Encyclopaedia Britannica [20, 9 ed.]

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Encyclopaedia Britannica.—Vol. XX. PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

Encyclopaedia IN

Britanniea.

expressing regret for the unavoidable delay in the publication of Volume XX.,

the Publishers take this opportunity of informing Subscribers that according to present arrangements it is expected that the Work will be completed in Four Volumes as follows :— .

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XXII. . XXIII. .

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XXIV. .

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VOLUME

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A General Index is in preparation, and will follow the publication of the last Volume. EDINBURGH,

RADIATION.

April 15, 1886.

Prof. P. G.

IAIT.

| RHODE ISLAND.

WM.

E.

FORSTER.

I

ROSSETTI.

THEODORE WATTS.

Encyclopaedia Britannica.—Vol. XX PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. PRUSSIA. J. F. MUIRHEAD. PRUSSIC ACID. Prof. W. DITTMAR. PRYNNE. S. RAWSON GARDINER, LL. D., and

OSMUND AIRY.

PSALMS. Prof. W. ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. PSKOFF. P. A. KROPOTKINE. PSYCHOLOGY. JAMES WARD. PTERODACTYLE. E. T. NEWTON. PTOLEMY. Prof. G. JOHNSTON ALLMAN, LL.D., and E. H. BUNBURY. PUBLIC HEALTH. JAMES WILLIAMS, BCL PUFENDORF. Prof. ERNEST NYS. PULTENEY. W. P. COURTNEY. PUNCHINELLO. R. MORTIMER WHEELER. PUNJAB. Gen. R. MACLAGAN, R.E. PURCELL. W. S. ROCKSTRO. PUSEY. Rev. EDWIN HATCH, D.D. PYM. S. RAWSON GARDINER, LL. D. PYRAMID. W. M. F. PETRIE. PYRENEES. GEORGE G. CHISHOLM. PYROMETER. W. N. SHAW. PYROTECHNY. ORME MASSON, M.D., D.Sc. PYTHAGORAS— PHILOSOPHY. Prof. ANDREW SETH. GEOMETRY. Prof. G. J. ALLMAN, LL. D. PYTHEAS. E. H. BUNBURY. QUAIL. Prof. ALFRED NEWTON. QUAKERS. Rt. Hon. Sir EDWARD FRY. QUARANTINE. CHAS. CREIGHTON, M. D. QUATERNIONS. Prof. P. G. TAIT. QUEBEC. GEORGE STEWART, Jun. QUEENSLAND. JAMES BONWICK. QUESNAY. J. K. INGRAM, LL.D. QUEVEDO. A. MOREL-FATIO. QUININE. E. M. HOLMES. QUINTILIAN. J. S. REID, D. Lift. RABBI. S. M. SCHILLER-SZINKSSY, Pll.D. RABELAIS. GEORGE SAINTSBURY. RABIES. GEORGE FLEMING, LL.D. RACINE. GEORGE SAINTSBURY. RACKETS. H. F. WILKINSON. RADIATION. Prof. P. G. TAIT.

RAILWAY. D. KINNEAR CLARK, C.E.; Prof. A. T. HADLEY; A. M. WELLINGTON, C.E.; and S. WRIGHT DUNNING. RAJPUTANA. W. T. RONSON. RALEIGH. S. RAWSON GARDINER. RAPHAEL. J. HENRY MIDDLETON. RATIONALISM. Rev. J. F. SMITH. RAVENNA. THOMAS HODGKIN. RAY. ALBERT GUNTHER, M.D., Ph.D. RAY, JOHN. Prof. D’ARCY W. THOMPSON.

READE. Prof. W. MINTO. REAL ESTATE. JAMES WILLIAMS. RECORDS. A. C. EWALD. RED SEA. H. R. MILL. REFORMATION. J. BASS MULLINGER. REFORMATORY. J. E. DAVIS. REGISTRATION. JAMES WILLIAMS and J. E. DAVIS. REID. Prof. ANDREW SETH. REISKE. Prof JUL. WELLHAUSEN, Ph.D. RELICS. Rev. J. G. CAZENOVE, D.D. RELIGIONS. Prof. C. P. TIELE. REMBRANDT. J. F. WHITE. RENAISSANCE. J. A. SYMONDS. RENT

W. M. ROSSETTI.

RENNELL. Col. YULE, C. B. REPORTING. CHARLES COOPER. REPRODUCTIONANIMAL. PATRICK GEDDES. VEGETABLE. SYDNEY HOWARD VINES. REPTILES. ALBERT GUNTHER, M.D., Ph.D., and ST GEORGE MIVART, M.D.,

Ph.D. RESPIRATION. Prof. ARTHUR GAMGEE. REUNION. H. A. WEBSTER. REUTER. JAMES SIME. REVELATION, BOOK OF. Prof. ADOLF HARNAOK.

REYNOLDS. JOHN M. GRAY. RHETORIC. Prof. R. C. JEBB, LL.D. RHEUMATISM. J. 0. AFFLECK, M.D. RHINE. J. F. MUIRHEAD. RHINOCEROS. W. H. FLOWER, LL.D. RHODE ISLAND. WM. E. FORSTER.

RHODES. E. H. BUNBURY. RICARDO. J. K. INGRAM, LL. D. RICHARD I.—III. G. W. PROTHERO. RICHARDSON. Prof. W. MINTO. RIEMANN. Prof. GEORGE CHRYSTAL. RIMINI. Prof PASQUALE VILLARI. RIO DE JANEIRO. H. A. WEBSTER. RIOT. JAMES WILLIAMS. RIPLEY. E. L. BURLINGAME. RIVER ENGINEERING. L. F. VERNONHARCOURT, C.E. ROADS AND STREETS. THOMAS CODRINGTON, C.E. ROBERT THE BRUCE. JENEAS J. G. MACKAY, LL.D. ROBERTSON, F. W. Rev. MARCUS DODS, D.D.

ROBERTSON, WILLIAM.

J.

COTTER

MORRISON.

ROBESPIERRE. H. MORSE STEPHENS. ROBIN HOOD. Prof. J. WESLEY HALES. RODNEY. G. F. HOOPER. ROLAND. THOMAS SHAW, LL.B. ROLAND, LEGEND OF. T. A. ARCHER. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. P. L. CONNELLAN.

ROMANCE. H. R.

TEDDER

and MICHAEL

KERNEY.

ROMANCE LANGUAGES. Prof. JOHAN STORM, LL.D. ROMAN LAW. Prof. JAMES MUIRHEAD, LL. D. ROMAN LITERATURE. Prof. W. Y. SELLAR, LL.D. ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. Prof. E. SCHURER.

ROME— HISTORY—ANCIENT. H. F. PELHAM. MEDIEVAL AND RECENT. Prof. P. VILLARI. TOPOGRAPHY AND ARCHEOLOGY. J. HENRY MIDDLETON. ROPE. JAMES PATON. ROSA. W. M. ROSSETTI. ROSSETTI. THEODORE WATTS.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BBITANNICA NINTH EDITION

V THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA A

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE

NINTH EDITION

VOLUME

XX

^TOCAT^

A:

^LIBRARY ^

EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK MDCCCLXXXVI

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

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RUDENTIUS, AURELIUS CLEMENS, a Christian versewriter, apparently a native of Spain, who flourished during the latter half of the 4th century and in the beginning of the 5th. According to the meagre and vague autobiographical notices given by himself in the preface to his poems he was born in the year 348, and, after receiving a liberal education, practised at the bar and subsequently held judicial office in two important cities. At the time of the publication of his poems in 405 he held from the emperor a high military appointment at court. Of his subsequent history nothing is known. His extant works, besides the preface already referred to and an epilogue, are the following:—(1) Cathemerinon Liber, a series of twelve hymns {Kad^fiepivOiv V/AVCOV) in various metres to be repeated or sung at particular periods of the day or seasons of the year ; (2) Apotheosis, a poem of 1085 hexameter verses on the divinity of Christ; (3) Hamartigenia (967 hexameter verses) on the origin of evil and sin ; (4) Psychomachia, or the conflict between virtue and vice for the soul (915 hexameter verses) ; (5) Contra Symmachum, two books, of 658 and 1131 hexameter verses respectively, directed against the petition of Symmachus to the emperor for the restoration of the altar and statue of Victory which Gratian had cast down; (6) Peristephanon Liber, fourteen poems in various metres, in honour of certain saints who had won the crown of martyrdom (hence the name, Trepi (rre^aviov),—these, which are often vigorous and graphic, are generally considered to show Prudentius at his best; (7) Diptychon or Dittochseon, a series of forty-nine hexameter tetrastichs on various events and characters mentioned in Scripture. The editio princeps appeared at Deventer in 1472 ; among modern editions may be named those of Faustus Arevalus (2 vols., Rome, 1788-89), Obbarius (Tubingen, 1845), and Dressel (Leipsic, 1860).

PRUD’HON, PIERRE (1758-1823), French painter, born at Cluny on the 4th of April 1758, was the third son of a mason.. The monks of the abbey undertook his education. The paintings which decorated the monastery excited his emulation, and by the aid of Moreau, bishop of Macon, he was placed with Devosges, director of the art school at Dijon. In 1778 Prud’hon went to Paris armed with a letter to Wille, the celebrated engraver, and three years latei he obtained the triennial prize of the states of Burgundy, which enabled him to go to Rome, where he *n^ma^e with Canova. He returned to Paris in . ' ’ an 14,752,328 sheep, stock. 5, 819,136 pigs, 1,680,686 goats. The province of East Prussia with the principal Government stud of Trakehnen, is the headquarters of horse - rearing, and contains the greatest number of horses both relatively (1 per 5 inhabitants) and absolutely (383,555) the horses bred there are generally suitable for the lighter kind of w ork only, and are m great request for military purposes. Horses of a stouter type are bred m Schleswig-Holstein and on the Rhine but heavy draught horses have to be imported from France, Holland’ Belgium, and Denmark. The best cattle are reared in the maritime provinces, and the highest proportion (65 per 100 inhabitants) is found m Schleswig-Holstein, whence, as well as from the marshy owiands of Hanover, large numbers are exported to England As a rule, however, the south German states are richer in cattle than Prussia. Prussia is one of the leading sheep-breeding countries of Europe, and much has been done to improve the race and increase t le value of the flesh and wool. In Pomerania there are 170 sheep for every 100 inhabitants, and West Prussia and Posen also contain a high proportion. The total number of sheep in Prussia is, however, diminishing owing to the spread of agriculture and the increased importation of wool; in 1861 it was nearly 21 millions Swine abound in the central provinces, and hams and sausages are largely exported from Westphalia, Hanover, and Saxony. &Huge flocks of geese are reared m Pomerania, and bee-keeping is a m ofH

of thSSZ1”

H ,ove, East
. • Ezra iii. 10; Neh. xii. 36, 45 sq. ; Ecclus. xlvii. 8 s^.), so also he was held to have completed and arranged the whole book, though according to Talmudic tradition3 he incorporated psalms by ten other authors, Adam, Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah. With this it agrees that the titles of the psalms name no one later than Solomon, and even he is not recognized as a psalmodist by the most ancient tradition, that of the LXX., which omits him from the title of Ps. cxxvii. and makes Ps. Ixxii. be wuitten not by but of him. The details of the tradition of authorship show considerable variation; according to the Talmudic view Adam is author of the Sabbath psalm, xcii., and Melchizedek of Ps. cx., "while Abraham is identified with Ethan the Ezrahite (Ps. Ixxxix.). But, according to older Jewish tradition attested by Origen,4 Ps. xcii. is by Moses, to whom are assigned Pss. xc.-c. inclusive, according to a general rule that all anonymous pieces are by the same hand with the nearest preceding psalm whose author is named; and Ps. cx., wLich by its title is Davidic, seems to have been given to Melchizedek to avoid the dilemma of Matt. xxii. 41 sq.

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Origen’s rule accounts for all the psalms except i. and ii., which were sometimes reckoned as one poem (Acts xiii. 33 in the Western text; Origen; B. Berakhoth, f. 9b), and appear to have been ascribed to David (Acts iv. 25). The opinion of Jerome (Prsef. in Ps. Heb.) and other Christian writers that the collector of the Psalter was Ezra does not seem to rest on Jewish tradition. Nature and Origin of the Collection.—Whatever may be the value of the titles to individual psalms, there can be no question that the tradition that the Psalter was collected by David is not historical; for no one doubts that some of the psalms date from after the Babylonian exile. The truth that underlies the tradition is that the collection is essentially the hymn-book of the second temple, and it was therefore ascribed to David, because it was assumed, as we see clearly from Chronicles, that the order of worship in the second temple was the same as in the first, and had David as its father : as Moses completed the law of Israel for all time before the people entered Canaan, so David completed the theory and contents of the temple psalmody before the temple itself was built. When wm thus understand its origin, the tradition becomes really instructive, and may be translated into a statement which throws light on a number of points connected with the book, namely, that the Psalter was (finally, at least) collected with a liturgical purpose. Thus, though the Psalms represent a great range of individual religious experience, they avoid such situations and expressions as are too unique to be used in acts of public devotion. Many of the psalms are doxologies or the like, expressly written for the temple; others are made up of extracts from older poems in a way perfectly natural in a hymn-book, but otherwise hardly intelligible. Such ancient hymns as Exod. xv. 1 sq., Judges v., 1 Sam. ii. 1 sq., are not included in the collection, though motives borrowed from them are embodied in more modern psalms; the interest of the collector, we see, was not historical but liturgical. Again, the temple, Zion, the solemn feasts, are constantly kept in the foreground. All these points go to show that the collection was not only used but actually formed for use in the temple. The question now arises, Was the collection a single act or is the Psalter made up of several older collections 1 And here we have first to observe that in the Hebrew text the Psalter is divided into five books, each of which closes with a doxology. The scheme of the whole is as follows :— Book I., Pss. i.-xli. : all these are ascribed to David except i., ii., x. (which is really part of ix.), xxxiii. (ascribed to David in LXX.); doxology, xli. 13. Book II., Pss. xlii.-Ixxii.: of these xliL-xlix. are ascribed to the Korahites (xliii. being part of xlii.), 1. to Asaph, li.-lxxi. to David (except Ixvi., Ixvii., Ixxi. anonymous; in LXX. the last two bear David’s name), Ixxii. to Solomon ; doxology, Ixxii. 18, 19 followed by the subscription “The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended.” Book III., Pss. Ixxiii.-Ixxxix. : here Ixxiii.Ixxxiii. bear the name of Asaph, Ixxxiv., Ixxxv., Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii. that of the Korahites, Ixxxvi. of David, Ixxxviii. of Heman, Ixxxix. of Ethan ; doxology, Ixxxix. 52. Book IV., Pss. xc.-cvi. : all are anonymous except xc. (Moses), ci., ciii. (David),—LXX. gives also civ. to David ; here the doxology is peculiar, “Blessed be Jehovah God of Israel from everlasting and to everlasting. A7id let all the people say Amen, Hallelujah.” Book V., Pss. cvii.-cl.: of these cviii.-cx., cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., cxxxviii. - cxlv. are ascribed to David, and cxxvii. to Solomon, and cxx.-cxxxiv. are pilgrimage psalms ; LXX. varies considerably from the Hebrew as to the psalms to be ascribed to David ; the book closes with a group of doxological psalms. The division into five books was known to Hippolytus, but a closer examination of the doxologies shows that it does not represent the original scheme of the Psalter; for, while 1 Hippol., ed. Lag., p. 188; Euseb., H.E., vi. 25, 2; Epiph., the doxologies to the first three books are no part of the ens. ct Pand., § 23; Jerome’s preface to Psalt. juxta Hebrseos. psalms to which they are attached, but really mark the end 3 Similarly in the Syriac Bible the title is “ mazmore, ” of a book in a pious fashion not uncommon in Eastern literaassa es +i ®Psalms, P S ed.areSchiller-Szinessy, collected in Kimhi’s preface1883. to his commentary ture, that to book iv. with its rubric addressed to the people oiUIie Cambridge, plainly belongs to the psalm, or rather to its liturgical exe514 sq., Ruein; cp. nv '-XL. Pf-; (ad Cypr.), and ed. Prsef. Mai.Hippol., ut supra) Jerome, Ep. cution, and does not therefore really mark the close of a

30

PSALMS

collection once separate. In point of fact books iv. and v. have so many common characters that there is every reason to regard them as a single great group. Again, the main part of books ii. and iii. (Pss. xlii.-lxxxiii.) is distinguished from the rest of the Psalter by habitually avoiding the name Jehovah (the Lord) and using Elohlm (God) instead, even in cases like Ps. 1. 7, where “ I am Jehovah thy God of Exod. xx. 2 is quoted but changed very awkwardly to “ I am God thy God.” This is not due to the authors of the individual psalms, but to an editor; for Ps. liii. is only another recension of Ps. xiv., and Ps. Ixx. repeats part of Ps. xh, and here Jehovah is six times changed to Elohim, while the opposite change happens but once. The Elohim psalms, then, have undergone a common editorial treatment distinguishing them from the rest of the Psalter. And they make up the mass of books ii. and iii., the remaining psalms, Ixxxiv.-lxxxix., appearing to be a sort of appendix. But when we look at the Elohim psalms more nearly we see that they contain two distinct elements, Davidic psalms and psalms ascribed to the Levitical choirs (sons of Korah, Asaph). The Davidic collection as we have it splits the Levitical psalms into two groups and actually divides the Asaphic Ps. 1. from the main Asaphic collection, Ixxiii.Ixxxiii. This order can hardly be original, especially as the Davidic Elohim psalms have a separate subscription (Ps. Ixxii. 20). But if we remove them we get a continuous body of Levitical Elohim psalms, or rather two collections, the first Korahitic and the second Asaphic, to which there have been added by way of appendix by a non-Elohistic editor a supplementary group of Korahite psalms and one psalm (certainly late) ascribed to David. The formation of books iv. and v. is certainly later than the Elohistic redaction of books ii. and iii., for Ps. cviii. is made up of two Elohim psalms (Ivii. 7-11, lx. 5-12) in the Elohistic form, though the last two books of the Psalter are generally Jehovistic. We can thus distinguish the following steps in the redaction:—(a) the formation of a Davidic collection (book i.) with a closing doxology; (b) a second Davidic collection (li.-lxii.) with doxology and subscription; (c) a twofold Levitical collection (xlii.-xlix.; 1., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.); (d) an Elohistic redaction and combination of (b) and (c); (