Engineering graphics : tools for the mind 9781585034123, 1585034126

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ENGINEERING

GRAPHICS:

Tools for the Mind A Comprehensive Set of Engineering Graphics Tools

Auxiliary Views

Sections

Dimensioning

Bryan Graham University of Alabama

TECHNICAL GRAPHICS Meyers, Croft, Miller, Demel & Enders Ohio State University

Technical Sketching Orthographic Projection Pictorial Drawings Sections and Conventions Dimensions and Tolerances Dimensioning for Production

Fastening, Joining and Standard Parts Production Drawings Three-Dimensional Geometry Concepts 3-D Geometry Applications Graphical Presentation of Data Design Process

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ENGINEERING GRAPHICS: Tools for the Mind Bryan Graham University of Alabama

PLUS — Exclusive DVD Bonus Feature:

Technical Graphics Meyers e Croft e Miller e Demel e Enders Ohio State University

ISBN: 978-1-58503-412-3

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ENGINEERING GRAPHICS: Tools for the Mind Copyright 2007 Bryan Graham All tights reserved. This document may not be copied, photocopied, reproduced, or translated in any form for any purpose, without the express written permission of Schroff Development Corporation.

TECHNICAL GRAPHICS Copyright 2007 Meyers, Croft, Miller, Demel & Enders All rights reserved. reproduced,

The material contained on the CD may not be copied, photocopied,

or translated

in any

form

for any purpose,

without

the express

written

permission of Schroff Development Corporation.

Examination Copies: Books received as examination copies ate for review purposes only and may not be made available for student use. Resale of examination copies is prohibited.

Electronic Files: Any electronic files associated with this book are licensed to the original user only. These files may not be transferred to any other party.

Printed in the United States of America

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS: Tools for the Mind Bruce Graham University of Alabama

Table of Contents : 1. Lettering

2.

Guidelines for Lettering

3. Orthographic Projection

4. |lsometric Drawings Inclined Surface Oblique Surface Curved Surfaces

Planes and Surfaces Curved Surfaces

5. Oblique Drawings Cavalier Oblique Cabinet Oblique

Sketching Lines Circles Arcs Isometric Sketching

bee a

6. Auxiliary Views Inclined Surface

Curved Surfaces

7. Sections Full Sections Half Sections Offset Sections Revolved/Removed Sections Broken-Out Sections

Aligned Sections

hes

ae

8. Dimensioning Basic Rules Size - Arc Dimension Placement

- Holes and Cylindrical Features - Machined Holes Locate - Finished Surfaces

- Holes or Cylinders on an arc or circle Overall Dimensions

- Rounded End Objects

Exclusive DVD Bonus Feature — Technical Graphics

Exclusive DVD Bonus Feature:

Technical Graphics Meyers e Croft ¢ Miller e Demel e Enders Ohio State University

Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 Getting Started 1.1 ie

1.3

1.4

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1.4.1 BITC RIO I fsck eor dst cet cers 1 OO IT UA oll eM heh ee ee, 1.4.3. Instrument ON ee csr Ree Ve eh IR

ERTUNABATS Screen eee Ves Drawing Straight Lines with Your CAD DY SICH wetner oro mete eue.ae Se TCS nc ee nae et SRO te oo ee Drawing Circles and Ares With Your CAD SY SICH g cr ee noe he tye A BR ease trast sleet dun AS eM denenamie

1-17 1-17 1-17

1-17 1-19 1-20 1-20 1-21

Exclusive DVD Bonus Feature — Technical Graphics

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2.3

Sketohing Vertical Limes ets rcaccert ct cecers onescesses curysiatusessict ss eae

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Drawing Median 2

2.7

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Tate” W ClgES resets stent

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2.10

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2.11

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Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Figure OBL-2 shows the steps necessary to draw the Cavalier Oblique of the object in Figure OBL-1.

Oblique drawings provide a quick way to sketch an object and represent the three dimensions of height, width and depth. While an isometric drawing creates a more realistic pictorial drawing, the oblique drawing is simple, fast and usually avoids the need for elliptical shapes. Oblique drawings have only one receding axis. This axis can be drawn at any angle, but is typically drawn at a 30° or 45° angle. With a grid system, the 45° receding axis is drawn with a light diagonal line from corner to opposite corner of the grid.

CAVALIER OBLIQUE DRAWINGS Cavalier oblique drawings transfer the depth measurement from the orthographic projection directly to the receding axis in the oblique drawing. This sometimes makes the oblique drawing appear stretched on the receding axis. However, if the object is simple and has all of its curved surfaces in the same plane, the cavalier oblique provides a fast pictorial drawing to represent the object.

FRONT

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Figure OBL-1 — The orthographic views of the object with rectangular prisms.

Step 1 - The overall rectangular shape is drawn with the depth measurement placed along the receding axis. Step 2 - The rectangle or notch on the right hand side is drawn to show where the corner has been removed. Step 3 - The rectangular notch on the upper left front corner is drawn. Step 4 - The inclined surface on the upper right rear edge is located by marking the corners of the inclined surface and then connecting those corners to generate the angle. As you construct the oblique drawling, notice that surfaces that are parallel in the orthographic view remain parallel when transferred to the oblique drawing

Step 1

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Step 3

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Figure OBL-2 — The steps in drawing a cavalier oblique. Notice in Step 1 that the receding axis in shown and goes diagonally from corner to corner. The receding axis is removed in the following steps for clarity.

OBLIQUE DRAWINGS -1

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind CABINET OBLIQUE DRAWINGS A cabinet oblique drawing is constructed similar to a cavalier oblique drawing except the distances transferred along the receding axis are reduced by half. This reduces the exaggerated (or long) look of oblique drawings where the depth measurement is significantly greater in proportion to the height and width.

CAVALIER OBLIQUE

Figure OBL-5 shows the steps necessary to draw the cavalier oblique of the object depicted in Figure OBL-4. The steps to surfaces are curved with construct the oblique the same as the steps in constructing a rectangular prism.

CABINET OBLIQUE

Figure OBL-3 — The difference between a Cavalier and Cabinet Oblique drawing is readily

FRONT

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apparent in this comparison. The shortened receding axis reduces the exaggerated length of the depth measurement.

Figure OBL-4 — The orthographic views of the object with curved surfaces.

CURVED SURFACES IN OBLIQUE DRAWINGS And oblique drawling lends its self to quick representations of objects with curved surfaces. When the curved edges of cylindrical features and holes appear circular in the front face of the object, the radii and diameters can be transferred directly to the appropriate face in the oblique drawing. The surface that appears curved in _ the orthographic projection will also appear as the same curved surface in the oblique drawing. This eliminates the need for elliptical shapes and speeds up the drawing process. To determine if the back edge of a hole will appear in the oblique drawing, simply move the center point back along the receding axis the appropriate distance. Move the circle back to this second center point and determine if the edge is visible.

Step 1 - Begin the oblique drawing with light construction lines for the rectangular base plate and rear vertical plate. Step 2 - The two circles representing the curved top of the vertical rear plate are drawn in both the front face and rear face. Step 3 - The light diagonal line that goes from the center of the circle to the upper left corner in each face defines the point of tangency for the line that represents the edge of the curved surface on the upper left side. This diagonal line determines where the curved surface on the rear face ends and the line representing the edge begins. These two diagonal lines are perpendicular to the receding axes. The circle representing the hole in the vertical plate is drawn in the front surface with an object line and in the rear surface with a light construction line to check for visibility.

OBLIQUE DRAWINGS -2

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Step 4 - Since the circles hole do not overlap, you will of the rear hole. Therefore, representing the front edge drawn with a visible line.

representing the not see the edge only the circle of the hole is

CAVALIER OBLIQUE

CABINET OBLIQUE

Figure OBL-6 — With the shorter receding axis, the rear edge of the hole appears in the Cabinet oblique.

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Figure OBL-5 — The steps in drawing the cavalier oblique of an object with curved surfaces. Notice in Step 1 that the receding axis in shown and goes diagonally from corner to corner. The receding axis in the following steps is removed for clarity.

Figure OBL-6 shows the object with curved surfaces as it would appear in both a cavalier and a cabinet oblique drawing. Although the receding axis is 45° in both drawings, the cabinet oblique looks less exaggerated along the receding axis. Notice that the rear edge of the hole does appear in the cabinet oblique since the shorter receding axis brings the edge of the hole forward.

OBLIQUE DRAWINGS -3

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Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind in the front view) with the true length depth measurement from either the top or right side view and creates a true size and shape view of the inclined surface.

For most objects, two or three views drawn orthographically are sufficient to describe the object. However some objects, especially those having an inclined surface, require an additional view to show the inclined surface true size and shape. An auxiliary view is used to provide this true size and shape view. The inclined surface in Figure AUX-1 appears as an edge view in the front view. homer

A fold line is drawn between views. The distance from the fold line to the front edge of the top view and from the fold line to the front edge of the right side view will be the same measurement. These fold lines are perpendicular to one another and parallel to the edge of the views. Another fold line is drawn between the front view and the auxiliary view. This fold line is drawn parallel to the edge view of the inclined surface in the front view.

Foreshortened

Rectangular Shape of the Inclined Surface

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Figure AUX-1 — The inclined surface appears as an edge in the front view. The surface is foreshortened in the top and right side views. ee aac =a a Height Depth al Rectangular Shape of the Inclined Surface FRONT

Fy/RS

In the top and right side views, this inclined surface appears rectangular but does not appear true size and shape.

The auxiliary view incorporates the true length measurement of the edge view (found

RIGHT SIDE

When drawing orthographically, projections between views are made perpendicular to the fold lines between views. This technique of projecting perpendicular to the fold line is continued when projecting measurements from the front view to the

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 1

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind auxiliary view. The true length measurement indicated in the front view is projected into the auxiliary view with light construction lines. The necessary depth measurement is transferred from the top view or right side view. Begin by transferring the distance back from the fold line to the leading edge of the auxiliary view. Continue by transferring the remaining depth measurements. Circular features in the inclined surface will appear elliptical in the rectangular views of the

inclined

surface.

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these

circular features will appear as complete circles or arcs in the auxiliary view since the direction of sight is perpendicular to the surface. Typically, only the true size and shape of the inclined surface is drawn in the auxiliary

view. If it is preferable to draw the entire object in the auxiliary view, the remaining points of the object are projected.

AUXILIARY VIEW OF AN INCLINED SURFACE The steps in drawing an Auxiliary View are presented in separate illustrations. Step One (Figure AUX-2) - The corners of the inclined plane are numbered in the right side view (where the surface appears foreshortened) for easy reference. (The top view could also be used instead of the right side view.) These points are projected across to the front view (where the inclined surface appears as an edge view) and numbered accordingly.

Figure AUX-2 STEP 1 — The corners are marked in the foreshortened view and projected to the edge view of the surface. Either the right side or top view can be used since both have the depth measurement.

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 2

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Step Two (Figure AUX-3) - The fold line between the front view and the auxiliary view is added and drawn parallel to the edge view of the inclined surface. This fold line can be located at any distance from the edge view of the inclined surface, but the fold line

must be parallel to the edge view. The corners of the inclined surface are projected from the front view, perpendicular to the fold line (between the front view and the auxiliary view), and located in the auxiliary view. Notice that the distance from the fold line to the leading edge of the object (measurement “A”) is the same in both the right side view and the auxiliary view. The distances from the fold line to the remaining points are transferred and measured from the fold line in the auxiliary view.

Figure AUX-3 STEP 2 — The corners are projected into the auxiliary view.

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 3

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Step Three (Figure AUX-4) - The points are connected to draw the outline of the inclined surface that appears true size and shape in the auxiliary view. The hole, which appears elliptical in the top and right side views, will appear as a true circle in the auxiliary view because the angle of sight will be directly down the centerline of the hole. The depth measurement in the top and right side views is the true length measurement of the diameter of the hole. The distance between the hidden lines in the front view also indicates the true diameter of the hole. The center mark is located by projecting the centerline and using the measurement from the fold line to the center mark (measurement “C”). The diameter of the circle is also projected from the front view and corresponds to measurement “D” in the top and right side views.

The Diameter (D) is foreshortened in this direction and forces the circle to appear as an ellipse.

Figure AUX-4 STEP 3 — The circle representing the hole is added.

RIGHT SIDE

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 4.

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Step Four (Figure AUX-5) - The circle representing the hole is drawn and the centerlines for the hole are added. Drawing object lines over construction lines of the surface completes the auxiliary view.

projecting. In this example, the front view shows height and width. Therefore, the missing dimension of depth is needed and can be transferred from the top or right side views.

Figure AUX-5 STEP 4 — The light construction lines are converted to object lines and the surface appears true size and shape in the auxiliary view.

FIRS

This illustration projects the auxiliary view from the front view. However, an auxiliary view can be projected from any of the remaining primary orthographic views, in any direction, as long as the fold line is parallel to the edge view of the inclined surface. The technique of numbering the corners is a simple way to ensure that the corners are projected to the correct locations and the appropriate measurements are transferred. Another way to determine the missing dimension necessary for the auxiliary view is to analyze the view from which you are

RIGHT SIDE

If projecting the auxiliary view from the top view, project the measurement of the edge view of the inclined surface into the auxiliary view and add one other dimension. Since the top view shows width and depth the missing dimension needed is height.

Projecting an auxiliary view from the right side view requires the transfer of the width measurement from either the top or front view because the right side view will include depth and height. In each of the three examples, the process is to combine the edge view measurement (that appears

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 5

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind true length) with the missing measurement projected from an adjoining view. The entire object can be drawn in the auxiliary view. The remaining corners are projected to the auxiliary view and located.

These corners can be labeled or numbered for easy identification while transferring measurements. Hidden lines will appear to indicate edges behind the visible surfaces.

Figure AUX-6.— The entire object can be shown in the auxiliary view.

F/RS

AUXILIARY VIEWS - 6

RIGHT SIDE

1. The complete TOP, FRONT and RIGHT SIDE views are given. Using the fold lines to measure, draw the AUXILIARY view of the inclined surface only. TOP

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2. The complete FRONT and RIGHT SIDE views are given. Label the corners in each view to aid in projecting the points into the AUXILIARY view and use the fold lines to measure distances. Draw the AUXILIARY view of the inclined surface only.

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Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind

The orthographic views are usually sufficient to describe the shape of an object. Sometimes hidden lines make it difficult to visualize A section view complex internal features. clarifies the shape and location of the internal features. In a section view the object is sliced with an imaginary cutting plane. The portion closest to the viewer is removed so that the internal features of the object are visible.

THE FRONT HALF OF THE OBJECT IS REMOVED

Most section views require a cutting plane line to indicate where the object is divided. This line is typically a phantom line (a series of two short segments and one longer line segment), a hidden line type (with longer dashes all the same length) or end arrows if the cutting plane line would hide important details in the drawing.

FULL SECTIONS If the cutting plane goes all the way across the object in a straight line, it is termed a full section. The section is typically drawn in an adjacent view and replaces that orthographic view. In Figure SEC-3 the cutting plane line is drawn in the top view. Therefore, the front view location is now drawn as a full section. The cutting plane line is drawn with a phantom line and appears in the top view with the arrows at the end of the cutting plane line pointing in the viewing direction.

Figure SEC-1 —The cutting plane separates

the object into two halves allowing the internal features of the rear half to appear.

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FULL SECTION

RIGHT SIDE

RIGHT SIDE

Figure SEC-2 —The front view appears as the Full Section.

Figure SEC-3 — Full Section with isometric

SECTIONS - 1

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind Though half of the object is removed, this sectional view is called a full section since the cutting plane cuts all the way across the object. The internal features normally shown with hidden lines are now represented with visible lines. The portion of the object where the cutting plane slices through material is crosshatched with light section lines. There are many different types of lines representing various materials. Since our focus is to understand how the section view appears, we will use a traditional pattern of section lines at a 45° angle spaced approximately 1/8” apart. Where the cutting plane passes through a whole or slot (a void), section lines do not appear. Center lines for circular features are shown in the sectional view.

HALF SECTIONS Half sections are useful for showing both the internal features and external features of an object. They are typically used with symmetrical objects and provide a quick visualization of both the inside and outside of the object. Figure SEC-4 illustrates a half section.

Although the cutting plane removes a fourth of the object, it is termed a half section because the cutting plane cuts only halfway across the object. In the sectional view, half of the object appears as a section and the other half appears as a normal view. Typically, hidden lines are not shown on the half section. Notice that the cutting plane has only one arrow. A center line is used to separate the half appearing in section (internal) from the half appearing as a typical orthographic view (external).

OFFSET SECTIONS Not all objects contain holes and slots that are aligned in one plane. Quite often these voids are offset one from another. In order to pass the cutting plane through these holes and slots the cutting plane line must be bent line at 90° angles as in Figure SEC-5.

TOP

OFFSET SECTION

RIGHT SIDE

Figure SEC-5 — Offset Section with isometric

HALF SECTION

RIGHT SIDE

Fiaure SEC-4 — Half Section with isometric.

The cutting plane in Figure SEC-5 could pass through either the front or rear hole in the mid-part of the object because the holes are in alignment and are the same diameter and

SECTIONS - 2

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind

depth. Notice that the bend in the cutting plane line does not create a visible line in the section view. If a line representing the bend in the cutting plane were included, the section would appear as separate pieces of material placed together. The cutting plane of the offset section has two arrows and both point in the same direction as the viewing direction.

A revolved section shows a cutting plane perpendicular through the feature that will be drawn in the section. The material cut with the cutting plane line is then rotated 90° and the measurements are projected to the adjacent view. This revolved section can be drawn directly on the view as in Figure SEC-6. If there is not room or if the drawing becomes too

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difficult to interpret in the orthographic views. REVOLVE THE MEASUREMENT 90° AND PROJECT TO THE ADJACENT VIEW

"A"

BROKEN -OUT SECTIONS A broken out section avoids the use of a separate section drawing to clarify a particular internal feature. To illustrate the interior features, a portion of the object is imaginatively broken away and the interior features are drawn in section as in Figure SEC-7. A jagged line is used to indicate the break and separate the break from the normal exterior view. This broken out section can be as large or small as necessary to provide a clear view of the internal features.

REVOLVED SECTION

FRONT

BROKEN-OUT SECTION

Figure SEC-7 — A Broken-Out Section. REMOVED SECTION

Figure SEC-6 — A Revolved Section is drawn on the front view. If this section is moved off the view, it becomes a Removed Section.

ALIGNED SECTIONS On some parts holes and special features, like ribs and webs, may not all be in alignment. The true orthographic projection of these

SECTIONS -3

Engineering Graphics: Tools for the Mind features results in a distorted image of the object. However, if these features are revolved or rotated until they are in alignment with the cutting plane line and then projected, they more clearly represent the features of the object. Although an aligned section violates the principles of orthographic projection, alignment allows the features to be shown with true measurements from the central axis. The part shown in Figure SEC-8 is drawn as a full section.

However, a half section could

be used to illustrate the features of the object. ROTATE THE HOLE INTO ALIGNMENT BEFORE PROJECTING TO THE SECTION THE RIB IS NOT SECTIONED

FULL SECTION WITH ALIGNED FEATURES FRONT

ROTATE THE RIB INTO ALIGNMENT BEFORE PROJECTING

Figure SEC-8 — In the front view, the holes and rib are first revolved into alignment with the cutting plane and then projected to the sectional view.

A rib or web is a narrow, flat part that provides support to the object. Since these parts are thin, adding section lines creates the impression that they are as thick as the rest of the object. Omit sectioning the rib or web area in the sectional view when the cutting plane passes longitudinally through the web or the rib.

SECTIONS - 4

Sketch the FRONT view as a FULL SECTION The given views are complete.

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