle", a nd t hen t he w ait f or " le r etrait d es e aux" w hen a ll a vailable f ishers a bandon t heir m ain v illages a nd m ove t o f ishing c amps ( 1901: X XV). T he e normous v ariety o f m echanisms u sed t o t rap f ish a t t his t ime a ll a cross a quatic t ropical A frica a ttests t o l ong-standing e xploitation o f f ish a t t his l ow w ater p eriod. O ther r eports e mphasise t hat t he b est f ishing i s a t t he e nd o f t he r ainy s eason a nd i n t he l ow s eason ( Brelsford 1 946: 4 3) a nd t his i s o ften w hen f ishers m ove f rom v illages t o f ishing c amps ( Thomas 1 934: 2 01; B relsford 1 946: 4 3; S undstrom 1 972; J ubb 1 967: 1 99). T wo p atterns o f e xploitation a re i mportant: t rapping f ish i n t heir s easonal m ovements i n i ncreasingly s hallow w aterways; a nd c atching f ish f rom p ools t hat h ave b een i solated f rom t he m ain w aters. T echniques a re f ar t oo n umerous t o d iscuss i n d etail, b ut b oth s elective a nd n on-selective t echnology i s u sed. T here a re

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s everal t ypes o f p rocurement t echnology w hich a re r eceding w aters ( see T able 5 .1).

m ost

c ommon

f or

O ne m ethod t o t rap f ish a s t hey a re m oving a long s hallowing w ater c hannels i s s mall w eirs w hich a re s pecifically c onstructed a nd p laced f or s pecific g roups o f f ish, a nd a re b est f or r ivers a nd s treams, t hat i s f or f lowing w ater. A n e xample o f t his i s g iven b y W eeks f or t he Z aire R iver a rea , w here s mall c losely w oven e nclosing w eirs o r f ences a re p ositioned a cross c reeks s o t hat w hen w aters f all f ish a re t rapped i n t hem , l ured b y b ait s uch a s s nails . A v ariation i n t his i s a s emic ircular w eir w ith i ts m outh t owards t he s hore; f ish a re c aught w ithin t he s emi-circle w hen t he w ater f alls ( Weeks 1 913: 2 36-238). H eterotis, L abeo, B arbus, S ynodontis a nd s ome r iverine c ichlids a re c ommonly c aught t his w ay, s ometimes w ith t he a ddition o f s tationary b askets: S ynodontis o n t heir r eturn f rom m igrations, a nd H eterotis w hile g uarding i ts n est ( Roscoe 1 911: 3 83+ ; F osbrooke 1 934: 1 5; D aget 1 949; W hitehead 1 958 : 1 15; J ubb 1 967: 2 06 ; S undstrom 1 972). A nother t echnology f or e xploiting f ish m oving i n s hallow w aterways u ses s tationary b askets, a ppropriately p ositioned i n s hallow v egetated a reas. T hese a re s pecifically f or l arge c ichlids i n r eceding w aters a t t heir b reeding a nd f eeding g rounds ( Brelsford 1 946: 6 2). O thers a re a lso c onstructed f or s pecific g roups a nd a re u sually b aited; a " cottage-loaf s haped" t rap, s ix f eet l ong, i s b aited w ith s ome s nails a nd u sed s pecifically t o c atch P rotopterus i n v egetated l ittoral a reas ( Hornell 1 950: 5 3). O thers a re c one-shaped a nd u sed f or b oth C larias a nd P rotopterus ( Burton 1 860: 3 21; G off i n 1 909: 6 1; W hitehead 1 958: 1 15). T hese a re p laced i n v egetated s hallows o f b oth l akes a nd r ivers a nd a re b aited. S everal t echniques a re u sed f or f ish c aught i n d rying p ools o r i solated r eceding w aters. T hrust b askets a re a c ommon s elective t echnique p articularly i n s hallow v egetated, i nshore a reas w ith s oft s ubstrates, a nd i n d rying p ools. F ish p rocured i nclude i nshore a nd l ittoral f ish s uch a s c ichlids, p articularly i n t heir b reeding n ests, a s w ell a s L abeo, B arbus, a nd s maller C larias a nd S ynodontis ( Dobbs 1 927: 1 02; L eth a nd L indblom 1 933; F osbrooke 1 934; M acLaren 1 958: 4 66-467; J ubb 1 967: 2 05). S everal r eports a re k nown o f t hrust b askets u sed i n L ake T urkana a nd L ake R utanzige, p rimarily f or c ichlids ( Emley 1 927; W orthington 1 932: 2 81, 2 85; B ayley 1 982: 3 52+). A v ariation o n t hrust b askets a re d rag b askets, w hich a re d ragged t hrough s hallows a nd d rying p ools; t hese a re k nown t o c atch L abeo, B arbus, y oung s ilurids a nd j uvenile f ish . D ip a nd s coop n ets o perate i n t he s ame m anner ( Dobbs 1 927: 1 01-102; F osbrooke 1 934: 1 6+ ; B relsford 1 946: 5 5; W hitehead 1 958: 1 17; M acLaren 1 958). O ther m ethods i nvolve a g roup o f f ishers ' dragging' a d rying p ool o r s hallow a rea u sually i n a l ake w ith s mall r ing n ets o r w eirs f or i solated f ish. T hese m ay i nvolve s everal f ishers b eating t he w ater w ith s ticks a nd d riving t he f ish i nto n ets o r w eirs. T his h as b een o bserved n ear t he e ntrance o f t he S emliki R iver e arly i n t his c entury ( Weeks 1 913: 2 43; M arvel 1 948), a nd i n t he 1 890 's b y t he E l M ob oo n L ake T urkana ( Neuman i n D yson a nd F uchs 1 937: 3 32). S everal d ifferent f ishes c an b e c aught i n t his m anner, u sually B arbus, L abeo, C larias , a nd c ichlids. ( MacLaren 1 958: 4 63; J ubb 1 967: 2 05).

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F urther e xploitation o f s hallows a nd d rying p ools a s w aters r ecede, u sing s pears, s mall d ip n ets, o r e ven b are h ands i s w ell k nown ( Coffin 1 909: 4 8-49; S undstrom 1 972). O ften p ools t hat a re d rying a re g iven s craps o f s nails o r v egetation t o " fatten t he f ish", u sually s iluroids, w hich a re t rapped i n t he w aters ( Weeks 1 913: 2 37). F ish u sually t aken b y t hese v arious m eans i nclude c ichlids ( Junod 1 913: 6 9: M acLaren 1 958: 4 72), a nd L abeo w hich J ubb ( 1967: 1 19) d escribes i n s ome r iver a reas a s b eing " the p redominant f ish i n p ools i solated d uring t he d ry s eason". A nother c ommonly c aught f ish i s C larias, o f w hich t here a re n umerous a ccounts o f s pearing a nd c lubbing a s t hey a re i solated i n p ools ( Stefaniszyn 1 964; v on H ohnel 1 894: 2 12; W eeks 1 913: 2 37; D obbs 1 927: 1 02; F osbrooke 1 934: 1 2; B ayley 1 982: 3 52). A ccounts o f P rotopterus b eing t aken t his w ay a lso e xist ( Goff i n 1 909: 1 15 ; D obbs 1 927: 1 02; M acLaren 1 958: 4 71).

H igh a nd L ow W ater P rocurement F inally, t here a re m ethods o f p rocurement w hich a re u sed a t a ll t imes o f y ear. W hile t hese m ethods a re u sed i n b oth l ake a nd r iver s ettings, t hey p rimarily h ave a l acustrine a pplication. M ost c ommon a re s pearing ( or h arpooning) f rom s teep l ake o r r iver e dges f or d eep w ater f ish . S pears o r l eisters c an g enerally b e u sed i n a ny s etting a t a ny s eason, a s t he p revious d iscussion o f D aget's w ork i mplied. H owever m ore s pecialised u se o f s pears a ppear w ith h arpoons, w hich a re c ommonly u sed f rom t he s hore o verlooking d eep c hannels o r p ools, f or t he e xploitation o f d eep w ater f ish . C atches o f L ates a re m ade t his w ay w ith h arpoons ( Worthington 1 932: 2 81; T homas 1 934; L igers 1 966 ; B ayley 1 982), a s a re B agrus a nd C larias ( Ligers 1 966), a nd G ymnarchus ( Ligers 1 966). A s m entioned, i n L ake T urkana L ates a nd B agrus m ay m igrate t o d eeper w aters i n t he h igh w ater s eason; t herefore t his t echnique w ould b e m ore s uccessful a t o ther t imes o f y ear. H arpoona rrows h ave b een d iscussed a bove ( e.g. L indblom 1 939) b ut t heir u se i s n ot r elated t o s pecific f ish. H ooks o r g orges a nd l ine a re a lso c ommon a t a ny t ime o f y ear; u sually a gain t hey a re u sed i n d eep w aters f rom t he s hore. F ish c aught i nclude P rotopterus ( Daget 1 949), B arbus ( Fosbrooke 1 93A: 1 6+), H ydrocynus ( Brelsford 1 946: 6 7; M acLaren 1 958: 4 70; B ayley 1 982: 3 52-353), B agrus ( Brelsford 1 946 : 6 7; B ayley 1 982: 3 52-353), L ates ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937: 3 7; M acLaren 1 958: 4 70; B ayley 1 982: 3 52-353) a nd T etraodon ( Daget 1 949). S mall r ing n ets a re a lso a c ommon s elective t echnology, u sed a t a ny t ime i n l ittoral w aters, a lthough m ost s uccessful i n l ow w aters. F ish c aught a re d iverse a nd i nclude m ainly i nshore f ish, i n p articular c ichlids, b ut a lso D istichodus, C itharinus, H ydrocynus, A lestes, a nd o ccasionally s mall L ates ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937; M arvel 1 948; p ersonal o bservation - L ake T urkana). O ne f inal p rocurement m ethod u sed a ll y ear r ound i s o f a pparent a ntiquity a nd i nvolves t he d ragging o f d eep w aters, u sually l ake, b y t wo d ugout c anoes w ith a n et b etween t hem . T his w as f irst o bserved b y B urton ( 1860 : 3 21) i n L ake T anganyika a nd l ater b y R oscoe ( 1911: 3 83+) i n L ake V ictoria . T he l atter a ffirms t hat d ugout b oats a re o f

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E uropean a ntiquity, c iting c omplex t aboos, t raditions a nd c anoe s pecialists a nd c onstruction o f t he c anoe w ithout n ails o r i ron a s e vidence o f t heir a ntiquity. B relsford ( 1946: 5 9) a lso d escribes t his p ractice i n L ake B angweulu. F ish c aught b y t his t echnique i nclude t he m uch p rized A uchenoglanis, B agrus, L ates a nd H ydrocynus.

R ivers v ersus L ake P rocurement M ost e thnographers m ake a c lear d istinction b etween r iver a nd l ake p rocurement t echniques. M ost s tate t hat t he l atter r equires a g reat d eal m ore e xpertise t han r iver f ishing, a s w ell a s a b etter k nowledge o f f ish e cology ( MacLaren 1 958: 4 81; B relsford 1 946: 5 9). I n t he m ain t his i s d ue t o t he d ifferent n ature o f l ake a nd r iver s ystems ; i n t he l atter, t he r iver p rovides t he d irectional m ovement a nd i t i s o nly am atter o f d evising a ppropriate i mplements t o t rap w hat f lows p ast; i n t he f ormer, t he f ishers m ust p rovide t he d irectional m ovement t owards u nseen p rey; h ere t hey m ust k now t he h abits o f t heir q uarry t o k now w here t o f ind t hem a nd h ow b est t o c apture t hem . A s i s c lear f rom t he a bove d iscussion, r iver f ishing d epends o n k nowledge b oth o f r ise a nd f all o f w ater l evels a nd o f t he s easonal m ovements o f f ish . T echnology d uring m igration i s o f a n o pen w ater n on-selective t ype t o t ake a dvantage o f l arge g roups o f f ish ; a nd o f a n i ndividually s elective n ature i n l ow w aters, g eared m ore f or i ndividual f ish. L ake f ishing, w hile a lso d ependent o n k nowledge o f s easonal l ake l evel c hanges, i s u sually c arried o ut i n l ow o r r eceding w aters, a nd i s m ore d ependent o n k nowledge o f e cology a nd h abits o f t he f ish . I t i s g eared t o e ither i nshore o r o ffshore p rocurement. I nshore p rocurement o n s oft s ubstrates i s e ither n on-selective, u sing s everal f ishers t o m anipulate s mall w eirs o r n ets, o r s elective u sing s mall b askets, s pears o r s coop n ets t o t rap i ndividual f ish, u sually i nshore b reeders a nd f eeders. O n s teep r ocky s ubstrates s pears/harpoons a re u sed t o c atch l arge d eeper w ater f ish . O ffshore f ishing i s m ore s ophisticated a nd i nvolves t he u se o f w atercraft t o a ccess d eeper w aters. F rom t hese, s mall n ets a re d ragged o r s pears/harpoons a re t hrown, t o t rap l arge o pen w ater f ish. T hese c raft m ay b e v ery s imple; o ften u nmodified l ogs t ied t ogether a s u sed b y t he T urkana, o r d om p alm l eaves t ied t ogether, a s t he E l M ob oo ccasionally u se ( personal o bservation).

M iscellaneous S everal m iscellaneous t echniques a re u sed w hich a re u nique t o t he h abits o f t he g enus o f f ish. T he b urrow-making h abits o f P rotopterus a nd s ome c atfish a re w ell k nown t o f ishers, a nd o ne t echnique i s t o s tamp o n h ard m ud, w hich w hen c overing a b urrow d isturbs t he f ish w ho t hen m ake a d istinct r umble. T he b urrow i s t hen d ug o ut ( Brelsford 1 946: 6 9). S imilarly, a s m entioned, c ichlids h ave f avourite b reeding g rounds f or m aking n ests, a nd t hese a re m arked b y s ticks a nd w atched c losely f or r eturn o f o ccupants w ho a re t hen s peared o r n etted ( Brelsford 1 946: 3 7).

7 6

G off i n ( 1909: 2 5) n otes t hat i n t he Z aire R iver b asin a c rayfish c alled k ossa l ocally i s u sed a s b ait f or t raps f or l arge B arbus; t he p resence o f c rayfish c laws i n t he I shango 1 1 a nd 1 4 s ites s uggests t his m ay b e t heir p urpose. T here a re a h ost o f t aboos o n a l arge v ariety o f s pecies w hich v ary f rom r egion t o r egion. W hile i t i s n ot u seful t o n arrate a ll, s ome m ay b e m entioned. M any o f t hese t aboos s eem t o i nvolve t he m ormyroids a nd s iluroids, b oth v ery f atty g roups o f f ish . W hile s ome o f t hese a re m uch c oveted f or t heir f at o r o il ( such a s t he c atfish A uchenoglanis o r t he m ormyroid G nathonemus) o ther s uch a s M ormyrus a re n ot e aten ( in B angweulu a rea) b y w omen f or f ear o f i nfertility ( Brelsford 1 946: 5 5), o r i n l ake R utanzige f or t he s ame r eason ( personal o bservation). T he a voidance o f s ome m ormyroids i n L ake V ictoria b ecause o f c ausing d iarrhoea h as a lready b een m entioned, a nd B relsford h as s uggested t hat t hese t aboos m ay b e r elated t o t he e xcessive f at o r o il i n t hese f ish ( 1946). I t i s c lear f rom t his s ummary o f t raditional f reshwater f ishing i n A frica t hat t he l evel o f t he l ake o r r iver w aters, a nd t he s ite l ocation, a re i mportant i n d etermining t he f ish c aught a nd t he t ype o f p rocurement s trategy u sed. W hile d ata o n p rocurement o f f ish i n s easonally h igh a nd l ow w aters i s n ot c ompletely a pplicable t o l ongt erm h igh o r l ow w ater p rocurement, t here s hould b e g eneral s imilarity i n r esponses b y t he f ish a nd f ishers. T herefore, l arge-scale c hanges i n l ake o r r iver l evel o ver t ime s hould b e r ecognisable i n t he d ifferent t axa p rocured a nd d ifferent p rocurement s trategies u sed; t hese c hanges s hould a lso b e r ecognisable i n w ell-preserved a rchaeol ogical i chthyological a ssemblages. T he g enera r epresented a t t he a rchaeological s ites i ndicate t hat b oth h igh a nd l ow w ater s easons w ere e xploited, a nd a v ariety o f t echniques p robably u sed i n o rder t o p rocure t hese f ish. I t s eems c lear t hat t he e arly a nd m id-Holocene f ishers w ere f amiliar b oth w ith t he h abits o f t heir p rey, a nd t he e cology o f t he w aters a nd t he f ish w hich t hey w ere e xploiting. T he m ost n otable a spect o f t raditional t echnology i s i ts p otential l ack o f v isibility i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. V irtually a ll i mplements a re c onstructed o f g rass, f ibres, r eeds o r w ood, n one o f w hich p reserve e xcept i n e xceptional c ircumstances; o nly l ithic o r b one s pear/harpoon h eads o r h ooks h ave g ood s urvival p otential.

7 7

C HAPTER 6 :

T APHONOMY O F F ISH A SSEMBLAGES

I ntroduction T he i ncreased i mportance o f f aunal r emains i n a rchaeological i nterpretation h as c aused r esearchers t o r ealise w hat p aleontologists p reviously h ad c oncluded: t hat a ctualistic a nd p rocessual s tudies w ere n eeded t o c reate a t aphonomic d ata b ase f rom w hich t o r ecognise a nd i nterpret p ost-mortem c hanges i n f ossil i nvertebrate a nd v ertebrate a ssemblages ( e.g. E fremov 1 940; B ehrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz 1 980 ; G ifford 1 981). F urther, s uch a d atabase w as n eeded t o p rovide c riteria t o d istinguish h uman-derived b one s catters f rom t hose f ormed b y o ther a gents . R ecent s tudies h ave t herefore f ocussed o n t he i nvestigation o f a gents a nd p rocesses b y w hich m odern b one a ssemblages a ccumulate, a nd o n t he n umerous p rocesses w hich a lter t he c omposition o f t he a ssemblages o ver t ime. S tudies s uch a s B ehrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz ' ( 1980) i n K enya w hich i nvestigated h ow m odern s urface b one a ssemblages c hange t hrough t ime, H ill's ( 1980) a nd B rain's ( 1981) w ork o n b one a ccumulations o f m odern c arnivores, a nd Y ellen's ( 1977) w ork o n r emains l eft b y p resent d ay g atherer-hunters i n B otswana h ave a ll c ontributed t o a g rowing d ata b ase o n c haracterisation o f n aturallya nd h umand erived b one a ccumulations. T he v ast m ajority o f r eported s tudies h ave b een c oncerned w ith t errestrial a ssemblages. L ittle a ttention h as b een g iven t o t he f ormation a nd a ttrition o f f ossil a quatic a ssemblages, s pecifically t hose c omposed o f f ossil f ish. W hile t he g eneral p rocesses i nvolved i n t he f ormation a nd a ttrition o f a quatic a ssemblages a re s imilar t o t hose d escribed f or m ammalian a ssemblages - d eath, d eposition, d iagenesis a nd r ecovery - t he a gents a nd s ome c ontexts o f t hose p rocesses a re d ifferent, a s i s t he p otentially r esulting f ossil p opulation, d ue p rimarily t o t he r ole o f t he m edium o f w ater i n s orting a nd d eposition. F urther, t he m ethods i nvolved i n d istinguishing n aturally-derived f rom c ulturally-derived l acustrine b one s catters f rom t hose f or t errestrial a ssemblages. B ones f rom l acustrine e cosystems t end t o a ccumulate i n d enser s catters t han t hose i n m ost t errestrial e cosystems, d ue t o: 1 ) a l arger p opulation w ithin a r estricted a rea ; a nd 2 ) l imited a nd d elimited a rea o ver w hich t he b ones a re d eposited. A ccumulations o f n aturally-derived b one o n l akeshores c reate a h igher " background n oise" t han i s f ound i n m ost t errestrial a ssemblages , o ften m asking a ny h uman-derived b one c ollections. C ompounding t his p roblem i s t he o ften l ow a rchaeological v isibility o f b each c amps, b ecause c ultural r emains a re o ften n ot a ssociated w ith s uch s ites ( Gifford 1 977). T his l ow v isibility i s s een a t t he K oobi F ora s ite o f G aJi3, l eaving t he e xcavator u nsure a bout w hether t he s ite w as f ormed b y h uman

7 8

o r b y n atural c auses ( Barthelme 1 981:

1 78-179).

I n o rder t o p rovide a t l east a n i nitial c haracterisation o f b oth n aturallya nd c ulturally-derived l acustrine f ish b one a ssemblages, I c ollected m odern f ish b one f rom t he w estern s hore o f L ake T grkana. T hree q uadrats w ere l aid o ut a nd s urface b one c ollected. T wo w ere b each q uadrats c ontaining n aturally-derived b one, a nd t he t hird c ontained t he r emains o f aT urkana s ite f or f ish r oasting a nd e ating. T he t wo b each q uadrats w ere l ocated a way f rom h uman s ettlement, s o a s t o r educe c ontamination b ias a s m uch a s p ossible. A m odel f or t his t ype o f s tudy i s f ound i n B ehrensmeyer's w ork w ith t errestrial a ssemblages i n A mboseli, K enya ( Behrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz 1 980).

M ethodology T wo b each q uadrats w ere l aid o ut o n t he w est s ide o f L ake T urkana, s outh o f F erguson's G ulf. T he n orthernmost ( PS1) w as l ocated t en k ilometers s outh o f L ongech S pit i n a n a rea o f u nconsolidated f ine b each s and, s parsely v egetated b y S porobolus s picatus. I t w as l aid o ut o n a n orth-south a xis, w ith t he e astern m argin p ositioned a bout f ive m eters f rom t he l ake e dge; i t m easured 9 0 b y 9 0 m eters. B one w as r easonably e venly d istributed t hroughout t he q uadrat. H owever b one s howing t he g reatest f ossilisation w as m ore h eavily c oncentrated i n t he w estern t hirty m eters o f t he s quare f urthest f rom t he l ake, w hile b one s howing n o o r m inimal f ossilisation w as m ore c oncentrated i n t he e astern t hirty m eter s ection n earest t he l ake. T he m ore s outherly q uadrat ( PS2) w as l ocated t hirteen k ilometers s outh o f L ongech S pit, i n a c oarse b each s and a lso s parsely v egetated b y S . s pictus. I t w as s imilarly o riented, w ith t he e astern m argin p ositioned a bout t en m eters f rom t he l ake e dge; i t m easured 9 0 m eters e ast w est a nd 1 10 m eters n orth s outh. A gain b one w as e venly s cattered t hroughout t he q uadrat, a lthough i n l ess d ense c oncentrations t han i n P S1. F ossilised b one w as m ore c ommon i n t he w estern t hirty m eters o f t he q uadrat, a nd r ecent b one i n t he e astern s ection. F our p eople c ollected a ll f ish b one i n e ach q uadrat; P S1 c ontained a bout 9 10 a nd P S2 3 60 e lements. B ones c ollected w ere b oth f ossilised a nd u nfossilised, a nd p robably r epresented s everal t housand y ears o f d eposition a nd a ttrition. B one w as a lso c ollected f rom a r ecent T urkana f ish r oasting a nd e ating s ite ( AS1). T his w as a p opular e ating l ocation f or f ishers, b eing l ocated o n s outhern L ongech S pit, a bout 6 0 m eters f rom t he l ake s hore i n a s lightly s heltered a rea. I t w as n ot d etermined w hether t he b ones r esulted f rom o ne o r s everal m eals; h owever t he e stimated a mount o f m eat r epresented s uggests t he l atter. B one w as d ensely c oncentrated i n a n a rea o f 1 1.4 b y 9 .5 m eters, w ith r emains o f c harred w ood a nd b urnt r ocks a ssociated w ith t he b ones. A ll b one s howed s igns o f b urning, r anging f rom a c arbonised b lack ( very d istinct f rom M n s taining) t o ac alcined w hite. T he b one a ppeared f resh a nd a ccumulat ion p robably o ccurred w ithin o ne o r t wo m onths o f c apture. A ll 6 51 f ish b ones w ere c ollected. O nly b ones w hich c ould b e i dentified t o e lement a nd a t l east t o t axonomic o rder w ere i ncluded i n t he s tudy. T hese b ones w ere t hen a nalysed a t t he N ational M useum o f K enya i n N airobi a s t o b ody p art a nd p ortion a nd t axon. B one w as a lso p laced i n s ize c ategories a nd t hat

7 9

f rom t he P S s ite i n s tain c ategories, a s o utlined i n C hapter 7 . B one e lements f rom t he P S s ites w ere t hen c lassified a s ' Recent' ( Stain C ategory 0 t o 1 ) o r ' Fossilised' ( Stain C ategory 2 t o 5 ). T hese d istinctions a re i mportant i n t his c hapter: t he ' Fossil' a ssemblage r epresents a t ime-averaged a ssemblage, c ontaining o nly t hose e lements w hich h ave s urvived t he f ossilisation p rocess; t he ' Recent' a ssemblage c ontains b ones r ecently d eposited o n t he b each, w hose f ossilisation p otential i s u nknown. T o c haracterise b oth t ypes o f a ssemblages f our c riteria w ere u sed: 1 ) b one s catter f requency o r d ensity ( BSF); 2 ) s keletal p art f requency ( SPF); 3 ) t axonomic a bundance; a nd 4 ) t axonomic d iversity. T hese a re c omparable t o s imilar c riteria u sed f or t errestrial a ssemblages i n A mboseli ( Behrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz 1 980). B SF i s c alculated a s t he n umber o f b one e lements c ollected d ivided b y t he a rea ( m 2) f rom w hich t hey w ere c ollected ( BSF=Nb/m 2) . T he u nderlying a ssumption i s t hat t he B SF s hould b e h igher f or c ulturally-derived t han n aturallyd erived a ssemblages; s everal p eople p rocessing o r c onsuming s everal f ish i n a l imited a rea s hould l eave a g reater d ensity o f r emains t han w ould n aturally o ccur. T he B SF o f t he b each q uadrats i s p redicted t o b e g reater t han t hat f or t errestrial a ssemblages. T he s econd m easurement i s t he s keletal p art e lement f requency, e xpressed h ere a s t he p ercentages o f c ranial v ertebral a nd p ostcranial r emains o f t he i dentifiable a ssemblage, a s w ell a s t he c ranial: v ertebral r atio ( see C hapter 7 f or e xplanation o f s keletal t erms). I n i solation t hese f igures a re n ot m eaningful; t hey m ust b e c ompared w ith c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial p ercentages i n a c omplete f ish s keleton. S keletal e lements o f a g eneralised f ish s keleton a re l isted i n T able 6 .1, b ased o n t he t hree m ajor o rders r epresented i n L ake T urkana - C ypriniformes, C haraciformes, S iluriformes a nd P erciformes. T eeth a nd n on-bony e lements a re n ot i ncluded. W hile n umbers o f e lements d iffer b etween g enera a nd/or f amilies a nd o rders, f or t he p urposes o f t his c omponent o f t he s tudy, t he e lements a re a veraged b etween o rders f or t he c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial p ercentages. T he t otal n umber o f b ony c ranial e lements i n t he g eneralised f ish m odel i s 1 02. H owever t his n umber w ill l ikely b e m uch r educed i n a f ossil a ssemblage, g iven t hat m any o f t hese e lements a re v ery t iny , t hin s heets o f b one. F or t his r eason, t hin, d elicate b ones a re a sterisked i n T able 6 .1, a nd o nly r obust e lements a re u sed i n c ranial c alculations. T he n umber a veraged f or v ertebral e lements w as 4 0, a nd f or p ostcranial ( pectoral, p elvic, d orsal a nd a nal l epidotrichia a nd p terygiophores) w as 1 5. ( The o nly p terygiophores f requently r ecovered w ere t he c ichlid f irst a nal p terygiophore). P erciform f ish, i ncluding L ates a nd t he c ichlids, a re w ell-endowed w ith p ostcranial s pines, w ith u p t o 2 1 p er i ndividual. I ndividuals o f o ther o rders h ave o nly t wo o r t hree, o r s ometimes n one. T herefore, w hile t his c ategory i s t abulated t hroughout t his s tudy, i t u sually r eflects t he p resence o f p erciforms. F urther, c ichlid a nd L ates l epidotrichia a nd p terygiophores a re u sually i mpossible t o s eparate, a nd a re t herefore u sually t abulated t ogether. T he ' Other' c ategory i ncludes r ays, r ibs, a nd b ranchial e lements . T his c ategory w as n ot t abulated f or a g eneralised f ish b ecause m any o f t hese e lements a re n ot b ony a nd t herefore r arely p reserve. F urther, t he n umbers o f t hese e lements v ary g reatly b etween s pecies.

8 0

T able 6 .1. E lements o f f ragile.

E numeration o f b ony C ranial, V ertebral a nd a G eneralised F ish S keleton. A sterisked

C ranial E lements: A ngulare A rticulare B asihyalia B asioccipitale B asipterygium C eratohyale C ircumorbitalia C leithrum C oracoideum D entaria D ermosphenoticum E ctopterygoideum E ndopterygoideum E pihyale E pioticum E xoccipitale F rontale H ypohyale ( Dors) H ypohyale ( Vent) H yomandibulare I nterhyale I nteroperculare J ugale L ateral E thmoideum M axilla M esethmoideum

2 2 1 1 2 2 4 * 2 2 2 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 * 2 2 * 2 2 1

P ost C ranial e lements a re

M etapterygoideum N asale O perculare O pisthoticum P arasphenoideum P arietale P haryngeal P late ( Vent) P ostcleithrum ( Dors) P ostcleithrum ( Vent) P osttemporale P refrontale P remaxilla P reoperculare P rooticum P teroticum Q uadrateum R adialia S capula S phenoticum S uboperculare S upracleithrum S upraoccipitale S upraorbitale S ymplecticum U rohyale V omer

T otal

V ertebral e lements:

1

2 * 2 2 * 2 * 2 2 2 2 2 * 2 2 5 * 2 2 2 2 1 2 * 2 *

1 1

1 02

T otal +

C ranial e lements+ :

2 * 2 * 2 2 *

6 5

6 5 ( 54.2%) 4 0 ( averaged b etween f amilies)

O ther P ostcranial e lements:

( 33.3%)

1 5 ( averaged b etween f amilies ( 12.5%)

+-D oes n ot i nclude a sterisked e lements

8 1

T he u nderlying a ssumption i n c alculating S PF i s t hat n aturallyd erived b one s hould r eflect t he g eneral e lemental p roportions r epresented i n al ive p opulation , w ith c ompensation f or t aphonomic b iases. W hile e lements a re l ost i n t he p rocesses b etween d eath a nd d eposition o n t he l akeshore, i t i s a ssumed t his i s p roportional t o t heir o riginal r epresentation i n t he s keleton . A rchaeological a ssemblages o n t he o ther h and s hould s how d ifferent p roportions, c ontingent o n p rocessing a nd c onsumption a ctivities. I n a ddition t o e xamining p ercentages o f c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial e lements r elative t o e ach o ther, i t i s i mportant t o l ook a t t he a ctual a ttrition o f e ach c ategory. T his i s w hat I t erm t he ' universe f actor'; i t i s c alculated b y m ultiplying t he M NI b y t he t otal n umber o f e lements i n e ach s keletal c ategory o f a g eneralised f ish , a nd t hen c omparing t his w ith t he p ercentage o f e ach c ategory w hich i s a ctually r epresented i n t he a ssemblage. T his a llows a ssessment o f a ttrition i n e ach c ategory i n i solation o f t he o thers. I t w as u sed b y B rain ( 1981: 2 1) f or m ammals . T he f inal p arameter, " taxonomic a bundance", c ompares t he p resence o f t he g enera f ound i n t he b each q uadrats w ith t hose n ow p resent i n t he l ake. T he d ata o n t he p resent s tanding f ish s tock i n L ake T urkana h as b een t aken f rom a r ecent i ntensive s tudy i n H opson ( 1982). T he d ata f rom t he H opson s tudy m ost r elevent t o t his s tudy i s ac ompilation o f w eights o f a ll t axa r ecovered i n t rawl h auls a t a ll d epths o f t he l ake. T he h auls w ere m ade f rom a l arge b oat , a nd s ome i nshore a reas w ere n ot a s w ell s urveyed a s o ffshore a reas, t hus i nshore t axa a re s omewhat u nderrepresented. T his b ias w ill b e a llowed f or w hen c omparisons w ith t he b each q uadrat t axa a re m ade. A s t he H opson d ata o nly p resents w eights, t he b each q uadrat d ata i s c onverted t o w eights f or e ase o f c omparability, b ased o n M NI c alculations a nd w eight t ransformation d ata p rovided ( Bayley 1 982). T he p urpose o f t his c omparison i s t o j udge w hat b iases a re i mposed b y t aphonomy o n t he t axonomic d iversity . T axonomic d iversity i s a m easure u sed f requently i n p aleontological s tudies t o d etermine h ow e venly t axa a re d istributed i n a n a ssemblage ( Whittaker 1 977). T he c alculation u sed ( Whittaker 1 977) i s a s f ollows: E= s / ( log p1 - l og p2 ) w here =#o f s pecies ( here g enera a re u sed) i n a ssemblage; p ' = f requency o f m ost a bundant t axon ; p2 = f requency o f l east a bundant t axon . T his m easure r eflects b oth t he a bundance a nd t he e venness o f t axa i n a n a ssemblage. I t i s a ssumed t hat t axonomic d iversity i n a n t aphonomically u nbiased n aturally-deposited a ssemblage w ill r eflect d iversity o f t he l iving c ommunity; a rchaeological f aunal a ssemblages s hould d iffer f rom t he n atural a ssemblages, a nd r eflect t he s elective p references o f t he f ishers. C omparison b etween t axa r ecovered f rom t he T urkana e ating s ite a nd t axa r epresented i n t he m odern l ake s hould i ndicate w hether T urkana f ishers a re s elective i n t he f ish t hey c atch , o r w hether t hey a re u nselective a nd p rocure t he r ange o f g enera a vailable i n t he l ake.

8 2

T able 6 .2. B each q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2, a nd T urkana e ating s ite A S1. N umbers o f b one e lements b y s keletal e lement c ategory. P ercentages g iven f or t otals . C r=Cranial; V =Vertebral; P c=Postcranial ; N ID=Non-identifiable.

P S1 F ossil R ecent

C r V P c N ID O ther

P S2 F ossil R ecent

P S1 & P S2 T otals

N

N

N

N

N

%

N

%

M

1 02 8 6 1 89 1 67 7

9 5 5 4 9 5 4 8 5 8

3 0 2 5 1 0 3 5 2

9 9 1 1 5 9 1 6 8 2

1 32 1 11 1 99 2 02 9

2 9.3 2 4.6 4 4.0

1 94 6 5 1 54 6 4 1 40

3 5.1 1 1.7 2 7.8

3 26 1 76 3 53 2 66 1 49

6 7

2 51

4 51

T otal a 3 84

3 02

P S1/2 b N

C r V P c N ID O ther T otala

P S1 & P S2 F ossil R ecent

3 0.1 2 1.9 3 9.0

N

2 27 1 65 2 94

%

3 3 .1 2 4 .1 4 2.8

9 .0 6 86

2 5.4

5 53

P 51/2 c %

2 27 1 65 2 94 2 50 6 7 7 53

2 .1

N

3 33 3 5 7 2 2 11 6 51

%

3 2.4 1 7.5 3 5 .2 1 4.9

1 004

A S1 %

%d

5 1.2 5 .3 1 1.1

7 5.7 7 .9 1 6.4

3 2.4

a i _-

N ID n ot i ncluded '- P S2 R ecent n ot i ncluded; s ee t ext f or e xplanation ;-P S2 R ecent a nd ' Other ' n ot i ncluded ; s ee t ext f or e xplanation ' I - ' Other ' n ot i ncluded; s ee t ext f or e xplanation

T able 6 .3. B each q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2, a nd T urkana e ating s ite A S1. N umbers a nd p ercentages o f c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements c ompared w ith t hose f rom a G eneralised F ish S keleton . C r=Cranial ; V =Vertebral; P c=Postcranial; N ID=Non-Identifiable.

G en 'd. S kel. N % C r V T otal R atio

6 5 4 0 1 05 1 .6

6 2.0 3 8.0

P S1/2 T otals N % 2 27 1 65 3 92 1 .4

8 3

5 8.0 4 2.0

A S1 N 3 33 3 5 3 68 9 .5

% 9 0 .4 9 .6

B one S catter F requency T ables 6 .2 a nd 6 .3 g ive t he n umbers o f e lements b y s keletal e lement c ategory a nd b y s ite. T he B SF c an b e c alculated, f or t he t otal n umber o f b ones ( a) a nd t he n umber o f ' Recent' b ones ( b). P S1 - a =0.11 b =0.04, b ased o n a rea o f 8 100m 2 . P S2 - a =0.03 b =0.025, b ased o n a rea o f 1 0,800m 2 . A S1 - 6 .01 b ased o n a rea o f 1 08.3m 2 . T hese f igures d istinguish b etween t he ' Recent' b one s catter w hich a ccumulated o ver a r elatively s hort p eriod o f t ime ( the ' Recent' a ssemblage), a nd t he t otal a ccumulated s catter, a lthough t his d ifference i s o nly s ignificant i n t he P S1 a ssemblage. T he B SF o f t he t wo b each q uadrats i s h igh c ompared w ith t hat a veraged f or A mboseli ( .002m 2) ( calculated f rom B ehrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz 1 980: 7 4), p roviding s upport f or t he s uggestion t hat b one d ensity i s h igher i n l acustrine t han i n t errestrial e cosystems. A s c an b e s een, t he d ensity f or t he T urkana e ating s ites i s h igher t han f or t he n atural b each q uadrats ( Figure 6 .1).

S keletal E lement R epresentation A s e xpected, t he n umbers a nd p ercentages o f c ranial, v ertebral, a nd p ostcranial e lements f ound i n t he b each q uadrats a re d ifferent f rom t he a ctual p ercentages s een i n t he g eneralised f ish l isting ( Tables 6 .1, 6 .2 a nd 6 .3). T he c ombined t otal n umbers o f t he b each q uadrats i ndicate t hat v ertebral, a nd e specially c ranial, p ercentages a re m uch l ower t han t hose i n t he g eneralised f ish, b ut p ostcranial r epresentat ion i s m uch h igher ( Figure 6 .2). T he p ercentages v ary w ithin t he b each q uadrats i n t hat t he ' Recent' v ertebral a nd p ostcranial p ercentages a re l ower t han t he ' Fossil' a ssemblage, a nd t he c ranial p ercentages h igher. T he n umbers o f v ertebrae r ecovered f rom P S2 a ppears t oo l ow , w hich r educes s omewhat t he t otal f or t he P S1 a nd P S2 s ites. ( The n umbers o f ' Recent' v ertebrae i n t he b each q uadrats a re l ower t han e xpected, n ot f or d epositional r easons b ut b ecause T urkana c ollect v ertebrae f or u se a s p ersonal o rnamentation). H owever t he n umber o f ' Fossil' a nd ' Recent' v ertebrae i n P S1 m ay g ive ac learer p icture o f t he a ctual r epresentation, i ndicating t hat r epresentation o f c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements d ecrease, a nd p ostcranial e lements i ncrease i n t he f ossilisation p rocess. T he ' Other' c ategory, b eing l argely o f n on-bony m aterial, i s f ar b etter p reserved i n t he ' Recent' t han ' Fossil' P S1 a nd P S2 c ategories. T he s keletal e lements a rranged b y t axa ( Table 6 .4) i ndicate t hat f requencies v ary b etween o rders. F igures 6 .3, 6 .4, 6 .5, a nd 6 .6 i llustrate h ow t his v ariation d iffers b etween t he ' Fossil ' a nd ' Recent ' a ssemblages. A ll S iluriformes h ave a g reat p redominance o f c ranial e lements, p articularly a s r epresented i n t he ' Fossil' a ssemblage, w ith l ittle o r n o p ostcranial r epresentation , a nd o nly m inimal v ertebral r epresentation, p articularly i n t he ' Fossil' a ssemblage. T his a bsence i n a rchaeological a nd p aleontological s ites o f s iluroid v ertebrae,

8 4

8

B ones/ m2

6

2

PS1

A S1

PS2

B each Quadrat S ites Bone S catter D ens ity

F igure 6 .1.

B one

S catter F requency

P S1,

P S2 a nd A S1.

( Density)

.85

o f B each Q uadrat S ites

1 00

P ercentage

8 0 -

6 0

4 0

2 0

i

i

!

0

V ertebra l

C ran ia l

Postcran ia l

S ke leta l E le ments G enera l

F igure

6 .2.

-H-

p s1/2

*

A S1

P ercentages o f S keletal E lement C ategories o f L ake T urkana B each Q uadrat S ites P S1, P S2 a nd A S1.

86

T able 6 .4 . P S1 a nd P 52 q uadrats. a nd s keletal e lement c ategory.

N umber o f e lements b y

F ossil C ranial N

Z

B agrus: 1 3 6 8 .4

V ertebral

g enus/family

R ecent P ostcranial

C ranial

V ertebral

N

Z

N

%

N

%

N

5

2 6 .3

1

5 .3

3

7 5 .0

1

C larias: 2 2 1 00 .0

P ostcranial N

%

3

1 .8

2 1

3 3 .8

2 5 .0

3 1 00 .0

S ynodontis: 2 2 9 1.8 1

4 .1

1

4 .1

1 35

L ates s ize 1 -3 : 2 5 0.0 2 5 0 .0 L ates s ize 4 -7: 7 4 4 0 .2 8 4 4 5 .6 C ichlidae: 6 3 5.3 1 0

5 8.8

C ypriniformes: 1 5 0 .0 1

5 0 .0

6

2 5

1

8 1.3

7 5.0

1 4 .2

3 6

4 8.6

5 .9

3 5

9 2.1

5

S iluriformes: 21 00 .0

2 1.7

2 8

2

1 3

2

1 8

1 6 .9

2 5.0

1 7.6

5 .3

1

2 .6

7 8 .3

11 00 .0

P erciformes: 1 51

1 00 .0

8 4

p articularly o f c lariids , i s w ell d ocumented ( Brewer 1 986 , 1 986) b ut a s y et i s n ot e xplained.

V an

1 00 .0

N eer

T he c ypriniforms a re p oorly r epresented i n t oto, b ut h ave n o p ostcranial r epresentation a nd v ertebral r epresentation i s g reater t han c ranial. F igure 6 .3 s hows t hat t heir a lready p oor s urvivability i n t he ' Recent ' a ssemblages i s d rastically r educed i n t he f ossilisation p rocess. L ates e lements ( Figure 6 .5), o n t he o ther h and, s urvive t he f ossilisation p rocess w ell, p articularly e lements o f l arge ( size 4 t o 7 ) L ates. T he e lements t he o ther ' Fossil' v ertebral

' Fossil ' a ssemblage c omposition i llustrates t hat v ertebral s urvive s ix t imes m ore o ften t han c ranial e lements, a lthough p ostcranial e lements a re m ost r obust . S imilarly t he c ichlid e lements ( Figure 6 .6) r eflect m arginally b etter s urvival o f t o c ranial e lements . H owever c ichlid c ranial a nd v ertebral

8 7

90

# o f E le ments

1 0 ^

5

\ C ran ia l

V ertebra l

Postcran ia l

S ke leta l E le ments — C ypr in ifor mes R ecent

F igure 6 .3.

N umbers o f

F oss i l

S keletal E lements o f C ypriniformes f rom

B each Q uadrat

S ites P S1 a nd P S2.

8 8

1 40

# o f E le ments 1

1 20k -

1 00 -

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

N

C ran ia l

V ertebra l

Postcran ia l

S ke leta l E le ments — S i lur ifor mes R ecent

F igure 6 .4.

N umbers o f S keletal E lements o f B each Q uadrat

S ites P S1 a nd P S2.

8 9

F oss i l

S iluriformes f rom

o f E le ments

1 40

. .•

8 0

6 01-

4 0

2 0 ^

C ran ia l

Posteran ia l

V ertebra l

S ke leta l E le ments — L ates R ecent

F igure

6 .5.

F oss i l

N umbers o f S keletal E lements o f L ates Q uadrat S ites P S1 a nd P S2.

9 0

f rom B each

6 0

o f E le ments

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

I

C ran ia l

V ertebra l

Postcran ia l

S ke leta l E le ments — C ich l idae R ecent

F igure

6 .6.

W I

F oss i l

N umbers o f S keletal E lements o f C ichlidae B each Q uadrat

S ites P S1 a nd P S2.

9 1

f rom

e lements a re s everely r educed i n t he f ossilisation p rocess, w hile p ostc ranial e lements s urvive e xtremely w ell. I f ' Fossil' p erciform p ostcranial e lements a re a dded t o t he o ther L ates a nd c ichlid ' Fossil' e lements, t hey c omprise a bout 4 5% o f t he t otal, w hich i ndicates t heir h igh s urvivability. T he b each q uadrat's c ranial, v ertebral, a nd p ostcranial p ercentages d iffer m arkedly f rom t he T urkana e ating a ssemblage p ercentages, w ith c ranial e lements m ore n umerous a nd v ertebral e lements l ess n umerous i n t he e ating a ssemblage ( Table 6 .2). T his i s a mplified i n t he c ranial t o v ertebral r atios ( Table 6 .3), w here t he h igh c ranial p ercentages a nd l ow v ertebral p ercentages a re r eflected i n t he T urkana r atio. I f t he A S1 s ite p ercentages a re c ompared w ith t hose o f t he g eneralised f ish , t he v ertebral p ercentages a re a gain l ow , s uggesting a lternative p rocessing a nd c onsumption o f t he b ody o f t he f ish , a lthough t he c ranial r epresentation i s s imilar.

T able 6 .5. B each q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2 a nd T urkana e ating s ite A S1. ' Universe ' p ercentages e stimating s urvivorship o f e ach s keletal e lement c ategory.

P S1/2

S ite

C ranial V ertebral P ostcranial * Biased;

A S1

R ecent

F ossil

5 .5 - * 1 9.0

3 .3 4 .5 2 1.7

1 9.7 3 .3 1 8.5

s ee t ext f or e xplanation

T he ' survivorship' r ates o f e ach s keletal c ategory f or t he P S a nd A S s ites ( Table 6 .5) i ndicate t he p ercentage r epresentations b ased o n a n e stimated ' universe', a nd t herefore t he s urvivability o f e ach c ategory. B oth c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements s uffer t he g reatest a ttrition i n t he P S s ites, w hile u p t o 2 0% o f p ostcranial r emains s urvive. T he h igher p ercentage o f p reserved c ranial e lements c haracterises t he h uman-derived a ssemblages.

T axonomic A bundance a nd D iversity A c omparison o f t he g enera i n p resent-day L ake T urkana w ith t hose p resent i n t he b each q uadrats i ndicates a b ias i n t he l atter a gainst s maller f ish , t hat i s, t hose s maller t han a bout 3 5cm T L ( Table 6 .6). C loser e xamination o f T ables 6 .6 a nd 6 .7 s how t hat s maller f ish s uch a s A lestes, S ynodontis a nd t he c ichlids a re b etter r epresented i n t he P S1 a nd P S2 ' Recent' t han ' Fossil' c ategory, a s a re l arger f ish w ith d elicate e lements s uch a s B arbus, H ydrocynus, a nd l arger c ichlids a s s hown b y c alculated p ercentages o f w eight. L arger f ish, e specially t hose w ith r obust e lements s uch a s l arge L ates, a re m uch b etter r epresented i n t he ' Fossil' c ategory.

9 2

T able 6 .6. L ist o f g enera i n p resent d ay L ake T urkana a ssigned b y m aximum t otal l engths, i n c m . P resence ( P) o r A bsence ( A) i ndicated f or P S1 a nd P S2. D ata a dapted f rom H opson a nd H opson ( 1982).

P resent i n P S s ites G enera

T L =

< 35cm

A lestes B arbus B arilius E ngraulicypris C helaethiops C hrysichthys A ndersonia M ochocus M alapterurus A plocheilichthys H emichromis H aplochromis T etraodon

G enera

T L

> 35cm a nd = o r

A A A A A A A A A A A A A

< 50cm

P olypterus A lestes S chilbe S ynodontis T ilapia S arotherodon

G enera

T L

A P A P P P

> 50cm

P olypterus H eterotis H ydrocynus C itharinus D iptichodus L abeo B arbus B agrus C larias L ates O reochromis

A A P A A P P P P P P

9 3

T able 6 .7. B each q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2 a nd T urkana e ating s ite A S1. T axonomic a bundance i ndicated b y M NI n umbers, a nd p ercentages c alculated o n t otals . L b=Labeo; B b=Barbus ; H y=Hydrocynus ; A 1=Alestes; B g=Bagrus; C 1=Clarias; S y=Synodontis; L a=Lates; C i=Cichlid. L ates b roken d own b y s ize c ategories ( 1-4 ; 5 -7).

S ite P S1 F oss

P 51 R ec

P S2 F oss

P S2 R ec N

L b B b H y A l B g C l S y L a1-4 L a5-7 C i

1

1 5 4 7 6 1 1 1 0

1 1 2 2 2 6 3 4 1 0

P S1/2 F oss

P S1/2 R ec

N

%

1

1 .6

1 2 3 1 3 6 1

2 1 9 3 2 5

1 7 7 8 9 1 7 1 1

1 .6 1 1.5 1 1.5 1 3 .1 1 4 .8 2 7.9 1 8 .0

T otal

T able A S1. r ank .

S pecies

P S1/2 T otal

A S1

N

%

N

%

N

%

. 9 . 9 1 .7 2 .6 9 .6 8 .7 2 0 .0 1 3 .0 2 0.0 2 2.6

3 .8

2 .0 3 .7 3 .7 7 .4 5 .6 2 7.7 1 1.1 1 1.1 2 7.7

1 1 2 3 1 1 1 0 2 3 1 5 2 3 2 6

1

1 2 2 4 3 1 5 6 6 1 5

1 1

3 .8 3 .8

4 7 7 5

1 5.6 2 6.9 2 6.9 1 9.2

1 15

2 6

6 .8. B each q uadrat s ites P S1 a nd P S2 a nd T urkana e ating s ite T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y c alculated t otal w eight a nd

W t(kg)

H ydrocynus s p. 1 .3 A lestes s p. . 7 L abeo s p. . 9 B arbus s p. . 9 B agrus s p. 1 7.4 C larias s p. 2 0 .6 S ynodontis s p. 1 8.8 L ates s p. ( sz1-4) 1 16.4 L ates s p. ( sz5-7) 1 338.8 C ichlidae 1 4 .3

P S1/2 W t(%)

R ank

. 08 . 05 . 06 . 07 1 .14 1 .34 1 .22 7 .6 8 7.5 . 94

6 9 8 7 4 2 3 1 1 5

9 4

W t(kg)

A S1 W t(%)

2 .1

. 4

3

. 6

. 1

5

2 .5 6 9.9 4 58 .1 1 .8

. 5 1 3.1 8 5 .6 . 3

2 1 1 4

R ank

T o e nable c omparison o f t he P S t axa w ith p resent-day t axa i n L ake T urkana, M NI f igures f or t he P S q uadrats w ere c onverted t o w eights. C omparison o f T ables 6 .7 a nd 6 .8 i ndicate t hat s everal g enera, e specially L ates a nd C larias, a ssume f ar g reater i mportance b y w eight t han o n t he b asis o f M NI f igures, w hile g roups s uch a s c ichlidae a re u nder-represented. C omparisons o f t he P S s ite w eights w ith w eights o f p resent-day g enera ( Table 6 .9) i ndicate t hat w hile L ates i s g reatly o ver-represented i n t he b each a ssemblages, p articularly l arge L ates ( size 5 t o 7 ), t he c omparative r ankings a re n ot d issimilar. C larias i s b etter r epresented i n t he b each q uadrat s ites, p robably b ecause i t i s a n i nshore f ish a nd t herefore u nder-represented i n t he H opson a nd H opson s tudy. S chilbe i s n ot r epresented i n t he b each q uadrats b ut i s t he s ixth m ost c ommon i n t he H opson ( 1982) s tudy ; i ts a bsence i s l ikely d ue t o i ts s ize ( about 3 5cm T L). A part f rom t hese a nomalies, t he r anking o f t he n ine b est r epresented g enera a re s imilar b etween t he H opson a nd b each q uadrat d ata w ith v ariance o f o nly o ne o r t wo r anking p laces. A t A S1, L ates i s c learly t he p redominant f ish. H owever t he o ther f ive g roups r epresented a re a ll w ithin t he n ine m ost c ommon i n t he l ake a ccording t o t he H opson d ata , a lthough t he r anking d iffers. T he t axonomic d iversity w as c alculated f or t he t otal P S1 a nd s ites, a nd f or A S1, b ased o n t he M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals. t axonomic d iversity f or P S1 a nd P S2 = 5 .6; f or A S1 = 5 .0.

P S2 T he

T able 6 .9. M odern L ake T urkana. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y t otal w eight i n k g o f a ll s pecies o f f ish c aught i n q uantitative b ottom t rawls d uring 1 972-1975 b y t he H opson s tudy t eam . D ata a dapted f rom H opson a nd M acLeod ( 1982: T able 8 .4).

S pecies

W eight ( kg)

H ydrocynus f orskalii A lestes s p. C itharinus c itharis D istichodus n iloticus L abeo h on e B arbus s p. S chilbe u ranoscopus B agrus s p. C hrysichthy a uratus C larias l azera M alapterurus e lectricus S ynodontis s chall L ates s p. C ichlidae T etraodon f ahaka

1 471 3 40 1 1 57 3 00 1 725 5 87 8 925 2 08 5 1 8 018 1 5244 5 32 2

9 5

%W eight 3 .9 . 9 + . 4 . 8 4 .7 1 .6 2 3.8 . 6 + + 2 1.4 4 0.6 1 .3 +

R ank 5 8 1 1 9 4 6 2 1 0 3 1 7 -

D iscussion B ased o n t he e lements r epresented i n t he P S1/2 a nd A S1 q uadrats, d istinctions c an b e m ade b etween t he n aturally- a nd c ulturally-derived s ites. T he B SF m easure i s h igher f or A S1 t han f or e ither P S1 o r P S2, o r t he " natural" A mboseli s ites. T he r easons f or t his a re r easonably c lear; o ne o r m ore p eople c onsuming f ish w ill l eave a r easonably h igh d ensity o f r emains w ithin a d elimited a rea. F urther, t he l ikelihood o f t hese p eople r e-using t he s ame s ites i s h igh , i ncreasing t he d ensity o f b one o ver t ime, m uch a s t he T urkana h ave c onsumed s everal m eals a t t he A S1 s ite. N aturally-deposited b one, o n t he o ther h and, i s l ess c oncentrated, a nd, b arring n atural t raps o r b arriers, s hould n ot a chieve t he d ensity o f c ulturally-derived s catters. H owever t he p oint a t w hich t he d istinction b etween n aturallya nd c ulturally-derived s ites s hould b e f ixed i s q uestionable, p articularly a s m ost s ites m ay s how a t l east s ome m ixture o f n atural a nd c ulturally-derived b one. A ssociated c ultural m aterial m ay a id i n i nterpretation, b ut m ore e xperimental d ata i s n eeded t o d etermine t he e xact n ature o f n atural v ersus c ultural s catters . T he B SF o f t he A S1 s ite i s n ot p roposed a s a t ypical m odel f or a ll h uman-derived l acustrine s ites. H owever, t he d ata o n m odern L ake T urkana f ishers ( Chapter 5 ) i ndicates t hat c ertain b asic p rocedures, s uch a s s eparating t he h ead f rom t he b ody o n l arge f ish, a nd p rocessing t hese s eparately a re c ommon p ractice. T herefore t he b iased c ranial: v ertebral r atios, c ompared t o t hose o f t he P S1/2 s ites, c haracterise m any a rchaeological s ites a nd m ay b e e xpected. T he c onsiderably h igher b one d ensity f igure f or t he P S1 a nd P S2 s ites c ompared w ith t he t errestrial A mboseli s ites i ndicates a g reater a ccumulation o f l ittoral b one, a nd t he d issimilarity o f b one a ccumulation b etween t hese t wo e cosystems. B efore d iscussing t he d ifferences b etween t he S PF o f t he T urkana a nd b each q uadrat s ites, i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t he e ffects o f a ttritional p rocesses o n t he b each q uadrat e lements. I n t he o verall P S1 a nd 2 a ssemblages, c omparison w ith t he g eneralised f ish s keleton i ndicates t hat t he a ttrition r ate o f v ertebral a nd e specially o f c ranial e lements i s h igh ( about 9 4% t o 9 6% l ost) c ompared w ith p ostc ranial r emains w hich h ave a t hree t imes b etter s urvival r ate. C omparison o f t he ' Recent' a nd ' Fossil' c ranial a nd v ertebral p ercentages ( taking t he b iased v ertebrae c ounts i nto a ccount) i ndicates t hat s ome o f t his a ttrition o ccurs i n t he p rocess o f f ossilisation o f t he e lements; h owever m ost o f i t a ppears t o o ccur b etween d eath o f t he f ish a nd t he d eposition o f i ts b ones o n t he s hore. T he a ttrition i s d ifferential b etween t he o rders. N evertheless, t he r atio o f c ranial t o v ertebral e lements s een i n t he g eneralised s keleton ( ratio = 1 .6) i s g enerally m aintained i n t he o verall P S1/2 f ossil a ssemblages ( 1.4). T herefore t he r atio o f c ranial t o v ertebral e lements c alculated f rom t he g eneralised s keleton i s u seful f or c haracterising t he s keletal e lement c omposition o f an aturally-deposited a ssemblage, g iven t he c aveat t hat p ostcranial e lement r epresentation o f t he l atter m ay b e t hree t imes h igher. T hese

r atios

s hould

a lso p revent m isinterpretation

9 6

o f

a

b one

a ssemblage w hich h as u ndergone s trong n atural s orting . I n a w ells orted a ssemblage, e lements o f t he s ame d ensity , s uch a s v ertebrae, s hould b e d issociated f rom t hose o f a d ifferent d ensity s uch a s m ost d ermal c ranial b ones. T herefore t he r atio o f c ranial t o v ertebral e lements j ust d iscussed w ould b e v ery s trongly b iased t owards o ne c ategory. T he e ffects o f n atural s orting o n f ish b one a ssemblages h owever a re l ittle u nderstood. H owever t his c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial r epresentation i s n ot v alid w hen t he a ssemblage c ontains i ndividuals o f o nly o ne o rder. T he ' Fossil' a ssemblages i ndicate t hat a ttrition a ffects e lements o f t he o rders d ifferentially. A ll c ypriniform e lements a re p oorly p reserved, a s a re s iluriform v ertebral a nd p ostcranial e lements. P erciform e lements, o n t he o ther h and, p reserve e xtremely w ell, p articularly t he p ostcranial e lements, a nd p articularly e lements o f l arge L ates. F inally, t he ' Other ' c ategory - p rimarily c omposed o f r ibs a nd n on-bony m aterial, i s r easonably w ell-represented i n t he ' Recent' a ssemblages, b ut a lmost n on-existent i n t he ' Fossil' a ssemblages. C learly t hese e lements, n ot c omprised o f b one, a re d estroyed b efore t he f ossilisation p rocess. C omparison o f t he S PF o f A S1 w ith t he P S1 a nd P S2 s ites s hows d iscrepancies i n c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial r epresentations. C ranial e lements a re f ar b etter r epresented a t A S1, s hown m ore c learly i n t he c ranial t o v ertebral r epresentations. T he n umber o f v ertebral e lements i s e xtremely l ow a t A S1; e ither t he v ertebrae w ere e aten w ith t he m eat, o r e lse t he b odies w ere d iscarded e lsewhere. I n t he l atter c ase p resumably t here i s a c onsumption s ite e lsewhere r eflecting c ompletely r eversed p ercentages. T he p ostcranial c ategory i s a lso l ow , s uggesting t he s pines w ere p rocessed w ith t he v ertebrae a nd t he b odies. T he ' other' c ategory, p rimarily r ays a nd b ranchial e lements, a ppeared t o h ave r emained w ith t he h eads a nd w as r oasted. T he ' universe' o f c ranial e lements i ndicates t hat o nly a bout 1 8% o f t he o riginal c ranial p arts s urvived; a lready a g reat d eal o f a ttrition h as o ccurred. W hether t his a ttrition w as d ue t o b urial ( no e xcavation w as u ndert aken), s cavengers, o r h uman d ispersion i s u nknown. T he c omparison o f t he M NI a nd w eights o f g enera f rom t he P S q uadrats w ith l engths a nd w eights o f p resent d ay g enera i n/from L ake T urkana i ndicate t hat w hile t he o verall t axonomic c omposition o f t he p resent d ay l ake i s r eflected i n t he P S s ites, t here i s a d efinite s election f or l arger f ish. A ll p resent-day g enera a chieving a n a dult t otal l ength o f < 35cm a re a bsent f rom t he P S s ites. F urther, w hile s maller i ndividuals a nd t hose w ith l ess r obust e lements a re d eposited o n t he b each , a s s een i n t he P S ' Recent' c ategory, t hey a re e ither n ot r epresented a t a ll o r o nly t o a r educed e xtent i n t he ' Fossil' a ssemblages. T his s uggests a l arge l oss o f s maller t axa i n t he f ossilisation p rocess. W ith f ish > 35cm i n t otal l ength , t here i s a b ias t oward t he l arger o f t hese f ish . T he o verwhelming w eight d ominance o f L ates i n t he P S s ites c ompared w ith p resent-day s tanding s tock c an o nly b e a ttributed t o p referential p reservation o f t he l arge t axa. T he c omplete a bsence o f S chilbe, a f ish w hich c an a chieve

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l engths

o f > 35cm , m ust r eflect i ts l ack o f r obust e lements. O ther a bsent g enera i nclude P olypterus, H eterotis, C itharinus, a nd D istichodus. T he a bsence o f C itharinus a nd D istichodus i s e nigmatic a s t hey a re c ommon i nshore f ish. H owever t hey h ave f ragile b ones a nd t his m ust b e t he r eason f or t heir a bsence. P olypterus a nd H eterotis a re r are i n t he l ake, a nd t his m ay a ccount f or t heir a bsence. H owever w hile p reservation i s p referential f or l arge f ish a nd f ish w ith r obust e lements, t he o verall d iversity o f t he P S a ssemblages d oes r eflect t he d iversity i n t he m odern l ake, a nd w ith s ome e xceptions t he t axonomic c ompositions a re s imilar. T he A S1 s ite s hows a d omination o f L ates e lements ; c learly a h uman s elective p reference. O f t he o ther g enera r epresented, t he t axonomic d iversity c alculation i ndicates t hat t here i s s imilarity i n t he p roportions a nd d iversity o f t axa p rocured, a nd p roportions r epresented i n p resent d ay s tanding s tock. I n o ther w ords, t he T urkana f ishers w ere s electing f or L ates, a s w ell a s c atching f ish a pproximately i n p roportion t o t heir p resent a bundance.

S ummary T o s ummarise, t here i s a d istinction i n B SF a nd S PF b etween P S1 a nd P S2 a nd A S1. T he B SF i s m uch h igher i n t he A S s ite, a nd t he c ranial:vertebral r atios a re c onsiderably d ifferent f rom t he b each q uadrat s ites. H owever, a part f rom t he g reater d omination o f L ates a t A S1, t he t axonomic d iversity i s s imilar b etween t he A S a nd t he P S s ites. T he P S q uadrats a re c haracterised b y ar educed n umber o f c ranial a nd v ertebral e lements a s c ompared w ith t he o riginal g eneralised n umber o f s keletal e lements, b ut t he c ranial a nd v ertebral r atios r emain s imilar, s uggesting a s imilar a ttrition r ate. P ostcranial r emains s urvive p referentially a nd a re t hree t imes m ore n umerous t han t he c ranial o r v ertebral p ercentages. H owever a ttrition r ates a ffect o rders d ifferently, a nd t axonomically b iased a ssemblages m ay r eflect d ifferent r atios. T he t axonomic d iversity i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he m odern l ake, h owever b oth f ish u nder 3 0cm i n l ength, a nd t hose w ith n on-robust e lements a re a bsent o r u nder-represented. T he B SF i ndex i s h igher t han a t t errestrial s ites, c onfirming t he d enser a ccumulation o f l acustrine b one. A S1 c an b e c haracterised b y a h igh B SF a nd d isproportionate c ranial t o v ertebral r atios. W hile t his s ite h ad a h igh c ranial r epresentations, a c omplementary s ite i s l ikely t o h ave t he r everse h igh v ertebral t o c ranial r atio. O ne f ish - L ates - w as o verwhelmingly s elected, b ut o ther f ish c aught r eflect t he t axonomic d iversity p resent i n t he l ake. W hile p reliminary, t his s tudy s uggests s tandards t o w hich a ssemblages f rom t he H olocene a rchaeological s ites c an b e c ompared.

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C HAPTER 7 :

M ETHOD O F A NALYSIS

T heoretical B ackground T he d iscipline o f z ooarchaeology g rew f rom t he r ecognition o f t he i mportance o f f aunal r esources i n t he r econstruction o f p ast h uman l ifeways ( e.g. D aly 1 969; G rayson 1 973). T he n eed f or a m ethodology f or i dentification, a nalysis, a nd i nterpretation o f f aunal r emains w ithin a n a rchaeological c ontext r equired t he m elding o f p rinciples f rom z oology, g eology a nd p aleontology w ith t hose f rom a rchaeology. W hile i dentification o f s keletal e lements a nd t heir i nterpretation b orrowed f rom w ithin a n e cological a nd z oogeographical c ontext a rchaeological z oological a nd p aleontological k nowledge, n ew c ulturally-, a s m ethodology h ad t o b e f ormulated: 1 ) t o i dentify ubsistence a nd o pposed t o n aturally-derived, f aunas; 2 ) t o a ssess t he s t o i solate a nd o ther d ietary c ontributions o f t he f auna; a nd 3 ) nd c onsumption d escribe f eatures r elating t o p rocessing, p rocurement a o f t he f auna a s f ood a nd m aterials f or t ools. T he n eed f or i dentification o f, a nd t herefore c haracterisation o f, a rchaeological f aunas, h as r esulted i n an umber o f t aphonomic s tudies d ealing w ith m odern a nalogues o f a rchaeological s ites, a nd w ith n onh uman b one s catter s ites. V irtually a ll o f t hese s tudies h ave b een c oncerned w ith t errestrial m ammalian f aunas; t herefore, o ne a spect o f t his s tudy i s t he a ttempt t o d escribe a quatic-based n atural a nd c ultural ( Chapter 6 ). A ssessing t he p oints o utlined a bove r equires t he c alculation o f n umbers o f i ndividuals o f d ifferent a nimal t axa r epresented a t a s ite, g enerally k nown a s t axonomic a bundance ( Grayson 1 984), a nd w hat p ortions a nd w eights o f t hese w ere a ctually c onsumed b y t he i nhabitants. T he t axonomic a bundance i s a lso i mportant t o t he a nalysis o f p aleontological f aunas, a nd t hus l iterature f rom b oth d isciplines c ontributes t o d evising t he a ppropriate m ethodologies ( e.g. S hotwell 1 955; W hite 1 953). I n c alculating t he a bundance o f t axa, t wo p arameters h ave b een c ommonly u sed: t he M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals ( MNI) r epresented f or e axh t axon, a nd t he T otal N umber o f I dentifiable E lements o r S pecimens p er T axon ( NISP) ( Grayson 1 973). B oth h ave b een c riticised ( Grayson 1 984; K lein a nd C ruz-Uribe 1 984), b ut o ften t he w rong p arameter h as b een u sed a nd c riticism i s l evelled m ore a t t he a pplication. T he a ccuracy o f t he m easure d epends o n t he i nformation e xpected, b e i t t he d erivation o f m eat w eight e stimates, t he c omparability o f t axa b etween s ites, o r t he r anking o f t axonomic d iversity. A ccuracy i s a lso d ependent o n t he s ize a nd d erivation o f t he s amples, w hether f rom l arge, s mall, s imple o r s tratified o ccupation s ites. A f urther c aveat i n t he u se o f t hese t echniques i s n ecessary b ecause o f d ifferences i n

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t he f aunal c ompositions. M ost d iscussions o f t axonomic a bundance h ave b een b ased o n m ammalian-dominated a ssemblages ; w hile s ome o f t hese d iscussions a re v alid f or o ther b iological c lasses, d ifferences i n s keletal d esign i n o ther c lasses i nvalidate c ertain m ethodologies. M y s tudy i s m ainly c oncerned w ith a nalysis o f f ish f aunas ; h owever a s t here i s l ittle p ublished a bout q uantification a nd a ssessment o f s uch f aunas ( but s ee C asteel 1 976), a c ritical a ssessment o f m easures o f t axonomic a bundance i n a nalysing f ish f aunas w ill b e m ade. T he N ISP m easure i s a g ood i ndex o f g eneral a bundance f or t axonomic g roups, e specially w hen u sed i n c onjunction w ith o rdinal r anking t o c ompare s imilar t axa b etween s ites ( Grayson 1 979, 1 984; B rewer 1 986 : 1 08-110). U sed i n i solation a nd p articularly w hen c omparing d ifferent t axonomic g roups, t he N ISP c an i ntroduce b iases, e specially w ith f ish f aunas. N ISP u ses r aw c ounts, t herefore i t a ssumes t hat a ll t axa h ave e qual n umbers o f s keletal e lements, a nd t hat a ll e lements p reserve e qually w ell. T he f ormer i s i n g eneral t rue f or m ammals , e xcepting t he d ifferential p resence/absence o f s ome b ones a s c lavicles, b acula o r o sse c orda ( heart b ones). F or f ish , n umbers o f e lements v ary r adically b etween o rders, f amilies a nd s pecies . E els o f t he g enus A nguilla , f or e xample, h ave a bout 1 15 v ertebrae , w hile c ichlids h ave o nly 3 0. D ifferential p reservation o f e lements i s a lso a p roblem w ith f ish f auna : b ones o f t he C yprinidae a nd C haracidae, f amilies c ommon i n t he s ites d iscussed, p reserve o nly i n i deal d epositional c ircumstances, w hile t he r obust d ermal c ranial p lates o f t he c atfish C larias o ften s urvive d ifferentially. T herefore i f o nly N ISP i s u sed , t he t axa i nvolved m ust b e s crutinised t o e nsure c omparability i n r epresentation o f e lements. O ther w eaknesses o f t he N ISP m ethod i nclude i ts p otential o verr epresentation o f w hole v ersus ' schlepped ' a nimals , o r a l ack o f u tility i n e stimating m eat w eights ( Grayson 1 984). T hese c riticisms h owever a re n ot v alid, b ecause N ISP d oes n ot c alculate n umbers o f i ndividuals a nd t herefore i s n ot a ppropriate f or p roducing t hese d ata. T he M NI m ethod i s am ore f lexible, p roblem-oriented p arameter w hich c an b e a n e ffective a ssessment o f t axonomic a bundance i n f ish f aunas. I t o nly t abulates n umbers o f i ndividuals, t herefore i t i gnores b oth d ifferential n umbers o f e lements b etween g roups a nd d ifferential p reservation o f e lements a mong g roups. S imilarly i t d oes n ot o verr epresent w hole o ver ' schlepped ' a nimals. F urther i t g ives a b asis f or c omparing t axa a mong a nd w ithin s ites, a nd t hus i s ab asis f rom w hich t o c alculate m eat w eights a nd b iomass. T he m ost c ommon c riticisms l evelled a t t he M NI t echnique a re t he o ver-representation o f r arer t axa i n s mall s amples ( Gifford 1 981; K lein a nd C ruz-Uribe 1 984), a nd t he o ver-representation o f t axa w hen s ite s amples a re d ivided i nto s maller a ggregates ( Grayson 1 984). T he f irst c riticism c an b e c ompensated f or b y p resentation o f N ISP c alculations , w hich s tate a ctual a bundance, i ndicating t otal n umbers o f t he r are t axa i n r elation t o t he o ther t axa . A s econd c riticism i nvolves s ites t hat a re s ubdivided i nto s maller a ggregates ( Grayson 1 984): t he m ore t he n umber o f a ggregates , t he h igher t he M NI p er t axon . T his c riticism i s l ess v alid f or f ish t han f or m ammalian f aunas. F ish h ave t he a bility t o g row t hrough l ife, t herefore m ature i ndividuals h ave a v ariety o f l engths e ven w ithin o ne s pecies , a nd i t i s m uch e asier, a lbeit h ighly

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t ime-consuming, t o s ize m atch e lements o f a ny o ne i ndividual t hrough a s tratified s ite. T his c ontrasts w ith m ammalian f aunas, w here a lmost a ll a dults o f a s ingle s pecies t end t o f all w ithin a p roscribed s ize r ange, a nd s ize m atching i s n ot f ruitful. O ther t echniques s uch a s M NI d ivided b y N ISP, o r P etersen's I ndex f or q uantifying t axonomic a bundance h ave s hown w eaknesses g reater t han t hose o f t he N ISP a nd M NI m ethods ( Klein a nd C ruz-Uribe 1 984). T herefore i n t his s tudy M NI f igures a re a ssumed t o b e t he m ost v alid b ase f rom w hich t o i nfer c ontribution t o s ubsistence, a s w ell a s d eductions o n p rocurement a nd p rocessing t echniques. I n d etermining t he c ontribution t o s ubsistence, t he u se o f M NI's a s a b ase f or c alculating m eat w eight e stimates i s c ommonly u sed. T he u se o f m eat w eight e stimates t o r econstruct d ietary c ontribution i s a dmittedly a m isleading e xercise, g iven t he u nknown l ost d ata. N evertheless i t h as r elative v alue p articularly w ith a ssemblages w hich h ave a l arge s ize r ange b etween s pecies. M eat e stimates s how t hat, f or e xample, a s ize 7 L ates i ndividual c ontributes o ver 5 0kg o f m eat w hile a s ize 2 c ichlid i ndividual c ontributes l kg; t he r aw M NI s tatistic g ives e ach i ndividual e qual s tatus. A nalysis o f p rocurement, p rocessing a nd c onsumption s trategies c onsists o f t wo s teps: c alculation o f t axonomic a bundance a nd d iversity, a nd a nalysis o f c ultural m odifications t o t he n atural s tructure o f t he b ones. S trategies f or p rocuring f ish a re d educed f rom q uantification o f t axonomic a bundance a nd d iversity i n a rchaeological a ssemblages, a nd f rom a nalysis o f c hanges t hrough t ime i n t hese f igures. M NI f igures a re m ost s uitable f or t hese c alculations, a s n umbers o f i ndividuals p rocured g ives a r eliable i ndication o f t he a mount o f e nergy e xpended i n f ishing, a s w ell a s p roviding a b asis f or c omparability o f g roups o f t axa b etween s ites. F urther, M NI f igures c an b e u sed f or t he c alculation o f t axonomic d iversity ( Whittaker 1 977). T axonomic d iversity i ndicates t he v ariety a nd e venness o f t axa i n a n a ssemblage, a nd i s u seful f or c omparisons b etween s ites ( Chapter 6f or f urther d iscussion). A nalysis o f p rocessing a nd c onsumption r equires t he u se o f b oth M NI a nd N ISP f igures. N ISP f igures g ive t he a bundance o f s keletal e lements f or e ach t axonomic g roup t hrough e ach s ite, t hereby i ndicating a bsences o r o ver-representations o f c ertain b ody p ortions. F ish a re o ften d e-capitated, d e-finned a nd d e-tailed f or c ooking a nd c dnsumption ; s uch p rocesses w ould b e e vident f rom N ISP f igures. S imilarly p resence o r ' absence o f s keletal p arts c ould r eflect c onsumption p references, f or e xample, w here v ertebrae a re a bsent a s t hey w ere g round a nd e aten a s p owder. M NI f igures a re n ecessary t o c alculate m eat e stimates, t o a ssess m inimum d ietary c ontribution . I n t his w ay t he c ontribution o f e ach i ndividual f ish t o t he t otal m eat w eight i s i mportant. F urther i ndications o f p rocessing a nd c onsumption a re f ound i n c ultural m odifications t o t he b ones t hemselves. L ittle a ctualistic o r e thnographic d ata h as b een r eported w hich p ertains t o t he p rocessing a nd c onsumption o f f ish. S ome i nformation f rom m ammalian s tudies h owever c an b e a pplied t o f ish r emains.

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S tudies o f m odern h unters ( e.g. B inford 1 978) s how t hat t here i s o ften b ias i n h ow h unters b utchered t heir p rey a nd t ransported t hem t o t he e ating s ites. T he t erm " schlepp e ffect" ( Perkins a nd D aly 1 968) i s a pplied w hen h unters b rought h ome o nly t he m eatiest p arts o f l arge a nimals, l eaving t he r est a t a p resumed b utchering s ite. O ne m ethod o f q uantifying t his e ffect w as d evised b y B inford i n a " General U tility I ndex" ( GUI) ( Binford 1 981) w hich r anked s keletal e lements a s t o t he n utritionally m ost d esirable, t herefore p roducing a l ist o f p arts e xpected a t a n e ating v ersus b utchering s ite. I n g eneral, s tudies s how t hat w hile w hole s keletons o f s maller a nimals o ften w ere t ransported t o a n e ating s ite, o ften o nly t he c hoicest e lements o f l arge a nimals l eft t he b utchering s ite; t herefore ' waste' e lements s uch a s s kulls w ould n ot o ccur a t e ating s ites. T he e xpectation w ith f ishing s ites w ould b e t he s ame; v ery l arge f ish s uch a s s ome L ates ( some w eighing o ver 1 00kg) c ould b e e xpected t o b e b utchered a t t he p rocessing s ite, w ith t he h ead a nd t ail a nd p ossibly o ther ' waste' p arts l eft, a nd t he b ody r emoved e lsewhere. C oncern w ith d etermining b utchering p rocesses, e ither a t t he b utchering o r e ating s ites, h as f ostered a b ody o f l iterature c oncerned w ith i dentifying a nd i nterpreting c ut m arks. B est k nown a re t he p lethora o f s tudies a nalysing c utmarks o n t he P lio-Pleistocene b one e lements f rom O lduvai G orge ( e.g. B unn a nd K roll 1 986; S hipman 1 986). B oth e xperimental s tudies t o c reate a nd c haracterise c ut m arks m ade b y d ifferent m aterials a nd t he u se o f i ncreasingly s ophisticated e quipment w ith w hich t o d istinguishing n aturally - f rom h ominid-derived c utmarks h ave b een u sed t o c reate a d ata b ase f rom w hich t o a nalyse m arks o n b one. L ittle e xperimental w ork h as b een c onducted o n f ish b one, b ut t he e xpectation i s t hat m arks w ould b e p resent o n l arger f ish a t r egions w here ' waste' a nd u seful e lements c ould b e d etached. A ctual c onsumption o f f ood i s a lso l ittle s tudied f or f ish , b ut c ertain p rocesses s een i n m ammalian r emains m ay n ot a pply t o f ish. T he f ragmentation i ndex u sed b y a nalysts t o g auge t he a mount o f b reakage o f b one, p articularly o f l ong b ones w hich m ay b e b roken f or m arrow c ontent ( e.g. G ifford e t a l. 1 980), i s n ot a s u seful f or f ish b ecause t he f ish b ones d o n ot c ontain m arrow . H owever, s uch a n i ndex i s u seful f or d etermining p ost-mortem d epositional p rocesses. S ome d ata o btained f rom s everal T urkana f ish e ating o ccasions i s p resented i n C hapter 1 0, a nd f orms t he b asis f or s ome o f t he i nterpretations o f t he a rchaeol ogical m aterial. A f urther s tatistic u sed i n t his s tudy i s b one s catter f requency ( or b one s catter d ensity) ( BSF). I t c ompares d ensity o f b one s catters b etween s ites, i s i mportant i n t he c haracterisation o f n atural v ersus h uman a ccumulation s catters, a nd f or i nferring d ensity o f o ccupation i n a rchaeological s ites. I n t his s tudy, a ll B one S catter F requencies a re c alculated o n f ish e lements o nly. T he g oals o f t his s tudy a re: 1 ) t o c ompare c hanges i n t axonomic a bundance a nd d iversity o f d ifferent s ites a s t hey r elate t o d ifferent p rocurement s trategies; 2 ) t o c ompare c hanges i n t axonomic d iversity i n o rder t o a ssess z oogeographic c hanges t hrough t ime; 3 ) t o m ake m eat w eight e stimates b ased o n n umbers o f i ndividuals m ultiplied b y l ive w eights; a nd 4 ) t o c ompare c hanges i n s keletal e lement d istribution a s r elated t o p rocessing a nd c onsumption.

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T he M NI m easure i s a pplicable t o g oals 1 , 2a nd 3 . H owever, a s s ome s ites u sed i n t he s tudy h ave s mall s amples ( Ne '

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I n G A . 0

)I GAJJ1 1 r

I,,s . h i ns x

1 _ . .. • /

/ / ,/ : z

1

i," / , '

A

1 < 1

1 A Z .. 1 . L -

i

V

^

\ q i ‘ , > . . Nde ra t i eni • t leas 4

.

. 4

% \ _ . . . . . . ..

L .

A

L . AUA BAY

•

% to e xca va ted o rs amp led

osae unworked L oca l i t ies

V o lcan ics S tudy a rse b ounda ry

1 0 Km

F igure 8 .2.

K oobi F ora S ites

( From B arthelme

1 13

1 981:31).

g ravels ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 34). A t otal o f 2 95 s tone a rtifacts w ere r ecovered, o f w hich 9 .8% w ere s haped t ools ( 1981: 1 48); o f t hese a bout 2 0% w ere c urved b ack f lakes . O nly a f ragment o f a u niserial b arbed b one p oint w as f ound . N o p ottery w as r ecovered.

C haracterisation o f A ssemblage 7 F ish r emains o utnumbered m ammal r emains b y a bout s ix t o o ne ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 46). T able 8 .1 l ists t he n umbers a nd b reakdown b y s keletal r egion , a s w ell a s p ercentages o f i dentifiable a nd n oni dentifiable e lements. T he t otal a ssemblage c onsisted o f 1 ,790 b one e lements , o f w hich 7 4 .1% w as i dentifiable o nly t o C lass . U nfortunately t here a re f ew s tudies o f a rchaeological f ish a ssemblages w hich r eport p ercentages o f i dentifiable a nd u nidentifiable b one, a nd n one r eported f rom A frica ; t hus c omparisons a re i mpossible. T his p ercentage o f n oni dentifiable b one i s l ow c ompared w ith m any m ammalian a ssemblages ( e.g. 9 6 .1% n on-identifiable a t C hencherere R ockshelter, [ Crader 1 984: 2 7]; 7 7.1% n on-identifiable a t N gamuriak , [ Marshall 1 986 : 9 4]). B reakage o f m ammalian b one f or m arrow e xtraction ( e.g . K lein a nd C ruz-Uribe 1 984 : 7 0) m ay e xplain t he h igher p ercentages o f f ragmentation i n t hese a ssemblages. T able 8 .1. F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. N umber a nd P ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd U nidentifiable E lements b y S pit. %= p ercentage o f T otal I dentified S pecimens. N N umber o f S pecimens. C ranial N %

V ertebral N %

P ostCran N %

N on-Ident.

T otal

S pit: S t 1 89 5 5.1 15 1 1 1 6.7 3 2 1 . D 6 2.5 6 3 1 3 3 9.= 1 2 4 1 5 4 4.1 1 2 5 9 4 2.9 3 6 2 2 8 .6 1 7 9 6 9.2 1 8 6 1 00 .0 9 1 0 5 5.5 5 1 0 8 2 8.6 6 1 1 7 8 1.0 2 1 2 1 4 4 1.2 1 5 1 3 8 3 8.0 4 1 4 5 7 1.4 1 1 5 1 5 8 3.3 3 1 6 5 8 5 2.3 2 7 1 7 1 0 4 5.5 4 1 8 2 0 8 3 .3 2 1 11 00.0 2 2 3 6 0 .0 2 2 3 4 4 4.0 4 T otal ( excluding s urface): 2 43 5 2.5 11

3 3.5 5 0 .0 2 5.0 3 6.4 3 5.3 1 4 .2 1 4 .3 7 .7

3 9 2 3 8 7 9 4 3

1.4 3 3 .3 1 2 .5 2 4 .2 2 0 .6 4 2.9 5 7 .1 2 3 .1

2 7.8 2 1.4 9 .5 4 4.1 1 9.0 1 4 .3 1 6 .7 2 4 .3 1 8.2

3 1 4 2 5 9 1

1 6 .7 5 0 .0 9 .5 1 4 .7 4 3 .0 1 4 .3

2 6 8 4

2 3 .4 3 6 .3 1 6 .7

1

1 2 .0

4 0 .0 4 4 .0 2 4 .0

1 09

114

2 3 .5

4 56 4 4 2 73 1 78 1 70 1 22 4 8 5 7 3 7 6 3 3 5 2 0 4 9 2 0 4 1 5 1 53 6 9 1 6 1 7

7 99 5 0 2 97 2 11 2 04 1 43 5 5 7 0 4 3 8 1 6 3 4 1 8 3 4 1 1 3 3 2 64 2 8 3 3 2 1 1 2 6

C ompared w ith o ther s ites r eported i n t his s tudy, u nidentifiable b one i s h igh.

t he

p ercentage

o f

T he B one S catter F requency ( BSF) f or t he e xcavated s ite ( Trench B ) i s 4 .9, c lose t o t hat o f t he m odern A S1 s ite, t herefore h igh ( see C hapters 6 a nd 7 f or d iscussion o f B SF). T he h ighest c oncentrations o f b one a re i n S pits 2 t o 1 3 a nd S pit 1 6, d ecreasing f rom u pper t o l ower l evels t hroughout t he s ite, i n p articular b elow S pit 5 . T hese t rends a re r eflected i n p art i n t he d ensity o f a rtifactual m aterial, w hich i s a lso h ighest i n S pits 1 t o 1 3 a nd i n S pit 1 6 ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 46). H owever, u nlike t he b one, t he h ighest d ensity o f a rtifacts i s n ot i n t he f irst f ive s pits b ut i n S pits 6t o 1 0. T able 8 .1 i ndicates t hat b ones a re h eavily f ragmented i n S pits 1 t o 9 , r eflected i n t he h igh n umber o f n on-identifiable f ragments i n t hese s pits. N o e xplanation i s o bvious b ut t he b ones f rom t hese l ater s pits m ay h ave b een e xposed l onger o n t he s urface t han b ones f rom e arlier o nes, a nd t herefore s ubject t o m ore d isturbance s uch a s t rampling b y m ammals a nd h umans. A lternatively, t his a pparently a nomolous h igh d ensity o f b one i n t he f irst f ive s pits, c ombined w ith t he f ossilisation a nd t exture i ndexes d iscussed b elow i ndicating d ifferential d epositional e vents, s uggests t he o ccurrence o f s ome n aturally-deposited b one m ixed w ith t he h uman-deposited b one.

T able 8 .2. F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories b y S pit.

S pit

S f 2 * 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 1 2 2 2 3

4

E lements

W eathering I ndex C ategory 2 3 4

S tain I ndex C ategory 0 -3, 1 2 4 -5, 1 3 7 9 1 20 5 7 1 03 3 4 6 3 2 1 0 2 0 6 2 7 1 2 6 -

N umber o f

7 20 1 77 1 54 1 01 1 09 4 9 6 7 4 1 7 1 4 3 3 5 5 6 2 9 1 1 3 3 2 58 2 8 3 3 1 1 1 2 2

5 0 1 6 5 2 4 1 6 7 1 7 3 8 5 1 3 1 1 1 1 -

*D ata n ot t abulated f or S pit 1 .

115

4 9 3 3 2 4 1 9 1 0 5 3 4 1 2 1 6 1 2

7 00 2 81 2 03 1 99 1 37 5 5 6 5 3 6 6 5 5 2 2 9 4 2 3 2 1 1 3 3 2 39 2 6 1 6 0 1 0 2 4

I ndices o f S taining a nd W eathering f or t he f ish b one a ssemblages i s g iven i n T able 8 .2. T he s tain i ndex i ndicates t hat f rom S pits 2 t o 5a nd S pits 1 0 t o 1 3 , t here i s aw ide v ariety i n s taining f rom l ight t o d ark , w hile t he b one f rom S pits 6 t o 9a nd 1 4 t o 2 3 i s u niformly d ark . A u niformly d ark c olour s uggests r apid i mmersion a nd b urial o f t he b ones, w hile l ighter c oloured b one s uggests o ne o r m ore s hort t erm i nundation e vents w ith s ubsequent s ubaerial d eposition . T herefore t he m ixed n ature o f t he u pper a nd m iddle s pits s uggests d ifferent d epositional o r o ccupation e vents o ver t he c ourse o f t ime a nd n ot a s ingle u niform d epositional e vent. T he b one f rom S pits 6 t o 9 i s r elatively u niformly d ark ; t hat f rom 1 4 t o 2 3 i s u niform a nd b lack, s uggesting a s ingle d epositional e vent. T he s urface w eathering i ndices i ndicate t hat a ll b ut S pits 1 t o 1 3 a re c onsistently S tage 4 . B oth S tain a nd W eathering i ndices s uggest l ack o f u niformity i n t he m iddle s pits, p robably c aused b y d ifferent d epositional e vents a md t herefore b y d ifferential s ubaerial a nd/or s ubaqueous t ransformations. Av ariety o f f ossilisation c ategories i n S pits 1 t o 5a lso s uggests d ifferential d epositional e vents. T he l ow i ncidence o f w eathering c ategory 3 t hroughout t he s ite s uggests t hat l ittle s econdary t ransport o ccurred.

S keletal E lement R epresentation T able 8 .1 g ives t he b reakdown o f s keletal e lements b y n umber a nd p ercentage o f t he f auna b y s pit. T hese ( NISP) c ounts a re n ot u seful f or c omparisons o f c ranial t o p ostcranial r atios b etween t axa, b ut a re u seful f or i ndicating r elative a bundances o f c ranial t o p ostcranial p roportions o f a ll t axa t hroughout a s ite ( Chapter 7 ). N ISP c ounts a re a lso u seful f or c omparing s keletal e lement c ategories b etween s ites, a s l ong a s t he s ame t axa a re b eing c ompared. I n t he c omplete a ssemblage c ranial r emains d ominate, m aking u p 5 2.5% o f t he t otal i dentifiable r emains. I n a ll b ut t hree s pits c ranial e lements o utnumber v ertebral e lements, o ften b y ac onsiderable m argin , a nd i n a ll b ut f ive t hey o utnumber p ostcranial e lements ; t hey f luctuate p artly i n t andem w ith p ostcranial r emains. C ompared w ith t he f ossil e lements f rom t he e xperimental t ransects P S1 a nd P S2, r epresentation o f t he c ranial e lements i s m uch h igher a nd o f t he p ostcranial e lements l ower a t F xJj12 t han i n t he n aturally o ccurring a ssemblages . T his c onsistency o f t he h igh c ranial:vertebrae:postcranial r atios t hrough t he s ite w ould s uggest a p rocessing p attern b y h umans w hich w ill b e e xamined f urther i n : t his C hapter. T he a nalysis o f s keletal e lements b y t axon ( Table 8 .3) i ndicates t hat c ranial e lements o utnumber v ertebral a nd p ostcranial e lements r egardless o f s ize ( e.g. l arge a nd s mall L ates) o r g enus ( illustrated a lso i n t he c ranial:vertebral r atios). W hile t he f irst t hree v ertebrae o f l arge L ates c omprise 1 2.5% o f t he t otal v ertebral c olumn i n a w hole f ish , t hey r epresent 2 0% o f t he a rchaeological v ertebrae. T his s uggests a b utchering p ractice w here t he h ead i s s evered f rom t he r est o f t he b ody n ear t he t op o f t he v ertebral c olumn , a nd t he f irst t wo o r t hree v ertebrae a re t reated t hen a s p art o f t he h ead. T he a lmost c omplete a bsence o f c atfish ( Clarias a nd S ynodontis) v ertebrae i s e nigmatic, a nd m ay b e d ue t o p oor p reservation o f t he v ertebrae ( see S iluroidea i n C hapter 6 ).

1 16

T able 8 .3. F xJj12. E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/ f amily a nd s keletal e lement. C r=Cranial; V =Vertebral; P c=Postcranial. B roken d own b y S pit.

S pit B agrus C r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 1 7 2 1 8 1 1 2 2 2 3 T otals: 1 4

VP c

C larias C r VP c 2 1 1

1 1 1

1

1 1 5 2 3 1 3 5 1 1 2

2

3 01

T axonomic G roup S ynodontis L ates L ates C ichlidae O ther s z1-4 s z5-7 C r V P c C r VP c C r V P c C r V P c C r 2 1 12 3 1 2 1 31 1 3 1 3 1 1 4 4 1 2 2 41 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 1 4 4 9 1 1 1 4 2 2 4 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 9 1 6 3 1 2 5 9 1 1 1 1 5 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 1

3 8 1 3 5

3 2 1 9 1 1

3 6 2 1

1 9

3

T axonomic A bundance T able 8 .4 i dentifies t he t axa w ith M NI a nd N ISP c alculations. T he i mmediate i mpression f rom b oth N ISPs a nd M NI c alculations i s t hat t he e lements d o n ot r eflect g reat t axonomic d iversity; i n t he c omplete a ssemblage w ith a t otal M NI o f 7 0, t wo t axa - L ates a nd c ichlids - m ake u p. 5 3 i ndividuals o r a bout 7 6% o f t he a ssemblage. T he t axonomic d iversity f or F xJj12 w as c alculated a t 4 .7; t his i s s imilar t o t he 5 .0 c alculated f or t he A S1 s ites, a nd i ndicates l ow a bundance a nd e venness o f t axa ( see C hapter 6 ). L ates n iloticus i s t he b est r epresented s pecies a t F xJj12, c omprising 4 5% o f t he i ndividuals i n t he a ssemblage. C larias i s r epresented b y 1 2 i ndividuals ( 17%), a nd t he r emainder i s m ade u p o f t axa o f o ne o r t wo i ndividuals e ach. T he o ther t axa r epresented i nclude o ne T etraodon ( possibly a ' garbage' f ish), a nd o ne P rotopterus w hich i s u sually a s carce b ut p ersistent m ember o f a n a rchaeological f ish a ssemblage ( e.g. G reenwood 1 959). F ish w hich a re c ommonly c aught t oday i n L ake T urkana s uch a s B agrus a nd S ynodontis a re r epresented b y o nly o ne o r t wo i ndividuals, o r, a s w ith L abeo o r

117

H ydrocynus n ot r epresented a t a ll. T herefore a d eliberate s trategy t o p rocure L ates, c ichlids a nd t o a l esser e xtent C larias w as p racticed. W hile L ates c omprises 4 5% o f t he i ndividuals i n t he a ssemblage, i t a ctually c ontributes 9 2% o f t he t otal m eat w eight, a bout 7 80 k ilograms ( Table 8 .5). T his g reat d ifference b etween M NI p ercentages a nd e stimated m eat w eight p ercentages u nderlies t he n eed f or b oth e stimates. W hile t he m eat w eight e stimate i s o nly a s v alid a s t he M NI c alculation, a nd o nly a p roportional e stimate, i t i ndicates t he c ontribution o f L ates t o t he d iet a nd t o t he p erson-hours o f p rocessing r elative t o o ther t axa. F urther e vidence o f d iscrepancies b etween M NI a nd m eat w eight c ontributions i s s een w ith c ichlids a nd C larias, w here t he M NI c ount f or t he f ormer i s 2 1 a nd f or t he l atter a lmost h alf t hat a t 1 2. Y et C larias c ontributes m ore m eat w eight ( 3.3%) t han c ichlids. T his d iscrepancy b etween M NI a nd m eat w eight f igures o nly o ccurs i n a ssemblages w here a w ide r ange o f s izes i s r epresented. A t F xJj12 t here i s a w ide r ange b etween t he l arge L ates a nd s maller c ichlids. T he n umber o f i dentified s pecimens ( NISP) ( Table 8 .4) i ndicates t hat n umbers o f L ates a nd c ichlids a re r elatively c onsistent t hroughout t he a ssemblage, a lthough c ichlids a re u nder-represented i n S pits 6 t o 1 0, a nd b oth t axa a re m ost n umerous i n S pit 1 6. I t m ay b e n oticed t hat N ISP a nd M NI c alculations f or e ach s pit d o n ot a lways c orrespond w ith e ach o ther, a n e xample b eing C larias, w here N ISP c ounts s how i t a ppearing c onsistently t hrough t he s ite, y et M NI f igures o nly s how i t a ppearing e very t wo o r t hree s pits. W hile N ISP c ounts s how e xactly t he n umber o f e lements w hich a ppear i n e ach s pit, t he M NI c alculation i s a m ore s ubjective m easure, b ut g ives m inimum a bsolute n umbers o f i ndividuals. A s v ertical m igration o f e lements d oes o ccur i n a s ite, p articularly i n a s andy m atrix ( e.g. C ahen a nd M oyerson 1 977), a ll e lements i n a djacent s pits m ust b e a ssessed a s t o w hether t hey b elong t o t he s ame o r d ifferent i ndividuals. T herefore a c atfish o f 3 0cm T L w ith a n a rticular i n S pit 1 0 a d entary i n S pit 1 1 w ill h ave a n M NI o f 1 , b ut a N ISP o f 2 ; o ne i n e ach s pit. H ence t he r eason f or d iscrepancy i n M NI a nd N ISP v alues t hrough t he s ite, a nd t he n eed f or e xamination o f b oth c alculations i n a ssessing t he a ssemblage. A f urther c aveat i n t he N ISP c alculations a nd f ish a ssemblages i nvolves l arge f ish a nd f ish w ith m ore r obust e lements. A c omparison o f M NI's o f l arge a nd s mall L ates, s hows t hat l arge L ates ( size 5 t o 7 ) c omprise 1 0/70 o r 1 4% o f t he a ssemblage b y M NI c ount, b ut 6 2/244 o r 2 5% b y N ISP c ount. S mall i ndividuals ( 1 t o 4 ) c omprise 2 2/70 o r 3 0% o f t he a ssemblage b y M NI c ount b ut o nly 5 6/244 o r 2 3% b y N ISP c ount. F urther, B agrus, a c atfish w ith v ery r obust c ranial e lements, i s r epresented i n t he N ISP c ategory a s c omprising 6 .3% o f t he t otal a ssemblage w ith 1 6 e lements, w hereas i t i s o nly r epresented i n t he M NI c alculation b y t wo i ndividuals, h ence 3 % o r h alf o f i ts r epresentation s een i n t he N ISP c ount. O nly t wo c utmarks w ere f ound a mong a ll s pecimens, o ne b eing o n a s upraoccipital b one o f a S ize 6 L ates f rom S pit 9 , a nd t he o ther o n t he a nterior f ace o f aL ates t hird t runk v ertebra e stimated a t 9 0cm T L.

118

T able 8 .4. F xJj12. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. T axonomic a bundance a s e xpressed i n M NI, p ercentages, a nd N ISP ( N) n umbers. P ercentages a re g iven f or N ISP o n s urface s ite. P r=Protopterus; H t.Heterotis; H y=Hydrocynus ; A 1=Alestes ; B g.Bagrus ; H b.Heterobranchus ; S y.Synodontis ; T e.Tetraodon.

S pit

T axon :MNI a nd N ISP C larias M NI N ISP N % N

S f

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

L ates M NI N ISP N % N

1 4.2

3 3

5 5 .3

1 2 0 .0 2 2 2.2

2 1

2 6 6 .7 1 2 0 .0 4 4 4 .5

2 4.5

5 7

2 3 9

1 3 3.3 3 6 0 .0 1 1 1.1

1 6 4

5 0.0 5 0 .0 5 0 .0 7 5.0

9 7 2 6

1 5 0.0 1 5 0 .0

4 4

1 1

1 1 1 3

1 2 5.0

1

1 1 5 2 3 1 3 5

2 5 0 .0 2 6 6.7 1 2 0 .0 4100 .0 1 5 0 .0 11 00 .0 1 3 3 .3 4 2 6.6

8 1 8 6 1 2 2 1 5 1 9

1 2 5.0 1 3 3.3 1 2 0.0

1 1 4 2 3 1 3 2 7

1 1 5 0.0

1 2 5.0 3

6 0 .0

1 3 3 .3 2 1 3.3

C ichlidae M NI N ISP N % N

1 7 1 1 1 8 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 5 0 .0 2 1 T otals ( not i ncluding S f): 1 2 1 7.0 3 1 3 2

1 00 .0 5 0.0 5 0 .0

1 28

1

1 5 0 .0 1 3 3.4 7 4 6.7

3 1 4

4 6.0 18

1 19

1 5 0.0

2 1

3 0 .0

M NI N

1 1

O ther N ISP % N

. 9 . 4 . 4 1 .7 . 4 2 .2

2 -Ht 1 -Hy 1 -Al 4 -Bg 1Hb 5 -Te

1 1.1 1 1.1

1 -Te 1 -Sy 1Bg

1

8 3 1 1 7 6

1 1

1

5

6 .7 6 .7

1 00

2 -Bg 1 -Pr 2 -Bg 1 1-Bg

7 .0 1 9

T able 8 .5. F xJj12. E xcavated S ite . M eat W eight E stimates . n earest k g). B roken d own b y s pit. P ercentages g iven f or t otals t axonomic g roup . C 1=Clarias ; L a=Lates; C i=Cichlidae .

S pit

T axon C l

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 2 2 3 T =

( To p er

. 4 4 .1

2 .1

L a ( sz 1 -4)

1 3.4 1 2.6 1 6.1 3 .5 1 2.6 . 8 1 6.1

L a ( sz 5 -7)

C i

9 4.8

1 .0 3 .9 1 .0 1 .0 1 .0

1 15.9

. 2

O ther

. 9

3 .7 2 .1

1 6 .1

6 .2

8 .6 2 .5

2 8.7 . 8 3 .5 3 .5 3 7.8

2 .0 2 .0 1 .0

9 4.8 15.9 6 7.2

. 2 2 .0 9 .3

6 7.2 2 7.6

4 .5 2 .4

3 .5 2 .1 2 8 .1 3 .3%

1 .0 2 7.6

1 69. 2 0.0%

6 11. 7 2.3%

2 5.6 3 .0%

1 1.5 1 .4%

T otal

1 4.4 1 6.9 16 .9 4 .5 1 3.6 2 .9 1 32.2 3 .7 2 0 .1 9 6 .8 1 23.1 9 5.9 1 .0 3 .5 1 4.1 1 21.3 2 7.6 2 .4 4 .5 2 9 .7 8 45 .2

P resumably t he f irst c utmark w as m ade w hile s evering t he h ead f rom t he b ody ; a c ommon d isarticulation p oint u sed b y m odern L ake T urkana f ishers. T he l atter w as f rom a n i ndividual e stimated a t a bout 9 0cm T L , p robably a lso m ade w hile s evering t he h ead f rom t he b ody. M ammalian b one e lements t otalled 3 33 e lements, b ut w ere n ot f ully a nalysed . T axa r epresented i ncluded h ippo ( Hippopotomus s p .) a nd w ildebeest ( Connochaetes t aurinus). S ixty-nine e lements o f t urtle ( Trionyx s p) a nd o ne e ach o f c rocodile ( Crocodilus s p) a nd s nake/lizard w ere a lso r eported ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 46).

1 20

S urface S ite C ultural r emains f rom F xJj12 w ere e xposed a long a 2 50 m eter o utc rop o n a r idge o verlooking a l aga. B arthelme s tates t hat b ased o n 1 971 d ata , c ultural m aterial d erived f rom t hree d istinct h orizons ( 1981: 1 35). T en u nits w ere s urveyed a nd a t otal 2 50 m eters 2 a rea w as c ollected ( 1981: 1 35). T he c alculated B SF i s 3 .2, s ite ( of F xJj12).

s lightly l ower t han f or t he

e xcavated

A rtifactual m aterial r ecovered i ncludes 5 39 l ithic a rtifacts, w ith a l ower p ercentage o f m icroliths t han i n t he e xcavated s ample, b ut w ith b acked f lakes a s w ell r epresented a s i n t he e xcavated s ample. S ix u niserial b arbed b one p oints w ere a lso r ecovered, b ut n o p ottery. A t otal o f 7 99 f ish e lements w ere a nalysed ( although 1 ,029 w ere r eported b y B arthelme 1 981: 1 43), o f w hich 4 56 o r 5 7% w ere n oni dentifiable ( Table 8 .1). T he S tain I ndex i ndicates t hat s ome m ixing i s p resent, b ut i s n ot a s m ixed a s i n t he f irst f our s pits o f t he e xcavated s ite F xJj12 ( Table 8 .2). T exture a nalysis a lso i ndicates a c onsistent p roportion o f s urface w eathered b ones w ith a c omparatively h igh p ercentage o f r olled b ones ( about 7 %).

S keletal E lement R epresentation S imilar t o t he e xcavated l evels o f F xJj12, c ranial r emains a re d ominant i n t he s urface c ollections, c omprising 5 5% o f t he a ssemblage ( Table 8 .1). V ertebral e lements a re m ore n umerous a t 3 3.5% b ut p ostc ranial e lements a re v ery l ow ( 11.4%) c ompared w ith t he e xcavated s ample. N o e xplanation i s a pparent f or t his l ow p ercentage, p articularly a s t he e xperimental q uadrats i ndicate t hat i n f ossil a ssemblages p ercentages o f p ostcranial e lements a re i nflated d ue t o t heir b etter ' survivability ' o ver c ranial e lements ( Chapter 6 ). M ost p ostcranial e lements a re m ade u p o f s pines, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat o ver t he y ears t hey h ave b een r emoved f or u se a s a wls o r o ther t ools b y i tinerant g roups.

T axonomic A bundance T he h ighly b iased n ature o f s urface c ollections m akes M NI's u nreliable a nd i mpossible t o c alculate w ith a ny a ccuracy, t herefore o nly N ISP f igures a re p resented ( Table 8 .4). G iven t he p roblems i nherent w ith N ISP c alculations, i t i s s till r emarkable t hat t he r elative a bundances o f t axa a re r easonably s imilar i n b oth t he e xcavated a nd t he s urface c ollections. T he r ankings o f t axa b y a bundance a re a lmost t he s ame, w ith t he s ame t hree t axa d ominating t he a ssemblage; h owever L ates i s m ore n umerous, a nd c ichlids l ess n umerous i n t he s urface c ollections. U sing t he s ame a rguments p resented i n t he p revious s ection, t he m ore n umerous L ates e lements m ay r eflect b etter p reservation o f b ones o f l arger i ndividuals. O nly

t hree

b ones

w ith

c utmarks

121

w ere

f ound

i n

t he

s urface

c ollections: o ne a p robable d entary o f L ates, o ne a c audal v ertebra o f a c ypriniform , a nd o ne a L ates v ertebra. T he r eason f or t he l ocation o f t he d entary c utmark i s p roblematic; h owever t he v ertebral c utmarks a re m ore p redictable. O ne i s o n t he v entral s urface o f a f ifth t runk v ertebra o f a S ize 5 L ates, a nd w as m ade w hile s eparating t he h ead f rom t he b ody. T he s econd i s o n t he l eft l ateral s ide o f t he c audal v ertebra o f a s ize 3 c ypriniform f ish , p robably B arbus, a nd p ossibly w as m ade w hile s evering t he t ail. M ammalian t axa i ncluded h ippo ( Hippopotomus s p.), ( Connochaetes t aurinus), c heetah ( Acinonyx s p.), a nd 1 06 t urtle ( Trionyx s p.) ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 43).

w ildebeest e lements o f

D iscussion T he s ite o f F xJj12 a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f a s eries o f b each o ccupations, p rimarily f ocussed o n f ishing, a lthough s ome m ammals w ere h unted. I ts l ocation a t t he t op o f w hat i s t oday a s teep r idge w ould h ave m eant a s teep d rop o ff f rom t he w ater's e dge t o t he l ake f loor, a nd t herefore g ood f ishing c onditions f or t axa s uch a s L ates. C ombined w ith t he n earby r iver, w hether s easonal o r p erennial, t he l ocation w ould p resent e xcellent o pportunities f or p rocuring f ish . T hroughout t he s ite a nd i n t he s urface c ollections t he f ish p rocured w ere L ates a nd c ichlids, a nd t o a l esser e xtent, C larias. L ates i n p articular c omprises t he b ulk o f t he e stimated w eight o f t he a ssemblage. F our o ther g enera w ere r epresented b y o ne o r t wo i ndividuals a nd t hese m ay h ave b een a l ucky c atch, o r w ere n aturally-derived. W ith a ll t axa o f f ish t he c ranial e lements a re w ell r epresented a t 5 3% o f t he t otal s keletal a ssemblage. T hese t rends a re c onsistent t hroughout t he s ite s equence i ncluding t he s urface c ollections, w ith m inor f luctuations, s uggesting a u niform p rocurement a nd p rocessing s trategy t hroughout s ite f ormation . O nly i n t he u pper f ive s pits i s t here a c hange i n c onsistency, w ith a m uch h igher d ensity o f b one, g reater f ragmentation a nd a h igher p roportion o f v ertebral e lements. T he l ower s pits r eflect s parse o ccupation, a nd m ay r eflect a L ate S tone A ge e ncampment. T he d epositional t rends a re m atched b y c hanges i n t he c omposition o f t he b one e lements t hemselves. T he m ixture o f s tain c ategories s een i n f ishbone f rom t he u pper f ive s pits a nd f our m iddle s pits w ould s uggest d ifferential d eposition o f t he e lements, w hile t he r elatively u niform c olour o f S pits 6 t o 9 b ones, a nd t he c ompletely u niform c olour o f b ones f rom S pits 1 4 t o 2 3, m ay i ndicate a s ingle d epositional e vent. A s t he e arly a nd m iddle s pits w ere d eposited a long t he h igh b each l evel i n t he h igh l ake l evel p eriod p rior t o 8 355 B P , d eposits w ould p robably h ave b een i nundated a nd b uried q uite r apidly. T he l ater s pits ( 1 t o 5 ) w ere s eemingly d eposited p ost-8355 B P ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 34), a nd t he l ake l evel m ay h ave b een i n d ecline a t t his t ime, p ossibly r esulting i n b riefer i nundation p eriods a nd l ess c hance o f q uick b urial. T he g reat i ncrease i n b one m aterial i n S pits 1 t o 5 , a nd i ts g reat f ragmentation m ay r eflect v arious d epositions w hich w ere m ore s ubject t o s urface d isturbance t han e arlier d eposits. F urther, t he i ncrease i n f ish e lements i n t he f irst f ive s pits i s m atched b y n either a n i ncrease i n m ammalian e lements n or i n s tone a rtifacts ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 46).

1 22

T hese d ata, c ombined w ith t he i ncrease i n v ertebral r epresentation a nd t he p resence o f t wo n ew f ish t axa n ot p reviously s een i n t he s ite ( Tetraodon a nd S ynodontis), s uggest a n i nflux o f n aturally d erived f ish e lements, p ossibly a ssociated w ith l onger s ubaerial e xposure o f t he s ite. T here i s n o d iscernable c hange i n t he m aterial c ulture. O nly o ne b arbed b one p oint w as e xcavated ( in S pit 8 ); t here w as n o p ottery, a nd t he l ithic a ssemblage s hows l ittle c hange i n p roportions o f s haped t ools a nd o ther c ategories t hroughout t he s ite. S tone t ools a re m ost h eavily c oncentrated i n S pits 1 t o 1 3, a nd 1 6, w hich c orresponds e xactly w ith t he m ain b one c oncentrations. H owever t he h ighest c onc entration o f s tone a rtifacts w as i n S pits 7 t o 1 0, w ith S pit 7 r eflecting t he h ighest c oncentration o f f ish m eat.

G aJi3 G aJi3 w as l ocated a long a n o utcrop o f G alana B oi s ediments, a nd i dentified b y s urface e xposure o f a rtifacts a nd f ish r emains d erived f rom t he a rchaeological h orizon . T he s ite i s u nusual i n i ts l ocation a t 5 5 t o 5 6 m eters a bove t he p resent l ake l evel, a s a ll o ther r ecorded f ishing s ites w ere a ssociated w ith t he h igh 7 5-80 m eter l evel. O ne d ate f rom a bout t he m iddle o f t he e xcavated s ection p laces t he o ccupation a t 4 560 ± 1 85 B P ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 78), t herefore d uring t he s econd ' pluvial' p eriod. T his s ite i s a lso p eculiar i n t hat w hile a rtifacts w ere r ecovered i n t he s urface s amples, v irtually n one w ere r ecovered f rom t he e xcavation, c asting d oubts o n w hether t he p lentiful f ish r emains w ere o f n atural o r h uman d erivation.

E xcavation A n e xcavation t rench w as p ut t hrough h orizons o f c oarse s ands, s ilty s ands a nd m edium s and. T he s ilty s and l evel c ontained m utela s hells. T hree b one p oints, t wo a ngular f lakes, o ne p ierced s hell d isc a nd o ne m ammal b one w as f ound i n t he e xcavation ; a ll w ere r ecovered i n a nd a round t he b ase o f t he 1 00.90 m eter l evel. T he f ish a ssemblage c onsisted o f 1 ,711 f ish b ones, o f w hich 7 27 o r 4 2.5% w ere i dentifiable t o c lass o nly ( Table 8 .6). A s d iscussed w ith t he F xJj12 s ite, t his i s am uch l ower p roportion o f n on-identifiable b one c ompared t o m ammalian a ssemblages, a nd i t i s l ow c ompared w ith t he F xJj12 s ite, w here h igh f ragmentation o f b one o ccurred i n t he u pper l evels. T he b one s catter f requency f or t he e xcavated l evels i s 6 , c omparable t o t hat f or A S1, a nd m uch h igher t han t hat o f t he n aturallyd erived b each q uadrats ( Figure 8 .3). T he u pper t hree l evels a t G aJi3 c ontributed c onsiderably m ore b one t han t he l ower t wo l evels, o n a r atio o f 3 :1 o r 4 :1. T his g reater c oncentration i s n ot d ue t o h igher f ragmentation ( as s een i n F xJj12) b ecause t he r atio o f i dentifiable t o n on-identifiable b one i s a lmost c onstant a t a ll l evels. A t F xJj12 t he r atio w as a bout 8 :1 f or n on-identifiable t o i dentifiable b one, d ue t o t he h igh f requency o f f ragmented a nd u nidentifiable b one. T he a mount o f b one i n t he u pper l evels t herefore i s d ue t o g reater n umbers o f i ndividuals, e ither o f n atural o r h uman d erivation.

1 23

T able 8 .6. G aJi3. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites . N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd N on-identifiable E lements b y L evel ( Percentages c alculated o f t otal I dentifiable).

C ranial N &

V ertebral N %

P ostCran . N %

N on-Ident. N

T otal

L evel: S urface 3 32 2 6 .9 2 62 1 01.00 2 7 1 0 .3 8 5 1 00 .90 8 0 2 2.3 1 16 1 00.80 4 7 2 1.5 8 0 1 00.70 9 1 2.5 2 6 1 00.60 2 5 3 4.2 1 5 T otal ( excluding s urface): 1 88 1 9.1 3 22

2 1.2 3 2.4 3 2.3 3 6 .7 3 6.1 2 0 .5

6 41 1 50 1 63 9 1 3 7 3 3

5 1.9 5 7 .3 4 5 .4 4 1.8 5 1.4 4 5 .3

1 938 2 08 2 22 1 23 7 0 1 04

3 173 4 70 5 81 3 41 1 42 1 77

3 2.7

4 74

4 8 .2

7 27

1 711

T able 8 .7. G aJi3. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites. S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories b y L evel.

L evel

S urface 1 01.00 1 00.90 1 00.80 1 00.70 1 00.60

S tain I ndex C ategory 0 -3,12 4 -5,13

2 303 6 7 3 1 6 3 1 17

8 70 4 03 5 50 3 35 1 39 6 0

N umber o f E lements i n

W eathering I ndex C ategory 2 3 4

2 327 2 4 2 6 2 1 1 8 4 9

9 9 5 1 0 1 3 5 7

7 47 4 41 5 45 3 07 1 19 1 21

W ith t he e xception o f t he l owest l evel ( 100.60), b ones f rom a ll l evels a re r easonably u niformly s tained ( Table 8 .7). T he b ones a re e ither b lack w ith m ottled o range o r au niform d ark b rown c olour. B ones f rom L evel 1 00.60 o n t he o ther h and s how m ore v ariety ; s ome a re d ark b rown, b ut m any a lso a re l ighter i n c olour. T his m ixture i n L evel 1 00 .60 s uggests d ifferential e xposure t o i nundation a nd b urial. F urther, w hile m ost b ones a ppear f resh ( Weathering I ndex 4 ) w ith o nly a bout 4 % o f b ones i n t he u pper f our l evels c ategorised a s f riable, s urprisingly t his p ercentage j umps t o 4 2% i n t he l owest 1 00 .60 l evel . T he S taining a nd W eathering c ategories i ndicate t herefore t hat t he l owest l evel e xperienced d ifferent d epositional c onditions t han d id t he u pper l evels.

1 24

8

# Bones/ m2

6

4

2

0

PS1

PS2

A S1

GaJ i3

L ake T urkana S ites Bone S catter Dens ity

F igure 8 .3.

B one

S catter F requency

Q uadrat

S ites P S1,

( Density)

P S2 a nd A S1.

1 25

a t G aJi3 a nd B each

T he m ixture o f s tain c ategories a nd t he l arge p ercentage o f h ighly w eathered o r f riable b one i n L evel 1 00 .60 s uggests d ifferential d eposition f ollowed b y e ither l onger s ubaerial w eathering o r a lternatively d ifferent p ost-depositional c hemical p rocesses. I n t he K enyan P rolonged D rift a ssemblage ( Gifford e t a l. 1 980: 7 1) a t ype o f ' clay-shattering ' o f b one w as c aused b y e xpansion a nd c ontraction o f c lay; t he b ones o f L evel 1 00.60 w ere d eposited i n s ilty c lays ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 74), a nd s imilar p ost-depositional a lterations m ay h ave o ccurred. S uch a lterations w ere n ot o bserved i n a ny F xJj12 b one. S econdary t ransport a ppears t o b e m inor a s o nly a bout 4 % o f t he t otal a ssemblage s hows r olling.

S keletal E lement R epresentation C onsiderable v ariation i n t he p roportions o f c ranial t o v ertebral t o p ost-cranial e lements i s s een i n G aJi3 c ompared w ith F xJj12 ( Table 8 .1). C ranial e lements c omprise 1 9% o f t he a ssemblage, w hile v ertebral e lements c omprise a bout 3 3% a nd p ostcranial e lements 4 8% . H owever, t he l ow p roportion o f c ranial r emains i s p resent o nly i n t he u pper f our l evels; i n t he l owest l evel t he r everse i s t rue ( see F igure 8 .4). N one o f t he l evels s how s imilar r atios t o t hose o btained f rom t he b each q uadrats P S1 a nd P S2, a lthough L evel 1 00.60 i s m ost s imilar i n c ranial: v ertebral r epresentation . T hese f igures s uggest t hat t he s keletal m aterial w as t reated d ifferently i n t he o ldest l evel f rom t he o ther l evels.

T able 8 .8. G aJi3. E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus/family a nd s keletal e lement . C r.Cranial; V .Vertebral; P c.Postcranial . B roken d own b y L evel.

T axonomic G roup B agrus S ynodontis

B arbus C r

L evel 1 01.00 : 2 1 00 .90 : 1 6 1 00.80 : 8 1 00.70 : 3 1 00 .60 : 3 T otal: 3 2

V

P c

C r

V

P c

C r

1 0 1 1

2

1

2

2

2 2

V

L ates s z1-4 s z5-7 C r V P c C r V

6

4

1 5

6

6

7

7

2

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

3

2

4 0

3 3

2 1

*B arbus r epresented b y t eeth o nly

1 26

P c

C r

4

1

4

C ichlid P c

C r

2 6 1

1

1

1

2

4 7

V

O ther

6

2

2

V

6

7

4 0 3

6

2

7

2 2 2

2

7

2

8 2

1

2

1

6

2

1

1 7

1 02 7

1 1

1 8

A nalysis o f s keletal e lements b y t axon i ndicates t hat t he l ow c ranial:vertebral r atio i s p resent m ainly i n c ichlids a nd " other g enera"; i n L ates t he c ranial e lements d ominate t he s amples ( Table 8 .8) ( Barbus i s b iased b y h aving o nly t eeth r epresented). T his p attern c ontrasts w ith t he F xJj12 d ata , m ainly i n t hat a t G aJi3 t he c ichlid v ertebral e lements f ar o utnumber t he c ranial e lements, b est s een i n t he c ranial t o v ertebral r atio ( see F igure 8 .5).

T axonomic A bundance G aJi3 a lso d iffers f rom F xJj12 i n t he d iversity o f t axa r epresented ( Table 8 .9). C onsiderable d iscrepancy e xists b etween t he N ISP a nd M NI f igurs, b ut i t i s c lear f rom b oth t hat a w ider r ange o f t axa w ere p reserved a t G aJi3 t han a t F xJj12. T he t axonomic d iversity f or G aJi3 w as c alculated a t 8 .4, i ndicating a h igher a bundance a nd e venness o f t axa t han i n F xJj12 ( Figure 8 .6). T he M NI f igures i ndicate t hat a t G aJi3 n o o ne t axa i s m ore p revalent: c ichlids, L ates a nd S ynodontis a re m ore n umerous b y o nly a f ew i ndividuals t han t he o ther n ine t axa. T he t wo m ost r ecent l evels s how t he g reatest d iversity i n t axa, w ith 1 0 t o 1 1 d ifferent g enera w hile t he l ower t wo h ave o nly s even r epresented. T he N ISP f igures a rranged b y t axa i ndicate a g eneral d ecrease i n n umbers f rom t op t o b ottom , a nd t his i s r eflected a lso i n t he M NI. T here i s a g reat d iscrepancy b etween M NI a nd N ISP f igures, p articularly a mong c ichlids. M ost o f t he c ichlid e lements r epresented a re v ertebral, a nd a s 2 4 v ertebral e lements a re e quated w ith o ne i ndividual, t he M NI c ount i s l ow w hen t he N ISP c ount i s h igh. H igh N ISP a nd c orrespondingly s mall M NI c ounts w ere n ot s een a t F xJj12; m ost e lements t here w ere c ranial a nd n ormally t here i s o nly o ne o r t wo p er i ndividual. O nce a gain t he r epresentation b y n umber o f i ndividuals p er t axon d iffers g reatly f rom t he e stimated m eat c ontribution o f e ach t axon ( Table 8 .10). L ates y ielded t he g reatest m eat w eight a t a bout 1 70 k ilograms o r a bout 8 0% o f t he t otal, a lthough i ts M NI r epresented o nly a bout 2 2% o f t he t otal. C ichlids, B arbus a nd S ynodontis w ere a lso l arge c ontributors. W hile c ichlids a nd S ynodontis c ontributed o nly a bout 4 t o 5 % o f t he t otal w eight e ach, t heir n umber o f i ndividuals c omprised 1 8 t o 1 9% o f t he t otal. L evel 1 00.80 h ad t he g reatest e stimated f ish w eight i n t he s ite, a lthough l evel 1 00.90 h ad t he l argest M NI. P aradoxically t he e stimated m eat w eights s how t he l owest l evel a s h aving t he s econd h ighest a mount o f w eight a nd s econd l owest M NI, m ainly d ue t o o ne l arge L ates i ndividual. H owever t he u pper t hree l evels s how t he g reatest n umber o f f ish o btained, r egardless o f s ize. T here i s a g reat d ifference i n a verage w eight p er i ndividual b etween F xJj12 a nd G aJi3 ( see F igure 8 .7). A t F xJj12 i t i s o ver f ive t imes g reater t han G aJi3; t his s uggests a g reater w eight p er e ffort a t t he e arlier s ite.

1 27

6 0

P ercentage

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

0

C ran ia l

V ertebra l

P ostcran ia l

GaJ i 3 '

F igure 8 .4.

L .101-100 .70

—+—

L .100 .60

C omparison o f S keletal E lement C ategories w ithin G aJi3.

1 28

1 0

o f C ran ia /# o f V ertebra l E le ments

8 7

6

4

3 2 .2

2 .2 L7

1 .7

0 .6

0 .5

0 .2

\W

0

0 .6

e \

Bagrus

L ates

C ich l ids

O ther

A l l

C ran ia l V ertebra l Rat ios FxJ j 1 2

F igure

8 .5.

GaJ i 3

C ranial:Vertebral R atios b y T axon a t F xJj12 a nd G aJi3.

1 29

E—s/( logpl—lozp2) 1 0

FxJ j12

GaJ i 3

T axono m ic D ivers ity , `f l F igure

8 .6.

T axa

T axonomic D iversity c alculated f rom W hittaker's e quation ( 1977) f or s ites G aJi3 a nd F xJj12.

1 30

T able 8 .9. G aJi3. E xcavated a nd S urface S ites . T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umbers, p ercentages, a nd N ISP n umbers. P ercentages a re g iven f or N ISP o n s urface t ransect . L b=Labeo; A 1=Alestes; C o=Clarotes ; C 1=Clarias; C y=Cyprinidae; C h=Characidae ; P e=Perciformes .

B arbus

H ydrocynus

l i el 2L l_ l s _

M NI

M NI

S ynodontis

L evel: M NI N

N ISP %

N

N ISP

N

%

N

N

N ISP

%

N

1 .4

8

M NI N

N ISP %

N

8 .7

5 0

3

1 3.6

1 0 2 2

S urface: 3 .0 1 7 1 01.00: 1 4 .6 2 1 1 00.90 : 1 3 .8 1 6 1 1 00.80: 1 5 .5 9 1 00.70 : 1 9 .1 4 1 00.60 : 1 8 .3 3 1 T otal ( excluding s urface): 5 3

1 .9

1 1

4 .6

1

3 .8

1

8 .3

1

1

3 .8

1

8

3 1.2

2

1 1.1

3

3

1 6.6

6

1

1

9 .1

1

1

1

8 .3

1

1

8 .3

4

1 6

T axon L ates L evel: M NI N

%

C ichlidae

N ISP N

S urface: 6 0 .5

3 42

1 01.00 : 3 1 3 .6

1 4

1 00 .90: 6 2 3 .0

1 00 .80: 5 2 8 .1

M NI N

%

T etraodon

N ISP N

M NI N

%

1 8 .7

1 06

3 .0

2

9 .0

2 6

1

4 .6

2 5

3

1 1.5

5 0

3

1.5

1 8

4 2 2.2

3 1

1

5 .5

1 31

O ther

N ISP N

M NI N

1 6

%

N ISP N

. 9 . 2 1 .0 . 7

5 -C1 1 -Lb 6 -Al 4 -Co

1 4 .6 8 3 6.2 1 4 .6 1 4 .6

3 -Al + -Pe + -Ch + -Co

5

1 1 1

3 .8 3 .8 3 .8

1 -Al + -Cy i -Ch

4

1 1

5 .5 5 .5

4 -Lb + -Ch

1

T able 8 .9 c ontinued: T axon L ates L evel: M NI N

%

C ichlidae

N ISP N

1 00 .70 : 1 9 .1

4

M NI N

%

3

2 7.2

T etraodon

N ISP N

1 2

1 00.60 : 32 5.0 9 3 2 5.0 T otal ( excluding s urface): 1 8 1 5

7

O ther

M NI N

%

N ISP N

2

1 8 .2

2

2

1 6 .8

2

9

M NI N

%

N ISP N

1 1 1

9 .1 9 .1 9 .1

4Cl 1 -Al + -Ch

1 9

T able 8 .10. G aJi3 . E xcavated S ite. M eat W eight E stimates, i n k ilog rams . B roken d own b y l evel. P ercentages g iven f or t otals p er t axonomic g roup. C o=Clarotes ; C h=Characidae; C y=Cyprinidae; L b=Labeo.

L evel B arbus 1 00.00 1 00 .90 1 00.80 1 00.70 1 00 .60 T otals* %

3 .7 . 9 3 .7 . 9 3 .7 9 .2 4 .2

T axon H ydrocynus A lestes 1 .0 1 .0

1 2. 8 E m.

. 3 . 2

C larias

2 .1 5 .7 2 .1 . 7 . 7 1 0 .6 4 .8

. 7 3 .0

. 2 1 .0 2 .0 . 9

S ynod

. 4 . 6 3 .7 1 .6

. 7 . 3

. 4 . 2

*e xcept L .100.60

L evel

L ates s z1-4

L ates s z5-7

T axon

C ichlidae

T etraodon

1 01.00

7 .8

2 .0

. 1

1 00.90

2 7.3

4 .0

3 .9

1 00.80

1 7.0

1 15.8

3 .4

. 7

1 00 .70 1 00 .60 T otals* %

1 6 .2 5 2.1 2 3 .7

6 7.1 1 15.8 5 2.7

2 .3 5 .0 1.7 5 .3

. 3 3 .2 5 .0 2 .7

*e xcept L .100.60

1 32

O ther

2 .0 1 .0 . 9 1 .0 2 .1 . 2 . 9

Co Ch Cy Ch Lb C h Cy

2 .1 2 .0 1 .8 2 .2

Lb(.9) Co(.9) Cy(.8) Ch(1.)

1 4

G ra m mes i n t housands

1 2 -

1 0 -

8

6

4-

2

GaJ i3

F xJ j1 2

We ight/MN I

F igure

8 .7.

T otal W eight

i n g rammes d ivided b y n umbers

f or F xJj12 a nd G aJi3

( Weight p er E ffort).

1 33

o f MNI's

T able 8 .11. G aJi3. w ith c utmarks.

E lement S urface: V ertebra V ertebra V ertebra V ertebra D entary V ertebra S upracleithrum P ostemporale C eratohyale V ertebra V ertebra V ertebra S pines

E xcavated: V ertebra V ertebra V ertebra C leithrum E pioticum V ertebra S pines R ays

S urface a nd e xcavated s ites.

N umber o f E lements

T axon

1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 5

B arbus B arbus A lestes C larias L ates L ates L ates L ates L ates L ates L ates C ichlidae P erciformes

1 1 1 1 1 2 6 7 2

A lestes S iluriform L ates L ates C ichlidae C ichlidae P erciformes F ish

L ist

S triated C ut

o f

e lements

D eep C ut + +

+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + +

O dd s triated ' cut'marks w ere f ound o n 7 6 e lements ( Table 8 .11), a ll b ut f our o f t hem o n b ones o f p erciforms, a nd a ll b ut 8 ( 78%) o f t hem b eing o n t he s hafts o f p erciform s pines. S everal p ersons f amiliar w ith c utmarks o n b one e xamined t hem i ncluding D r. H enry B unn a nd D r. P at S hipman , a nd t he l atter v ery k indly s ubjected s everal t o S EM a nalysis. N o c onclusions w ere r eached a s t o t he m aker o r m ethod o f c reating t hese m arks, a lthough S hipman b elieves t hem t o b e a rtificial ( personal c ommunication). T hese m arks a re o nly o bserved a t t he G aJi3 s ite. T he p ossibility o f r odent g nawing i s n ot c ompletely r ejected, b ut t he m arks a ppear t oo e venly s paced a nd r egular t o b e o f a nimal o rigin. A s t hey d o r esemble p olishing s triations o n b arbed b one p oints, t he s ame i nstrument u sed a s a p rocess ing t ool f or c learing f lesh o ff b one m ight b e a p ossibility. T wo o f t hese e lements h ad d eep c utmarks. O ne w as o n t he l ateral f ace o f a s ize 2 s iluroid v ertebra a nd t he o ther o n t he t runk v ertebra o f a s ize 2 A lestes. B oth r epresent p rocessing o n s mall s ized f ish. N o m ammalian o r r eptilian e lements w ere r ecovered.

1 34

S urface F orty o ne m eter s quare u nits w ere s ampled a long t he H olocene o utcrop. C ultural m aterial r ecovered i ncluded 1 5 s tone a rtifacts, s everal s herds o f p ottery, o ne u niserial b arbed b one p oint a nd a s hell b ead ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 75). A t otal o f 3 ,173 f ish b ones w ere r ecovered, o f w hich 6 1% w ere i dentifiable o nly t o c lass ( Table 8 .6). T he S tain I ndex i ndicates c onsiderable v ariation i n s taining a mong t he e lements, s uggesting a v ariety o f d epositional c ircumstances. F urther m uch o f t he a ssemblage ( 76%) i s c lassified a s f riable, t herefore s ubjected e ither t o c onsiderable s ubaerial w eathering o r ' clay-shattering.' A bout 3 % o f t he a ssemblage s hows s igns o f r olling a nd e xtreme w eathering. T hese d ata s uggests t hat t he s urface c ollections m ay c ontain b one f rom v aried d epositional c ircumstances, p robably b oth o f n atural a nd c ultural o rigin. T he b one s catter f requency w as 7 9.3, e xtremely h igh f or a ny t ype o f s ite. T he e xcavator, B arthelme ( 1981), c ommented o n t he h igh d ensity o f b one o n t he s urface, a nd o n t he m uch l ower d ensity o f t he e xcavated s ite ( BSF=6). H ow m uch o f t he s urface w as e roded m aterial f rom t he e xcavated s ite i s u nclear.

S keletal R epresentation

T he c ranial, v ertebral, a nd p ostcranial p ercentages f rom t he s urface c ollection d iffer f rom t hose s een i n t he e xcavated l evels, p ossibly r eflecting d ifferential d eposition ( Table 8 .6). I n m any w ays t hese p roportions m ore c losely r esemble t hose i n t he 1 00.60 l evel, i n t hat c ranial e lements o utnumber v ertebral e lements, a nd v ertebral e lements a re c onsiderably f ewer t han i n o ther s ites. T he r atios a lso d iffer m arkedly f rom t hose f or t he s urface c ollection a t F xJj12, a nd i n f act t he G aJi3 s urface r atios c losely r esemble t hose f rom t he e xperimental t ransects P S1 a nd P S2. T he t axonomic a bundance N ISP f igures f or t he s urface c ollection a lso d iffer c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he e xcavated l evels. A c omparison o f t he N ISP f igures f rom e xcavated a nd s urface l evels s hows t hat L ates i s f ar m ore a bundant o n t he s urface t han i n t he e xcavated l evels, w ith a bout 6 0% c ompared t o a bout 2 2%. T his d ifferent r anking o f t axa p rovides f urther s upport f or t he i dea t hat f or w hatever r easons, t he c omposition o f t he s urface c ollected f auna i s n ot r epresentative o f t he e xcavated f auna. C utmarks w ere r ecognised o n 1 01 e lements ( Table 8 .11). S triated m arks ( already m entioned) w ere p resent o n 7 5 s pine e lements; 6 4 o r 8 4% w ere o n s pine s hafts. S imilar m arks w ere f ound o n f our o ther e lements ( ceratohyale, p osttemporale, s upercleithrum , d entaria). S imilar c uts w ere a lso f ound o n 1 7 v ertebral e lements. D eep c uts w ere f ound o n f ive e lements, a ll c audal v ertebrae. T wo w ere o n t he p osterior f aces o f a c audal a nd am id-dorsal v ertebra o f a s ize 3 B arbus. O ne i s o n t he l ateral f ace o f a s ize 3 C larias v ertebra, a nd t wo a re o n t he l ateral f aces o f a s ize 4 a nd a s ize 6 L ates. T he l atter i s o n t he 2 3rd c audal

1 35

v ertebra , p ositioned a nterior t o t he t ail. m ade w hen s evering t he t ail f rom t he b ody .

A ll c utmarks w ere

T wo u nidentified m ammal b ones a nd t wo t urtle r ecovered i n t he s urface c ollection.

b ones

p robably

w ere

a lso

D iscussion G aJi3 i s d ifficult t o i nterpret, p articularly g iven t he p aucity o f a rtifactual m aterial. T he r easonably c onsistent s taining a nd s urface t exture i n t he t op f our l evels s eem t o i ndicate r easonably u niform d epositional c onditions, a nd d ifferentiates t hese l evels f rom t he s urface a nd t he l owest l evel, 1 00 .60 . T he s urface b one a nd t hat f rom L evel 1 00 .60 s how m uch m ixing o f s tains, a nd b oth s how g reater f riability. T he s keletal e lement d istribution a nd t axonomic a bundance a lso a re d istinctive. F urther, s keletal e lement d istribution i s t he r everse o f t hat i n L evels 1 00 .70 t o 1 01.00 , i n t hat c ranial e lements o utnumber v ertebral e lements. T he s urface b one a nd 1 00 .60 l evel a re m ore s imilar t o t he e xperimental q uadrats o f n aturally-derived e lements. B one f rom L evels 1 01.00 t o 1 00.70 d iffers f rom t he s urface a nd L evel 1 00 .60 b one, a nd f rom t he F xJj12 s ite. V ertebral e lements o utn umber c ranial e lements, a nd t hese a nd p ostcranial e lements a re f ar m ore n umerous t han i n t he F xJj12 s ite o r t he n aturally-derived q uadrat s ites. M ore t axa a re r epresented a nd n o o ne o r t wo t axa d ominate a s a t F xJj12. M ost i mportant f or i nterpreting t his s ite i s w hether a ny o r a ll o f t he b one e lements a re o f n atural o r c ultural d erivation . W hile u ndoubtedly b oth p rocesses o perated, a s i s p robably t rue w ith a ll l acustrine a rchaeological s ites, t he e vidence p oints t o L evels 1 01.00 t o 1 00.70 b eing p rimarily o f c ultural o rigin , w hile L evel 1 00.60 a nd m uch o f t he s urface c ollection w as n aturally d erived .

S urface S ites G aJil A lthough G aJj1 w as o ne o f t he s ites e xcavated, t he f ish r emains w ere n ot t ransported t o t he M useum i n N airobi, a nd o nly a v ery s mall u n representative s ample f rom t he s urface c ollections w as a nalysed. T herefore t he d iscussion i s i ncluded w ith t he S urface S ites. T he s ite o f G aJj1 w as l ocated a long t he K oobi F ora R idge i n A rea 1 02 ( Figure 8 .2). C ultural m aterial c ollected w as e roding o ut o f a s eries o f g ravel a nd s andy e xposures o ver a n a rea o f 4 00 b y 1 00 m eters ( Barthelme 1 981: 3 2, 4 2+). A s urface a rea t otalling 1 ,200 m eters 2 w as s ampled b y b oth s imple r andom a nd s tratified r andom m ethods f or a rtifactual a nd f aunal r emains. T wo t renches w ere e xcavated t o a d epth o f a bout t wo m eters w ith t he e xcavations u ncovering a " series o f c oarse s ands a nd g ravels.. . and s ilty s ands..." ( Barthelme 1 981: 3 7). S ilty c lay h orizons a nd t he " heavily w ater a braided ( sic) a nd f requently b roken" ( Barthelme 1 981: 3 4) a rtifacts w ere i nterpreted a s i ndicating p eriodic l ake s horeline o scillations w hich r esulted i n c ultural

1 36

m aterial b eing c oncentrated b y r epeated w ave a ction. H ence a rtifacts a re i n s econdary c ontext ( 1981: 5 8-59). B arthelme ( 1981: 5 8-59) s uggests t he c ultural r emains m ay r epresent " many s ettlement e pisodes...from a b roadly s imilar t echnological a nd e conomic t radition ." T he s ite i s u ndated b ut i ts a ssociation w ith t he 7 5 t o 8 0 m eters b each l evel m ay m ean t hat i t h ad b een f ormed t hroughout t he h igh l ake l evel p eriod ( from a bout 9 000 t o 7 000 B P). C ultural m aterial f ound b oth i n s urface c ollections a nd e xcavat ions i nclude a l arge l ithic a ssemblage, m ainly c hert, c omprised o f c irca 2 ,500 s tone a rtifacts: 7 .7% o f t he e xcavated a ssemblage a nd 9 .2% o f t he s urface o ne w ere s haped t ools; o f t hese o ver 9 0% a re m icrolithic i mplements. B acked f lakes c omprised 2 5 t o 3 6% o f t hese. S crapers w ere f ound o n t he s urface, b ut n ot i n t he e xcavation. F ifty-six b arbed b one p ieces w ere r ecovered, a ll b ut e ight f rom t he s urface c ollections. A ll b ut o ne w ere u niserial, a nd a ll d isplayed e ither g rooved l ine o r n otched b ases. S ixteen u ndecorated s herds o f p ottery w ere a lso r ecovered f rom t he e xcavation, a nd 5 1 f rom t he s urface c ollection ( Barthelme 1 981: 7 0).

T able 8 .12. K oobi F ora S urface S ites. N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd U nidentifiable E lements b y S ite. ( Percentage c alculated o n T otal I dentifiable).

S ite G aJj1* G aJj2 G aJj11* G aJj12 F xJj12N *

C ranial N %

V ertebral N %

1 8 1 5 7 1 3 1 5

3 8 7 3 3

3 5.3 2 1.1 1 00.0 4 8.2 2 7.7

P ostcran. N %

6 .0 1 1.3

3 0 4 8 7 6

2 5.9 6 1.1

5 8.7 6 7.6 2 5.9 1 1.2

N on-Ident. N 3 5 6 4 1 1 4 4 8

T otal N 8 6 1 35 8 4 1 1 02

I ncomplete a ssemblage

• I n t he f aunal r emains, e xcavated f ish b one e lements o utnumbered m ammalian e lements o n a n o rder o f s ix t o o ne ( Barthelme 1 981: 5 5). U nfortunately G aJj1 w as t he f irst s ite t o b e e xcavated b y t he p roject, a nd a c onsistent p olicy o n f aunal c ollection h ad n ot b een f ormulated w ith t he r esult t hat: 1 ) u sually o nly t eeth, s pines a nd l arge v ertebrae o f f ish w ere c ollected; 2 ) m ost f ish e lements w ere l eft i n t he f ield; a nd 3 ) n o c ounts w ere r ecorded f or s urface c ollections ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 3-44). O nly 8 6 e lements o f f ish w ere f ound s tored i n t he N ational M useum o f K enya, a bout 1 0% o f t hose r eported f rom t he f ield e xcavation ( 1981: 7 0). T able 8 .12 r eports t he f ish e lements i dentified, m ost o f w hich w ere s urface c ollected. T he n umber o f n oni dentifiable e lements i s 3 5 o r a bout 4 1% ( Table 8 .12) w hich i s l ow f or f aunal a ssemblages, s uggesting a b iased a ssemblage.

1 37

T able 8 .13 . K oobi F ora S urface S ites. N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd W eathering I ndex C ategories b y S ite. S ee T ext f or e xplanation o f t erms .

S ite

G aJj1 G aJj2 G aJj11 G aJj12 F xJj12N

S tain I ndex C ategory 0 -3, 1 2 4 -5, 1 3

3 2 1 07 1 2 2 1 7

W eathering I ndex C ategory 2 3 4

5 4 2 8 7 1 9 8 5

2 7 6 6 3 9 1 1

9 7 2 2 0

5 0 6 2 6 2 7 1

T able 8 .13 i ndicates t hat a bout 1 1% o f t he f ish e lements f rom G aJj1 w ere r olled a nd w eathered ( Weathering I ndex 3 ); t he w hole a ssemblage w as m ineralised. C alculations f rom t he s tain i ndex i ndicate t hat 6 2.7% o f t he a ssemblages w as s tained d ark b rown o r b lack , s uggesting r apid i mmersion a nd b urial. M edium c oloured s taining o n t he r est o f t he a ssemblage s uggests s horter i nundation p eriods a nd s ubaerial w eathering ; t he v ariety i n c olour s uggests t hat t he e lements w ere d eposited a t v arious t imes , a s uggestion s upported b y B arthelme's o bservations t hat t he l ithics d isplayed a w ide r ange o f w eathering s tates ( 1981: 4 5). T able 8 .14 s hows t hat t he f ish f auna i s o ne o f t he m ost t axonomically v aried o f t hose f ound a t K oobi F ora. W hether t his v ariety i s r epresentative o f t he w hole a ssemblage, o r o nly r epresents e lements s elected f or u niqueness, i s u nknown . T he p resence o f a m uch w orn S indacharax t ooth f rom t he e xcavations i s p articularly i nteresti ng, a s t his g enus h as n ot b een r eported f or L ake T urkana l ater t han t o t he U pper P leistocene G uomde F ormation ( Schwartz 1 983 : 4 6), n ow t he C hari M ember, a nd i n f act h as n ot b een r eported f rom p ost-Terminal P leistocene d eposits i n E ast A frica ( Stewart i n p ress). W hile t he t ooth m ay r epresent a s urviving H olocene S indacharax , t his i s u nlikely. C onsidering i ts w orn c ondition , i t p robably d erives f rom r eworking o f o lder b each o r n earshore s ediments, d emonstrating t he m ixed n ature o f t he G aJj1 d eposits. A s o nly t eeth , s pines a nd v ertebrae w ere c ollected, l ittle c an b e s aid a bout c ranial t o p ostcranial r atios o r t axonomic d iversity . T wo e lements, b oth l epidotrichia , h ad s triations o n t heir s hafts . T heir s ignificance i s u nknown . M ammalian r emains w ere n ot q uantified, b ut r emains o f h ippo ( Hippopotomus s p.), g azelle ( Gazella g ranti) a nd o ryx ( Oryx b eisa) w ere r ecovered f rom t he s urface c ollections , a nd w arthog ( Phacochoerus s p.), r hinoceros ( ?Diceros) a nd G azella g ranti f rom t he e xcavation B arthelme 1 981: 7 1).

1 38

T able 8 .14 . K oobi F ora S urface S ites. i ndicated b y N ISP n umbers a nd p ercentags.

T axon

S ite: G aJj1* G aJj2 G aJj11* G aJj12 F xJj12N

B arbus

5

2

2 9.4

H ydrocynus

4

2 3.6

T axonomic

S indacharax

1

5 .8

5 .4

a bundance

a s

C larias

2

1 1.8

1 2 2

1 4.2 2 0.0 5 .4

T axon S ynodontis

S ite: G aJj1* G aJj2 G aJj11* G aJj12 F xJj12N

3 2 1

1 5.8 2 8.6 1 0.0

L ates

1 1 6 2 6 1 8

C ichlidae

5 .8 8 4.2 2 8.6 6 0.0 4 8.6

2

1 1.8

1 1 3

1 0.0 3 5.2

T etraodon

2

1 1.8

2

2 8.6

2

5 .4

*I ncomplete A ssemblage

G aJj1 a ppears t o r epresent a s eries o f b each o ccurrences d eposited d uring t he e arly H olocene, r eworked b y f luctuating w ave a ction . B eing p resently s ituated o n ar idge, i n t he e arly H olocene t here w ould h ave b een a s teep d ropoff f rom t he w ater's e dge n ear t he s ite t o t he f loor o f t he l ake, a n i deal s ituation f or f ish p rocurement. T he h igh f ish t o m ammal r atio s uggests p rimarily a f ish p rocessing o r e ating s ite.

G aJj2 G aJj2 w as a ssociated w ith t he h igh + 74 t o 7 8 m eter l ake l evel, a nd i s l ocated o n t he n orthern p art o f t he K oobi F ora r idge. C ultural a nd f aunal r emains w ere e xposed o n t he e roding o utcrops o f " a t hick c omplex o f c oarse s ands a nd f ine g ravels" ( Barthelme 1 981: 7 2). M olluscs a re p resent i n s everal o f t he h orizons. T wo l inear t ransects w ere l aid o ut a long t he e xposure a nd s even u nits o f f ive m eters s quare w ere c ollected. A rtifacts c ollected i nclude 8 48 s tone a rtifacts, o f w hich t he s haped t ools w ere p rimarily m icroliths, e specially c rescents . T wenty-three b arbed b one p oints w ere r ecovered, i ncluding 2 2 u niserial, o ne b iserial a nd o ne b arbless p oints. B oth n otching a nd g rooved l ine b ases w ere f ound. S ix d ecorated a nd 4 6 u ndecorated p ottery s herds w ere r ecovered.

1 39

M ammal e lements o utnumbered f ish e lements 2 :1, b ut 1 36 f ish e lements w ere r ecovered, o f w hich 6 4 t o 4 7% w ere u nidentifiable ( Table 8 .12). T he S tain I ndex i ndicates t hat m ost o f t he a ssemblage w as l ightly s tained ( 80.6%) ( Table 8 .13). F orty-eight p ercent o f t he a ssemblage w as c lassified a s f riable w hile 4 7% a ppeared f resh , a nd a r elatively h igh 5 % o f t he a ssemblage s howed s igns o f r olling a nd s econdary t ransport. T his m ixture s uggests s everal d ifferent d epositional e vents, a c onclusion a lso a rrived a t b y B arthelme ( 1981: 8 6) w ho d escribed t he s ite a s a " series o f r eoccupations". T he B SF w as c alculated a t . 4. G aJj2 h as t he h ighest p ercentage o f p ostcranial m aterial o f a ny s ite e xamined, a t a bout 6 8%. C ranial e lements o utnumber v ertebral e lements b ut b oth r epresentations a re l ow ( see F igure 8 .8). T he f riability o f m any s pecimens m ay e xplain t he h igh p ercentage o f p ostc ranial e lements, a s s pines a re t he m ost d urable e lements a nd p ossibly w ere t he o nly o nes p reserved. A b reakdown b y t axon s upports t his i dea a s v irtually a ll t he p reserved e lements a re e ither l arge S ize 5 t o 7 L ates, o r o f S ynodontis p ectoral s pines, e lements w hich p reserve p referentially ( Table 8 .14). N o c utmarks w ere f ound o n t he b one e lements. A lthough t he m ammalian r emains w ere n ot q uantified, t axa i ncluded h ippo ( Hippopotomus a mphibius), w arthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus), z ebra ( Equus s p.), r hinoceros ( Diceros), e lephant ( Loxodonta a fricana), d ik-dik ( Madoqua s p.), t opi ( Damaliscus k arrigum), g azelle ( Gazella g ranti), a nd o ryx ( Oryx b eisa) ( Barthelme 1 981: 9 0). T he r ange i n s ize o f t hese s pecies' p reserved e lements s uggests t hat t he m ammalian b ones d id n ot u ndergo t he s ame s elective d ifferential p reservation a s t hat w hich a ffected t he f ish a ssemblage. E ight t urtle e lements w ere a lso r ecovered. G aJj2 t herefore r epresents a s eries o f o ccupations w here, b ased u pon t he s ize a nd d iversity o f t he m ammalian t axa r ecovered, m ammals w ere m ore i mportant t han f ish. T he f ish r emains a ppear t o h ave b een s eriously t aphonomically b iased, s o t hat t he o nly s pecies r epresented, L ates a nd S ynodontis, a re p robably n ot r epresentative o f t he o riginal a ssemblage.

G ajjll G aJj11 w as d eposited i n a h orizon o f c oarse s andy g ravels o verl ying h orizons o f d iatomoceous s ilt a nd s ilty c lays o n a l ow r idge t o t he n ortheast o f A llia B ay ( Barthelme 1 981). I t l ies o n a l ow r idge a bout + 73 t o 7 5 m eters a bove t he 1 976 l ake l evel. B arthelme s uggests t hat t he s ite w as d eposited e ither o n a n o ff-shore s and b ar o r o n a b each s trand ( 1981: 9 1-103). S everal r adiocarbon d ates w ere r un o n s hell a nd w ere f ound t o b e b etween 8 ,000 a nd 9 ,000 y ears o ld ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 10), i ndicating t hat t he s ite w as d eposited i n t he e arly p luvial h igh l ake l evel p eriod. T he s ite i s p articularly i nteresting a s o ver 1 40 b arbed b one p oints w ere r ecovered, i ncluding 1 23 u niserial, f our b iserial, f ive t riserial a nd o ne b arbless p oint. A ll h ad n otched b ases. S ixty l ithic a rtifacts w ere r ecovered; t he a ssemblage d iffers

1 40

2 .5

# Cran ia l E le ments / # Vertebra l E le ments

2 .0

1 .5

1 .0

0 .5

0 .0

K oob i F ora S urface S ites C ran ,/Vert Rat ios

F igure

8 .8.

C ranial:Vertebral R atios

f or K oobi F ora S ites G aJi2,

G aJj12 a nd F xJj12N.

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f rom t he o ther s ites i n i ts r elatively l ow p ercentage o f m icroliths a nd a bsence o f s crapers i n t he s haped t ool c ategory, a nd i n t he h igher p ercentage o f c ore t ools ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 63). O nly o ne m ammalian e lement w as r ecovered, w ith a " substantial q uantity" o f f ish r emains ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 08). U nfortunately t he q uantitative d ata o n t he f ish i s u navailable a nd o nly e ight f ish e lements w ere f ound s tored i n t he N ational M useum o f K enya. T hese e lements r epresented f our d ifferent g enera ( Table 8 .14), s uggesting a t axonomically d iverse a ssemblage, a lthough t hese e lements m ay a lso h ave b een s elected f or t heir u niqueness i n ah ighly u niform a ssemblage. G aJj11 s eems t o h ave b een a n e arly f ishing s ite, p ossibly a s andbar f rom w hich h arpooning f or f ish w as c onducted, j udging b y t he l arge n umber o f p oints r ecovered a nd t he l ack o f m ammalian r emains. S uch a l ocation i s t ypical o f E l M ob of ishing c amps ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937). T he n otched b ases o n t he b one p oints a nd t he e arly d ates f or t his s ite m ay s uggest t hat t his f orm o f b ase p redates t he g rooved l ine b ases.

G aJ 12 T he s ite o f G aJj12 w as d eposited i n a f luctuating s eries o f d iatomaceous s ilts, c oarse s ands a nd f ine g ravels, w ith a bundant m olluscs ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 15). I t l ay o n a r idge + 74 t o 7 8 m eters a bove t he 1 970's l ake l evel. T wo l inear t ransects w ere l aid o ut a long t wo e roding o utcrops w here a t l east t wo a rchaeological h orizons w ere e xposed. S eventeen u nits o f f ive m eters s quare w ere s ampled, a nd 1 ,292 s tone a rtifacts w ere c ollected, 4 8% m ade o f l ava, a h igh p ercentage f or t hese K oobi F ora s ites. M icroliths c omprised t he m ajority o f t he s haped s tone t ools. E ight u niserial b arbed b one p oints w ere c ollected a s w ere 2 4 u ndecorated a nd s eventeen d ecorated s herds o f p ottery. M ammal e lements o utnumbered f ish b y f ive t o o ne. F ish e lements t otalled 4 1, o f w hich 1 4 ( 34%) w ere n on-identifiable, e xcept t o c lass ( Table 8 .12). T he B SF w as . 1, a l ow d ensity c ompared t o o ther s ites . T he S taining I ndex i ndicates c onsiderable m ixture a nd t herefore p robably s everal d ifferent d epositional e pisodes ( Table 8 .13). V irtually t he w hole a ssemblage w as c lassified a s f riable, s o t hat t he c omposition i s p robably s everely b iased t owards m ore r obust e lements . C ranial e lements a re t wice a s n umerous a s e ither v ertebral o r p ostc ranial e lements, w hich r esembles t he r atios a t F xJj12. L ates e lements, a ll b ut o ne f rom l arge s pecimens, d ominate w ith C larias, S ynodontis, a nd c ichlids a lso r epresented, b y p ectoral o r d orsal s pines ( Table 8 .14). N o c utmarks w ere o bserved. M ammalian e lements i nclude w arthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus), h ippo ( Hippopotomus a mphibius), z ebra ( Equus s p.) a nd s everal s mall t o m edium s ized b ovids ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 26). G aJj12 i s a nother b each s ite, u nusual i n t hat m ammal e lements d ominate f ish f ive t o o ne. T he f ish a ssemblage i ndicates t hat s everal d epositional e vents p robably o ccurred, v erified b y t he e xcavator w ho

1 42

n oted a m ixing o f a rchaeological h orizons . T he f ish a ssemblage i s n umerically s mall a nd f riable; e lements r epresented a ppear t o b e t he m ost d urable a nd t herefore n ot n ecessarily r epresentative o f t he o riginal a ssemblage.

F xJJ12N F xJj12N w as d eposited i n H olocene s ediments , c overing a n a rea o f a bout 6 50 mters b y 5 0 m eters. T he s ediments a re s ilty c lays, f ine s ilty s ands a nd c oarse s ands w ith g ravels, a nd m olluscs a re a bundant i n t he l ower l ayers. T wo a rchaeological h orizons w ere e xposed a nd e roding , s o t hat s urface m ixing o ccurred. B arthelme ( 1981) s uggests t hat m ost a rtifacts w ere r ecovered f rom t he l ower h orizon , B ed B . P resent d ay a ltimeter r eadings o f + 95 t o 1 00 m eters w ere r ejected a s b eing t oo h igh a s t he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een t hrust u pwards b y f aulting , a nd i t i s s uggested t hat t he s ite w as c ontemporaneous w ith t he h igh H olocene t ransgression ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 49-153 , 1 66). A l inear t ransect w as l aid o ut a nd t en 5 m eter 2 u nits w ere s ampled. C ultural m aterial r ecovered i ncluded 2 ,259 l ithic a rtifacts, o f w hich 5 4% w ere m ade o n l ava, a h igh p ercentage f or t hese s ites . O f t he s haped t ools, m icroliths w ere i n l owest p roportion f or a ny o f t he s ites, a nd s crapers a nd c ore t ools w ere m ore a bundant ( Barthelme 1 981: 4 63). N ine u niserially b arbed b one p oints w ere r ecovered, t hree w ith i ntact n otched b asal p ortions. S ixty-four d ecorated a nd 1 36 u ndecorated s herds w ere r ecovered, i ncluding n ine ' wavy-line ' s herds, a ll f rom B ed B . I nternally s cored s herds c losely r esembling p ottery f rom l ater P astoral N eolithic s ites w ere f ound a ssociated w ith B ed A ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 63-164). Ah uman s keleton r ecovered f rom B ed B w as d ated a t 3 245±155 B P , ad ate r ejected b y B arthelme ( 1981: 1 65) a s b eing t oo y oung. H aving s uggested t he s ite 's a ssociated w ith a h igh l ake l evel ( +75 t o 8 0 m eters) B arthelme s tates t hat t his d ate i s t oo y oung f or s uch a h igh l evel. H owever B utzer ( 1980) h as s hown t hat t he l ake d id e xperience a h igh t ransgression a t a bout 3 250 B P ( 1980), a nd t his b urial p robably p rovides c onfirmation o f t his. T his d ate w ould b e a ppropriate f or a P astoral N eolithic o ccupation, s uggested b y t he p resence o f t he i nternally s cored p ottery. P ossibly t he b urial w as i nterred i nto t he l ower B ed B l evel b y t he l ater B ed A o ccupants . H owever t he d ating w as o n b one a patite, a nd m ay b e f aulty g iven t he p roblems w ith d ating t his m aterial ( Collett a nd R obertshaw 1 983). F ish r emains o utnumber m ammal r emains b y a bout 2 :1 ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 67). O f a t otal 1 02 e lements , 4 8 ( 48%) w ere u nidentifiable , a gain a l ow p roportion ( Table 8 .12). T he B one S catter F requency w as 2 .0 , h igh f or a s urface c ollection . T he s urface w eathering i ndex i ndicated t hat 2 0 e lements , o r a bout 2 0% o f t he a ssemblage, w ere r olled a nd e xtremely w eathered, s uggesting t hat a t l east a s izeable p ortion o f t he a ssemblage w as r eworked a nd r edeposited ( Table 8 .13). T he a ssemblage i s d ominated b y L ates a nd c ichlids w ith T etraodon , B arbus a nd C larias m inor c ontributors ( Table 8 .14). T he p roportions o f c ranial, v ertebral, a nd p ostcranial e lements a re u nusual i n c omparison t o t he o ther e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlements . M ost u nusual i s t he h igh v ertebral r epresentation, n ot r ecorded f or a ny o ther s urface f ishing s ites s o f ar ( Figure 8 .8). C omparison w ith G aJi4, a P astoral

1 43

N eolithic s ite, l ocated a bout + 44 t o 4 7 m eters a bove t he p resent l ake l evel, i s i nteresting a s t here a bout 2 ,500 f ish e lements w ere r ecovered w ith s imilar c ranial, v ertebral a nd p ostcranial r atios t o F xJj12N ( Marshall e t a l. 1 984). A d ifferent f ish p rocessing t echnique i s p resent a t t he P astoral N eolithic s ites c ontrasting w ith t he e arlier f ishing s ites, a nd t he p resence o f b oth P astoral N eolithic-type p ottery a nd a s imilar p rocessing p rocedure a t F xJj12N a gain s uggests a P astoral N eolithic o ccupation a t t his s ite. T he r elationship b etween r emains f rom B eds A a nd B i s u nknown; p resumably B ed A i s t he s uggested P astoral N eolithic o ccupation f rom w hich m ost o f t he f ish d erived, b ut h ow m uch o f t he f ish r emains d erive f rom B ed B , t he h orizon w ith w avyl ine p ottery i s u nclear. N o c utmarks w ere r ecorded. M ammalian t axa r ecovered i dnclude w arthog ( Phacochoerus s p.) s everal s pecies o f b ovids ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 64).

a nd

F xJj12N i ncludes t wo a rchaeological h orizons, o ne s uggested h ere t o b e P astoral N eolithic d ated a t a bout 3 245 B P a nd t he o ther a n e arly H olocene f ishing s ettlement. H owever, t he c ollected c ultural a nd f aunal r emains f rom t he t wo h orizons a re m ixed. T he r atios o f t he f ish s keletal e lements i n t he f ish r emains d iffer f rom t hose o f o ther f ishing s ettlements, a nd r esemble m ore n early p roportions o f P astoral N eolithic s ites.

1 44

C HAPTER 9 :

L AKE T URKANA F ISHING S ETTLEMENT S ITES: L OWASERA A ND L OTHAGAM

T wo a dditional f ishing s ites w ere e xcavated i n t he s outhern r egion o f L ake T urkana i n a ddition t o t he K oobi F ora s ites. L owasera i s l ocated o n t he s outheast s hores o f t he l ake, a nd L othagam a nd o n t he s outhwest s hores ( Figure 8 .1).

L owasera T he s ite o f L owasera w as f irst d iscovered b y a c inematographic e xpedition i n 1 974 , a nd w as v isited l ater i n 1 974 b y D avid P hillipson w ho e xcavated i t i n A ugust a nd S eptember 1 975. T he s ite i s 2 2 k ilom eters n orth o f L oiengalani, s ituated o n t he w est s ide o f ar e-entrant, 6 .7 k ilometers f rom a nd + 70 t o 8 0 m eters a bove t he p resent d ay s hores o f L ake T urkana ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 ). F rom c ontour m aps t he s ite a ppears t o b e l ocated o n a b each w hich s loped s harply i nto t he l ake; t he d rop-off w as n ot a brupt b ut s teeply i nclined ( Phillipson 1 977: 4 , 7 ). R emains o f p rehistoric o ccupations a nd o ld b eachlines a re v isible f or 4 80 m eters, b isected i n o ne s ection b y e rosion . T wo a reas w ere s elected f or e xcavation : A rea 1 w here t he l ater t errestrial u nits w ere e xposed, a nd A rea 2 w here t he e arlier l acustrine u nits w ere e xposed. A s tratigraphic s uccession o f s ixteen u nits w as r ecorded. T he o ldest u nit, U nit 1 6 , w as u p t o f ive m eters t hick a nd a ppeared t o b e v olcanic t uff o f a eolian d eposition. I t m ay d ate f rom t he l atest P leistocene d uring t he p eriod o f l ow l ake l evels ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 0), a s m ay U nit 1 5 w hich c onsists o f l ava c obbles l ying d irectly o n t he t uff. U nits 1 4 t o 1 0 a re d iatomaceous s ilt w ith a m aximum t hickness o f a bout 7 .5 m eters , m ost o f w hich ( up t o f ive m eters) w as a ccumulated i n U nit 1 4 ( Phillipson 1 977: 5 -6). A t m aximum , i n U nit 1 2, t he l ake l evel w as c irca 8 0 m eters a bove t he p resent l ake. S mall n umbers o f f ish b one a re f ound t hroughout, a s w ell a s o ccasional l ithic a rtifacts. I n U nit 1 1, P hillipson ( 1977: 6 ) s uggests t hat t he l ake l evel h ad s tarted t o f all b ased o n i ncreased h umic c ontent i n s ilt, a nd a f urther i ncrease i n h umic c ontent a nd m olluscs i n U nit 1 0 m ay r epresent a p eriod o f " static s hallow w ater c onditions". L ithics a nd t wo b arbed b one p oints w ere r ecovered f rom t hese u nits. U nit 9 , c omposed o f f ine s andy s ediments, i s c onsidered c ontemporaneous w ith U nits 1 1 t o 1 4, a nd w as l aid d own a t t he w ater 's e dge. I t h as b een r adiocarbon-dated b y s hell a t 9 470 ± 2 00 B P ( Phillipson 1 977: 6 ). U nits 8 t o 5a re b each d eposits w ith a m aximum t hickness o f a bout s even m eters, m ostly a ccumulated i n U nit 8 . T hese u nits c onsist o f h orizons o f a lternating u nconsolidated c oarse s ands a nd c oarse p ebbles, a nd a ll b ut U nit 7 a re

1 45

q uite r ich i n f ish b one, l ithics a nd b arbed b one p oints . I n U nit 6 t he s and i s c onsolidated a nd i n U nit 5 i t i s d escribed a s " hard-pan c onsolidated b each" ( Phillipson 1 977: 8 ). D ates f rom U nit 7 o n b one a patite a re 7 785 ± 1 50 B P ( Phillipson 1 977: 8 ). U nits 4 t o 1 a re t errestrial d eposits r anging f rom c obbles i n U nit 4 t o c oarse g ritty d eposits i n U nit 2 , w ith a m aximum d epth i n U nits 4 t o 2 b eing 6 5 c entimeters. A r adiocarbon d ate o n b one a patite f rom U nit 4 w as 4 460 ± 10 B P ( Phillipson 1 977: 9 ). T he b ulk o f c ultural a nd f aunal m aterial w as r ecovered f rom U nits 1 , 2a nd 4 . P hillipson ( 1980 : 5 1) s ees n o e vidence f or t he l ake l evel r egression r eported b u B utzer f rom a bout 7 000 t o 6 600 B P ; h owever, i n t he b each d eposits o f U nit 8 , e vidence o f s urface e rosion m ay b e r elated t o ar egression o f t he l ake l evel. T wo d ates w ere r ejected b y P hillipson a s b eing t oo y oung: a d ate f rom U nit 5 o f 3 630 ± 15 B P a nd o f 3 120 ± 1 35 B P f rom U nit 4 . A ll d ates e xcept t he 7 470 B P d ate a re o n b one a patite w hich i s n otoriously u nreliable, o ften d ating t oo y oung , b ut s ometimes a lso t oo o ld ( Collett a nd R obertshaw 1 983; R obertshaw e t a l. 1 983 : 3 5-36). A rtifacts r ecovered i nclude 3 ,014 s tone a rtifacts, o f w hich 1 ,617 w ere m ade f rom l ava ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 2+). L arge a rtifacts s uch a s c hopper a nd a nvil c ores a nd s crapers w ere m ade o n l ava , w hile m icrol ithic t ools w ere m ade o n m ore h omogeneous m aterials s uch a s o bsidian a nd c halcedony . O f t he l atter, b acked m icroliths a re m ost c ommon, w ith g eometrics d ominating b acked f lakes. A s d iscussed p reviously , t here i s ad ifference i n s haped t ool c ategories b elow U nit 4 , w ith b acked f lakes b eing f ar m ore a bundant p roportionally b elow U nit 4 , a nd g eometrics f ar m ore a bundant i n U nits 2 a nd 4 ( Phillipson 1 977: 1 9). A mong n on-lava a rtifacts c halcedony i s m ore i mportant b elow U nit 4 , a nd c hert m ore i mportant i n U nits 2 a nd 4 . T here d oes n ot s eem t o b e m uch v ariation i n t he l ava a ssemblage t hroughout t he s ite. F urther d ifferentiation b etween U nits 2 a nd 4 , a nd t he u nits b elow U nit 4 i s f ound i n t he w orked b one a nd c eramics. F orty-nine b arbed b one p oints w ere f ound i n t he e xcavated u nits a nd 2 4 o n t he s urface; o nly t wo w ere b iserial, o ne f rom t he s urface a nd o ne f rom U nit 2 . F rom U nits 1 1 t o 6 , t he b ones h ad n otched b ases ( n=4); o f 3 0 w ith i ntact b ases f rom U nits 1 , 2a nd 4 , 2 8 h ad g rooved l ine b ases, a nd t wo h ad n o b asal m odifications. S ix b arbless p oints w ere a lso r ecovered. N o p ottery w as f ound b elow U nit 5 , o nly 1 1 s herds i n U nit 5 , b ut 3 55 i n U nits 1 , 2a nd 4 . A ll w ere c oarse, p oorly f ired a nd f riable. O nly i n U nit 1 w ere t wo w ares r ecognisable. P erforated o strich e ggshell b eads ( n=14) w ere f ound i n U nits 1 a nd 2b ut n ot i n t he u nits b elow . M ammalian f auna w as e xtremely s carce i n t he L owasera d eposits , a nd c omprised l ess t han 5 % o f t he t otal f aunal a ssemblage. T he o nly m ammalian e lements r eported f rom b elow U nit 4 w ere o ne z ebra t ooth a nd s everal h ippopotomus b ones. F rom U nits 1 , 2a nd 4 o ne e quid, t wo b ovids, o ne s mall c arnivore, o ne r eptile, o ne s mall p rimate a nd s everal h ippopotomi w ere r epresented ( Phillipson 1 977: 2 8).

1 46

T able 9 .1. L owasera . E xcavated S ite. N umber a nd p ercentages o f C ranial, V ertebral, P ostcranial a nd U nidentifiable E lements b y L evel ( Percentages c alculated o f t otal i dentifiable).

C ranial U nit: 2 4 5 6 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

V ertebral

P ostCran .

4 18 3 67 1 7 6 3 5 2 5 1 1 -

4 6.9 4 4.7 3 7.0 2 0 .0 3 6 .5 2 2.2 1 0.9 5 .9 1 6.6

3 76 3 10 1 5 1 9 4 9 6 3 2 1 6 4 6

4 2.2 3 7.7 3 2.6 6 3.3 5 1.0 6 6 .7 6 9.5 9 4.1 6 6.8 7 5.0

1 4.2

7 85

4 5.8

6 86

4 0.0

1 7.0

6 7

2 6 .0

1 47

5 7.0

1 4.6

8 52

4 3 .2

8 33

4 2.2

9 8 1 0 .9 1 45 1 7.6 1 4 3 0.4 5 1 6.7 1 2 1 2.5 1 1.1 9 1 9.6 1 1 6.6 2 2 5.0

U nits 2 -4 : 2 43 U nits 5 -13 : 4 4 T otal: 2 87

N on-Ident.

1 79 4 32 1 6 1 1 3 2 4 1 -

T otal

1 071 1 254 6 2 3 0 1 07 1 2 7 0 1 8 6 8

T he t otal n umber o f p reserved f ish e lements i s 2 ,638, o f w hich 6 66 o r 2 5% i s u nidentifiable ( Table 9 .1). W hen c ompared w ith t he l ow p ercentage o f u nidentifiable b one a t o ther s ites, t his p ercentage i s s till l ow , s uggesting l ittle f ragmentation b y e ither n atural o r c ultural a gencies. F ish r emains f rom U nit 1 w ere n ot a nalysed b ecause s urface a nd e xcavated m aterial w as u ndifferentiated a nd t here a ppeared t o b e am ixing o f s everal d ifferent o ccupations ( Phillipson 1 977: 9 ).

T able 9 .2. L owasera. E xcavated S ite. W eathering I ndex C ategories b y U nit.

U nit

2 4 5 6 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3

S tain I ndex C ategory 0 -3, 1 2 4 -5, 1 3

7 76 1 238 4 5 3 0 1 01 9 1 6 1

N umber o f E lements i n S tain a nd

W eathering I ndex C ategory 2 3 4

2 95 1 6 1 7 6 3 5 4 1 8 6 7

7 69 152 4 1 7 8 7 5 1 3 1 1

1 47

1 1 1 2 1 -

3 01 1 01 2 1 2 2 1 8 7 5 7 1 7 5 7

Ac hange i n d epositional e nvironment i s e vident b etween b ones f rom U nits 1 3 t o 1 0 a nd t hose f rom U nits 9 t o 2 ( Table 9 .2). B one f rom t he l ower l evels i s a lmost u niformly d ark a nd o f f resh a ppearance, s uggesti ng r apid i mmersion a nd b urial a fter d eposition . P hillipson ( 1977) d escribed t he m atrix f or t hese u nits a s d iatomaceous l acustrine s ediments, a nd p resumably t he d eposition o f b one w ithin t hem c oincided w ith h igh l ake l evels a nd l ong-term i mmersion . B one f rom U nits 2 t o 9 s hows a r eversal i n a d ominance o f l ighter s tain a nd s lightly m ore e vidence o f m ixing ; t his i s p articularly n oticeable i n t he U nit 2 a ssemblage, p ossibly r eflecting d ifferent d epositional e vents. F urther, b one f rom U nits 9 t o 2i s v ery f riable; o nly i n U nit 6 i s t he m ajority o f t he b one f resh . M uch o f t he b one, p articularly i n U nits 2 a nd 4 s hows e xtensive ' clay-shattering '. T he B SF f or U nits 5 -13 w as . 4 , a s lightly l ow i ndex f or a n a rchaeological s ite. T his c hanges i n U nits 2 a nd 4 , t o 4 .0 , c omparable t o o ther e xcavated s ites.

T able 9 .3. L owasera . E xcavated S ite. N umber o f e lements b y g enus o r f amily a nd s keletal e lement c ategory . C r=Cranial; V =Vertebral; P c=Postcranial. M m=Mormyroidea; C 1=Clarias ; S y=Synodontis; L a=Lates ; C i=Cichlidae.

M m V

U nit: 2 4 5 6 8 9 1 0 1 1. 1 2 1 3

6 5

C l

S y

C r

C r

7 6 1 1

3

T otals : U nits 2 -4 : 1 1 U nits 5 -13: 3

7 1 2

1 1

T axonomic G roup L a L a s ize 1 -4 s ize 5 -7 C r V P c C r V P c

C r

2 7 2 2 3 3 5 5 5 1 2 6 1 3 1

2 2 1 46 3 1 5 8 5 1 6 5 2 1 3 6 2 5 1 5 2

1 0 1 3 1 3 4 0 6 4 1 8 4 7 4 1

1

C i

3 1

1

2

1 9

3

V

P c

C r

V

P c

6 2

2 7

1 2

8

9

3

2 1

1 3

O ther

5 4 1 1

1

6 2 7 7

7

4

5 0 7 7 3 1

7

6

1 48

9

5

3 7 2 31 1 9

1 7

3 0

9

S keletal E lement R epresentation T he L owasera a ssemblage s hows s keletal e lement r atios w hich d iffer m arkedly f rom t hose o bserved a t F xJj12 b ut w hich s how s ome s imilarities t o t he u pper l evels o f G aJi3 ( Tables 8 .1, 8 .6, 9 .3). C ranial e lements a re t he m ost p oorly r epresented e lements f or a ll b ut t he s iluroids, a nd v ertebrae a nd p ostcranial e lements a re w ell r epresented. R epresentat ion o f c ranial r emains i s r easonably c onsistent t hroughout t he s ite, w ith a s light i ncrease i n U nit 5 . R epresentation o f v ertebral r emains h owever c hanges f rom a l ower r epresentation i n t he l ower u nits t o a h igher r epresentation ( from 2 6% t o 4 5%) i n U nits 2 a nd 4 ( see F igure 9 .1). T his c hange a pparently c orrelates w ith p ostcranial r epresentat ion , w here e lements r epresent a bout 6 3% o f t he a ssemblage i n t he l ower u nits, t hen d rop t o a bout 3 9% i n t he u pper t hree u nits. A nalysis o f t he s keletal e lements b y t axon ( Table 9 .3) i ndicates t hat v ertebral e lements o utnumber c ranial e lements f or m ost t axa, w ith n o d ifference b etween l arge o r s mall f ish. A s a t a ll s ites c atfish e lements a re v irtually a ll c ranial; v ertebral a nd p ostcranial e lements a re a bsent.

T able 9 .4. L owasera. E xcavated S ite. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umber a nd p ercentages, a nd N ISP n umbers. C y=Cyprinidae; B g=Bagrus; S 1=Siluriformes.

M ormyroidea M NI N ISP N % N

U nit: 2 4 4 2 5 6 8 . 1 9

8 .3 4 .1

6 5

1 0.0

3

B arbus M NI N ISP N % N

C larias M NI N %

2 1

3 3 1 1

4 .2 2 .0

4 1

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 M NI T otals: U 2,4: 6 U 5-13: 1

3

1 49

6 .3 6 .1 1 2.5 3 3.3

N ISP N

7 6 1 1

S ynodontis M NI N ISP N % N

5 4

1 0.4 8 .2

7 1 2

1 1

1 0.0 2 5.0

1 1

1

3 3.4

1

6

9

2

3

0 .8

#Cran ia l E le ments/ # Vertebra l E le ments

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2

0 .0

Un its 5-13

Un its 2 & 4

L owasera Un its C ran/Vert R at ios F igure 9 .1.

C ranial:Vertebral R atios f or L owasera.

1 50

T able 9 .4 c ontinued T able 9 .4 . L owasera . E xcavated S ite. T axonomic a bundance a s i ndicated b y M NI n umber a nd p ercentages, a nd N ISP n umbers. C y=Cyprinidae ; B g=Bagrus; S 1=Siluriformes.

M NI N U nit: 2 1 7 4 2 4

L ates N ISP % N

3 5.4 8 8 4 9.0 2 13

5 4 5 0 .0 6 8 4 4 0.0 9 2 5 0 .0 1 0 1 2 0 .0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 3 3.3 M NI T otals: U 2,4: 4 1 U 5-13: 1 2

2 3 1 6 2 1

2

C ichlidae M NI N ISP N % N

1 3 1 0 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1

2 7. 2 0.4 3 7.5 6 6.7 3 0 .0 2 5.0 6 0 .0 1 00.0 1 00. 3 3.3

T etraodon M NI N ISP N % N

1 71 16

3 1

6 .3 2 .0

8 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1

2 3

4

3 1

O ther M NI N ISP N % N

1 2 2

2 .1 4 .1 4 .1

2 -Cy 2 -Bg 7 -Cy

1

1 0 .0

+ -S1

1 2 0 .0

+ -S1

5

1 6

2

T able 9 .5. L owasera. E xcavated S ite. M eat W eight E stimates, i n k ilog rams, a nd b y U nit. P ercentages g iven f or t otals p er t axonomic g roup. M m=Mormyroidea ; B b=Barbus; C 1=Clarias; S y=Synodontis; L a=Lates; C i=Cichlidae; T e=Tetraodon ; s z=size.

M m

B b

U nit: 2 1 3.2 7 .4 4 4 .1 3 .7 5 6 8 2 . 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 T otals: U nits 2 a nd 4 : # 1 7.3 1.1 % 1 .4 . 9 U nits 5 - 1 3: # 2 .0 % . 6

B g

2 .5

T axon C l

4 .5 4 .6 6 .2 6 .2

S y

L a s z1-4

3 .5 2 .8

6 5.4 8 1.4 2 8.7

2 10 .6 7 66.4 6 7.2

1 .4 . 7

1 6.3 3 .5 3 .5

2 7.6 15.9

. 4

. 7

2 .5 . 3

L a s z4-7

6 7.2

9 .1 . 7

6 .3 . 6

1 46.8 1 2.0

9 77.0 8 0 .0

1 2.8 3 .4

2 .8 . 7

5 2.0 1 3.9

2 77.9 7 4.5

1 51

T able 9 .5 c ontinued

T able 9 .5. L owasera . E xcavated S ite. M eat W eight E stimates, i n k ilog rams, a nd b y U nit. P ercentages g iven f or t otals p er t axonomic g roup. M m=Mormyroidea ; B b=Barbus; C 1=Clarias; S y=Synodontis; L a=Lates; C i=Cichlidae; T e=Tetraodon ; s z=size.

C i U nit: 2 1 9 .2 4 1 3.2 5 4 .2 6 3 .0 8 5 .0 9 2 .0 1 0 4 .0 1 1 2 .0 1 2 3 .0 1 3 2 .0 T otals : U nits 2 a nd 4 : 3 2.4 2 .6 U nits 5 -13: 2 5.2 6 .9

T e

T axon C yprinidae

3 .9 2 .5

3 .7 7 .4

6 .4 . 6

1 1.1 . 9

T axonomic A bundance T wo p atterns i n d iversity o f t axa a re e vident t hroughout t he s ite ( Table 9 .4). F rom U nits 1 3 t o 5 o nly t wo o r t hree t axa a re r epresented, L ates a nd c ichlids ( comprising 7 8% o f t he t otal n umber o f i ndividuals), w hile i n U nits 2 a nd 4 t here i s a s udden d iversification o f t axa w ith e ight d ifferent g enera o r f amilies a ppearing, c omprising u p t o 4 0% o f t he a ssemblage. T he t axonomic d iversity w as 4 .2 f or U nits 5 t o 1 3 a nd 6 .2 f or U nits 2 a nd 4 . M ost o f t he o ther ' new ' t axa r epresent t he m ost c ommon g roups o f f ish c aught i n t he l ake t oday. T wo e xceptions a re T etraodon , w hich i s c aught b ut n ot e aten t oday, a nd t he M ormyroids, a g roup n ot i nhabiting t he l ake t oday . A bsentees a re t he c haraciforms - H ydrocynus, A lestes, a nd C itharinus, a nd D istichodus. T hese f ish h owever h ave e xtremely d elicate b ones, a nd o nly t heir t eeth a re l ikely t o b e p reserved; r ecovery w ould r equire a f ine s ieving o peration, n ot c onducted i n t hese e xcavations. A s e xpected, t here i s ag reat d iscrepancy b etween t he M NI's a nd e stimated m eat w eights ( Tables 9 .4 a nd 9 .5). I n U nits 2 a nd 4 L ates p rovides a bout 8 3% a nd 9 6% r espectively o f t he e stimated m eat w eight, b ut o nly 3 5% a nd 5 0% r espectively o f t he n umber o f i ndividuals. C ichlids o n t he o ther h and, w hile c omprising 2 7% o f t he i ndividuals i n U nit 2 a nd 2 1% i n U nit 4 , o nly p rovide 6 % o f t he m eat w eights i n U nit 2 a nd 1 .5% i n U nit 4 . H owever t he p ercentage o f m eat w eight c ontribution b y c ichlids i ncreases i n t he e arlier u nits w hile t hat o f L ates f luctuates b ut g enerally d ecreases.

1 52

5 0

% o f I nd iv idua ls

4 0 -

3 0

—

2 0

1 0 -

1 0

i

I

I

I

I

i

I

S ize 1 S ize 2 S ize 3 S ize 4 S ize 5 S ize 6 S ize 7

T ota l L ength o f L ates a t L owasera '

F igure 9 .2.

Un it 2

— 1—

Un it 4

*

Un its 5-13

S ize o f L ates i ndividuals t hroughout L owasera, b y s ize c ategory.

1 53

O f i nterest i s t he d ecline i n s ize a nd w eight p er i ndividual f rom U nit 4 t o 2 , f rom a bout 1 9kg a verage w eight p er i ndividual i n U nit 4 t o a bout 7 kg i n U nit 2 . T his d ecrease i s p rimarily d ue t o a d rop i n s ize o f L ates i ndividuals i n U nit 2 ; p ossibly d ue t o t he f alling l ake l evel, a nd d ifficulties i n p rocurement ( see F igure 9 .2). T he n umbers o f i dentified s pecimens ( Table 9 .3) i ndicate r elatively c onsistent r epresentation o f a ll t axa t hroughout t he s ite, w ith o ne e xception. F or a ll t axa e lements a re m ost n umerous i n U nit 2 w ith r epresentation d ecreasing d eeper i n t he s equence, e xcept f or L ates a nd S ynodontis w hich a re m ost n umerous i n U nit 4 . P roportions o f c ichlids i ncrease i n U nit 8 , w hich i s n ot r eflected i n t he o ther t axa. A c omparison o f M NI a nd N ISP p ercentages s hows t hat i n t otal c ichlid e lements a re b etter r epresented t han t hose o f o ther g roups. L ates e lements a re a bout e qually r epresented i n U nits 2 a nd 4 . H owever, p oorly r epresented t axa s uch a s m ormyroids a nd C larias a re o verr epresented i n t he M NI c ounts c ompared w ith t heir r epresentation i n t he N ISP c ounts. T he f riable a nd f ragmented s tate o f t he b ones m ay h ave o bscured e vidence o f c utmarks a s o nly t hree w ere f ound. T hese w ere o n e lements f rom : T etraodon - t oothplate, L ates - f irst t runk v ertebra , a nd a c ichlid g enus - a n o perculum . T he L ates e lement i ndicates p robable d isarticulation o f t he h ead f rom t he r est o f t he b ody, w hile t he l ocat ion o f t he o ther c utmarks i s n ot i ndicative o f a ny p articular p rocess.

S ummary L owasera r eflects a s eries o f o ccupations o ver a l engthy p eriod, w ith r elatively i ntense o ccupation i n t he u pper t hree u nits. T he p aucity o f m ammalian r emains u nderlines t he i mportance o f f ish . T wo d ifferent s tyles o f o ccupation c an b e i nferred f rom t he m aterial c ulture a nd f aunal a ssemblages. B elow U nit 4 t he l ithics s how a p redominance o f b acked f lakes i n t he s haped t ool c omponent, p ottery i s a bsent, a nd b one p oints h ave o nly n otched b ases. F ish r emains a re s parse a nd d ominated b y L ates a nd c ichlids, w ith o ther t axa o nly o ccasionally r epresented b y o ne o r t wo i ndividuals. P hillipson ( 1977: 2 8) h as q uestioned w hether r emains p rior t o U nit 4 w ere o f n atural o r c ultural o rigin, b ut t he s elective n ature o f t he t axa a nd t he a ssociated a rtifacts s uggest t hat m ost, i f n ot a ll, w ere a ssociated w ith h uman a ctivities. I n U nits 2 a nd 4 t here i s c ontinued u niformity i n t he l ithic a ggregates, p ottery a ppears, a nd n otched b ases o n b one p oints a re r eplaced b y g rooved l ine b ases. T he f ish a ssemblage i s m ore n umerous a nd d iversifies; w hile c ichlids a nd L ates a re s till d ominant, o ther t axa m ake u p t o 4 0% o f t he t otal n umber o f i ndividuals. I n a ll u nits h owever, t he l arge L ates m ake t he l argest c ontribution t o m eat w eight e stimates. B one f rom U nits 1 0 t o 1 3 i s f resh a nd u niformly d ark , w hile t hat f rom t he u pper l evels i s l ighter i n c olour a nd f riable, p ossibly a s a r esult o f c lay s hattering. M ost u nits s how a u niform s tain i ndex, s uggesting a s imilar d epositional h istory f or t he b one a ssemblage. T hese c hanges c an b e l inked t o t he d epositional c ontexts o f t he u nits; U nits 1 3 t o 1 0 w ere d eposited i n a l acustrine e nvironment, U nits 8 t o 5 a re b each d eposits a nd U nits 4 t o 1a re t errestrial d eposits.

1 54

L othagam L othagam w as f irst d iscovered d uring a n a rchaeological s urvey o f t he K erio R iver d elta a rea i n t he s outheast L ake T urkana a rea b y L .H . R obbins i n 1 965 ( Robbins 1 974). F ossilised f aunal r emains, l ithics a nd b arbed b one p oints w ere e roding f rom t he H olocene l ake d eposits a nd b each s ediments o ver a n a rea o f a bout 5 00 b y 3 00 m eters. T he h ighest p oint o f t he H olocene s ite w as m easured a t + 92 m eters ( Robbins 1 974 : 1 61). E xcavations i n t hree a reas o f t hese e xposures w ere c onducted, t ermed t he L ower, M iddle a nd U pper e xcavations, w ith t he t erms r eferring t o n orth-south o rientation, n ot d epth . T he m ain f ossiliferous d eposits w ere i n t he M iddle E xcavation; n one w ere f ound i n t he L ower E xcavation, a nd o nly l imited m aterial i n t he U pper E xcavation . T he H olocene d eposits i n t he M iddle E xcavation c omprise f ive l evels. L owest s tratigraphically i s a S andy C lay, h aving a m aximum t hickness o f s ix f eet a nd t hree i nches ( 1.88 m eters). C lay w ith t hin s andy l enses a nd a t wo f eet e leven i nches ( .87 m eter) l ayer o f m olluscs c haracterise t his u nit. A rtifacts a nd f ish r emains a re s parse. P resumably t his l ayer w as d eposited u nder l acustrine c onditions. A bove i s t he m edium t o c oarse c ompact C ross-Bedded S and w hich i s t wo f eet f our i nches ( .7 m eter) t hick . R obbins ( 1974: 1 64) s uggests t hat d eposition o ccurred u nder s hallow w ater c onditions, p ossibly f rom a s easonal s tream n ear t he s hore o f t he l ake. A gain f auna a nd a rtifacts a re s carce. A bove i s a c emented c alcareous g rit, w hich i s o ne f oot f ive i nches ( .43 m eter) t hick a nd t ermed t he D eltaic S and ( Robbins 1 974: 1 64). A rtifacts a nd f aunal r emains a re m ore n umerous h ere. T he n ext t wo l evels - L ower C oarse S ands ( two f eet o r . 6 m eter t hick) a nd U pper C oarse S ands ( one f oot e leven i nches o r . 58 m eters t hick) m ark t he i ntensive o ccurrence o f c ultural a nd f aunal r emains. T here i s n o s ecure d ating. O ne r adiocarbon d ate f rom m olluscs a t t he b ase o f t he S andy C lay u nit w as 7 160 ± 8 0 B P ( Robbins 1 974 : 1 68), a nd t he e levation a t t his p oint w as e stimated a t + 84 J t3 m eters. S uggesting t hat t he s ubsequent s and l evels w ere d eposited w hen t he l ake l evel f ell, a nd b efore t he s econd m aximum , R obbins s uggests a d ate o f b etween 7 000 a nd 6 000 B P f or t he m ain c ultural l evels ( 1974: 1 68). T he s equence o f d eposition a t L othagam i s s imilar t o t hat a t L owasera , w ith l acustrine c lay a nd s ilt d eposits f ollowed b y c ons olidated b each g rit d eposits, a nd t hen b y u nconsolidated t errestrial c oarse s andy s ediments. B oth s ites a re l ocated a t s imilar a ltitudes a bove t he m odern l ake l evel, a nd w ould t herefore h ave u ndergone a s imilar h istory o f l ake l evel t ransgressions a nd r egressions. W hile R obbins ( 1974: 1 68) s uggests t he L othagam m aterial w as d eposited i n t he r egression b etween t he t wo h igh l evel p eriods, t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he l ake l evel a gain t ransgressed t o t he l evel o f t he s ite. T he d epth o f t he s ediments d eposited a fter t he 7 000 B P d ate ( over 1 3 f eet) s uggests a l ater d ate, p robably d uring t he s econd t ransgression. N o c ultural m aterial w as f ound i n t he L ower E xcavation. I n t he U pper e xcavation t hree t en f oot s quare t renches w ere o pened, a nd w ere e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 4 1 /2 f eet o f 4 .35 m eters ( Robbins 1 974: 1 641 66). F resh-appearing a rtifacts w ere f ound i n t he l ower s eries o f s ands i n t he U pper e xcavation, w hile w eathered a nd r olled a rtifacts w ere f ound i n t he u pper s ands. T he l ower s ands c onsist o f f our l ayers

1 55

o f s emi-consolidated c oarse t o m edium c oarse s and, o f f our f eet e leven i nche ( 1.5 m eters) t hickness. R obbins s uggests t hat t he f resh a rtifacts i n t he l ower s ands r epresented a n L SA o ccupation w hich p recedes t he m ain M iddle E xcavation o ccupations. T hese a rtifacts i nclude 1 47 s tone t ools, o f w hich 6 9% w ere m ade o n c hert. N ine ( circa 6 p ercent) w ere s haped t ools, o f w hich m ost w ere s traight-backed b ladelets, w hich d o n ot o ccur i n t he l ater M iddle E xcavations. R obbins ( 1974: 1 89-190) n oted t hat b lades a nd " flake-blades" w ere i n a h igher p roportion t han e lsewhere i n t he s ite, a nd s uggested t hat t his, i n c onjunction w ith t he b ladelets, i ndicated a d ifferent i ndustry. S even b arbed b one p oints w ere r ecovered, a ll u niserially b arbed. N o p ottery w as r ecovered. I n 1 975 f urther e xcavations w ere u ndertaken i n t he U pper E xcavation . A d ate o f 6 300 ± 8 00 B P w as r ecorded ( Robbins a nd L ynch 1 978: 6 19). A t otal o f 2 ,301 s tone a rtifacts w ere r ecovered, o f w hich 8 8% w ere d ebitage, 5 % w ere s haped t ools a nd 6 % w ere u tilised p ieces ( Lynch a nd R obbins 1 977; R obbins a nd L ynch 1 978). T he t ypology o f t he 1 975 m aterial w as s imilar t o t hat o f t he e arlier e xcavation, w ith b lades a nd b ladelets d ominating, a nd a s carcity o f m icroliths. A c omparison o f t he M iddle a nd U pper e xcavation i ndustries i ndicates t hat t he s ame r aw m aterials w ere u sed i n v ery s imilar p roportion ( Lynch a nd R obbins 1 977: 4 5), a nd t he t ypology o f t he d ebitage w as a lso s imilar ( Lynch a nd R obbins 1 977: 4 6). H owever c omparison o f s haped t ools i ndicates a p redominance o f b lades a nd b ladelets i n t he U pper E xcavation, w ith m icroliths d ominating i n t he M iddle E xcavation. F ish r emains w ere i nformally i dentified f rom t he 1 975 e xcavation . O ne h undred e lements ( 28%) o f a t otal 3 55 w ere i dentified. P roportions o f t axa - b ased o n N ISP c ounts - w ere s imilar t o t hat a t F xJj12, w ith L ates a nd c ichlids c omprising t he m ajority o f t he t otal e lements a t 8 3.3%, C larias a t 5 .5% a nd L abeo h ouri, B agrus b ayad a nd S ynodontis s chall t ogether c omprising 1 1.2% ( Lynch a nd R obbins 1 977: 5 2). T he M iddle E xcavation c overed a bout 5 00 s quare f eet o f 4 5 m eter 2 i n a rea; o ne t en b y t hirty f oot t rench w as e xcavated t o a d epth o f t hirteen f eet b y e leven i nches ( Robbins 1 974: 1 64). O ver 1 5,000 s tone a rtifacts w ere r ecovered f rom t his t rench. F ifty-six d erived f rom t he S andy C lay l evel, 1 46 f rom t he C ross-Bedded S and l evel, 8 05 f rom t he D eltaic S and l evel, 1 0,745 f rom t he L ower C oarse S ands ( LCS) l evel a nd 3 ,563 f rom t he U pper C oarse S and ( UCS) l evel. T he t ools w ere m ade o f l ava ( 87%) a nd o f c hert ( 12%); n o a nalysis o f c hanges i n r aw m aterial b y l evel i s m ade. A bout 1 .1% o f t he t otal a ssemblage i s c omprised o f s haped t ools, w hich a re d ominated b y s crapers ( 49%), e specially s ide a nd s teep s crapers, a nd l arge a nd s mall c rescents ( 37%). S crapers a re m ost a bundant p roportionally i n t he D eltaic S and l evel, b ut d ecreasing i n t he l ater l evels. C rescents a re v ery s carce i n t he D eltaic S and L evel, b ut b ecome i ncreasingly a bundant a nd o utnumber s crapers i n t he U CS. T here i s a lso a m ajor r eduction i n s ize o f a rtifacts f rom t he D S u p t o t he U CS ( Robbins 1 974: 1 77-178). O ver 2 80 b arbed b one p oints w ere c ollected; 4 3 w ere r ecovered f rom t he e xcavation a nd t he r emainder f rom t he s urface. F our d erived f rom t he D S, 1 3 f rom t he L CS a nd 1 6 f rom t he U CS l evels. A ll w ere u niserial; 4 6% h ad b asal n otching ; 3 5% h ad g rooved l ine n otching ; 6 % h ad b oth t ypes o f n otching, a nd 1 3% h ad n o b asal m odification. N o

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a nalysis o f t hese m odifications b y s tratigraphic u nit w as m ade. A n u nknown n umber o f b arbless p oints w as a lso r ecovered. S even h undred a nd t hirty-four u ndecorated p ottery s herds w ere r ecovered, o f w hich s even c ame f rom t he S andy c lay l evel, 3 8 f rom t he c ross-bedded s and l evel, 9 6 f rom t he D S b ed, 5 33 f rom t he L CS l evel a nd 6 0 f rom t he U CS l evels. T he s herds a re " v ery c rude a nd f riable" a nd c an b e q uite t hick ( Robbins 1 974 : 2 00). F ew m ammalian r emains w ere r ecovered; t hey c omprised 1 .6% o f t he t otal r emains. F ish r emains w ere d ominant a nd c omprised a bout 4 5% o f t he a ssemblage.

T able 9 .6 . L othagam . P resence ( x) o f g enera b y s tratigraphic u nit . D ata t aken f rom R obbins ( 1974: 2 04). U CS.Upper C oarse S ands ; L CS. L ower C oarse S ands.

L ates C larias S ynodontis B agrus S iluroid U nit: U CS x x L CS: t o 3 6" x x x ? ? 3 6-42" x x x x ? 4 2-48" x x x D S: 4 8-54" x T otal *S ample r eported d oes n ot i nclude a ll r ecovered b one.

T he o ther 5 3% w ere u nidentifiable. ( I d id n ot e xamine t he m aterial a nd t he f igures a re t aken f rom R obbins [ 1974: 2 05]).

T otal 1 09 1 36 1 56 1 26 8 1 6 08*

f aunal

O f t he a pproximately 7 ,000 f ish b one e lements r ecovered, 8 09 w ere a nalysed b y K .S. T homson . T here i s n o d iscussion o f c ondition o r w eathering o f t he a ssemblage, a lthough R obbins ( 1974 : 1 64) n otes t hat t he b one f rom t he S andy C lay l evel i s " black a nd w ell-mineralised", w hile b one f rom t he l ater u nits a re l ighter i n c olour, a lthough t his v azies. C ranial e lements c omprise 6 % o f t his s ample, v ertebrae 1 1% , a nd p ostcranial r emains 7 1% . W hile t hese p roportions a re n ot i dentical t o a ny o f t he s ites a lready d iscussed, a nd m ay b e a n a rtifact o f t he a nalyst 's s election p rocess, t hey d o r esemble t he L owasera p roportions i n t he d ominance o f v ertebral r elative t o c ranial r emains, a nd i n t he o verwhelming p redominance o f p ostcranial r emains. F ive g enera w ere r epresented ( Table 9 .6), L ates a nd f our c atfish . N o e stimate o f a bundance f or e ach g enus i s g iven. P aradoxically n o c ichlid, c haraciform , o r c ypriniform r emains w ere i dentified, a ll k nown f rom t he o ther s ites, a gain p ossibly a n a rtifact o f a nalytical s election o r p ossibly u neven p reservation. O nly L ates w ere r eported f rom t he l ower t hree l evels, s uggesting e ither a p rocurement o r a p reservational b ias . T hree d ifferent d epositional e nvironments a re

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r epresented i n t he t hree l ower l evels, t herefore a p rocurement b ias w ould a ppear t he m ore r easonable e xplanation. T he r ichest l evel i s t he L CS w ith f ive t axa p resent. T hese t axa a lso h ave t he m ost r obust e lements o f a ny g roup i n t he l ake, a nd t he a bsence o f t he o ther g roups m ust b e v iewed a s p ossibly d ue t o d ifferential p reservation. N evertheless L othagam f ollows a p attern s een i n t he o ther L ake T urkana s ites w here e arlier l evels a re d ominated b y o ne o r t wo t axa , w ith d iversification o ccurring i n l ater l evels. T he U CS s hows a r eduction i n d iversity a s w ell a s i n a bundance o f r emains, a nd o nly L ates a nd C larias a re r epresented. L othagam w as a r epeatedly o ccupied f ishing s ite w ith e specially i ntensive o ccupation a t t he t ime o f o ccupation o f t he u pper t hree l evels. W hile n o t race o f l iving s tructures w as f ound, t he c oncentrat ion o f c ultural r emains l ed R obbins ( 1974: 2 04) t o s uggest t he s ite w as i nhabited o n a " semi-permanent, i f n ot p ermanent, b asis". T he s ubsistence b ase o f t he s ite w as f ishing, a nd w hile p reservation m ay h ave b iased t he c omposition o f t he a ssemblage, L ates w as t he o nly f ish e xploited i n t he l ower l evels, a nd w as l ater j oined b y f our g enera o f c atfish i n t he u pper l evels. C ranial r emains w ere p oorly r epresented, s uggesting d etachment o f t he h ead e lsewhere. P ottery a nd b arbed b one p oints a re k nown t hroughout t he s ite, b ut a re f ar m ore c ommon i n t he u pper t wo l evels. T he p ottery i s s imilar t o t he L owasera p ottery i n b eing u ndecorated, a nd p oorly f ired. A s maller m uch l ess d ense c oncentration o f a rtifacts w as r ecovered i n t he U pper E xcavation. T he l ack o f p ottery a nd d ifferent l ithic a ssemblage i s s uggested t o i ndicate a n e arlier o ccupation.

1 58

1 0

E=s/( l og p 1— log p 2)

8 .4 8^

6 .2 6 4 .7 4 .2 4

2

0

F xJ j12

L owa5-13

L owa2 ,4

L ake T urkana S ites

W; F igure

1 0.1.

T axono m ic D ivers ity

T axonomic D iversity c alculated u sing W hittaker's ( 1977) e quation f or t he s ites o f F xJj12, L owasera a nd G aJi3.

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C HAPTER 1 0 :

D ISCUSSION: P ROCUREMENT A ND P ROCESSING A T L AKE T URKANA S ITES

F ish P rocurement a t t he L ake T urkana S ites T he d iversity i n p iscine t axa r epresented a t t he K oobi F ora, L othagam a nd L owasera s ites r eflects t wo p atterns i n p rocurement w hich a re c onsistent a round t he l ake ( Figure 1 0.1). T hese a ppear t o b e c hronologically s ignificant: a n e arlier a nd a l ater p attern c an b e i dentified. T he e arlier p attern i s s een a t t he e xcavated s ites o f F xJj12, U nits 5 t o 1 3 a t L owasera, a nd t he U pper E xcavation a t L othagam , a nd c oincides w ith e arly H olocene h igh l ake l evels, d ated a t a bout 9 500 t o 6 600 B P . T wo g roups - c ichlids a nd L ates - c omprise t he m ajority ( over 7 5%) o f t he i ndividuals r epresented, a nd a re t he o nly t wo t axa t o c onsistently f orm a m ajority i n v irtually a ll h orizons. C larias r emains a re a p ersistent b ut m inor p resence. O ne o r t wo i ndividuals b elonging t o o ther g roups a ppear s poradically t hroughout, b ut h ave n o c ontinuous p resence. W hile p oor p reservation a nd m ixing o f a rchaeological h orizons h as s kewed t he r esults a t t he K oobi F ora s urface s ites, o f t hose a ssociated w ith t he h igh l ake l evel p eriod w hich h ave a c omplete a ssemblage, L ates a nd t he c ichlids c omprise b etween 7 0% a nd 8 5% o f t he a ssemblage. T his p attern c ontrasts w ith t he s econd p attern s een i n t he f aunal a ssemblages r ecovered f rom t he l ater s ites o f G aJi3 ( except t he l owest, p resumed n aturally-deposited, h orizon), L owasera ( Units 2 a nd 4 ) a nd L othagam ( Deltaic S ands, L ower C oarse S ands a nd U pper C oarse S ands l evels). I n t hese h orizons, w hile c ichlids a nd L ates a re s till d ominant ( about 4 0% t o 6 5% o f t he a ssemblage), s ix t o e ight o ther g enera a ppear a nd c onsistently c omprise f rom 3 5% t o 6 0% o f t he a ssemblages. P referential p reservation i n l ater s ites w ould a ppear n ot t o b e a f actor b ecause c ichlid b ones a re d ominant i n b oth p atterns. C ichlid b ones a re e qually o r m ore f ragile t han m any o f t he s pecies n ot r epresented. D irect k nowledge o f p rocurement s trategies a t t hese s ites i s r estricted t o t he p resence o f l ithics a nd b arbed o r b arbless b one p oints a nd l ithics i n t he m aterial c ulture a ssemblages. T he l ithic a ggregates f rom t he e arly H olocene s ites - t hat i s, t he a ceramic U pper E xcavation a t L othagam , U nits 5 t o 1 3 a t L owasera, a nd F xJj12 - a re s imilar t o l ater a ggregates i n t heir p ercentages o f s haped s tone a rtifacts a nd i n p ercentages o f r aw m aterial u sed, b ut d iffer i n t heir p ercentages o f s haped t ools. T herefore, w hile t he s imilarity i n s tone a rtifact c ategories a nd r aw m aterial u sage d emonstrates c ontinuity t hrough t he a ssemblages, t he d ifferent s haped t ool p roportions s uggest d ifferent a ctivity p atterning. H owever, l ithic t ool u tilisation i s n ot w ell u nderstood. N or h as a nything r ecognisable a s f ishing g ear b een f ound, s uch a s n et w eights r ecovered a t E arly K hartoum ( Arkell 1 949),

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o r t he f ortuitously p reserved n etting a t F ayum ( Brewer p ers. c omm .). T herefore i nference b ased o n t raditional A frican f ishing t echniques m ust b e u sed t o r econstruct e arly H olocene s trategies. T he p attern o f d ominance i n t he e arly s ites a nd l evels o f L ates a nd c ichlids, a nd t o a l esser e xtent C larias, a nd l ack o f d iversity s een i n l ater s ites c ould b e a ttributed t o e ither e cological o r t o c ultural f actors, o r b oth. A n e cological i nterpretation w ould s uggest t hat t hese t hree g roups o ccupied a s imilar n iche a nd w ere c aught t ogether; h owever, t he b ehavioural a nd h abitat p references o f t he t hree g roups r epresented a re q uite d istinct, w ith v irtually n o o verlap b etween t hem . T hus d eliberately s elective p rocurement s trategies b y t he f ishers a re m ore l ikely t o c reate t he r estricted a ssemblage. T his i s b etter u nderstood w ithin t he c ontext o f a d iscussion o f f ish b ehaviour a nd e cology . T he s urvey o f p resent d ay f ishing t echniques ( Chapter 5 ) i ndicates t hat p rocurement o f C larias i s m ost c ommonly u ndertaken b y s pears o r h arpoons, o r w eirs. W eirs h owever a re n on-selective, a nd g enera o ther t han C larias w ould a lso b e t rapped. T he f ishers o ccupying t he p reh istoric s ites c learly m ainly e xploited C larias, L ates a nd c ichlids, a nd t herefore a m ore s elective t echnology w ith s pears o r h arpoons w as p robably u sed. F xJj12 w as l ocated o verlooking a r iver; C larias s pawns a nnually i n L ake T urkana a t t he o nset o f r ains b y m igrating u p s mall s treams o r r ivers, a nd i t w ould b e p ossible t hat t he a ncient i nhabitants p rocured C larias w ith h arpoons d uring t heir s pawning r uns u p o r d own t he r iver. A reas i n w hich C larias s pawns a re u sually s hallow s wampy a reas, a nd d uring s pawning t hey a re v ulnerable t o p redation b y c lubs, s pears o r e ven b are h ands. J ubb ( 1967: 1 33) h as d escribed n umbers o f C larias " in a dvanced b reeding c ondition s truggling t hrough g rass i n w ater t hat b arely c overs t heir b odies". V irtually a ll C larias t aken w ere b etween 5 0 a nd 8 5cm T L a nd a s C larias l azera m atures a t 6 5 t o 7 0cm T L i n L ake T urkana ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 21), p rocurement w hile o n a s pawning m igration i s s upported. A lternatively f ishers m ay h ave c aught C larias u sing s pears, c lubs o r b are h ands, i f t hey b ecame i solated i n p ools n ear t he l ake a t t he e nd o f t he r ainy s eason. B eing a d emersal f ish a nd p referring s hallow i nshore a reas ( within t he f ive m eter c ontour [ Hopson a nd H opson 1 982: 3 21]) m akes i t s imilarly v ulnerable t o p redation w hen w aters r ecede. V on H ohnel f or e xample r eported c lubbing o f C larias b y s everal E l M obo i n d rying p ools n ear L ake T urkana ( 1894: 2 12). B ayley ( 1982: 3 52) a lso n otes t hat C larias ( and L ates) a re b oth c aught " close i nshore" b y h arpoon a t L ake T urkana . A n i nteresting s ituation p revails a t L owasera , w here n o C larias r emains a re k nown b elow U nit 5 , b ut a ppear c onsistently t hroughout t he l ater a ssemblage. W hen t he l ake l evel s tarted t o f all i n U nit 7 t he p resent d ay l agga o r s tream p ossibly b egan t o f orm , p resenting a s easonal s pawning v enue f or C larias. W hile n umbers a re s mall, t he f ish r ecovered w ere a ll b etween 5 0 a nd 8 5cm T L , a nd t herefore o f s exually m ature, a nd t hus p ossibly b reeding a ge. C ichlids a re f ast-moving f ish b ut a re v ulnerable t o c apture b ecause o f t heir p reference f or l ittoral h abitats, a nd e specially b ecause o f t he h abit o f g uarding n ests e ither b efore o r a fter e gg

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l aying. T hrust b askets, s mall s coop a nd r ing n ets, s pears a nd/or h arpoons a re a ll i ndividually s elective t echniques w hich m ay b e u sed i n s hallow w aters o r i n d rying p ools. T he s hores o f t he r iver n ear F xJj12 w ould p rovide s uch s ituations t hroughout t he y ear, a s w ould t he i nshore a rea n ear L owasera. A ccording t o D aget's f unctional t ypology o f s pears a nd h arpoons, t his t ype o f p rocurement w ould i nvolve b arbed l eisters, a nd m ay a ccount f or t he l arge n umber o f b arbed p oints a t G aJj11. O reochromis n iloticus m atures a t a bout 3 0cm T L, a nd a s v irtually a ll c ichlids w ere o f t his s ize o r l arger, t hese m ay h ave b een c aught w hen b reeding. A lternatively f ishers i n L ake B angweulu s pear o r h arpoon b reeding c ichlids f rom s teep b anks o r b oats a s t hey t ravel i n d eep c hannels ( Brelsford 1 946: 6 8). B ayley ( 1982: 3 53) n otes t hat h arpooning i s t he p rimary m eans o f c apturing c ichlids b y t he M erille a t t he O mo d elta. T he p rocurement o f L ates r equires a k nowledge o f i ts p redatory a nd h abitat p references. L ates d o n ot u ndertake l ong-distance s pawning m igrations, b ut s pawn w ithin t he l ake. S pawning u sually o ccurs i n d eeper w aters, a nd w ith a p eak a t t he o nset o f t he r ainy s eason, a lthough t hey a re y ear-round s pawners. F urther, j uveniles u nder 8 0cm e xcepting, t hey d o n ot f requent s hallow s wampy w ater ( Hopson a nd H opson 1 982). T hey a re t herefore n ot a s v ulnerable a s i s C larias t o e asy c apture. T his i s i n f act r eflected i n t he p resent d ay L ates f ishing s trategies w here n o n ets, w eirs, o r b askets a re u sed. T he m ost c ommon m ethod o f c atching L ates i s b y s pear o r h arpoon, o r w ith a h ook a nd l ine. L ates, p articularly t he l arge f ish, a re c arnivores a nd t herefore ' hunters' a nd l urk i n d ark c hannels t o d art o ut a nd c hase o r c apture p rey. T hus s ite l ocations o verlooking c hannels o r o ther d eep w ater l ocations a re p referred f ishing s ites. A r eport b y H opson o n L ake T urkana ( 1982a: 1 288) n oted t hat " Lates n iloticus o f u p t o a s ize a pproximating t he m aximum w ere r egularly c aught b y a ngling f rom t he s hore, p articularly i n r ocky a reas w here t he w ater s helved d eeply." F xJj12, a nd a ll t he e arly H olocene s urface K oobi F ora s ites e xcept G aJj11 i n h igh l ake l evel p eriods w ere s ituated a t t he e dge o f a d rop-off, f rom t he w ater's e dge t o t he l ake b ottom . A t L owasera t he d rop-off w as n ot a brupt b ut s loped d ownward f rom t he s hore. A ccording t o H opson 's ( 1982a) r eport t his w ould p rovide a n i deal p osition f rom w hich t o s pear o r h arpoon L ates l urking n ear t he d rop-off. V irtually a ll t he L ates c aught a t a ll s ites w ere o ver 5 0cm T L, a nd m ost w ere b etween 8 5 a nd 1 15cm T L. T hese w ould b e t oo b ig t o b e c aught a ny w ay e xcept b y s pear o r h arpoon o r h ook a nd l ine. B ayley ( 1982: 3 52) s tates t hat l arge L ates n iloticus a re t oday c aught b y h arpoon " close i nshore" a t L ake T urkana. L igers ( 1966) n otes t hat t he S orko o f t he N iger R iver ( as w ell a s o ther g roups a long t he N iger) u se a c atfish s kull a nd s pines t o m ake n oise a nd t o a ttract L ates a nd o ther p redators t o p ositions f rom w hich t hey c an b e s peared. H ooks o r g orges a nd l ines w ould a lso b e e ffective, a nd a re r eportedly u sed b y E l M obo f or c atching L ates ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937). F our b arbless p oints w ere r ecovered f rom t he K oobi F ora s ites ( although l acking a t L owasera), a nd t hese l ikely s erved a s g orges h ung f rom l ines a nd b aited t o c atch f ish.

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I t i s c lear t hat w hen s pearing i nto d eep w ater a h arpoon w ould b e f ar m ore u seful t han a s pear; f ar t oo m any s pear o r l eister p oints w ould b e l ost i n m issed s hots o r e scaping f ish. W ith a h arpoon t he s haft c ould b e u sed t o r etrieve t he p oint a nd o r f ish. S pear p oint h eads w ould h ave t o b e r eplaced m uch m ore o ften t han h arpoon h eads, a nd t he v ery l arge n umber o f p oints r ecovered f rom t he e arly d ated s ite o f G aJj11 m ay r eflect t his. F urther s upport f or t his i dea i s s een i n t he u niformly n otched b ases o f t he s pearheads a t G aJj11 w hich s eem m ore l ikely t o b e u sed a s t he t ips o f b ident o r t rident l eister s pears. I n t he e arly l evels o f L owasera t he b ases w ere a lso u niformly n otched. N o i ntact b ases a re k nown f rom t he F xJj12 e xcavations, a lthough b oth n otched a nd g rooved l ine b ases a re k nown f rom o ther K oobi F ora s urface s ites. O ther g enera f ound i n t he K oobi F ora s ites a nd e arly L owasera m ay h ave b een i solated l ucky c atches o r w ashed i n o n t he b each. A ll o f t hese f ish h ave b een r eported b y p resent d ay f ishers a s b eing c aught b y s pears o r h ooks a nd l ines. T he p attern o f p rocurement s een i n t hese e arly H olocene s ites i s o ne b ased o n ' hunting ' o f l arge f ish b y s pear o r h arpoon, a nd m ore r arely w ith h ooks. T his s trategy i s s imilar t o t hose u tilised i n t errestrial h unting - s talking a nd s pearing - a nd, i n f act, i nvolves o nly t he t ransfer o f s imilar m ethodology a nd t echnology t o a d ifferent m edium - w ater. F ish w hose h abits a re n ot v ulnerable t o s pearing o r h arpooning, u sually b ecause t hey a re s mall, s lender a nd h ave q uick m ovements, a re p oorly r epresented a t t hese s ites. W hile b eing f amiliar w ith t he e cology a nd b ehaviour o f t he t hree g roups o f f ish p rocured, l ittle d evelopment o f t echniques a nd t echnology u nique t o p rocurement o f o ther f ish i s a pparent. S easonality a t t hese e arlier s ites c annot b e d etermined f rom L ates a nd t he c ichlids, b eing y ear-round s pawners, a nd C larias i s t oo s parsely p resent t o b e a r eliable i ndicator. N evertheless a t p resent d uring t he r ainy s eason t here i s a p eak o f L ates m igrating t o d eeper w aters; i t i s m ore d ifficult t o p rocure t hem a t t his t ime. C ichlids t oo a re m ore d ifficult t o c atch a t h igher w aters. T he l arge n umber o f b ovids c aught a t t hese s ites m ay a lso r eflect t heir v ulnerability a s t hey c ongregate n ear t he l ake d uring t he d ry s eason. W hile i ncomplete, t hese d ifferent i tems o f e vidence m ay s uggest a n e nd o f r ainy s eason o r d ry s eason o ccupation. T he s econd p attern o f p rocurement i n t he L ake T urkana s ites i s s een i n G aJi3 ( except i n S pit 1 00.60), L owasera - U nits 4 a nd 2 - a nd L othagam l evels L CS a nd U CS. D ates o f c irca 4 560 B P f rom G aJi3 a nd c irca 4 410 B P f rom L owasera a re a ssociated w ith t hese l evels. A t t he t ime o f o ccupation o f t hese s ites t he l ake l evel h ad r eceded c onsiderably, f rom e arly h ighs o f a bout 7 5 t o 8 0 m eters t o 5 5 t o 6 0 m eters a bove p resent l ake l evel. T he r elationship o f t he o ccupied s ites a t t his t ime t o t he l ake m argin c onsiderably c hanged f rom t hat o f p revious o ccupations: w hile G aJi3 w as o n t he l ake e dge, t he s lope d own f rom w aters e dge w as g radual w ith a s andy s ubstrate a nd n ot a d rop-off a s a t F xJj12 ( Barthelme 1 981: 1 72). L owasera w as n ot l ocated a t t he l akeshore b ut t here w as a g radual s lope d own f rom t he s hore. L othagam w as a lso l ocated s lightly a way f rom t he l ake, a lthough t he e xact c onfiguration o f t he l ocation t o t he l ake i s u nclear. G aJi3 a nd

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L owasera a re a t p resent l ocated n ear s easonal l agas ( Findlater 1 976: 1 09; P hillipson 1 977: 1 ). W hether t his w as t he c ase i n e arlier H olocene t imes i s n ot c lear. T here i s g eomorphological e vidence t hat L othagam w as a lso l ocated n ear a s easonal l aga ( Robbins 1 974 : 1 64 , 1 68). T he f ish a ssemblages f rom t hese l ater s ites a re m uch l arger i n n umbers a nd s how m ore i ntense h uman o ccupation t han d o t he e arlier s ites , w hich a m uch h igher b one s catter f requency. W hile L ates a nd c ichlids s till d ominate t he a ssemblages, a p lethora o f n ew g enera a ppear w hich p ersist t hrough t he l ater h orizons a t a ll s ites . S maller L ates a nd c ichlids a re m ore n umerous i n t hese l ater s ites; t his i s p articularly t rue a t t he K oobi F ora s ites a nd t he l atest d eposit a t L owasera. I t m ay b e s uggested t hat b etter p reservation w as r esponsible f or t he w ider d iversity i n t he l ater s ites , b ut m any o f t he e lements w hich a ppear i n t he l ater s ites - e .g. T etraodon t ooth p lates - a re e xtremely r obust a nd s hould h ave b een a pparent i n e arlier s ites , h ad t hey o riginally b een p resent. T he p reservation o f c ichlid e lements t hroughout a ll o ccupations v irtually a ssures t hat d ifferential p reservation i s n ot a f actor, a s c ichlid e lements a re m ore d elicate t han t hose o f t he g enera n ot r epresented. Ac ontinuation o f t he s pearing/harpooning o f l arge L ates ( Sizes 4 t o 7 ), c ichlids ( Size 3 ) a nd C larias i s s een i n a ll l ater o ccupied s ites w hich h ave b arbed b one p oints, i ndicating t hat t his m ethod o f p rocurement i s s till u sed a t G aJi3 a nd a t L owasera . A t L owasera t he b ases o f t he h arpoons a re n ow g rooved l ine r ather t han n otched; a s w ell b arbless p oints a ppear . A t t he s ame t ime t he n umber o f l arge L ates (> size 4 ) a t L owasera i ncreases f rom s even i n t he e arlier l evels t o 1 6 i n U nit 4 . I t i s t empting t o c orrelate t his i ncrease w ith t he n ew b one p oint b ase t echnique. A s d iscussed p reviously, t he u se o f g rooved l ine b ases m ay i ndicate u se o f ah arpoon r ather t han a s pear , w ith a s ingle b one p oint i nset i n a s ocket a nd c onnected t o t he s haft v ia a c ord t ied t o i ts b ase. T he p ercentage o f c aptures s hould i ncrease a s t he a nimal i s r estricted f rom e scape b y t he h arpoon c ord. S uch a d iscussion i s a lso o utlined i n H ornell ( 1950 : 1 -4) w ho s uggests t hat s pears e volved i nto l eisters a nd t hen i nto h arpoons, w hen t he p rocurement s uccess r ate i s f ar g reater t han w ith a s pear o r l eister. B oth g rooved l ine a nd n otched b ases a re p resent a t L othagam , b ut w ithout s tratigraphic d ata. • A t L owasera , w hile n umbers o f l arge L ates a re h igh i n U nit 4 ( 16), t hey d rop t o s ix i n U nit 2 a lthough t he o verall n umber o f f ish i s v irtually t he s ame i n e ach u nit ( see F igure 9 .2). T he n umber o f b arbed b one p oints s hows a s imilar r atio: 2 0 i n U nit 4 a nd n ine i n U nit 2 . P ossibly a f urther d rop i n l ake l evel i n U nit 2 l imited t he a reas s uitable f or h arpooning l arge L ates, c ausing i ncreasing d ependence o n s mall i nshore f ish . N umbers o f l arge ( size 3 ) c ichlids r emain c onstant t hroughout t he l ater l evel. N umbers o f l arge ( > size 4 ) L ates d ecline f rom t he e arly t o l ate K oobi F ora s ites; l arge L ates m ake u p a bout 5 0% o f t he F xJj12 a ssemblage, b ut o nly 2 0% o f t he G aJi3 a ssemblage. L arge ( Size 3 ) c ichlids a re e qually s carce w ith o nly t wo i ndividuals. T he n umber o f C larias i s a lso l ower ; o nly o ne i s k nown f rom t he e xcavated G aJi3 s ite, c ompared w ith t welve a t F xJj12. O nly t wo b arbed b one p oints w ere e xcavated a t G aJi3, a nother f rom n ear U nit D , a nd t wo w ere r ecovered

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f rom t he s urface; o f t he t wo w ith b ases, o ne h ad g rooved l ines. T he l ower l ake l evels i n t he K oobi F ora a rea m ay h ave r educed t he n umber o f a reas s uitable f or s pearing o r h arpooning f ish s uch a s L ates o r C larias. T he d iversity o f t he r emainder o f t he a ssemblage - e ight d ifferent g enera a t L owasera, f ive a t L othagam a nd e leven a t G aJi3 - s uggests d ifferent p rocurement t echnology a nd d ifferent s election c hoices b y t he f ishers f rom t hose i n t he e arlier l evels. W hile i t i s p ossible t hat t hese f ish w ere c aught b y s pear o r h arpoon, t here a re n o p resent d ay e xamples o f f ishers p rocuring s everal o f t he g enera p resent a t t he s ites i n t his m anner, i ncluding H eterotis, M ormyroidea ( except G ymnarchus), H ydrocynus, A lestes, L abeo, o r S ynodontis. W hile a f ew o f t hese c an b e c aught w ith h ooks, m ost c annot a nd a n ew p rocurement s trategy o r s trategies o ther t han s pears a nd h ooks m ust h ave b een i nitiated d uring l ater o ccupations. A t G aJi3, f ive o f t he e leven g enera r epresented a re l ittoral o r i nshore d welling f ish, f ive a re f ound b oth i nshore a nd o ffshore, a nd o ne i s o ffshore o nly. T he s ize o f f ish i n t he a ssemblage i s m uch s maller t han t hat s een i n e arlier K oobi F ora s ites; f ish s ize 4 o r l arger c omprise o nly 6 % c ompared w ith 2 9% a t F xJj12. C learly t he f ishers w ere e xploiting t he s maller i nshore c ommunity o f f ish. E xclusive o f l arge L ates ( size 4 t o 7 ) a nd C larias, a lready d iscussed, t he m ost a bundant g enera r epresented i n t he s ite a re s mall L ates ( size 1t o 3 ), c ichlids ( size 0 t o 2 ) a nd S ynodontis ( sizes 0 t o 3 ). L ates o f t he s maller s ize g roup i s f ound w ithin t he f ive m eter d epth z one o f t he l ake ( Hopson 1 982: 1 287), a nd i s b est p rocured w ith b each s eine n ets ( Hopson 1 982: 1 287). C ichlids o f a ll s ize g roups a re a lso l ittoral d wellers, b ut a re u sually c onfined t o t he f irst t wo m eters o f d epth . S ynodontis s chall i s u biquitous b oth i nshore a nd o ffshore. I ts d ermal c ranial p late a nd r elatively s mall s ize w ould m ake i t a lmost i mpossible t o s pear, a nd w ith i ts b arbed l ocking p ectoral a nd c ranial s pines i t i s i mpossible t o t rap b y b asket o r h and. I t i s i nteresting t hat a lmost o ne h alf o f t he S ynodontis r epresented i n G aJi3 w ere u nder 2 0cm T L , t hat i s o f n on-breeding a ge. U nfortunately t he b iology o f S ynodontis i s n ot w ell k nown, h owever i t w ould a ppear t hat t he f ishers w ere e xploiting a n ursery a rea. I nterestingly p resent d ata i ndicates t hat t his s ize o f S ynodontis a re m ost a bundant i nshore b etween t he m onths o f J une a nd N ovember, t hat i s a t t he e nd o f h igh w aters a nd t he b eginning m onths o f t he d ry s eason ( Figure 1 0.41 H opson 1 982, V olume 6 ). T wo

c haracteristics

w hich

t hese

t hree

e cologically-disparate

g roups h ave i n c ommon a re t heir s mall s ize ( mainly S ize 0 t o 2 o r 3 ) a nd q uick m ovements, a nd i n t his w ay t hey d iffer f rom t he l arger s lower f ish w hich w ere c aught b y s pear o r h arpoon. T hese c haracteristics m ake i ndividually s elective p rocurement t echniques s uch a s b askets o r s pearing u nsuitable a nd u nreliable, a nd f avour i nstead a n on-selective m ethod t hat c an h arvest a n e nclosed u nit o f w ater. T he o nly l ikely m ethod o f p rocurement w ould t herefore b e s mall e ncircling r ing n ets o r w eirs t hat a re o perated b y f ishers i n g roups. S ome o f t he l arger ( size 3 ) c ichlids a nd L ates w ere u ndoubtedly o btained b y s pears o r h arpoons, a nd i solated i ndividuals m ay h ave b een t aken w ith t hrust b askets o r s mall d ip n ets, b ut t he m ajority o f t his s ize o f f ish a re t oo s mall a nd

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q uick f or t hese m ethods. T he r emaining s even g enera a t G aJi3 w ere p robably a lso p rocured b y n ets o r w eirs, w ith s ome e xceptions. A lestes, H ydrocynus, i mmature B arbus a nd L abeo ( sizes 0 t o 2 ) a nd T etraodon h ave a ll b een o bserved a s f requent c atches i n r ing n et h auls i n l ake s ituations ( e.g. F osbrooke 1 934: 1 4-15) a nd e specially i n L ake T urkana ( personal o bservation). A lestes a nd H ydrocynus a re q uick , s lender p elagic f ish t hat c ould o nly b e c aught b y n ets o r w eirs, a lthough H ydrocynus, b eing a p redator, c an b e t aken b y h ook a nd l ine. T he l atter t hree - i mmature B arbus a nd L abeo a nd T etraodon - a re a ll s mall q uick b ottom f ish w hich w ould b e v ery d ifficult t o c atch o ther t han w ith n ets o r w eirs. T here i s i n f act a lmost n o o ther w ay o f t rapping T etraodon, a s piny p oisonous b ottom f ish, a lthough r eports o f h ook a nd l ine p rocurement a re k nown. O ther g enera c aught i nclude m ature B arbus w hich a re k nown t o b e a ttracted b y n oise i n w ater, w here t hey a re t hen s peared o r c lubbed. T he p rocured B agrus i ndividuals a re v irtually a ll s ize 1 o r 2 a nd t herefore i mmature, s imilar t o m any o f t he S ynodontis i ndividuals p rocured. T he 2 0 t o 5 0cm T L g roup i s o ften f ound i n w aters o f l ess t han 2 0 m eters d epth, w hile l arger i ndividuals w hich a re u sually f ound a t g reater d epths ( Figure 1 0.3 - H opson 1 982). A gain t he G aJi3 f ishers w ere a pparently e xploiting a n ursery a rea. A t L owasera , t he g enera o ther t han l arge L ates, C larias, a nd c ichlids a re s imilar t o t hose t aken a t G aJi3, b ut l ess d iversified. N umbers o f s mall L ates ( size 0 t o 3 ), a nd c ichlids ( size 0 t o 2 ) a re h igh a nd c onsistent i n U nits 2 a nd 4 , s howing g reat i ncrease o ver t he e arlier o ccupations. A s a t G aJi3, t his w ould s uggest t he u se o f w eirs a nd/or n ets. S ynodontis i s a lso a bundant b ut n ot a s w ell r epresented a s a t G aJi3. T he i ndividuals r epresented h ere a re a ll m ature a dults r ather t han t he i mmature i ndividuals s een a t G aJi3. T he p resence o f t he M ormyroidea i s o f i nterest, b oth z oogeographically, a s t hey n o l onger i nhabit t he l ake, a nd e cologically a s t hey p refer r ocky s hores ( Boulenger 1 901). A t l east o ne a nd p robably f our o f t he M ormyroidea r epresented a re l ikely G ymnarchus, a n i nshore d weller, b ased o n t he s ize o f t he e lements. I t w as p robably s peared o r h arpooned a lthough o ther m ormyroidea g enera a re m ore l ikely c aught i n n ets o r w eirs. T etraodon w as a lso p robably c aught i n an et o r w eir. T he l arge B agrus i ndividuals w ere l arge a nd m ature, u nlike a t G aJi3, a nd l ikely c aught b y h ook a nd l ine. T he f ish f auna f rom t he l ater t wo u nits ( LCS a nd U CS) a t L othagam i s d ifficult t o i nterpret. T he p resence o f o nly L ates a nd f our c atfish i s v ery u nusual, p articularly a s t he p resent l ocation n ear a l ongs tanding S arotherodon g alilaeus b reeding a nd n ursery g round i ndicates i ts e cological s uitability f or t hese f ish . T he v ery r obust n ature o f t he s keletons o f t he L othagam g roups r epresented s trongly s uggests d ifferential p reservation . N evertheless , t hose g roups r epresented r eflect t he p attern s een a t K oobi F ora a nd L owasera. W hile B agrus, l arge C larias a nd L ates w ere p robably o btained b y s pearing o r h arpooni ng, t he p rocurement o f S ynodontis, s mall C larias a nd t he u nknown c atfish w ould b e c aught w ith w eirs o r n ets. A s easonal s tream f lowed n ear t he s ite d uring t he d eposition o f t he D S l evel, a nd p resuming i t c ontinued t o h ave a s easonal o r p erennial e xistence, t he c atfish, w hich s pawn u p e phemeral s treams m ore o ften t han o ther s pawning g roups, w ould

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h ave m oved u p a t h igh w aters. w eirs.

T hey c ould h ave b een t rapped b y n ets a nd

W hile t here i s n o g eomorphological e vidence o f a s easonal l aga a t e ither G aJi3 o r L owasera i n t he e arly t o m id H olocene, b oth s ites a re l ocated c lose t o p resent d ay l agas, w hich m ay h ave s tarted f orming w hen t he l ake l evel f ell, b efore o r d uring t he f ormation o f t he G aJi3 s ites, o r U nits 4 a nd 2 a t L owasera. T hree o f t he g roups r ecovered f rom t he u pper u nits a t L owasera - M ormyroidea, C larias, a nd S ynodontis - a nd f our f rom G aJi3 -L abeo, C larotes, C larias, a nd S ynodontis - m ake s easonal s pawning r uns u p l arge o r s mall r ivers, a nd t his m ay h ave p rovided a h igh w ater o pportunity t o p rocure f ish . N ineteen i ndividuals o f t hese g enera a t L owasera ( 20% o f t he t otal a ssemblage f rom U nits 2 a nd 4 ) w ere m ature a nd 1 1 a t G aJi3 ( 13% o f t he a ssemblage) w ere m ature. W hile t he a pproach t aken h ere i s t hat t hese f ish w ere i nshore c atches n ot t aken d uring m igration , t he p ossibility m ust r emain t hat t hey m ay h ave b een s pawning i ndividuals t aken o n m igration. A ll a re e xploited b y p resent d ay f ishers d uring t heir s pawning m ovements, t hrough u se o f w eirs o r n ets a cross t he r iver m ouths. W hile t here i s n o d irect e vidence o f s easonality, i ndirect e vidence s uggests t hat a t G aJi3 a nd L owasera s easonal t rends i n p rocurement c ould b e d etected. H igh w ater c onditions a re p oor f or i nshore l ake p rocurement a s f ish a re e ither m igrating o r m oving t o d eeper o ffshore w aters ( see d iscussion , C hapter 5 ). E ight a nd p ossibly n ine g enera o f m ature f ish r epresented a t a ll s ites w ould b e s pawning e lsewhere, t wo o f t hese t o t he O mo R iver, t wo d eeper i n t he l ake a nd t he o thers u p s maller r ivers o r s treams. L ates a re a lso k nown t o c ongregate a t m ouths o f r ivers a t s pawning t ime, t o e xploit t he m igrating f ish. O nly c ichlids, s ome L ates a nd i mmature f ish w ould b e r eliable c atches a t t his t ime. H owever i t i s a lso k nown t hat p rocurem ent o f f ish a t h igh w aters i s f ar m ore d ifficult t han a t l ow w aters, w hen t he f ish " scatter..." ( Brelsford 1 946: 2 0). D uring h igh w aters, t herefore, o nly s pecialised f ish p rocurement w ould b e u ndertaken, b ut n on-specialised a t t imes o f l ower w aters w hen f ish a re m ore c onc entrated a t t he p eriphery o f t he l ake. P artial s upport f or t his h ypothesis i s s een i n p resent d ay d ata f or S ynodontis, w here i ndividuals u nder 2 0cm T L ( which f orm o ne h alf t he S ynodontis i ndividuals a t G aJi3) a re c oncentrated i nshore a t t he e nd o f t he w et s eason a nd b eginning o f t he d ry s eason. T herefore t he s easonal t rends w hich c an b e i nferred a re y ear-round p rocurement o f L ates a nd c ichlids, a nd l ow w ater p rocurement o f t he o ther g enera. T he a bsence o f s ome g enera w hich a re c ommon i n t he p resent d ay l ake i n t he e arlier s ites w as u ndoubtedly d ue t o s elective p references b y t he f ishers. H owever a s f ishers i n t he l ater s ites w ere c atholic i n t heir s elections, s ome a bsences t here a re i nteresting. S pecies w hich d o n ot e xceed a bout 3 0cm T L a s a dults, c omprise 1 9 o f t he 4 8 s pecies i n t he l ake a nd a re a pparently e xcluded f rom t he s ites a s t heir r emains h ave a pparently n ot s urvived d iagenetic p rocesses. O f t he l arger f ish, c onspicuous b y t heir a bsence a re t he c haraciforms C itharinus a nd D istichodus. B oth a re r easonably l arge f ish: C itharinus i s k nown t o r each a bout 7 0cm T L a nd D istichodus a bout 1 00cm T L . B oth a re f requent c atches i n r ing n ets a round t he p resent d ay l ake ( personal o bservation). H owever b oth a re i nshore d emersal d wellers, p referring s oft s ubstrates. L owasera w as l ocated n ear a r ocky s ubstrate w hich m ay

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e xplain t heir a bsence f rom t hat s ite. T heir a bsence f rom G aJi3 i s e nigmatic. H owever t oday t hey a re p rimarily k nown f rom t he n orthern p art o f t he l ake, a nd p ossibly t his l ocalisation a pplied t hroughout t he H olocene. A lso a bsent a re P olypterus, A uchenoglanis, S chilbe a nd H eterobranchus. A ll b ut S chilbe a re e xtremely r are t oday; t hese g enera a re u sually f ound o nly a round t he R iver O mo, a nd p erhaps t his w as a lso t rue t hroughout t he H olocene. T he a bsence o f S chilbe i s e nigmatic, a s i t i s c ommon t oday, b ut i ts s mall s ize p robably p recluded p reservation o f i ts r emains. H ydrocynus a nd A lestes a lso w ould b e e xpected t o b e b etter r epresented, b ut t heir v ery d elicate b ones p robably p reclude p reservat ion . W ith t hese e xceptions, t he l ater f ishers a ppeared t o h ave p rocured w hatever f ish w ere a vailable t o t hem a nd w hich t hey c ould c atch . I n s ummary, t he s econd p attern o f f ish p rocurement d iffers m easurably f rom t he f irst i n t wo w ays. F irst, w hile c apture o f l arge L ates, c ichlids a nd t o a l esser e xtent C larias c ontinues, t here i s a c hange i n a ffixation o f b one p oints a s s een i n t heir b asal m odificat ions. I t i s s uggested t hat h arpoons r ather t han s pears o r l eisters w ere u sed a nd t hat t he p rocurement r ate w as h igher t han p reviously. I n a ddition , t he f ishers w ere n ow c atching u p t o e ight n ew g enera, w hich f orm a c onsistent 1 0 t o 3 5% o f t he f ish r emains a nd w hich a re m uch m ore r epresentative o f t he t otal f ish p opulation i n t he l ake. T he b ehavioural a nd h abitat p references o f m any o f t hese f ish m ake t hem d ifficult o r i mpossible t o p rocure w ith h arpoon , s pear o r h ook, a nd I s uggest t hat a n on-selective p rocurement t echnique s uch a s w eirs o r n ets w ere u sed f or c apture. S uch t echnology i s r ecorded a s c ommonly u sed b y p resent d ay f ishers f or t hese g enera. C apturing t hese f ish r equires n ot o nly a k nowledge o f t heir b ehaviour a nd h abitat p references, b ut a lso d evising a t echnology t hat i s u nique t o a n a quatic m edium . F urther, k nowledge i s n eeded n ot o nly o f s easonal m ovements o f f ish b ut o f s easonal l ake l evel c hanges w hich d irectly c ontrol t he e fficiency o f w hatever t echnology i s u sed. T he f ish r emains i n t he e arly t o m id-Holocene s ites a round L ake T urkana t herefore r eflect t wo p atterns o f p rocurement w hich a re l inked t o t he d ifferential e xploitation o f d epth z ones a nd t he e cology o f t he f ish . T he r easons f or t he c hange i n p attern o f e xploitation a re u ndoubtedly m any a nd c omplex. H owever, b etween t he t wo p eriods o f o ccupation r epresented b y t hese s ites t here i s a n i ntervening p eriod o f a bout 1 ,500 y ears d uring w hich t he l ake l evel f ell t o p resent d ay l evels. W hile t he e xtent o f t he f all i s d isputed b y O wen e t a l. ( 1982), t he f act o f i ts e xistence i s n ot, a nd e vidence w as o utlined i n C hapter 2 t o i ndicate t hat t he f all i n l evel w as p robably c lose t o t oday's l evel. U sing t oday 's l ake a s a n a nalogy, s uch a f all w ould c reate s ubstantial c hanges i n t he f ish f auna ( see C hapter 2 , 4 ). S ome c onsequences i nclude t he f ollowing : t he n umber o f f ish w ould b e r educed, i n t hat t oday a l arge n umber o f g enera, f ormerly w idespread i n t he l ake, a re c onfined t o t he O mo d elta b ecause o f e xcessive a lkalinity a nd s alinity i n t he l ake. B reeding a nd n ursery a reas f or i nshore f ish w ould b e s everely r educed a s l ittle s hore w ould b e s easonally i nundated t o c reate v egetated, p rotected f eeding a reas. T he e ffects o f a ll-too-

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c ommon w indstorms a nd v olcanic e ruptions w ould b e a mplified d ue t o r educed s urface a rea o f t he l ake, a nd m ass k illings o f f ish w ould r educe t heir p opulation . M ost i mportant t o t he e arly H olocene f ishers w as t he s hrinking o f t he l ake's m argins s o t hat, p articularly a round K oobi F ora, t here w ould b e e xposure o f l ow-lying a reas s uch a s t he K oobi F ora s pit, l ack o f s teeply i nclined s hores, a nd t herefore l ack o f o pportunities f or p rocuring l arge p redatory f ish s uch a s C larias a nd L ates. L owasera i s l ocated i n a r ockier, m ore p recipitous a rea a nd s ome l ocales f or p rocuring L ates w ould s till b e a vailable, b ut t hey w ould b e m uch r educed. I nstead a t b oth K oobi F ora a nd L owasera, s maller, i nshore f ish i nhabiting s hallower, s ofter s ubstrates w hich w ere m ore g ently i nclined, w ould b e m ore a vailable. T he d rop i n l ake l evel a nd t he r educed o pportunities t o p rocure f ish w ith w hich t he f isher/hunters w ere f amiliar m ust h ave c aused t hem t o e mploy a lternative f ood p rocurement s trategies. T he n iche v ariability m odel p redicts t hat i n a s ituation o f r esource s tress, a nimal/human g roups w ill d iversity t heir r esource b ase. T he i ncreasing u tilisation o f a quatic r esources - p articularly f ish - s een i n t he e arly H olocene s ites r eflects g rowing f amiliarity w ith e xploitation o f t hese r esources. T he i ncreasing d ensity o f f aunal r emains a nd a rtifacts a t t he e arly H olocene s ites i ndicates g reater d ependence o n t hese r esources, w hether b y a s mall g roup s pending m ore t ime a t t he l ake, o r i ncreasing n umbers r elying o n t he l ake's r esources. A s imilar s ituation w as d escribed f or t he L ate P leistocene N ile V alley s ites. T he d ensity o f b one a t t hese s ites c ertainly d oes n ot r eflect o vere xploitation o f t he l ake's r esources, b ut m ay r eflect o ver-exploitation o f t he s elected f ish p rocured, b eing L ates a nd c ichlids. I s uggest t herefore t hat w ith g rowing p ressure o n u tilisation o f r esources, a nd i ncreasing s carcity o f p reviously f avoured f ish, t he f ishers d iversified t heir u tilisation o f a quatic r esources, a nd d evised a lternative t echnology a ppropriate t o t he s maller i nshore f ish w hich w ere a vailable. U nfortunately ' transition ' s ites f rom e arlier t o l ater m ethods o f p rocurement w ould p robably h ave b een d estroyed b y t he t ransgressive/regressive c ycles o f t he s econd h igh l ake l evel p eriod. T he s ites t o w hich a rchaeologists h ave a ccess a re G aJi3 a nd l ater u nits a t L owasera w hich w ere o ccupied a t t he h eight o f t he s econd h igh l ake l evel p eriod; t hese r eflect t he s econd p attern o f f ishing l ong a fter i ts i nception, a nd n o t ransitional p attern i s p resent. A lternative h ypotheses e xist a s t o w hy t he n umber o f f ish t axa o bserved i n t he s ites i ncreased f rom e arly t o m id-Holocene s ites. P ossibly n ew g roups w ith d ifferent f ishing t echniques a rrived a t t he l akeshore s ubsequent t o t he e arly H olocene. H owever t he o verall s imilarity b oth i n p ercentages o f t ypological c ategories a nd i n p ercentages o f r aw m aterials i n s tone t ool a ggregates t hroughout t he d uration o f o ccupation o f e ach s ite a rgues s trongly a gainst a n i nflux o f n ew p eoples. P ossibly t oo t he s ites s ampled, o r e ven t he a reas s ampled w ithin t he s ites, w ere b iased a nd d o n ot a ccurately r eflect t he t otal f aunal c omposition. H owever t he c onsistency o f t he p atterning i n e arly H olocene s ites a nd i n m id-Holocene s ites a round L ake T urkana a gain a rgues a gainst t his s uggestion.

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P rocurement o f O ther V ertebrates

T able 1 0.1. C omparative l ist o f f ish, r eptilian a nd m ammalian e lements f rom a ll s ites d iscussed i n t he t ext. C ounts f or f ish a re t aken f rom t his t ext; c ounts f or o ther v ertebrates t aken f rom R obbins ( 1974), P hillipson ( 1977), B arthelme ( 1981). P =Present; ? =presence u ncertain; * =present b ut n umbers u navailable.

S ite

F ish

C rocodile

T urtle

H ippo.

G aJj1 G aJj2 G aJj11 G aJj12 F xJj12sf F xJj12exc F xJj12N G aJi3sf G aJi3exc L owasera L othagam

7 90 1 35 * 4 1 7 99 1 790 1 02 1 235 1 711 2 638

2 9 1 1 P P

6 8 5 2 7 1 06 6 9 7 6 P P

P P ? P ? ? ? ? P P

O ther M ammals 2 23 2 75 * 2 48 3 96 3 33 8 5 2 ? 2 48

M ammalian a nd r eptilian e lements c omprise a g reater p ercentage o f t he e arly H olocene a ssemblages a t L ake T urkana t han o f t he l ater H olocene o nes ( see T able 1 0 .1), c omprising o n a verage a bout 3 1% o f t he a ssemblage, c ompared t o l ess t han 5 % i n t he l ater s ites. T he f auna f rom t he e arly s ites a t K oobi F ora c onsisted m ainly o f s mall t o m edium b ovids, e quids a nd s uids, i ncluding o ryx ( Oryx b eisa), G rant's g azelle ( Gazella g ranti), w ildebeest ( Connochaetes t aurinus), z ebra ( Equus s pp.) a nd w arthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus). T hese a nimals w ere p robably p rocured w hile c oming t o t he l ake t o d rink. C rocodiles ( Crocodilus n iloticus), t urtles ( Trionyx s p.) a nd t he o ccasional h ippopotomus ( Hippopotomus a mphibius) a re a lso r epresented. T he h ippopotomi w ere l ikely a mbushed a t n ight w ith s pears a nd h arpoons w hen t hey c ame o n t o l and t o f eed, i n t he m anner t hat t he E l M ob oc atch h ippopotomi t oday ( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937: 3 32). T he f auna i n t he m id H olocene K oobi F ora s ites a nd a t L othagam i ncluded s mall b ovids, t urtles, c rocodiles a nd s everal h ippopotomi. D yson a nd F uchs ( 1937: 3 32) e mphasised t he u se o f h arpoons a mong t he E l M ob oi n c apturing h ippopotomi a nd c rocodile, a s t his w eapon i s t he o nly m ethod o f e nsuring t hat t he a nimal c annot e scape a fter a ttack . T he i ncrease i n n umbers o f h ippopotomi i n t he l ater u nits o f L owasera ( Phillipson 1 977: 2 8) m ay p rovide f urther s upport f or t he s uggestion t hat t he n ew b asal a ttachment o f t he b arbed p oints r eflected i nstigation o f h arpoon u sage ( see C hapter 8 ). T he d ietary c ontribution o f m ammals a nd r eptiles c annot b e q uantified w ithout f urther a nalysis. N evertheless, i t i s c lear t hat r eptiles a nd m ammals, p articularly t errestrial m ammals, c ontributed

1 70

m ore t o t he s ubsistence o f t he e arlier i nhabitants t han t o t hose a t t he l ater s ites. I nhabitants o f t he l ater s ites r elied a lmost s olely o n a quatic r esources: f ish , h ippopotomi a nd c rocodiles.

P rocessing a nd C onsumption - L ake T urkana A rchaeological S ites I nvestigation o f s keletal e lement r epresentations i s a h ighly s ubjective e xercise, w ith t he a nalyst r econstructing t hree p rocesses f rom a n a lready t aphonomically b iased a ssemblage o f f aunal r emains: 1 ) p rocessing ( defined a s i mmediate b utchering a fter p rocurement); 2 ) p reparation ( disarticulation a nd c ooking); a nd 3 ) c onsumption. I n t he c ase o f t he L ake T urkana f aunal a ssemblages t he a nalysis i s p rejudiced f urther b y t he i nability t o r ecognise e vidence o f b urning o n t he b one e lements. A lthough t he l iterature i s s canty, i n o rder t o r ender t he m ost a ccurate i nterpretation p ossible r eference i s m ade t o p rocessing, p reparation a nd c onsumption p atterns o f m odern L ake T urkana f ishers. S tudies o f t he D assanetch o f n orthwestern T urkana ( Gifford 1 977), t he E l M ob o( Dyson a nd F uchs 1 937), a nd m y o wn o bservations o f T urkana f ishers, s uggest t hat m ethods o f p rocessing a re c ontingent o n t he t ype o f c amp o ccupied a nd o n w hether t he f ish a re f or i mmediate o r l ater c onsumption. S ettlement t ypes i nclude t emporary f ishing c amps, a nd p ermanent o r s emi-permanent v illages. A t t emporary D assanetch f ishing c amps, o ccupied f or s hort p eriods b y f ishers a way f rom t heir p ermanent b ase, f ish, r eptiles, m ammals a nd b irds a re c aught a nd c onsumed o n t he s ite ( Gifford 1 977). T hese c amps a re u sually l ocated w ithin 1 00 m eters o f w ater's e dge. T he w hole f ish i s c onsumed, w hether l arge o r s mall, a lthough b odies o f s ome l arge f ish m ay b e d ried f or t ransport a nd l ater c onsumption a t t he p ermanent c amp, a s s een w ith t he E l M ob o( personal o bservation). A p ermanent T urkana f ishing v illage w hich I o bserved w as s ituated a bout . 5 k ilometer f rom t he l ake e dge, a nd t herefore f ish w ere c aught a nd p artially p rocessed a t t he l ake's e dge. A s f ishers a nd o ften t heir f amilies u sually s pent m ost o f t heir d ay a t t he w ater, a l arge n umber o f s mall f reshly-caught f ish ( 17. , ,4 , t 4 Z V;(e .

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B arbed b one p oints f rom L othagam ( Robbins 1 974).

2 46

s haf t s t ick s pear p o in ted a nd w i th a s i ng le b arb

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s ha f t + b arbed b one p o in t + s haf t -po in t b inder

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s ha f t + 4 mu l t i -barbed b one p o in t s + s ha f t -po in t b inder

S pears ( A ), H arpoons ( B) a nd L eisters ( C) a ccording t o O swalt S pearhead ( D) a nd L eister ( E) u sed b y S arkawa f ishers ( Harris

247

( 1973). 1 930).

F ootnotes

1 .

T wo d ates h ave r ecently b een d etermined f or m aterial f rom t he s ite o f I shango 1 1 o n L ake R utanzige, Z aire, w hich a re c onsiderably e arlier t han p ublished i n p revious r eports. T he f irst w as d etermined f rom a mino a cid r acemisation o f s hell, a nd w as r ecorded a t a bout 1 8,000 ( Brooks a nd S mith 1 986). T he s econd i s a r adioc arbon d ate r ecorded f rom o strich e ggshell, d ated a t 2 5000 B P ( Brooks, p ersonal c ommunication).

2 .

C onductivity i s m easured i n u mhos, d efined a s " the r eciprocal o f t he r esistance o f l cm , o f w ater a t 2 0 d egrees c elsius ( K 2' )." U mhos a re m hos x 1 0 -6 . ( Beadle 1 981: 6 0).

3 .

" Bone h arpoons" h ave b een t he t raditional d esignation i n t he l iterature f or t he s haped b one u sed a s s pear o r h arpoon p oints. B ecause t here i s n o d efinitive e vidence d istinguishing t hose p oints u sed a s h arpoon p oints f rom t hose u sed a s s pear o r l eister p oints, I a m u sing t he t erm b arbed b one p oints t o r efer t o a ll b one p oints w ith b arbs, r egardless o f b asal m odification.

4 .

D r. S tan A mbrose a nd Im ade a s earch o f t he f aunal r emains e xcavated b y t he L .S.B. L eakey e xpedition a nd l ater e xpeditions f rom G amble's C ave, n ow s tored i n t he N ational M useum o f K enya. V ery f ew f ish b ones w ere f ound. W hile A mbrose t herefore q uestions t heir a bundance, I r emain s keptical t hat L eakey, a lso a p aleontologist, c ould h ave b een i n e rror a bout s eeing " very c ommon" f ish r emains. I s uggest t hat, g iven e xcavation p rocedures i n t he 1 930 's, f ish b ones w ere n ot c ollected.

5 .

T raditionally t he s ystematic s urface c ollecting o f b one h as b een d one u sing t ransects ( e.g. B ehrensmeyer a nd D echant B oaz 1 980). L ong l inear p lots a re n ot a lways f ound i n b each e nvironments, a nd c ollection a reas a re o ften s quare o r r ectangular i n s hape. I n •l ooking f or a m ore a ccurate t erm t han ' transect' t o d escribe t hese a reas, I a m g rateful t o D r. M .R. K leindienst f or d iscussions o n t he s ubject, a nd t o D r. E . B anning f or s uggesting t he t erm ' quadrat'.

6 .

T he f ossilisation c ategories u sed t o c haracterise b one e lements c orresponded t o t hose o n t he M unsell S oil C hart a s f ollows: 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 YR-8/1; 7 .5YR-N8/; 1 0YR-8.1; 5 Y-8.1;8/2 2 .5Y-8/2, 8 /4, 7 /2; 1 0YR - 8 /2, 8 /3, 5 Y-7/2 2 .5Y - 7 /4, 7 /6; 1 0YR - 8 /6, 7 /4, 7 /6 5 YR-3/4, 4 /4, 5 /4, 7 .5YR-4/6, 3 /4; 1 0YR-3/4, 5 YR-3/1, 3 /2, 2 .5/1, 2 .5/2; 7 .5YR-3/2 0 , 5 YR-2/1; 7 .5YR-2/0.

2 48

3 /6

7 .

F ollowing G rayson ( 1984 : 1 7) I u se f aunal a ssemblage " to r efer t o t he e ntire s et o f f aunal s pecimens f rom a g iven c ultural o r g eol ogical c ontext...the d efining c ontext i s p rovided b y t he a nalyst." W hen a ssemblage i s u sed f or m aterial c ulture, i t t oo i s u sed i n i ts b roadest s ense, w here t he d efining c ontext i s g iven b y t he a nalyst. W hen d escribing s tratigraphic a spects o f t he a rchaeological s ites m entioned i n t he t ext, e .g. s pits o r l evels, I u se t he t erminology o f t he e xcavator.

2 49

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S arnthein, M . a nd B . K oopman. 1 980. L ate Q uaternary d eep-sea r ecord o n n orthwest A frican d ust s upply a nd w ind c irculation. P aleoecology o f A frica 1 2: 2 39-253. S chwartz, H . 1 983. P aleoecology o f l ate C enozoic f ishes f rom t he T urkana b asin, n orthern K enya. U npublished P h.D . D issertation, S anta C ruz, U niversity o f C alifornia. S cott, W . a nd E . C rossman. 1 973. F reshwater F ish o f C anada. F isheries R esearch B oard o f C anada, # 184.

O ttawa:

S ervant, M . a nd S . S ervant-Valdary. 1 980. L 'environnement q uaternaire d u b assin d u T chad. I n M . W illiams a nd H . F aure, e ds., T he S ahara a nd t he N ile, p p. 4 51-465, R otterdam, B alkema. S hiner, J .L . 1 968. T he K hartoum V ariant I ndustry. T he P rehistory o f N ubia, p p. 7 68-790. D allas: P ress.

I n F . W endorf, e d., S outhern M ethodist

S hipman , P . 1 986. S cavenging o r h unting i n e arly h ominids? A nthropologist 8 8: 2 7-43.

A merican

S hotwell, J . 1 955. A n a pproach t o t he p aleoecology o f m ammals. E cology 3 6, 2 : 3 27-337. S mith, A . 1 976. Am icrolithic i ndustry f rom A drar B ous, T enere D esert, N iger. A ctes d u s eptieme c ongres p anafricain d e p rehistoire p p. 1 81-196, A ddis A bbaba.

2 62

S mith, A . 1 980. T he N eolithic t radition i n t he S ahara . I n M . W illiams a nd H . F aure e ds., T he S ahara a nd t he N ile, p p. 4 51-465, R otterdam , B alkema . S mith, A . 1 984 . O rigins o f t he N eolithic i n t he S ahara. I n J .D. C lark a nd S . B randt, e ds., F rom H unters t o F armers, p p. 8 4-93, B erkeley, U niversity o f C alifornia. S mith, N .J.M . 1 981. M an, F ishes a nd t he A mazon. U niversity P ress.

N ew Y ork:

C olumbia

S mith, E .A. a nd B . W interhalder. 1 981. H unter-Gatherer F oraging S trategies. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress. S tefaniszyn, B . R hodesia.

1 964. T he M aterial C ulture o f t he A mbo o f N orthern O ccasional P apers o f t he R hodes-Livingstone M useum . 16.

S tewart, K .M . 1 987. F ish R emains f rom B eds I a nd I I, O lduvai G orge, T anzania. P aper p resented t o t he F ourth W orking G roup o f I chthyosteoarchaeology, Y ork, E ngland. S tewart, K .M . 1 988. C hanges i n c ondition a nd m aturation o f t he O reochromis n iloticus L . p opulation o f F erguson 's G ulf, L ake T urkana, K enya. J ournal o f F ish B iology 3 3: 1 81-188. S tewart, K .M . I n P ress. F ossil F ish R emains f rom t he L usso F ormation. V irginia M useum o f N atural H istory M emoirs, 1 . S toffers, P . a nd R . H ecky. 1 978. L ate P leistocene-Holocene e volution o f t he K ivu-Tanganyika b asin. I n A . M atter a nd M . T ucker, e ds., M odern a nd A ncient L ake S ediments, p p. 4 3-54, O xford, B lackwell. S treet, A . a nd F . G asse. 1 981. R ecent D evelopments i n R esearch i nto t he Q uaternary C limatic H istory o f t he S ahara . I n J .A. A llan e d., T he S ahara, p p. 8 -30, O utwell: M iddle E ast a nd N orth A frica S tudies P ress L td. S undstrom , L . U ppsala:

1 972. E cology a nd S ymbiosis: N iger W ater F olk. S tudia E thnographica U psaliensia 3 5.

S utton, J .E .S. 1 974. T he a quatic c ivilisation o f m iddle A frica. J ournal o f A frican H istory 1 5: 5 27-546. S utton, J .E .S.

1 977.

T he A frican a qualithic.

A ntiquity 5 1:

2 5-34.

T albot, M .R. 1 980. E nvironmental r esponses t o c limatic c hange i n t he W est A frican S ahel o ver t he p ast 2 0 ,000 y ears. I n M . W illiams a nd H . F aure, e ds., T he S ahara a nd t he N ile, p p. 3 7-62, R otterdam , B alkema . T homas, J . 1 934. L aRose.

At ravers L 'Afrique E quatoriale s auvage.

P aris:

T ruckle, P . 1 976. G eology a nd C ainozoic l ake s ediments o f t he S uguta t rough, K enya. N ature 2 63: 3 80-383.

2 63

V ondra, C . a nd B . B owen. 1 976. P lio-Pleistocene d eposits a nd E nvironm ents, L ake R udolf, K enya. I n Y . C oppens e t a l e ds., E arly M an a nd E nvironments i n t he L ake R udolf B asin , p p. 7 9-94, C hicago, U niversity o f C hicago. W ashbourn-Kamau, C . 1 971. L ate Q uaternary l akes i n t he N akuruE lmenteita B asin K enya. G eographical J ournal 1 37: 5 22-535. W att,

K . 1 973. P rinciples o f E nvironmental S cience. M cGraw-Hill.

W ayland,

E .J.

W eeks, J .H . C o.

1 934.

1 913.

A frican p luvial p eriods. A mong C ongo C annibals.

N ew Y ork :

N ature 1 23:

L ondon:

6 07.

S eeley S ervice a nd

W endorf, F . a nd R . S child. 1 976. Y ork : A cademic P ress.

P rehistory o f t he N ile V alley.

N ew

W endorf, F . a nd R . S child. 1 980. N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress.

P rehistory o f t he E astern S ahara.

W endorf, F . a nd R . S child, 1 984. T he E mergence o f F ood P roduction i n t he E gyptian S ahara. I n J .D . C lark a nd S . B randt, F rom H unters t o F armers, p p. 9 3-102, B erkeley, U niversity o f C alifornia P ress. W endorf, F . a nd F .A. H assan. 1 980. H olocene e cology a nd p rehistory i n t he E gyptian S ahara . I n M . W illiams a nd H . F aure, e ds., T he S ahara a nd t he N ile, p p. 4 07-419, R otterdam , B alkema. W endt, W .E. N ubia.

1 966. T wo p rehistoric a rchaeological s ites i n E gyptian P ostilla 1 02: 1 -46.

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E ast

W hittaker, R .H . 1 977. E volution o f s pecies d iversity i n l and c ommunities. E volutionary B iology 1 0: 1 -67. enya. W hitworth, T . 1 965. A rtifacts f rom T urkana , n orthern K A frican A rchaeological B ulletin 2 0: 7 5-78.

S outh

W illiams, M . 1 984. L ate Q uaternary P rehistoric E nvironments i n t he S ahara. I n J .D . C lark a nd S . B randt, e ds., F rom H unters t o F armers, p p. 7 4-84, B erkeley, U nivesity o f C alifornia P ress. W illiams, M . a nd D . A damson. 1 974. t he W hite N ile. N ature 2 48:

L ate P leistocene d essication a long 5 84-586.

2 64

W illiams, M . a nd D . A damson. 1 980. L ate Q uaternary d epositional h istory o f t he B lue a nd W hite N ile r ivers i n c entral S udan. I n M . W illiams a nd H . F aure e ds., T he S ahara a nd t he N ile, p p. 2 81-304, R otterdam , B alkema. W illiams , M . a nd H . F aure. B alkema. W orthington , E .B. J ournal 7 9:

1 980.

T he S ahara a nd t he N ile.

1 932. T he L akes o f K enya a nd U ganda. 2 78-297.

R otterdam :

G eographical

W orthington, E .B. 1 937. O n t he e volution o f f ish i n t he G reat L akes o f A frica. I nternational R evue g esamte H ydrobiologie, H ydrogeologie 3 5: 3 04-317. Y ellen, J . 1 977. A rchaeological A pproaches t o t he P resent: R econstructing t he P ast. A cademic P ress: N ew Y ork. Y ellen, J . a nd R .B. L ee. 1 976. T he D obe/Du/Da E nvironment. L ee a nd I . D eVore e ds., K alahari H unter-Gatherers, p p. C ambridge, H arvard U niversity P ress, 2 7-47. Y oung, J . a nd R . R enalt. K enya. N ature 2 78:

M odels f or

I n R .B. 2 7-47,

1 979. A R adiocarbon D ate f rom L ake B ogoria, 2 43-245.

v an Z inderen B akker, E .M . a nd J .A. C oetzee. 1 972. L ate c limatic e vidence f rom t ropical A frica. A frica 7 : 1 51-181.

2 65

A r eappraisal o f P aleoecology o f

A PPENDIX I

N umbers o f e lements i dentified f rom a ll s ites , l isted b y t axonomic g roup. T axa: P r=Protopterus; H t=Heterotis; G y=Gymnarchus ; M m=Mormyroidea ; L b=Labeo; B b=Barbus ; C y=Cyprinidae; H y=Hydrocynus; B g=Bagrus; C o=Clarotes; B d=Bagridae; C 1=Clarias; C d=Clariidae ; S y=Synodontis; S i=Siluriformes ; L a=Lates; C i=Cichlidae ; P e=Perciformes ; T e=Tetraodon . S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

C l

S y

S i

L a

C i

P e

O ther

E lement: A ngulare: 4 -G 1 -I A rticulare: 1 7-I

9 -I 1 -G 1 -L

1 1-F 2 -L 1 -C 6 -H 6 8-I

8 -F 1 9-G 8 -L 1 5-I 3 -H

7 -F 5 -G 1 -B 2 -L 2 4-I

6 -G 2 -L 3 -I

7 -F 5 -G 5 -L 3 5-I 1 -H

C o 2 -G

B asipterygium :

B ranchiale: 1 -I

1 3-G 2 -L 1 -H

B asihyale:

B asioccipitale: 3 -I 6 -I 1 -H 1 -F 3 -G C eratohyale: 1 1-I

9 -I

5 -I

2 -F 2 -G 1 -H

1 -H

5 -1 2 -G 1 -L

2 -F 2 8-I 3 -G

C ircumorbitale 3 :

3 -F 1 0-G 9 -L 8 -I

2 -G 1 -L 1 0-I

5 -F 5 -G 1 -C 1 -L 7 -I 2 -H

1 -G 1 -I

1 -G

2 66

1 -I 2 -L 1 -F

S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10-.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

C l

S y

S i

L a

4 -I 1 -G

5 -F 1 -G 2 -L 3 5-I 6 -H

2 -L 2 4-I 1 -H 1 0-G

6 -F 1 -A 2 -L 4 5-I 1 -H 2 -G

9 -F 1 2-G 1 3-L 4 -I 1 -H

1 -I

4 -F 2 -G 6 -I

3 -G

4 -G 1 -L

1 -G 1 -L

2 -F 1 -L 1 -D 2 1-I 2 9-H

5 4-I 3 -H

1 0-G 3 -A 1 00-F 6 58-I 4 -H 1 6-L 2 -E 4 -C 1 -B

1 8-I 1 -H 1 6-G 5 -L 1 -C

1 6-I 3 -G 1 -A 1 -L

C i

P e

6 -F 4 -G 4 -L 9 -I 2 -H

1 -I 2 -L

O ther

C leithrum :

C oracoideum : 1 -I

' Cranial F ragment': 2 -I 5 0-I

' Cranial S pine ': 1 -I

D entaria : 1 8-I 4 -H

8 -I 1 -F

1 -F 2 -L 3 5-I 6 -H

1 3-I 1 -G 1 -F

1 0-F 2 5-G 1 -D 3 1-L 3 1-I 3 -H

2 -F

B d:2-F C d:28-I

4 -F 2 -L 5 -I

C o:2-G

D ermatosphenoideum : 2 -I E pihyale: 7 -I

4 -I

1 -F 1 8-I 2 -H

5 -G 1 -I 1 -H

E pioticum : 4 -F 3 -G 3 -I

2 67

1 -G

S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 ( Levels 2 .10.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

C l

S y

S i

L a

C i

P e

O ther

E xoccipitale: 2 -F

F rontale: 2 -I 1 -H

1 -I 2 -F

6 -F 1 -L 2 5-I

1 8-I 2 -H 2 -G

3 -F 2 -G 2 -L 1 -I

4 -G 3 -L 1 4-L

2 -F 4 -G

1 -F 1 -G 3 -I I -H

C y :1-F C o:1-G C d:11-I

1G illraker-Outside ':

1 -F

2 -I

1 -I

D orsal H ypohyale : 1 -F 2 -G 4 -I V entral H ypohyale: 5 -I

6 -F 1 -G 1 -L 3 -I

H ypurale:

1 -I

2 -G 2 -I H yomandibulare: 3 5-I 4 -I 5 -H

I nterhyale: •

1 -F

1 -I

1 -I

2 -F 4 -G 1 -L 4 -I

5 -F 3 -G 5 -L 1 7-I 2 -H

1 -F 3 -G 1 -I

I nteroperculare: 1 -I

3 -F 6 -G

1 -L

J ugale: 1 -F 1 9-I 3 -H L acrimale:

3 -F 1 -I

2 68

C y :2 -G

S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10-.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

C l

S y

S i

L a

C i

P e

7 -F 4 -G 2 -E 7 -C 2 9-L

2 -L 1 07-I 1 1-H

3 3-A 2 -E 3 4-C 6 0-F 7 69-G 6 00-I 2 9-H 3 38-L

5 -F 1 0-G 1 -E 4 -L 8 -I

1 -F 2 -G 3 -L 1 0-I

1 -I

O ther

L epidotrichiae :

M axilla: 4 -I

M esethmoideum : 2 -F 2 -G M etapterygoideum : 1 -G O perculare: 9 -I 4 -H

3 -I

O rbitosphenoideum : 1 -G O tolith : P alatinum : 1 -I

1 -I

P arasphenoideum : 1 0-I 7 -I 3 -F

1 -F 1 3-I

1 -G

1 -I

3 -F 1 -G 1 -L 5 5-I 8 -H

7 -F 2 -G 9 -L

1 -F 2 -L 2 -H

3 -I

1 -G 5 -L 2 -I

2 -F

2 -L 3 4-I 6 -H

1 -I 1 -G

6 -F 5 -G 6 -L 4 -I

1 -I

P arietale:

2 -F 2 -G

2 69

H t:2-F C y :1-G

S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12 ; F =FxJj12 ; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

' Pectoral S pine ': 1 6-I 1 -G

C l

S y

S i

1 -F 1 -L 1 -E 2 -C 3 7-I 2 -H

5 5-G 1 4-L 2 -D 1 06-I 1 -H 1 -F 1 -E 2 -C

1 -G 2 -C 1 9-L 1 06-I 1 5-H 3 3-G 1 3-F 1 -E

L a

C i

P e

O ther

B d:1-I

' Pelvic S pine ': 1 -G 1 -L

1 -L 1 2-I

' Pharyngeal P late': 6 5-I 5 -H ' Pharyngeal T eeth ': 5 -B 2 -A 3 2-G 1 -L 4 12-I 9 -H P ostcleithra 1 ,2:

1 13-G 3 0-I 4 -H 2 0-L 1 9-F

L b:1-G C y:1-G

1 -F 9 -I 1 -H P ostorbitale: 1 -I 1 -H P osttemporale: 1 -H

5 -I 1 -H 1 -G

1 -F 1 -G

P refrontale: 3 -F 1 -A 1 -L 3 5-I 6 -H

2 70

4 -F 1 -G 5 -L 1 9-I 3 -H

S ites : A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10-.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

C l

S y

S i

L a

C i

P e

O ther

P remaxilla :

P reoperculare: 5 -I 1 -H

1 0-F 2 1-G 1 -A 1 -E 1 2-L 1 5-I

3 -F 1 -I

8 -F 1 2-G 1 -E 2 -L 1 -I 2 -H

5 -F 2 -G 3 -L 8 -I

1 -L

2 -L 1 -I

3 -F 1 -G

2 -F 1 -I

1 1-F 3 -G 1 -A 5 -L

3 -F 7 -G 1 4-I 1 -H

P rooticum : 2 -F P teroticum : 2 -I

1 -F

3 -F 1 -I 1 -H

P terygiophoria : 7 -H 2 -I 6 -G 3 -L 5 5-I

2 7-G 2 2-I 2 -H 4 8-L 2 5-F

P terygiophoria ( First A nal): 3 -F 1 -I

Q uadratum : 1 -F 5 -I 1 -H

3 -I

6 -F 2 0-I 1 -H

2 0-F 1 0-G 4 -A 1 -E 1 -C 7 -L 1 9-I

1 9-F 2 4-G 1 -A 1 -E 1 9-L 8 0-I,

3 -H

3 -F 5 -G 4 -L 2 1-I

' Ray ': 1 -G 1 -H 2 -L

2 71

2 2-I

C y:1-I

S ites: A =FxJj12N ; B =GaJj1; C =GaJj2; D =GaJj11; E =GaJj12; F =FxJj12; G =GaJi3, L =Lowasera ; I =Ishango 1 1 ( Levels 2 .10-.10); H =Ishango 1 4 ( Levels 1 8-26).

B b

H y

B g

' Rib ': 1 1-I

C l

S y

9 -I

S i

6 -I

S capulare: 1 -G S phenoticum : 1 -I

1 -F 1 -G 3 -I

3 -I 1 -H

L a

C i

P e

2 -F 1 6-G 2 -L 2 -I

3 -H

2 -I

1 -G

1 -F

1 -G 1 -A

' Spine': 3 6-G 8 9-I 7 9-L 2 -F S uboperculare: 1 -G

1 -L 2 -I

2 -F 4 -G 1 -C 4 -L 4 -I

2 1-I

S uborbitale: 5 -I 4 -H S upracleithrum :

2 72

O ther

A cknowledgements

F irst Ia m g rateful t o t he U niversity o f T oronto, I nternational D evelopment R esearch C entre ( IDRC) a nd t he S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada ( SSHERCC) f or p roviding t he f unding w ith w hich t o c arry o ut m y r esearch . Ia m a lso g rateful t o t he N ational M useum o f K enya a nd i ts d irector D r. R .E . L eakey f or p roviding a ffiliation f or t he t wo y ears I w orked i n K enya. T o m y s upervisor, M axine R . K leindienst, I o we a n e special d ebt o f t hanks. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o m y c ommittee - D r. C .S. C hurcher a nd D r. G . C rawford, f or t heir i nsights. M y g ratitude t o J ohn B arthelme, A lison B rooks, J ohn Y ellen a nd D avid P hillipson f or e ncouraging m e t o a nalyse t he f ish r emains f rom t heir s ites, a nd f or p roviding m e w ith t heir f ield n otes a nd s ite m aps. Ia m e specially g rateful t o D r. H .G.S. S avage, w ho f irst i ntroduced m e t o t he j oys o f f aunal a nalysis. M y t hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he S emliki R esearch E xpedition ( SRE), i n p articular J ack H arris , A lison B rooks a nd N oel B oaz f or i ncluding m e o n t heir 1 986 a nd 1 988 f ield s easons i n Z aire. D uring m y t wo y ears i n K enya I m et m any p eople w ho h elped m e b oth i n p rofessional a nd p ersonal w ays, - E ls C ornelissen, L aura T indimubona, N ikki S tern, M zalendo K ibunjia, C urtis M arean, K arega M unene , C arole S ussman , a nd W illiam A nyonge. A t t he N ational M useum K amoya K imeu, S imon K asinga , N ina M udida , D r. M eave L eakey, D r. S imiyu W andibba , M artin K okonya, J ohn K imengich a nd t he A rchaeology a nd P aleontology s taffs w ere v ery h elpful. E special t hanks a lso t o F rancis M usila w ho w orked a s m y a ssistant i n L ake T urkana. S everal f riends a nd c olleagues h ave p rovided i nformation a nd/or s upport b eyond t he c all o f d uty. I n p articular I t hank J ane R hodes , K aren M cCullough , S teven F ields, L orna W oods, J acques V erniers, J eanne S ept, P eter S heppard, D avid H elgren, P at S hipman a nd W im V an N eer. M y t hanks t o K ay B ehrensmeyer f or e ntrusting m e w ith K VA 2 89, a nd t o D iane G ifford-Gonzalez f or c omments o n m y o riginal t hesis p roposal. I n T oronto s everal p eople i n t he D epartment o f A nthropology h ave p rovided i nvaluable a ssistance o ver t he y ears. I n p articular I t hank W anda B arrett a nd J ohn R eid. Iw ould n ot b e w here I a m w ithout m y p arents B ill a nd D orothy, a nd m y f our s isters J ennifer, M argot, M erry a nd B ecky.

2 73

C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander , M .A ., P h .D ., F .S.A . S t. J ohn 's C ollege C ambridge C B2 1 TP, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r . A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished : 1 .

' The N iger D elta : N wanna N zewunwa .

2 .

A spects

o f

i ts P rehistoric E conomy a nd C ulture '

' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , M ali ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh .

3 .

4 .

B AR-589 .

' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n E astern A frica : A n A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli , S outhern K enya ' b y R obert F oley . R ARS97. ' Later

P leistocene

M ükhtar e l A min .

C ultural

A daptations

i n

S udanese

' Settlement P atterns i n t he I ron A ge o f Z ululand : I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all. B AR-5119 .

6 .

' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan , M ohammed-Ali.

N ubia '

b y Y ousif

R ARS114 .

5 .

7 .

b y

B AR-575.

An E cological

c . 6 000 - 2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas S .

B AR-8139 .

' History a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :

A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala

r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko . B AR-5195. 8 .

' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan :

A n A nalysis o f

S ites i n t he

N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed . S 197. 9 .

' Economy a nd

T echnology

C harles C able. 1 0 .

1.

i n

t he L ate

S tone A ge

B AR-

o f S outhern N atal '

b y

B AR-S201.

' Frontiers : S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday ' e d . M . H all, G . A very , D .M . Avery , M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . H umphreys . B AR-S207 . ' Archaeology a nd H istory i n S outhern N igeria : e arthworks o f B enin a nd I shan ' b y P .J . D arling .

1 2.

L atest

S tone A ge o f

S outhernmost A frica '

T he a ncient l inear

B AR5215 . b y J anette D eacon .

B AR-

S 213. 1 3.

' Fisher-Hunters a nd N eolithic P astoralists J ohn W ebster B arthelme . B AR-5254.

i n E ast T urkana ,

K enya ' b y

1 4.

' The A rchaeology o f C entral D arfur ( Sudan ) i n t he i st M illennium A .D . ' b y I brahim M usa M ohammed .

1 5.

B AR-S285 .

' Stable C arbon I sotopes a nd P rehistoric D iets i n t he S outh-Western C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y J udith S ealy .

1 6 .

? L 'art

B AR-5293 .

r upestre p rghistorique d es m assifs c entraux s ahariens ' b y A lfred

M uzzolini .

B AR-5318 .

1 7 .

' Spheroids a nd B attered S tones i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge ' b y P amela R . W illoughby . B AR-5321.

1 8 .

' The R oyal C rowns o f K ush ' b y L . T örök .

B AR-S338 .

1 9 .

' The L ater S tone A ge o f t he D rakensberg R ange a nd i ts f oothills ' b y F L O pperman . B AR-S339 .

2 0 .

' Socio-gconomic D ifferentiation H aaland . R AR 5350 .

2 1.

i n

t he N eolithic

S udan '

' Later S tone A ge S ettlement P atterns i n t he S andveld o f t he S outhW estern C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y A nthony Manhire .

2 2.

2 3.

b y R andi

V art r upestre d u Q uellec . B ARS365 .

F ezzan

s eptentrional

( Libye)

B AR-S351.

b y J ean-Lorc

l e

' Archaeology a nd E nvironment i n t he L ibyan S ahara ' e dited b y B arbara F . B arich .

B AR-5368 .

2 4.

' The E arly F armers o f T ranskei , S 378 .

2 5.

' Later S tone A ge H unters a nd G atherers o f t he S outhern T ransvaal ' b y L yn W adley . B AR-6380 .

2 6 .

S outhern A frica '

2 7.

' Zooarchaeology i n t he M iddle N ile V alley : S ites n ear K hartoum ' b y A li T igani E lMahi .

2 8 .

' L 'Ancienne B AR-S422.

2 9 .

' El G eili :

M gtallurgie

d u

B AR -

F er

B AR-5405 .

A S tudy o f F our N eolithic B AR-5418 .

ä M adagascar '

b y

C hantal

T he H istory o f a M iddle N ile E nvironment ,

1 500 ' e dited b y I . C aneva .

R adimilahy .

7 000 B .C .

-A .D .

B AR-S424 .

' The E thnoarchaeology o f t he Z aghawa o f D arfur ( Sudan ) ' b y N atalie T obert.

B AR-5445.

3 1.

' Shellfish i n P rehistoric D iet' b y W .F . B uchanan .

3 2.

' Houlouf I : A rchgologie d es s ocigtgs C ameroun ' b y A ugustin H oll. B AR-5456.

3 3.

F reely .

' Prehistoric C ultures a nd E nvironments i n t he L ate Q uaternary o f A frica ' e dited b y J ohn B ower a nd D avid L ubell .

3 0.

b y J .M .

B AR-S455.

p rotohistoriques

d u N ord-

I le P redynastic L ithic I ndustries o f U pper E gypt ' b y D iana L . H olmes . B AR-S469 .